CHAPTER 7

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Introduction: Exponential Functions

The function f (x) = 2x represents an exponential function. Other types of
exponential functions include

• y = 3x
• y = 10x
p x
• y= 2

We call these functions exponential because it is the exponent of the expression

that changes with di↵erent inputs. Contrast this with power functions, which
we learned about in Chapter 5.

exponential function power function

y = 2x y = x2

Our focus in this chapter will be exponential functions and their cousins, log-
arithmic functions. Both have important applications in the sciences, and you
may already be familiar with exponential growth in biology.

221
222 7. EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

Supplement: Exponent Rules

In this lesson, we’ll review the basic rules of exponents.

Rules of Exponents. Let a and b be real numbers and m and n be positive

integers. Then

• Product rule. am · an = am+n

• Product to power. (ab)m = am bm
• Power to power. (am )n = amn

When raising to a power, the presence of parentheses is very important. For

example:
3x4 6= (3x)4

As a consequence, 24 is a negative number but ( 2)4 is a positive number.

24 = 1·2·2·2·2= 16
4
( 2) = ( 2) · ( 2) · ( 2) · ( 2) = 16

After learning these rules, it’s important not to overly generalize them. The
reason these rules work is because of the relationship between exponents and
multiplication. Exponents do not have the same relationship with addition so
it’s important to understand that
(a + b)m 6= am + bm

Compare and contrast this with the product to power rule above and make
sure you understand the di↵erence before moving on.
 SUPPLEMENT: EXPONENT RULES 223

Exponent Rules Problems

Problem 7.1.
Simplify

(a) 5r2 · r4 (h) (2x2 y 3 )3 (3x3 y)2

(b) ( t3 )4 (i) x2 (x 2x2 + 3x2 )
(c) (4p2 q)(p2 q 3 ) (j) p2 q 3 (p2 4q)
(d) (r2 s)( 3rs3 )(2rs) (k) t4 tk 4

(e) (2c2 d3 )3 (l) y p+2 · y p · y p 2

(f) ( x2 yz 3 )4 (m) s3 (s2k 1 )3

(g) ( c)2 ( c4 )

Problem 7.2.
Simplify.

(a) t(tn 1
+ tn + tn+1 )
(b) x2 (xk xk 1
+ xk 2 )
(c) pn (pm n+1
+ pm n
)
(d) s2n (s2m n
sm 2n
)
(e) z m n
(z n+m zn m
+ zn)
(f) xh+k (x2h k
xh 2k
+ xk )
(g) (tm )n (tn )n m

(h) (y h k )h (y h+k )k

Problem 7.3.
Solve for n.

(a) 35n = 35 (32n )2

(b) (23n )2 = (2n )3 · 2n+6
(c) 3 · 92n = (3n+1 )3
(d) 4n+3 · 16n = 83n
224 7. EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

Supplement: Zero and Negative Exponents

We’ll break down the Quotient rule into two parts.

• If m n,
am
n
= am n
a
• If m  n,
am 1
n
= n m
a a
By applying these rules, we can define what a non-positive exponent would
mean:
x0 = 1 as long as x 6= 0
1
x m= m
x

Example 7.1. Write in simplest form without negative or zero exponents.

2
(a) 3c (b) 2 1 a0 b 3
(c) (3x) 2

Solution.
2 1 3
(a) 3c = 3· c2
= c2
1 1 1
(b) 2 1 a0 b 3
= 2
·1· b3
= 2b3
2 1 1
(c) (3x) = (3x)2
= 9x2
 SUPPLEMENT: ZERO AND NEGATIVE EXPONENTS 225

Example 7.2. Write in simplest form without negative or zero exponents.

2
(a) ( 23 ) 2
(b) ( 2x5y3 ) 1

Solution.

(a)
✓ ◆ 2 2
2 2
= 2
3 3
1
22
= 1
32
1 1
= ÷
4 9
1 9
= ·
4 1
9
=
4
(b)
✓ ◆ 1
2x 2 (2x 2 ) 1
=
5y 3 (5y 3 ) 1
2 1 x2
= 1 3
5 y
5x2 y 3
=
2
226 7. EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

Zero and Negative Exponents Problems

Problem 7.4.
Simplify.

(2hk 3 )3
(a)
( h2 k 2 )2
(pq 2 r3 )3
(b)
(p3 qr2 )2
✓ 2 ◆2
2y 3x
(c) ·
3 y4
✓ 3 ◆2 ✓ ◆3
c cd
(d)
d4 h

Problem 7.5.
Simplify.

a2m b2m+1
(a)
(a2 b2 )m
xn+1 y n
(b)
xn y n 1
(pq)n
(c)
pq n
(z n )3
(d)
znz3
tn+1 tn 1
(e)
tn
an 1 b2n
(f) n+1)(b2 )n 1
a

Problem 7.6.
Write in simplest form without negative or zero exponents.
1
(a) 3 · 5
1
(b) (3 · 5)
(c) ( 3 1 ) 2
 SUPPLEMENT: ZERO AND NEGATIVE EXPONENTS 227

(d) ( 2 2 ) 1

2 1
(e) (2 ·3 · 50 ) 1

(f) 5 1 (3 2
· 2 3 )0
2 2
(g) 2 5
3 1 4 2
(h) 4 3

Problem 7.7.
Write in simplest form without negative or zero exponents.
p 1q 2
(a) p 3

6xy 1
(b) 2x 2 y 1

2 2
(c) h2 k 3

(3x 2 y) 1
(d) (2xy 2 )0

(e) 5t(s 1 t 2 ) 2

⇣ ⌘ 1
2pq 1
(f) 4q 2

3 1 t 2
(g) t2 3
(ax2 ) 1
(h) a 2x 2

r 2 1 2
(i) s2 rs
⇣ 0⌘ 2
a a 2
(j) b b 2

⇣ 2 ⌘2
u
(k) v
+ ( u 2 v) 2
228 7. EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

1. Rational Exponents
In this lesson, we’ll define what bx means when x is any rational number.
p
• b1/2 is another way of writing b.
Explanation. By the product rule, when we multiply b1/2 by itself
b1/2 · b1/2 = b1 = b
p
The same is true for b:
p p
b· b=b
p
so b1/2 = b.
p
3
• b1/3 is another way of writing b. We could use a similar reasoning
as above.
p
3
p
• b2/3 is another way of writing b2 or ( 3 b)2 .
Explanation. By the power to a power rule, we can write
b2/3 = (b2 )1/3 or b2/3 = (b1/3 )2
p3
p
Then by the first two bullet points, (b2 )1/3 = b2 and (b1/3 )2 = ( 3 b)2 .

Definition of bp/q .
p
q
p
q
bp/q = ( b)p = bp
In this definition, b must be a positive real number, p and q are integers, and
q > 0.

Example 7.3. Simplify 163/4 .

Solution. We could approach this two ways because there are two ways.
p
• 163/4 = ( 4 16)3 = 23 = 8
p4
p
• 163/4 = 163 = 4 4096 = 8

Notice that the first way is much easier. Almost always, taking the root first
will be the more efficient option.
 1. RATIONAL EXPONENTS 229

Example 7.4. Solve

1/3
5x = 20

Solution. To solve this equation, we first isolate the term with the power.
Then we raise both sides of the equation to a reciprocal power in order to
isolate the variable.
1/3
5x = 20
1/3
x =4
1/3 3
(x ) =4 3
1
x=
64

An exponential equation is an equation in which a variable appears in an

exponent. To solve an exponential equation

• Express each side of the equation as a power of the same base.

• Set the exponents equal to each other. This will usually result in a
simpler equation that is not exponential.
• Solve the new equation.

Example 7.5. Solve

54 x
= 25x 1

Solution. We recognize that both sides are powers of 5.

54 x
= 25x 1

54 x
= (52 )x 1

54 x
= 52(x 1)

At this point, since the bases are equal, the exponents must be equal.
4 x = 2(x 1)
4 x = 2x 2
3x = 6
x=2
230 7. EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

Example 7.6. Solve

1
8x =
4

Solution. We recognize that 8 = 23 and 14 = 2 2 .

1
8x =
4
(2 ) = 2 2
3 x

23x = 2 2

Since the bases are equal, the exponents must be equal.

3x = 2
2
x=
3
 1. RATIONAL EXPONENTS 231

Rational Exponents Problems

Problem 7.8.
Simplify.

(a) 271/3
1/5
(b) 32
(c) 272/3
3/2
(d) 25
3/5
(e) ( 32)
(f) ( 49 )3/2
(g) 93/2
2/3 3
(h) (7 )
(i) (274 ) 1/12

(j) (91/2 + 161/2 )2

(k) (82/3 81/3 )3

Problem 7.9.
Write in exponential form.
p
(a) x3 y 5
p
(b) 3 p4 q
p
(c) a 2 b3
p
(d) 3 x6 y 4
p
(e) ( a 2 b)5
p3
(f) 8b6 c 4
q
3 2
(g) 4 16 b·a6
1
(h) p
4 4 8
p q
232 7. EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

Problem 7.10.
Simplify each expression. Give answers in exponential form.
p p p
(a) x · 3 x · 6 x
p3
p3
(b) a2 · a4
p p p
(c) 4 x · 6 x ÷ 3 x
(d) ((b1/2 ) 2/3 3/4
)
(e) a1/2 (a3/2 2a1/2 )
(f) (x3/2 2x5/2 ) ÷ x1/2

Problem 7.11.
Solve each equation.

(a) a3/4 = 8
(b) (3x + 1)3/4 = 8
1/2
(c) y =6
1/2
(d) (3y) =6
1/2
(e) 2y = 10
1/2
(f) (2y) = 10
2/3
(g) (9t) =4
2/3
(h) 9t =4
(i) (8 y)1/3 = 4
1
(j) (3n 1)2/3 = 4

(k) (x2 + 4)2/3 = 25

(l) (x2 + 9)1/2 = 5

Problem 7.12.
Solve each equation.
1
(a) 3x = 27
p
(b) 5x = 125
2+x
(c) 8 =2
1 x
(d) 4 =8
 1. RATIONAL EXPONENTS 233

(e) 272x 1
=3
p
(f) 49x 2
=7 7
(g) 42x+5 = 16x+1
(x+5)
(h) 3 = 94x
(i) 252x = 5x+6
(j) 6x+1 = 36x 1

(k) 10x 1
= 1004 x

Problem 7.13.
Solve each equation.

(a) 32x 6 · 3x + 9 = 0
(b) 42x 63 · 4x 64 = 0
(c) 32x 10 · 3x + 9 = 0

Problem 7.14.
Solve each equation.
2 1
(a) 2 3 x+1 3 · 23x 20 = 0
(b) 22x 1
3 · 2x 1
+1=0
(c) 2x 3x = 0
234 7. EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

2. Logarithms
We conclude our course with an introduction to logarithms. The following ac-
tivity, called Super-Scientific Notation, is meant to give you a first, conceptual
understanding of what a logarithm is and where its properties come from.

You will learn about logarithms and applications more fully in a Precalculus
course.
Henri Picciotto www.MathEducationPage.org

Super-Scientific Notation
Scientific notation:
1200 = 1.2(103)
400,000 = 4.0(105)
Super-scientific notation:
1200 and 400,000 can be written as powers of ten. We will call this super-scientific notation.

1. Explain why 1200 must be a power of ten Calculating Without a Calculator!

with the exponent between 3 and 4.
10. Without a calculator, write the following in
2. 400, 000 must be a power of ten with the super-scientific notation. (Hint: use your
exponent between what whole numbers? table.)
a. 9000
3. Find the power of ten that approximately b. .8
equals the following numbers. Your answer c. .02
should be accurate to the nearest d. 500,000
thousandth. e. 72
a. 1200 f. 2/3
b. 400,000 g. 3/2
h. 2700
Looking for Patterns
Reflecting
4. Write the following numbers in super-
scientific notation (with the exponents 11. Here is a calculation that uses scientific
rounded to the nearest thousandth). Arrange notation:
the results in a table. Look for patterns as 1200·400,000 = 1.2(103)·4.0(105) = 4.8(108)
you work. Share the calculations with other What is the equivalent calculation using
students, and enter the answers in the table super-scientific notation?
on the next page.
a. The whole numbers from 1 to 9 12. Explain the following statement:
b. The multiples of 10 from 10 to 90 Multiplying two numbers written in
c. The multiples of 100 from 100 to 900 scientific notation involves a multiplication
and an addition.
5. What is the relationship between the
exponents for 2, 20, and 200? Explain. 13. What is the corresponding statement for
multiplying two numbers written in super-
6. What is the relationship between the scientific notation? Explain.
exponents for 3 and 9? Explain.

7. What is the relationship between the

exponents for 20, 30, and 600? Explain.

8. What is the relationship between the

exponents for 2 and 8? Explain.

9. Find other relationships between exponents,

and explain them.
 Henri Picciotto

Exponent Exponent Exponent

Number SSN Number SSN Number SSN
in SSN in SSN in SSN

1 10 101 1 100

2 100.301 0.301 20 200

3 30 300

4 40 400

5 50 500

6 60 600

7 70 700

8 80 800

9 90 900
www.MathEducationPage.org
 2. LOGARITHMS 237

Super-Scientific Notation Problems

Problem 7.15.
Explain why we can solve one of the equations below easily by hand but not
the other.

• 4x = 8
• 4x = 9

Problem 7.16.
Use your super-scientific notation table to solve for x:

4x = 9

Hints:
• Rewrite 4 and 9 using super-scientific notation.
• You may leave your solution as an un-simplified fraction and check
with a calculator.

Problem 7.17.
Solve each of the following equations using your super-scientific notation table.

(a) 6x = 40
(b) 91 x
= 20
(c) 5 · 3x = 10x

We now introduce the term logarithm to mean “the exponent in super-scientific

notation.” For example, we could say:

the logarithm of 2 is approximately 0.301

In mathematical notation, we would abbreviate the word logarithm to log and

use function notation to express this idea:

log(2) ⇡ 0.301

Most calculators will have a logarithm table, which makes your super-scientific
notation table obsolete (except as a learning tool). To use it, simply type
log(2) in a calculator.
238 7. EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

Problem 7.18.
Use your super-scientific notation table to look up the following values. Then
verify them using a calculator.

(a) log(7)
(b) log(30)
(c) log(900)

Problem 7.19.
Write the following numbers in super-scientific notation. Because these num-
bers don’t appear in your table (and cannot be constructed out of values in
the table), make use of the logarithm function of your calculator.

(a) 0.97
(b) ⇡
(c) 71

Problem 7.20.
Solve the following equations using the logarithm function of your calculator.

(a) ⇡ = 10x
(b) 17 = 10x
(c) 31 = 10x

Problem 7.21.
Solve the following equations using the logarithm function of your calculator.

(a) 6x = 40
(b) 43x = 7
(c) 60x = 61

Problem 7.22.
Solve each equation for x in terms of the other variables.

(a) a = 10x
(b) ax = b
 2. LOGARITHMS 239

Problem 7.23.
Use a calculator to verify the following equations.

(a) log(20) = log(2) + 1

(b) log(9) = 2 · log(3)
(c) log(600) = log(20) + log(30)
(d) log(2) log(3) = log(2/3)

Problem 7.24.
Solve the following equations without a calculator. You may check your solu-
tion with a calculator.

(a) log(7) + log(13) = log(x)

(b) log(9) + log(8) = log(12) + log(x)
(c) log(49) = log(7) + log(x)
(d) log(500) log(25) = log(x)
(e) log(64) = x · log(8)
(f) log(81) = x · log(3)
(g) log(64) = 3 · log(x)

Problem 7.25.
Solve each equation for x in terms of the other variables.

(a) log(a) + log(b) = log(x)

(b) log(a) log(b) = log(x)
(c) log(an ) = x · log(a)

In reality, there are many types of logarithms. The super-scientific notation

table you constructed and the log function of your calculator use base 10. So
we can say they are numbers in base-10 super-scientific notation or base-10
logarithms.

Super-scientific notation and logarithms can have bases that are any positive
number.
240 7. EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

Problem 7.26.
Complete the following base-3 super-scientific notation table.

Number base-3 SSN Exponent in base-3 SSN

1
2 30.631 0.631
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Hint: to find the number 2 in base-3 SSN, we need to solve the equation
2 = 3x , which we can do with base-10 logarithms.

Problem 7.27.
To specify the base of a logarithm (other than 10) we write the base as a
subscript. For example, the expression:
log3 (2)
is the base-3 logarithm of 2, and log3 (2) ⇡ 0.631.

Compute the following base-3 logarithms using your base-3 SSN table above.

(a) log3 (20)

(b) log3 (7/6)
(c) log3 (1/4)

Problem 7.28.
Compute the following base-3 logarithms using the base-10 logarithm function
of your calculator.

(a) log3 (20)

(b) log3 (⇡)
(c) log3 (11.3)
 2. LOGARITHMS 241

Problem 7.29.
It’s possible to compute the following base-3 logarithms without a calculator
because their values involve common powers of 3. Compute these without a
calculator.

(a) log3 (9)

(b) log3 (27)
(c) log3 (1/81)

Problem 7.30.
Compute the following logarithms without a calculator.

(a) log4 (64)

(b) log5 (25)
(c) log4 (8)
(d) log5 (1/125)
(e) log16 (32)
(f) log2 7(3)
(g) log8 (4)
 CHAPTER 8

Exam Review

1. Practice Exam 1
In all problems, i represents the imaginary unit and is not a variable.

Short Answer (30 points). Each problem is worth 2 points with partial
credit given in some problems for small errors. There are 18 problems in this
section but only the best 15 will be counted.
p
1. Identify the domain of the function y = x 5.
1 3/5
2. Compute 32
.
3. Identify the degree of the function y = x3 (x 1)2 (x2 + x + 1).
4. Is (x 2) a factor of x4 3x2 + 5x + 6? (yes/no)
5. Solve |2x 5| = 7.
6. Compute (5i3 )2 .
7. Identify the x-coordinate of the vertex of y = 3x2 9x + 4.
2
8. Solve 2x + 5x 3 < 0.
x3 6x 9
9. Divide x 3
.
10. Solve 9x+5 = 27x .
11. Let f (x) = x12 . Write a function that transforms f (x) down 1 unit
and left 3 units.
12. Identify the range of y = 3(x 2)2 + 4.
1
13. Write the equation of a line with slope 3
and that passes through
(5, 3).
14. Write y = x2 6x + 5 in vertex form.
3
15. Factor 8x 1.
4
16. Factor 3x 22x2 45 completely.
243
244 8. EXAM REVIEW

3x3 x+1
17. Identify the horizontal asymptote of y = 4x3 +2x2 9
.
18. State the nature of the roots of y = x2 + x 5. (two real/two com-
plex/one double)

Free Response (70 points). Each problem is worth 10 points with par-
tial credit given for correct and consistent work. Using correct algebraic meth-
ods is weighted more than showing correct numerical answers.

Problem 8.1.
x2 x 6
Sketch the graph of y = x3 3x2 4x+12
.

Problem 8.2.
Sketch the graph of y = x5 + 4x4 4x3 .

Problem 8.3.
Let f (x) = ax4 bx2 + 4. If x2 + x 2 is a factor of f (x), what are a and b?

Problem 8.4.
Find the domain of
p
f (x) = 2x3 x2 2x + 1

Problem 8.5.
Write all possible polynomial functions with the following properties.

• x-intercepts at x = 3 and x = 2 only

• y-intercept at (0, 2)
• degree 5
• has the same sign on ( 1, 2) as it does on ( 2, 3)
 1. PRACTICE EXAM 1 245

Problem 8.6.
Write a rational function with the following properties

• has a horizontal asymptote at y = 2

• has a vertical asymptote at x = 1
• has a hole at x = 5
• crosses its horizontal asymptote at x = 1
• has a y-intercept at (0, 1)

Problem 8.7.
Factor completely.
x4 + x3 13x2 x + 12