Lec 1

CARBOHYDRATE
CHEMISTRY
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Carbohydrates:
 Are the most abundant organic

molecules in nature.
 They are primarily composed of the

elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
 the name of carbohydrates literally

means hydrates of carbon.
Carbohydrates
• Carbo(C)……Hydrate
(hydrates of carbon)
• Most have general formula CnH2nOn
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(CH2O)n or H - C - OH
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Carbohydrate Definition
 Polyhydroxyaldehyde or polyhydroxyketone,
‫مركبات تحوي عده مجموعات هيدروكسيل ومجموعه الدهيد او كيتون‬
the term "sugar“ is applied to carbohydrates

soluble in water and sweet to taste.
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Functions of Carbohydrates
– Structural role
– Energy source
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1. They are most abundant dietary source of energy
for all organisms.
2. Are precursors for many organic compounds (fats,
amino acids).
3. Participate in the structure of cell membrane (as
glycoproteins and glycolipids).
4. Structural component of many important
molecules such as nucleic acids.
5. They are structural components of many
organisms. These include the fiber (Cellulose) of
plants, exoskeleton of some insects (Chitin).
6. Serve as storage form of energy (glycogen) to
meet the immediate energy demands of the body.
‫الجاليكوجني في الكبد والعضالت‬
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Classification of Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides - simple sugars
Disaccharides - 2 monosaccharides
covalently linked.
Oligosaccharides – 3 to 10
monosaccharides
covalently linked.
Polysaccharides - more than

10 monosaccharide units
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covalently linked.
MONOSACCHARIDES
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Monosaccharides
A monosaccharide is a carbohydrate
that cannot be hydrolyzed to a simpler
carbohydrate (simple sugar)
– biologically important ones are:
• Glucose: most common sugar,
also blood sugar.
• Fructose : fruit sugar
• Galactose: sugar found in milk
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Glucose is the most important
monosaccharide:
 Is the blood sugar.
 Is the precursor for synthesis of other
carbohydrates in the body such as:
1- glycogen for storage.
2- ribose and deoxyribose in nucleic acids.
3- galactose in lactose of milk.
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Structure of sugars
1- Fischer shape: straight chain.
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2- Haworth shape: ring structure.
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Properties of Monosaccharides
• Simplest of carbohydrates
• Sweet-tasting
• Dissolve in water
• Straight chain or ring structure
• All in body are of the D type.
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Monosaccharide Classification
1-On the basis of the functional group.
2- On the basis of the numbers of

carbon atoms.
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On the basis of the functional group:
Aldoses have an aldehyde Ketoses have a keto group,
group at one end. usually at C2.
H O
C CH2OH
H C OH C O
HO C H HO C H
H C OH H C OH
H C OH H C OH
CH2OH CH2OH
D-glucose D-fructose
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aldoses (-CHO) ketoses (>C=O)
trioses (C3) glyceraldehyde dihydroxyacetone
tetroses (C4) erythrose erythrulose
pentoses (C5) ribose ribulose
hexoses (C6) glucose fructose

ISOMERS OF
MONOSACCHARIDES
1) D- and L- isomers
= mirror images
(enantiomers)
nature important:
D-monosaccharides
Terminal ‫االخيره‬
Subterminal ‫قبل االخيره‬
‫والدي واالل تايب تكون في السبتيرمينال‬ 17
2)Aldoses and Ketoses
H O
C CH2OH
H C OH C O
HO C H HO C H
H C OH H C OH
H C OH H C OH
CH2OH CH2OH
D-glucose D-fructose 18
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3) pyranoses and furanoses Ring
Sugars Prefer To Be Cyclic in solutions

Equilibrium state
66–>beta
33–>alfa
1–>chain
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99% of Glucose in solution
is found in pyranose
form
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4)  and  anomers
only cyclic molecules
-D-Glc
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* OH:
β anomer : Same side with the last
carbon atom.
α anomer : opposite side with the last
carbon atom.
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5) epimers
EPIMERS:differ in OH
Position in ONE carbon
Man =epimer of Glc (C2)

Gal =epimer of Glc (C4)
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Some Important Reaction of
Monosaccharide:
a) Reduction to form alcohols:

When treated with reducing agents,
the aldehyde or keto group of
monosaccharide is reduced to
corresponding alcohol
glucose → sorbitol
ribose → ribitol
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b) Oxidation to form acid:
depending on the oxidized agent
used, the aldehyde (or keto) or the
terminal alcohol or both groups may
be oxidized. For instance, glucose:
1. Oxidation of aldehyde group

(CHO→ COOH) results in the
formation of gluconic acid.
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2. Oxidation of terminal alcohol
group (CH2OH→COOH) leads to the
production of glucuronic acid.
3. Oxidation of both groups

(aldehyde and alcohol) glucosaccharic
acid (glucaric acid).
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Thank you
KH.E.O
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CARBOHYDRATE

 Are the most abundant organic

 They are primarily composed of the

 the name of carbohydrates literally

the term "sugar“ is applied to carbohydrates

Polysaccharides - more than

1- Fischer shape: straight chain.

1-On the basis of the functional group.

2- On the basis of the numbers of

trioses (C3) glyceraldehyde dihydroxyacetone

tetroses (C4) erythrose erythrulose

pentoses (C5) ribose ribulose

hexoses (C6) glucose fructose

Sugars Prefer To Be Cyclic in solutions

only cyclic molecules

Man =epimer of Glc (C2)

a) Reduction to form alcohols:

1. Oxidation of aldehyde group

3. Oxidation of both groups

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