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Industrial Training Report

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A TECHNICAL REPORT ON STUDENTS INDUSTRIAL WORK

EXPERIENCE SCHEME
(SIWES)
AT NIGERIAN NATIONAL PETROLEUM CORPORATION
(NNPC).
AT

AKUTAEKWE, DAVID NNAMDI


(2021544066)

DEPARTMENT OF PURE AND INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY,


FACULTY OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES
NNAMDI AZIKIWE UNIVERSITY AWKA, ANAMBRA STATE.

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE


AWARD OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (BSc or B.Sc) DEGREE IN PURE
AND INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY

JANUARY, 2025.

1
Dedication
This work is dedicated to all readers, students, scientists and professional
researchers.
And to God Almighty for his grace.

2
Acknowledgements
The pursuit of an academic career is not an easy task and mine would not have
become possible without God and these special people. First and foremost, I am
immensely grateful to God Almighty for giving me sound health, stable emotion,
articulate mind and physical fitness to undergo this rigorous academic exercise.
I appreciate my parents and sponsors for their support all through my academic
years.
I wish to express my heartfelt thanks and lifelong indebtedness to the Industrial
Training Fund (ITF) for establishing the SIWES program and its adoption by the
federal government with the aim of bridging the gap that exists between theory and
practice.
I appreciate my project supervisor, Dr. whose advice and encouragement helped
in the realization and success of this work.
I appreciate the Head of Department, Prof. Ndukka and the entire lecturers who
have imparted knowledge to me since my admission into the university.
May Almighty God bless you all.

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Table of Contents
Tittle page …………………………………….…1
Acknowledgement ………………………………….……2
Table of contents ……………………………………..…3
Abstracts ……………………………………………….4
Lists of figures …………………………………………….....5
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1. Definition, history and background of SIWES programme…...…7
1.2. Objectives of the SIWES programme…………………………….7
1.3. Scope of the report ……………………………………...….8
1.4. Significance of the SIWES programme………………………...…8
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. History and evolution of NNPC…………………………………....9
2.2. Organisational structure/organogram………………………….......11
2.3. Introduction to crude oil and petroleum products………………….11
2.4. Key players and market trends of NNPC…………………………..13
2.5. Crude oil composition and properties……………………………....15
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.0. An overview of petroleum refining…………………………………20
3.1. Stages of crude oil refining process…………………………………22
3.2. Quality assurance/control and testing………………………………,28
3.3. Laboratory techniques and equipment analysis of crude oil………..30
3.4. Regulatory frameworks……………………………………………..33
3.5. Case study: Nigeria………………………………………………....35
3.6. Fieldwork and site visits…………………………………………….36
CHAPTER FOUR: CONCLUSION

4
4.1. Conclusion……………………………………………....37
4.2. Recommendations for future research and practice……..37
4.3. Reference………………………………………………...38

Abstracts
One is compelled to ask ‘Why training in the petroleum industry’. The answer to
this question is not far-fetched. The Nigerian economy is built on oil. Ever since
the discovery of oil in commercial quantity in 1956 at Oloibiri in the Niger Delta,
the Nigerian economy has been entirely based and balanced on this most precious
mineral nature has given us. For this exploit in industry, Nigeria is known all over
the world, Oil has brought untold wealth to Nigeria and also untold problems to
Nigeria and her citizens, including degradation of the environment.
If it had not been for oil, squabbles would have been going on between nations
with whom we are not related. Taking into account Nigeria’s endowment with oil,
the country has jumped from a backward to an economically powerful middle-
ranking nation and has been rated as a ‘Paced Setter’. The sacredness of oil in
Nigeria is undeniable.

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List of figures
Fig. 2.0. Organisational structure ………………………………..11
Fig. 2.1. Trends of petroleum product consumption in Nigeria ……14
Fig. 2.2. Constituents of crude oil …………………………16
Fig. 2.3. Selection of a site for petroleum drilling ……………………19
Fig. 3.1. Refining processing units & products ……………………20
Fig. 3.2. Distillation process of crude oil refining …………………….22
Fig. 3.3. Cracking process of crude oil refining …………………….23
Fig. 3.4.Reforming process of curding oil refining ……………………..24
Fig. 3.5. Treating process of crude oil ……………………………………25
Fig. 3.6. Blending process of crude oil……………………………………26

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CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1. Definition, History and Background of SIWES Program
The Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is a skills training
program designed to prepare and expose students of higher institutions for the
industrial work situation they are likely to meet after graduation. The scheme is
designed to bridge the gap between employers’ expectations and actual
performance of Nigerian graduates. It provides an avenue for students in
institutions of higher learning to acquire industrial skills and experience in their
course of study, thus affording students the opportunity of familiarizing and
exposing themselves to handling equipment and machinery that may not be readily
available in their various institutions.
The Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme is part of the approved minimum
academic standard in the various degree programs for all Nigerian universities. The
scheme is aimed at bridging the existing gap between theory and practice.
The scheme was initiated, designed and introduced by the Industrial Training Fund
(ITF), in 1973 solely to alleviate the concerns of industrialists and other employers
of labour who felt concerned that graduates of Nigerian Universities were deficient
in practical background studies preparatory for employment in industries and other
organizations.
The scheme is a tripartite program involving the students, the institutions, and the
employers of labour. It is funded by the federal government and jointly coordinated
by the Industrial Training Fund (ITF) and the National Universities Commission
(NUC), the National Board for Technical Education (NBTE), and the National
Commission for College of Education (NCCE).

1.2. Objectives of the SIWES Program


SIWES is strategized for skill acquisition. It is a key factor required to inject and
help keep alive industrialization and economic development in the nation through
the introduction and practical teaching of scientific and technological skills to
students.

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The objectives of the SIWES program are to:
 Provide an avenue for students in institutions of higher learning to acquire
industrial skills and experience in their course of study.
 Expose students to work methods and techniques in handling equipment and
machines that may not be available in their institutions.
 Prepare students for industrial work situation they are to meet after
graduation.
 Provide students with an opportunity to apply their knowledge in real work
situation, thereby bridging the gap between theory and practice.
 Make transition from school to the world of work easier and enhance
students’ contacts for later job placement.
 Enlist and strengthen employers’ involvement in the entire educational
process.

1.3. Scope of the Report


The report aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the industrial training
experience, highlighting the technical aspects of the production processes,
chemical reactions and chemistry behind the productions, and the skills and
knowledge gained during the training period.

1.4. Significance of the SIWES Program


 Development of the key employability skills sought by employers of labour.
 Gives you an edge in seeking employment when graduated.
 An exposure to workplace culture and increase career insights.

CHAPTER TWO

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2.0. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. History and Evolution of NNPC
The Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) was established in 1977,
evolving from the Nigerian National Oil Corporation (NNOC) created in 1971.
The NNPC was formed to manage the petroleum resources of Nigeria, which is
one of the largest oil producers in Africa. Over the years, NNPC has undergone
several reforms aimed at improving efficiency and accountability in the oil sector,
particularly in response to global oil price fluctuations and domestic economic
challenges. The corporation has played a pivotal role in the development of
Nigeria’s oil and gas industry, contributing significantly to the national economy
through revenue generation and job creation.
In 1978, the corporation was commercialized into strategic business unit. These
include:
 Pipelines and Product Marketing Company (PPMC)
 National Petroleum Investment Management Services (NAPIMS)
 Nigerian Petroleum Development Company (NPDC)
 The Nigerian Gas Company (NGC)
 Integrated Data Services Limited (IDSL)
 National Engineering and Technical Company Limited (NETCO)
 Warri Refining and Petrochemical Company Limited (WRPC)
 Kaduna Refining and Petrochemical Company Limited (KRPC)
 Port Harcourt Refining Company Limited (PHRC)
 Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR)

Mission Statement
To efficiently and profitably process crude oil into petroleum products,
manufacture and market petrochemical products through effective resource
utilization, while exploiting new business opportunities.
Vision Statement
To be a leader in the petroleum processing business in Africa.
Quality Policy

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Quality excellence is the foundation of our business and the cornerstone of our
goal of customer satisfaction. It is therefore our policy to:
I. Produce and supply petroleum and petrochemical products in conformity
with customers’ requirements.
II. Continually improve our quality management system, process, products, and
services to ensure customer satisfaction.
III. Continually upgrade technology, knowledge and skills for improved
business performance.
IV. Vigorously promote a safe and environmentally healthy workplace.
Promote a team work in the organization and harmonious worth our host
communities.

2.2.0. Organogram

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Fig.2.0. organizational structure

2.3.0. Introduction to Crude Oil and Petroleum Products


Crude Oil
Petroleum etymologically means rock oil. It is natural organic materials composed
of hydrocarbons which occur in the gaseous or liquid state in geographical traps.
The liquid part obtained after the removal of dissolved gas is commonly referred to
as crude petroleum or crude oil.

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Crude oil is a naturally occurring mixture, consisting predominantly of
hydrocarbons, sulphur, nitrogen and oxygen derivatives of hydrocarbons, which is
removed from the earth in a liquid state. Crude oil ranges widely in their physical
and chemical properties. Crude oil are brownish (light oils having large amounts of
distillates) to brownish black (heavy oils) in colour. Heavy oils have an unpleasant
odour due to the high sulphur content, while the light crudes have pleasant
aromatic like smell. Typically, crude oil with high sulphur content is termed as
sour crude. On the other hand, crude oils with low sulphur content are termed as
sweet crude.
In Nigeria, the different types of crude we have includes, Bonny light, Escravos
light (ESLT) and Ughelli Blend (UB) and they are sweet and light crudes.

Petroleum Products
Petroleum Products are useful materials derived from crude oil as it is processed in
oil refineries. The following are the major products consumed in Nigeria.
 Premium Motor Spirit (PMS):
PMS popularly called petrol in this part of the world or gasoline is one of the most
widely used petroleum products. It is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons produced
by mixing fractions obtained from the distillation of crude oil with brand-specific
additives to improve performance under normal conditions. It is a volatile liquid
with a characteristic odour. It is mainly used as a fuel for light road vehicles and
small appliances.
 Dual Purpose Kerosene (DPK):
Dual purpose kerosene is one of the fractional distillates of crude oil derived
through refining process. Technically, it refers to the different products i.e.
Household Kerosene (HHK) popularly known as kerosene is used for cooking and
other industrial use. While Aviation Turbine Kerosene (ATK) otherwise known as
jet AI is used in the aviation industry.
Kerosene is a liquid fuel, similar in composition to diesel, obtained from the
distillation of crude oil. Kerosene is produced on an industrial scale by distilling
crude oil in a process similar to that used to produce diesel or petrol.
 Automatic Gas Oil (AGO):

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Automatic Gas Oil popularly known as diesel is a complex mixture of
hydrocarbons produced by mixing fractions obtained in the mid-boiling range from
the distillation and processing of crude oil with brand-specific additives to improve
performance under normal conditions. It is a liquid with a characteristic odour.
Diesel is produced by blending straight-run middle distillates with varying
properties of straight-run gas oil, light vacuum distillates, light thermally-cracked
distillates and light catalytically-cracked distillates

2.4.0. Key Players and Market Trends of NNPC


The NNPC corporates in a complex environment involving various stakeholders,
including international oil companies (IOCs), local firms and regulatory bodies.
Key players include shell ExxonMobil, Chevron, and Total, which collaborates
with NNPC in joint ventures and production sharing contracts.
Recent market trends indicate a shift towards renewable energy sources and a
growing emphasis on sustainability, prompting NNPC to explore alternative
energy investments while maintaining its core oil and gas operations.
2.4.1. Analysis of Market Dynamics of Nigerian Refineries
Product Demand Analysis:
The successful outcome of any economic unit in a country depends on the
availability of a market for its product
Fig.2 below shows the (refined) petroleum product consumption trajectory in
Nigeria. It indicates that the market has a steady growth with motor gasoline and
gas/diesel being the two most vital products in demand. These two products have
shown an average growth rate of 6.7% and 5.9% respectively for the period 2010-
2018. Overall, the total product demand revealed an average in demand from
9,399.0 kilo tonnes (kt) of oil in 2010 to 21,272.0 kt in 2018 (IEA, 2020).
Petroleum refining operates in a dynamic market, and therefore, to thrive and
compete favourably, there is a need to adapt with agility to changing market
conditions. Indicative of change overtime, the configuration of the refineries in
Nigeria reflects growing high levels of demand for refined petrol products
domestically.

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Fig.2.1. Trend of petroleum product consumption in Nigeria (2010-2018) (IEA,
2020)

Data available indicates that domestic production is incapable of satisfying local


demands, leading to the high importation from external sources. According to EIA
(2020) 442,000 barrels per day of petroleum products were imported into the
country which worth $9.95 billion (bn). In 2019, the domestic refinery was only
able to serve less than 10% of the domestic market demand, implying a gap of
more than 90% to be met by imports and representing lost potential revenue to the
FGN.

Product Pricing Analysis:


The process of setting prices for petroleum has certain implications for the
profitability or otherwise of the refineries. Since 2010, Nigeria started using swap
agreements to refine its crude oil to meet domestic needs, which is in two forms
the crude oil for refined product exchange agreement (RPEA) and an offshore

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processing agreement (OPA)(NNPC,2015). However, these facts make it difficult
to determine ex-refinery prices.
Nigeria’s downstream petroleum sector is heavily regulated, with two pricing
mechanisms in place for petroleum products. Firstly, diesel pricing is deregulated
and marketers are free to fix its price while PMS and others are determined by the
government from time to time. The price of the products are always set below the
market price and value, a subsidy scheme is set aside to cover the under-recovery
associated with the below market price.

2.5.0. Crude oil composition And Properties


Crude oil is a complex mixture primarily composed of hydrocarbons, which can be
categorized into saturates, aromatics, resins, and asphaltenes (SARA). The
composition of Nigerian crude oils varies significantly, influencing their physical
properties such as viscosity, density and pour point. For instance, heavier crudes
exhibit higher viscosity and lower API gravity, which can complicate extraction
and refining processes.
Additionally, crude oil contains non- metallic elements such as sulphur, nitrogen,
and oxygen, as well as trace amounts of metals. The chemical composition of
crude oil can be further broken down into specific classes of compounds. For
instance, heavy crude oils typically contain higher amounts of asphaltenes and
hetero-aromatic compounds compared to lighter crude oils.
Crude oil primarily consists of hydrocarbons, classified into:
o Paraffin(s): Saturated hydrocarbons, e.g. methane, ethane.
o Naphthenes: Cycloalkanes, contributing to oils viscosity.
o Aromatics: Unsaturated hydrocarbons, often toxic and carcinogenic.
2.5.1. Chemical Constitution of Crude oil
Crude oil contains organic compounds, hetero-aromatic compounds (S, N, O),
hydrocarbons (C, H), metals and organic (Ni, V, Fe) and inorganic (Na+, Ca2+, Cl-)
compounds as listed in fig.3. Compounds that contain only elements of carbon and
hydrogen are called hydrocarbons and constitute the largest group of organic
compounds found in petroleum. There might be as many as several thousand
different hydrocarbon compounds in crude oil. Hydrocarbon compounds have a
general formula of CxHy, where x and y are integer numbers.
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Fig.2.2. Constituents of crude oil
Rheological Properties of Crude oil
The rheological properties of crude oil, which describes its flow and deformation
behaviour, are essential for understanding how it will behave during extraction,
transportation, and refining.
Enhanced recovery techniques, such as the use of forming and oil-displacing
systems, can significantly alter the rheological properties of heavy crude oils.
These treatments can either increase or decrease the viscosity and gelation
temperatures of the oil, depending on the specific conditions and the relative
positions of the injection and production wells.

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2.5.2. Properties of Crude oil
Crude oils differ appreciably in their properties according to origin and the ratio of
the different components in the mixture. The following are some of the important
tests used to determine the properties of crude oils.
 Density:
Density is the mass of unit volume of a material at a specific temperature. A more
useful unit used by the petroleum industry is specific gravity, which is the ratio of
the weight of a given volume of a material to the weight of the same volume of
water measured at the same temperature. Specific gravity is used to calculate the
mass of crude oils and its products.
The API (American Petroleum Institute) gravity is another way to express the
relative masses of crude oils. The API gravity could be calculated mathematically
using the following equations:
API = 141.5-131.5/SP 60/60°
A low API gravity indicates a heavier crude oil or a petroleum product, while a
higher API gravity means a lighter crude or product. Specific gravities of crude
oils roughly range from 0.82 for lighter crudes to over 1.0 for heavier crudes (41 –
10° API scale).
 Salt Content:
The salt content expressed in milligrams of Sodium Chloride per litre oil (or in
pounds/barrel) indicates the amount of salt dissolved in water. Water in crude is
mainly present in an emulsified form. A high salt content in a crude oil presents
serious corrosion problems during the refining process. In addition, high salt
content is a major cause of plugging heat exchangers and heater pipes. A salt
content higher than 10 1b/1000 barrels (expressed as NaCl) requires desalting.
 Ash Content:
This test indicates the amount of metallic constituents in a crude oil. The ash left
after completely burning an oil sample usually consists of stable metallic salts,
metal oxides, and silicon oxide. The ash could be further analysed for individual
elements using spectroscopic techniques.

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 Sulphur Content:
Pour Point: The pour point of a crude oil or product is the lowest temperature at
which an oil is observed to flow under the conditions of the test. Pour point test
indicates the amount of long-chain paraffins (petroleum wax) found in a crude oil.
Paraffinic crudes usually have higher wax content than other crude types. Handling
and transporting crude oils and heavy fuels is difficult at temperatures below their
pour points. Often, chemical additives known as pour point depressants are used to
improve the flow properties of the fuel. Long-chain n-paraffins ranging from 16-60
carbon atoms in particular, are responsible for near-ambient temperature
precipitation. In middle distillates, less than 1% wax can be sufficient to cause
solidification of the fuel.
 Oil Recovery (Drilling):
After geologists of an oil company have located the general area in which
petroleum is thought to occur, a well is drilled. Selecting the site for drilling
requires detailed knowledge of the geologic features under the Earth’s surface. We
can see from fig. 4 that of the three wells shown, all of which are reasonably close
to the oil pool, only well B would actually produce oil. Drilling is also done to
determine the extent of the reserves.

18
Fig. 2.3. Selection of a site for petroleum drilling.
 Transportation:
Once the oil has been pumped out of the ground, it must then be transported to the
users. Two major methods are used for petroleum transportation. First
transportation method uses oil pipelines.
The second transportation method uses ships, oil tankers and the huge ocean-
crossing super tankers. The super tankers are very economical.

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CHAPTER THREE

3.0. An Overview of Petroleum Refining


Petroleum refineries transform crude oil into various petroleum products, this is
mainly achieved through a distillation process which split up the crude oil into
diverse fractions depending on the boiling point ranges (Walls, 2010). The process
ends in the selective reconfiguration of new products such as gasoline, kerosene,
diesel, fuel oil, and so on. However, these petroleum products are essential inputs
to an economy’s production process, whether directly or indirectly, and thus their
presence is essential to the development of an economy.
Generally, refineries are categorized into four types: topping, hydro skimming,
conversion, and deep conversion refinery (IEA, 2014, Jing et Al, 2020). Fig. 5
below illustrates the basic refinery processing units and products.

Fig. 3.1. Refinery processing units and products (UKPIA, 2011)


Topping refineries are considered as the simplest category which consists of crude
distillation and basic support plant. Their capacity to alter the natural yield pattern
of the feedstock they process is very restricted and they end up simply extricating
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crude oil into light gas and refinery fuel, naphtha, distillate, and residual or heavy
fuel oil.
The hydro skimming refinery is a more advanced than the topping refinery;
designed and constructed to include catalytic reforming, different hydro-treating
units, and product combination. The catalytic reforming permits for the upgrade of
naphtha, gasoline and nitrogen are produced as a by-product for hydro-treating
units. The hydro-treating units allows the removal of impurities such as sulphur
among others and this class of refinery is common in countries with low gasoline
demand.
Conversion or cracking refinery is the next stage in a complex overall process,
including variously visual distillation, catalytic cracking or hydrocracking, and the
use of alkylation units. It has the capacity to improve the natural product patterns
of the crudes they process but they unavoidably still produce some heavy, low-
priced products, like asphalt and residual fuel.
Even more complex is the deep conversion or coking refineries the heaviest and
least valuable crude oil fractions by converting them into lighter streams of more
valuable light products (EIA, 2020). Deep conversion plants often prove the most
profitable form of refinery (McKinney, 2020).
The refining processes separates crude oil into fractions:
 Light fractions: LPG, gasoline, jet fuel.
 Middle distillates: Kerosene, diesel, lubricating oils.
 Heavy fractions: Asphalt, waxes (Achaw & Danso-Boateng, 2021) (Speight,
2011).
Key processes include:
 Distillation: Separates components based on boiling points.
 Catalytic reforming: Enhances octane ratings of gasoline (Achaw & Danso-
Boateng, 2021).

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3.1.0. Stages of Crude Oil Refining Process
 Distilling:

Fig. 3.2. Distillation process of crude oil.


Much like a simple still, in a distilling column, liquid is heated to a vapour and
lifted upward to be distilled again into separate substance. This is the beginning of
the refining process. Distilling exploits the characteristic of the chemicals in crude
oil to boil at different temperatures, a phenomenon that engineers chart along
distillation curves. Unlike a still, a distilling column contains a set of trays that
allow heated vapours to rise and collect at different levels, separating out the
various liquids derived from crude oil. The top of the column is cooler than the
bottom, so as liquids vaporize and rise, they condense again, collecting on to their
respective trays. Butane and other light products rise to the top of the column,
while straight-run gasoline, naphtha, kerosene, diesel, and heavy gas oil gather on
the trays, leaving straight-run residue at the base of the column. Liquids are
considered “heavy” or “light” based on its weight and density compared to that of
water.

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 Cracking:

Fig. 3.3. Cracking process of crude oils


Because there is more demand for some distilled products like gasoline, refiners
have an incentive to convert heavy liquids into lighter liquids. The term cracking
comes from the process of breaking up long hydrocarbon molecules into smaller,
more useful molecules. The cracking process converts heavy straight run liquids
into gasoline. There are multiple versions of the cracking process, and refiners use
the process extensively.
Cracking is a highly controlled process, so cracking units exist separate from
distillation columns. The most common type of cracking is “Cat cracking” named
for the use of catalysts, substances added to a chemical reaction to speed up the
process.

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 Reforming:

Fig. 3.4. Reforming process of crude oils


The process of reforming was developed to raise both the quality and volume of
gasoline produced by refiners, using a catalyst again, after a series of reforming
processes, substances are converted into aromatics and isomers, which have much
higher octane numbers than the paraffins and naphthenes produced by other
refinery processes. Most simply, reforming rearranges the naphtha hydrocarbons to
create gasoline molecules. The reforming process produces reformate, which is
needed to increase the octane for today’s cleaner burning fuels. Interestingly
hydrogen is then used in other refining processes such as hydro-treating.

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 Treating:

Fig. 3.5. Treating process of crude oil refining.


Crude oil naturally contains contaminants such as sulphur, nitrogen, and heavy
metals, which are undesirable in motor fuels. The treating process, primarily
hydro-treating, removes these chemicals by binding them with hydrogen,
absorbing them in separate columns, or adding acids to remove them. The
recovered molecules are then sold to other industries.
Refineries that process sour crudes produce more sulphur than refineries that
process sweet crudes. Following the treatment, blending, and cooling processes,
the liquids finally look like the fuels and products you are familiar with: gasoline,
lubricants, kerosene, jet fuel, diesel fuel, heating oil, and petrochemical feedstocks
that are needed to create the plastics and other products you use every day.

25
 Blending:

Fig. 3.6. Blending process of crude oil refining


The last major step of the refining process is blending various streams into finished
petroleum products. The various grades of motor fuels are blends of different
streams or “fractions” such as reformate, alkylate, catalytically cracked gasoline,
etc. Refineries blend compounds obtained either from their internal refining
process operations as noted above, or externally, to make gasoline that meets
specifications for acceptable motor vehicle performance. A typical Refinery may
produce as many as 8 to 15 different streams of hydrocarbons that they then must
mix into motor fuels. Refiners might also mix in additives like octane enhancers,
metal deactivators, rust inhibitors, anti-oxidants, anti-knock agents, or detergents
into their hydrocarbon streams. Blending can take place at the Refinery along the
pipelines and tanks that house processed fuel or even at off-site locations or on
ships or terminals once the fuel has left the refiners gate.

3.1.1. Chemical Reactions in Crude Oil Refining


Chemical reactions are crucial steps in petroleum refining processes that facilitates
the quality of products and aids in the production of cleaner fuels. They are:

26
 Cracking Reactions :
Cracking is a crucial step in petroleum refining, where larger hydrocarbon
molecules are broken down into smaller more valuable ones. This process can be
further divided into;
 Thermal Cracking: This involves heating crude oil to high temperatures
to break down large hydrocarbons into smaller fractions. This method is
straight forward but can lead to undesirable by-product.
 Catalytic Cracking: Utilizes catalysts and facilitate the breaking of
chemical bonds at lower temperatures and pressures, producing higher
yields of gasoline and other valuable products. The use of catalysts helps
to improve selectivity and reduce energy consumption.

 Hydrogenation Reactions:
Hydrogenation is another critical reaction in refining, where hydrogen is added to
unsaturated hydrocarbons to convert them into saturated ones. This process is
essential for producing high-quality fuels and reducing harmful emissions.
Hydrogenation is particularly important in:
 Desulfurization: Removing sulphur compounds from fuels, which helps to
meet environmental regulations and reduce air pollution.
 Upgrading Heavy Oils: Converting heavy oils into lighter, more valuable
products through the addition of hydrogen.

 Sulphur Removal Reactions:


Desulfurization involves several chemical reactions aimed at removing sulphur
from petroleum products. This is crucial for producing cleaner fuels and meeting
regulatory standards. Common methods include:
 Hydrosulfurization (HDS): A catalytic process that involves reacting sulphur
compounds with hydrogen sulphide, which can then be removed.
 Oxidative Desulfurization: Uses oxidants to convert sulphur compounds
into, more easily separable forms.

 Isomerization Reactions:

27
Isomerization is the process of creating straight-chain hydrocarbons into branched-
chain hydrocarbons, which have better combustion properties. This reaction
enhances fuel quality and improves octane ratings making it an essential step in
gasoline production.
 Aromatization Reactions:
Aromatization involves the conversion of aliphatic hydrocarbons into aromatic
compounds, which are key building blocks for many petrochemicals. This process
is significant for producing high octane gasoline and feedstock for the chemical
industry.

3.2.0. Quality Assurance/Control and Testing


Quality Assurance in the Oil and Gas Industry:
From West Texas Intermediate (WTI) to Bonny light, the quality and
characteristics of crude oil directly influence market value. All crude oils have
unique chemical and molecular properties, and most buyers want to have a good
understanding of these before committing to a purchase.
Crude Oil Assays:
Before purchasing oil, most buyers subject the product to a chemical evaluation
known as a crude oil assay. Samples can be drawn from a variety of sources,
including pipelines, cargo ships, reservoirs, refineries and storage tanks.
The evaluation is conducted in purpose-built laboratories and offers the buyer an
overview of the distinct chemical and molecular characteristics of the crude.
Generally carried out by producers, refiners and traders, crude oil assays offers
extensive hydrocarbon analysis data that can be used to determine suitability and
value.
Without crude oil assays, buyers risk running into a slew of problems, including
mechanical breakdowns, quality control issues and environmental breaches. Crude
oil quality testing also ensures producers are meeting industry standards.

3.2.1. Crude Oil Quality Control Tests


 Density:

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Density refers to the ratio of the mass of oil to its volume. It is common to see
American Petroleum Institute (API) Gravity used as an index to measure the
density of a crude oil. The US organisation created this measure, which indicates
how light or heavy a crude oil is compared to water.
Crude with an API Gravity of more than 10 are considered light (lower density)
and generally float on water. Lighter crudes also flow freely at room temperature
and are easier to extract and process. Grades with API Gravity of less than 10 are
classed as heavy (higher density) and will sink when place in water. Most crude
oils have an API of between 15 and 45 degrees.
 Sulphur Content Test:
The sulphur content of crude oil can vary greatly and has a significant impact on
quality and price. Most grades have sulphur contents of between 1 and 4 wt%,
though can sometimes be lower than 0.05 or more than 10 wt%.
Generally, lighter and sweeter crude oils are more valuable than heavier and more
sour counterparts. This is partly because light and sweet crudes are better for
producing gasoline and diesel fuel, which can be sold at a higher price than
residual fuel oil and other second-grade products. As the crude is lighter and less
sulphur-rich the refinery process is less energy-intensive and doesn’t call for
sophisticated equipment. Grades containing less than 1 wt% sulphur are classed as
sweet, while those with more than 1 wt% sulphur are considered sour.
Tapies, a type of crude oil found in Malaysia, is considered one of the most
valuable grades in the world. It’s used as a pricing benchmark in Singapore and
boasts an API gravity of between 43o and 45o. It also incredibly sweet, with sulphur
content of just 0.04%.
 Amines Test:
While Amines can be an efficient way to treat acids contaminants, they can create
problems in high concentrations. Most crude oil assays test for amine content to
avoid problems such as heightened salting on crude distillation units and higher
nitrogen levels at wastewater treatment plants.
 Sediment Content Test:
During the extraction process crude oil can become contaminated with sediment
from the reservoir formation. While some sediment is okay excessive amounts can
damage equipment and compromise the quality of the finished product.
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 Carbon Residue Test:
By weight, most oils contain between 82% and 87% carbon by weight. The
ASTMD5291 test method is one of the most reliable techniques used to test carbon
content and is included in most crude oil quality testing.
 Chloride Content Test:
Chlorides are an undesirable characteristic in crude oil as they can increase
corrosivity and encourage a build-up of salts in processing units. If detected,
methods such as catalytic hydro-dechlorination, chlorine transfer agent
dechlorination and adsorption dichlorination will be used to remove chlorides.
 Mercury Content:
Mercury occurs naturally in rocks and soil and as a result is present in almost all
crude oil. Levels can vary significantly between grades and most buyers want to
know the exact mercury content of the crude oil they are purchasing. Too much
mercury can cause major problems for petroleum refineries as the metal can
amalgamate with aluminium alloys and damage equipment. Some forms of
mercury are toxic and call for specific Health, Safety and Environment (HSE)
protocols, while others can poison catalysts such as platinum and rhenium.
 Water Content Test:
Determining the water content of crude oil is an effective way to minimise the risk
of corrosion and damage to infrastructure for this reason, water content is often
included in crude oil quality testing processes.

3.3.0. Laboratory Techniques and Equipment Analysis of Crude Oil


Laboratory analysis is vital for characterizing crude oil and its fractions.
Techniques such as gas chromatography, mass spectrometry, and NMR
spectroscopy are commonly employed to determine the chemical composition and
properties of crude oils. These analytical methods enable precise assessments that
inform refining processes and product quality.
 Gas Chromatography:
GC is one of the most valuable tools available to oil analysis. In the petroleum
industry, the technique is used to analyse crude oil as well as refined products,

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petrochemicals, natural gas and LPG. Highly specialized instruments called gas
chromatographs are used to carry out GC analysis and unlock valuable data about
the characteristics of oil.
Gas chromatographs are equipped with detectors that interact with gaseous solutes
as they are released from the main column. The detector uses these reactions to
create an electronic signal. This electronic signal is then sent to the data system,
which creates a chromatogram. Patterns in the chromatogram reveal the different
components within the sample. GC detectors vary depending on the instrument.
Flame Ionization Detectors (FID) are widely used in GC as they are capable of
detecting compounds containing carbon atoms. Other options include;
 Catalytic Combustion Detector (CCD)
 Flame Photometric Detectors (FPD)
 Discharge Ionization Detectors (DID)
 Helium Ionisation Detectors (HID)
 Electron Capture Detectors (ECD)
Some examples of applications for Gas Chromatography include:
 Detecting concentrations of chemical elements to parts per million (ppm),
parts per billion (ppb), and parts per thousand (ppt).
 Carrying out compositional analysis.
 Detecting contaminants in samples.
 Identifying and quantifying different components within a sample.
ASTM International offers multiple GC test methods designed to make the process
as easy and reliable as possible. These include the ASTMD1945-14(2019) standard
test method for analysis of natural gas by GC.
 Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry:
Time of flight mass spectrometry (TOF) is based on the principle that mass affects
the speed at which ions travel. The technique uses an electric field to accelerate
ions and establish a base level of kinetic energy. Once all ions have the same
charge, a time of flight measurement analyser is used to measure velocity and track
how long it takes each ion to travel to the detector. This is known as a time of
flight measurement and is used to establish the mass to charge ratio and identify
individual ions.

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 Near Infrared Analysis:
Near infrared (NIR) Analysis is a useful technique for mapping the hydrocarbon
composition of oil. The method is particularly useful at refineries, where sampling
interfaces are used to generate real-time data through tout the oil refining process.
This includes monitoring parameters of interest like benzene and butane content, as
well as research octane rating.
Many refineries use NIR spectrometers to monitor reformate during the fuel
blending process. The gasoline blending stock is produced during the catalytic
cracking process and is a component of finished gasoline. As the process takes
place, NIR analysis is used to monitor levels of paraffins, isoparaffiins, olefins,
naphthenes and aromatics (PIONA) in the reformate.
 Thermal Analysis:
Thermal analysis techniques are used to characterise petroleum products and create
a detailed “fingerprint” of their chemical and physical properties. The techniques
are used to analyse a variety of different materials including raw crude oil, refined
gasoline, and diesel, liquid petroleum gas, distillates, lubricants, coal, polymers
and other products.
Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) is one of the most useful techniques
available to analyse with highly specialised instruments used to measure heat flow
rates as a sample is expressed to a constant temperature. The technique is rapid,
reliable and offers excellent insight into the chemical and physical properties of
petroleum and other hydrocarbon derived products.
 Oil Analysis for Environmental Research:
Oil analysis techniques are not just used within the petroleum and petrochemicals
industry. In the book Water Analysis/Oil Pollution, author M. Fingas spotlights the
use of GC for environmental applications. Around the world, environmental
laboratories rely on GC to carry out specialised chemical analysis on oil spill
samples.
“The characterization of oil in an environmental sample can be important for the
assessment of environmental damage, and also in the selection of appropriate
response and clean-up measure,” writes Fingas. “The identification of an oil source
is also important for settling liability and compensation issues. Petroleum

32
hydrocarbon analysis may also be required to determine the concentrations around
a source, for example, an oil platform, or pipeline”.
 Predicting Oil weathering patterns:
As well as assessing initial damage, GC data is used to predict what physical and
chemical changes the oil will undergo once it has infiltrated the natural
environment. This process is called weathering and is driven by factors such as
emulsification, evaporation, dissolution, dispersion, oxidation and microbial
degradation. Oil analysis helps environmental scientists predict how the oil will
behave and develop robust management strategies.

3.4.0. Regulatory Frameworks


The Nigerian oil and gas sector is governed by a robust regulatory frameworks
aimed at ensuring environmental protection and sustainable development. Key
regulations include the Petroleum Act, the Environmental Impact Assessment
(EIA) Act, and the Nigerian Oil & Gas Industry Content Development Act, which
promote local content and environmental stewardship. Compliance with these
regulations is critical for NNPC and its partners to mitigate risks associated with
oil exploration and production.
3.4.1. Legal Framework for Gas Development & Utilization in Nigeria
The Nigerian 1999 Constitution (as amended):
In the hierarchy of laws within the Nigerian legal system, the constitution of the
Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1999 (as amended) (the constitution) is the supreme
law. The constitution generally vests ownership of rights in all minerals comprised
within Nigeria in the FGN.
Specifically, with respect to rights in oil and gas, including oil and gas assets and
its management thereof, the constitution provides that “…the entire property in and
control of all minerals, mineral oils and natural gas in under or upon any land in
Nigeria or in, under or upon the territorial waters and the exclusive economic zone
of Nigeria shall vest in the government of the federation and shall be managed in
such manner as may be prescribed by the National Assembly”.
In line with the above, section 4(2) of the constitution provides that: “The National
Assembly shall have power to make laws for the peace, order, and good

33
government of the federation or any part thereof with respect to any matter
included in the Exclusive legislative list set out in part 1 of the second schedule to
this constitution”. Natural gas is listed as item 39 of the Exclusive legislative list in
part1 of the second schedule to the constitution.
3.4.2. The Petroleum Act 1969
The petroleum act (PA) was enacted in 1969, and until the effective date of the
Petroleum Industry Act (PIA) 2021. It remains the principal legislation governing
the Nigerian oil and gas industry. The PA provides for the exploration of shelf of
petroleum from the territorial waters and the continental shelf of Nigeria. It vests
the ownership of all on-shore and off-shore revenue derivable from petroleum
resources and all other incidental thereof in the federal government of Nigeria. The
PA defines ‘petroleum’ as “all mineral oil (or any related hydrocarbon) or natural
gas as it exists in its natural state in strata…”
Therefore, all the provisions of the act with respect to exploration, prospecting and
mining as covered by an Oil Exploration Licence (OEL), Oil Prospecting Licence
(OPL), and Oil Mining Lease (OML) respectively and all regulations made
pursuant to the PA also apply to natural gas except where PA provides otherwise.

3.4.3. The Oil Pipeline Act, 1959 and Oil Pipeline Regulations 1995
The Oil Pipelines Act 1959 and the Oil Pipelines Regulations 1995 both govern the
licencing processes for the construction operations and maintenance of gas
pipelines. Including liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) storage operations.
Applications for access to pipelines order are made to the minister for petroleum
resources. The minister will grant the application if the pipeline can conveniently
convey the gas. Term and conditions of access will be as negotiated and agreed
upon between the pipeline owner and the applicant and where parties fail to reach
an agreement, the minister may impose such terms and conditions expedient to
secure the access rights of the applicant and to regulate the access charges. The Oil
Pipeline Act mandates operators to use highly maintained and standard pipelines to
transport their products.

3.4.4. The Nigerian Oil & Gas Content Development Act 2010 (NOGICDA)

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The NOGICDA provides a Nigerian content plan for the development of Nigerian
content in the Nigerian oil and gas industry. It also provides the framework for the
supervision, coordination, monitoring and implementation of Nigerian content. The
Act requires all regulatory authorities, operators, contractors, alliance partners and
other entities involved in any project or transaction in the oil and gas industry to
consider Nigeria content as an important element of their overall project
development and execution.

3.4.5. The Environmental Impact Assessment Act (1992) (EIA Act)


The EIA Act requires projects including gas distribution pipelines, oil and gas
refineries, as well as storage facilities for petroleum products of 200,000 ton or
more to undergo environmental impact assessment procedure and appraisal.

3.4.6. The Federal Ministry of Environment (FME)


The FME is the authority charged with the responsibility of enforcing the
requirements of the EIA Act. In line with its functions, the FME has published the
EIA procedural guidelines; the guidelines cover major development projects
including on and offshore oil and gas projects and are intended to inform and assist
proponents in conducting EIA studies.

3.5.0. Case Study: Nigeria


Refining Industry Before 1970
Nigeria’s oil industry began with the discovery of crude oil reserves by the Shell
Group in 1956. Nigeria produces a variety of light, sweet oil grades such as Bonny
light and Escravos Beach. Nigerian oil is highly desired by refineries in developed
nations as it is less corrosive for refinery infrastructure and is easier to refine into
high value products such as gasoline or jet fuel when compared to other types of
crude. Despite the export value of its crude, Nigeria Petroleum Refining
Corporation (NRPC). The refinery was built in Port Harcourt and had an initial
capacity of 38,000 b/d. It was built with the intent to produce gasoline for the
domestic transportation market. Production levels remained stable and saw little
change during the first four years of private operation. The refinery continued to

35
operate effectively after the Government’s passage of the 1969 National Petroleum
Act, which vests ownership of all petroleum resources of Nigeria in the State. This
Act also instated a domestic obligation for International oil companies that
required upstream producers to “Subsidize” the local refineries by selling around 8
percent of their crude oil production at a price of around $1.80/barrel, which was
about 5 percent of world market price up until around 1985.

3.6.0. Field work and Site Visits


Fieldwork during the industrial training involved site visits to NNPC facilities and
oil fields, providing me with practical insights into the operational aspects of the
oil industry.
Observations included the extraction processes, environmental, management
practices, and community relations effort undertaken by NNPC.
These experiences highlighted the challenges and complexities of oil production in
Nigeria, particularly in the context of environmental sustainability.

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CHAPTER FOUR

CONCLUSION
The industrial training at NNPC revealed the intricate relationship between crude
oil production, refining processes, and regulatory frameworks. It was evident that
understanding the physicochemical properties of crude oil is essential for
optimizing production and refining strategies.
Additionally, the commitment to best practices and regulatory compliance is
crucial for sustainable operations in the oil sector.
Recommendations for future Research and Practice
Future research should focus on developing innovative refining technologies that
enhance efficiency and reduce environmental impact.
Additionally, studies on the socio-economic effects of oil production in local
communities can provide valuable insights for policy making and corporate social
responsibility initiatives.
Emphasizing sustainability and community engagement will be vital for the long
term liability of the oil industry in Nigeria.

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raman, infrared, and nuclear magnetic resonance (nmr) spectra. Applied
spectroscopy, 65(2), 181-186.
https://doi.org/10.1366/10-05974
2. (2010). New colloidal stability index for crude oils based on polarity of
crude oil component. Energy fuels, 24(12), 6483-6488.
https://doi.org/10.1021/ef101055p
3. (2015). Role of physicochemical and interfacial properties on the binary
coalescence of crude oil drops in synthetic produced water.energy & fuels,
29(2), 512-519, https://doi.org/10.1021/ef501847q
4. (2021)Effects of sulphur content in the crude oil to the corrosion behaviour
of internal surface of api5lx65 petroleum pipeline steel manufacturing
technology. 21(5), 561-574. https://doi.org/10.21062/mft.2021.06
5. (2019). Assay of the requisite of the metallic corrosion in crude oil. Austin
chemical engineering 6(1).
https://doi.org/10.26420/austinchemeng.1063.2019

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