COMPUTER PROGRAMMING

FUNDAMENTALS:

4 Books in 1:
Coding For Beginners, Coding With Python,
SQL Programming For Beginners, Coding
HTML.
A Complete Guide To Become A Programmer
With A Crash Course.

Ashton Miller
 © Copyright 2024 - All rights reserved.
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including, but not limited to, — errors, omissions, or inaccuracies.

Table of Contents – Coding For Beginners

Introduction…………………………………………………………………
………………………….…………...
Chapter 1: Web Programming
Chapter 2: Getting Started With Coding
Chapter 3: Functions
Chapter 4: Containers
Chapter 5: Strings
Chapter 6: Loops
Chapter 7: Modules
Chapter 8: Files
Chapter 9: Programming Paradigms
Chapter 10: Object-Oriented Programming
Chapter 11: Misconceptions About Coding
Chapter 12: Bash
Chapter 13: Regular Expressions
Chapter 14: Data Structures
Chapter 15: Algorithms
Chapter 16: Logical Switches
Chapter 17: Coding Practices
Chapter 18: How to Be an Expert Coder in the Shortest Time Possible
Chapter 19: Other Factors
Chapter 20: Landing a Job
Conclusion……………………………………………………..……………
……………………….………..……

Table of Contents – Coding With Python

Introduction
Chapter 1 ​What is Python?
Chapter 2 ​Why Python?
Chapter 3 ​Installing Python
Chapter 4 ​What are Data Types?
Chapter 5 ​How to Read Errors and Troubleshooting Your Code
Chapter 6 ​Variables
Chapter 7 ​Lists
Chapter 8 ​Dictionaries
Chapter 9 ​Functions
Chapter 10 User’s Input and Loop
Chapter 11 Tuples
Chapter 12 Control Statements
Chapter 13 File Management
Chapter 14 Getting Started; Python Tips and Tricks
Chapter 15 Things We Can Do in Python
Chapter 16 Working with Files
Chapter 17 Python in the Real World
Conclusion

Table of Contents – SQL Programming For Beginners

Introduction
Chapter 1:​SQL Basics
Chapter 2:​Relational Database
Chapter 3:​Data Types
Chapter 4:​Exploring a Database
Chapter 5:​Creating a Database
Chapter 6:​Getting Started with Queries
Chapter 7:​Turning Data into Information
Chapter 8:​Working with Multiple Tables
Chapter 9:​Using Functions
Chapter 10: Subqueries
Chapter 11: SQL Views and Transactions
Conclusion
Table of Contents – Coding HTML
Introduction
Chapter 1. F​ undamentals of HTML
Chapter 2. ​HTML Styles
Chapter 3. ​Forms In HTML
Chapter 4. F​ rames, Colors, And Layout Of HTML
Chapter 5. ​How to Put Images in HTML?
Chapter 6. ​HTML Tables
Chapter 7. ​Fundamentals Of CSS
Chapter 8. ​CSS
Chapter 9. ​CSS Links, Tables, And Forms
Chapter 10. Image Manipulation in CSS
Chapter 11. Length Units
Chapter 12. CSS IDs and Classes
Chapter 13. The Box Model In CSS
Chapter 14. Step By Step Addition Of CSS To HTML Document
Chapter 15. Introduction To JavaScript
Chapter 16. JavaScript Syntax
Chapter 17. Definition of Arrays in JavaScript
Chapter 18. What to Do Next?
Chapter 19. Art of Computer Programming
Conclusion
 CODING FOR BEGINNERS:
A SIMPLIFIED GUIDE FOR BEGINNERS TO
LEARN SELF-TAUGHT CODING STEP BY STEP.
BECOME AN EXPERT CODER IN THE
SHORTEST TIME POSSIBLE.

Eugene Gates
 Introduction

Computers are a lot different from humans.

They are not neutrally active and doesn't consist of any emotions that
humans possess. Computers mostly rely on instructions.
The only reason why computers have become better than humans is that
they do tasks effectively without wasting any time. However, we can
consider computers as dumb machines. If they are not provided with a
solution to the problem beforehand, they can't solve it. Even after twenty
years of tremendous research robotics is not a successful field because it is
challenging to make machines that take decisions by themselves.
In the early stages of computer development, people used to use instruction
sets to complete tasks. These instructions sets are allowed to use only for
scientific and military purposes.
Several multinational companies started to experiment with their employees
to create a whole new way to pass instructions to computers. All dreamt of
an easy way to make things work out.
After a few years with excellent research, computer scientists introduced
the concept of programming to the technological world with the help of
programming languages. Programming languages provide a set of defined
libraries that can help you to create programs.
Programs are considered as an analytical representation of algorithms and
the definite task of creating valid programs that can be understood by a
machine is known as programming.
What is a Program?
Programming languages use programs to give varied instructions to the
computing machines. From a mathematical perspective, the process of
providing step-by-step instructions is called an algorithm.
A lot of statistical concepts in mathematics too use algorithms to solve a
problem. An algorithm is not only a step-by-step procedure but a way that
is proven to be effective.
In programming, we use programs to create a logical instruction that can
make us solve a specific problem as quickly and effectively as possible.
Experienced programmers try to create programs that are in less code length
and which consumes fewer resources. It is not only essential to create a
working code, but it is also important to develop code that is feasible and
which effectively understands the resources that are available to it.
What is the difference between Algorithm & program?
Algorithm and program are closely interlinked. When a programmer is
solving a problem, he first finds a logical and provable way to complete it.
He monitors the inputs and outputs that are available and creates a step-by-
step procedure to solve it.
This is called an algorithm from a theoretical basis.
However, computers can't understand human language. They use the binary
system to follow instructions.
This is the reason why we need to represent our algorithm in a way such
that computers can understand.
This process is technically known as programming. Programming uses a set
of programs to make the computer understand what needs to be done.
What are the programming languages?
When the concept of programming is introduced the scientific and
computing community has overwhelmed. They started developing a lot of
instruction sets and began developing programs with them.
However, just after a few projects programmers and computing scientists
understood that there needs to be a specific regular platform to create
programs. It is not feasible to use each other's instruction sets to create
meaningful software.
So, they worked hard to develop programming languages that can maintain
and provide a lot of libraries for their usage. Programming languages like
ABC, Pascal are developed and people started using them for developing
programs. All these distinct programming libraries are enhanced and named
as programming languages. They are also called as high-level languages
and remember that they are only used to make it easy for humans to
communicate with computers.
We always need a compiler to let computers understand the program.
To understand C programming in depth it is vital to learn about the default
programming process in detail. Just like every other technological
advancement, programming languages too follow a strictly adhered
guideline system to make things work in the way they are intended to.
As said before, it is difficult to make computers understand the programs by
themselves. So, computer scientists started to create programs that can be
compiled and converted into machine language.
All the programs are compiled, interpreted before running the program.
This task is done by interpreters and compilers.
 Chapter 1: Web Programming
Web programming, also referred to as web development, is an elaborate
process where programmers build dynamic applications for use on the
internet. Some of the popular web applications today include business
platforms like Amazon and social networks like Facebook and Twitter.
While these are some of the top names in the industry, it is easy to assume
that web programming is hard. It takes a lot of practice, but in essence web
development is one of the easiest forms of coding you can learn as a
programmer. When writing code for a website, you see immediate results,
which help you determine whether you are doing the right thing, or need to
ask for help. Besides, today there are so many tools and resources available
online that you can use to learn.
There are two categories of web development; front-end development and
back-end development. Front-end development is also known as client-side
development. It involves building the side of the application that the user
interacts with whenever they load the application. This includes the design
and content, and how the user interacts with the application. Front-end
development is primarily written in JavaScript, CSS and HTML.
Back-end development, also referred to as server-side development deals
with everything else that takes place behind the scenes. Users do not see
this, but it is the engine that powers what they interact with whenever they
are online. You need a database for the back-end, which will eventually
power the front-end. There are many programming languages that can be
used to build the server-side, including Java, Python, PHP, and Perl.
Factors to consider when choosing a programming language
Given that there are so many languages available, it might not be easy for
you to choose one for your project. There are some factors, however, that
can guide your choice, and help make your work easier, as follows:

Tool support
You should always consider working with a programming language that has
all the tools you need to build your project effortlessly. This way, you will
not just manage to build the application, but you can also maintain it
without a hitch.

Size of the project

The sheer size of some projects necessitates the use of specific languages.
Some languages might be effective, but their performance is inhibited when
the project scales up in size. A lot of startup companies realize this some
years down the line. Once the business needs and application resource
consumption grows, they have to switch to a different language.

Library support
Before you settle on a given language, make sure you consider the library
constraints. Ensure that the library available will not just meet your needs,
but will also solve other needs arising down the line.

Elasticity
Flexibility is one of the key features you must look at. For your projects,
ensure you use a language that allows you to scale the application
accordingly over time. This means you should manage to add or remove
some features and programs into the application without affecting the
performance.

Platform choice
Always think about the platform upon which the application will run. While
most languages support different platforms, their suitability might not be
pleasant across the board. Take programs written in C, for example. These
programs are best suited for Linux and Windows-based systems. While you
might experiment with other platforms, the performance might not be as
you would experience in a Windows or Linux environment.
Programming languages
If you are a beginner in web programming or software development, you
might have come across so many languages to the point where you are
unsure where to start. A lot of people have been there. There are so many
languages to choose from. However, you need to know where to begin, and
how to build on what you have learned. Here are some of the top
programming languages in use today.
Python
Python stands out today as one of the most versatile programming
languages in the world. When using Python, you can write code and at the
same time run it without using a compiler. Python further boasts support for
code readability. What this means is that its syntax structure allows you to
write a few lines of code to make a point. This is also possible in C++ and
Java. The interesting thing about Python is that while it is an advanced
language, it is very easy, and beginner programmers can pick up on it very
fast.
There are so many popular applications currently running on Python,
including Google, Yahoo, Pinterest and Instagram. Most of these are
websites and applications that are heavy on memory usage, which means
that Python is not just perfect for automated memory management, it also
features a very big library and supports various paradigms in development.
CSS
Cascading Style Sheets, CSS, is a markup language. It defines the way a
website or web page appears, when coupled with HTML. Some of the
elements that make up CSS determine things like the font style and size,
colors and any other design features of the website.
CSS helps developers create visually pleasing websites. It has also come in
handy in the development of appealing mobile applications too. CSS
features a language syntax that is almost similar to XHTML and HTML. As
a result, the language syntaxes can work together without a hitch.
Java
Java is one of the most in-demand languages today. It is widely used in
developing mobile apps and games. It is object-oriented, and is favored by
most developers because it can be used across different platforms.
Therefore, a program written on a Windows-based machine can still run on
a Mac OS device.
JavaScript
JavaScript is currently one of the best programing languages you need to
learn. It empowers you to manage the browser, allow front-end scripts to
run, edit and display content on the website and so forth. JavaScript allows
for asynchronous interaction between users and the application.
JavaScript is one of the most popular languages given its prevalence in
game development and building desktop applications. All the major
browsers support JavaScript, so you do not need plug-ins or a compiler to
run an application.
JavaScript is a functional language. Objects in JavaScript are first-class,
associating with their characteristics and functions. An example is a nested
function, which is a function inside a function.
This is also one of the most dynamic languages because types are related to
values, not variables. As a result, you can test project types in several ways.
JavaScript is an object-oriented language, and as such all the objects within
its environment are associative arrays.
PHP
Hypertext Processor, PHP, is a server-side language which is recommended
for use in web development and other regular programming needs. PHP has
been around since 2004, but currently powers hundreds of millions of
websites all over the world.
Given that PHP is an interpreted script language, it is ideal for back-end
programming because of the need for an interpreter. It is suitable for this
type of programming because you can run server services in the background
while still developing the application or website.
Ruby
Ruby is a dynamic programming language that has been around since 1993.
Ruby is ideal for building websites and mobile applications. As a highly
scalable language, it provides an astute balance between functional
programming and imperative programming.
Ruby is not just easy to understand, it is also one of the easiest languages to
write. However, for beginner developers who are just getting into Ruby, it is
wise to start with Ruby on Rails. Ruby on Rails makes it easier for you to
work with Ruby, and enjoy the experience.
Ruby is often recommended for websites or web servers that encounter lots
of traffic. Some popular examples include Twitter and Hulu.

SQL
Structured Query Language, commonly identified in its abbreviated form
SQL is a programming language that was specifically written for database
operations. Data manipulation, storage and retrieval are some of the key
features in SQL. A lot of web based frameworks run SQL today, given that
it is effective in maintaining database integrity, is secure and maintains data
precision.
C
C is similar to C++. It is a general purpose language that is often used to
build supporting elements for other languages like Java, C++ and Python.
This means that most of the supported languages borrow some features
from C, such as standard libraries, syntax and control structures. This
explains why it is always advisable that you learn C++ and C before you
expand your knowledge to other languages, so that you have a firm
foundation in the basics.
C-Sharp (C#)
Microsoft developed C# in 2000 as an object-oriented programming
language. It is popular in desktop applications, and became an integral part
of applications built for Windows 8 and Windows 10. To run C# therefore,
you must have the .NET framework installed on your computer. C# was
built to compete with Java.
Compared with C++, C# has logical and consistent code, which is one of
the reasons why it is one of the best languages for beginners to grasp. C# is
a statically typed language, which means that you can check your code
before you run it into applications. Therefore, it is easier to identify errors
when programming in C#.
C++
C++ is a case-sensitive programming language. It is general purpose, and
presents programmers with the necessary tools for memory manipulation at
a low level. C++ is an interesting language because it combines the features
of high-level languages and low-level languages. As a result, it is often
construed as a mid-level language.
Primarily, C++ is an object-oriented language, thanks to the following
inherent features:

Data hiding
Inheritance
Encapsulation
Polymorphism
C++ is a superset of C, so they share a lot of similarities. This also means
that if you write a program in C, it is also a C++ program. C++ is a very
detailed language. For beginners, it is advisable that you focus on the
concepts instead of the details, lest you get confused.
So, where does this leave you? The best place for you to start depends on
what you want to pursue in your career. If you feel database management is
right for you, you should start with C++ or C to become an SQL developer.
Back-end developers will find JavaScript, PHP, Python, C#, Ruby and
Python handy, while front-end developers should be okay with JavaScript.
If you plan to delve into game development, focus on C# and C++. Mobile
app developers should emphasize Java, Swift and C#. Programmers who
are interested in building desktop applications should focus on Python, C++
and Java.
Remember that this is one of the most dynamic industries. Therefore,
expect new releases and updates from time to time. It is difficult to advise
anyone which programming language is best because choices depend on
needs assessment.
 Chapter 2: Getting Started With Coding

Preparing Your Vision

Think about why you wanted to learn to code in the first place. For a lot of

people, it is because they want to make something that just doesn’t exist

yet. Others may want to do it because they know software developers are

high-paying jobs and happen to be high in demand by tech and non-tech

companies alike. Identify what drives you and then start looking for sources

of inspiration that encourage you to stay focused on your goals. For a coder,

an inspiration would be something like working for Apple or building the

next competitor of Twitter. Identifying your vision is necessary in steering

you towards the right tools. Like if you want to get involved with artificial

intelligence and tinker with robots, Python is a functional starting language

and has a lot of flexibility. If you're going to build the next Candy Crush
addiction, you will need to focus on mobile apps and learn Swift,

Objective-C, Kotlin and Java.

Preparing Your Program Structure

Building algorithms and flowcharts is essential. It is not an absolute
requirement of course and you may be able to get away with making a
quick piece of software without spending so much time on the planning
phase but for the sake of efficiency and not wasting so much time taking
multiple trips back to the drawing board, you should come up with a solid
structure of your program. Rushing directly to the code editor without a
plan would be like trying to build a house without a blueprint. Algorithms
and flowcharts do not have to be a single night affair; you should take the
time to study them and identify potential pain points or areas that may cause
conflict. Depending on the size of your vision, a single mind may not be
enough to run through all sorts of case scenarios. Let other people or
perhaps friends take a look at your flowchart and algorithm so you can get
their user perspectives. If you don’t feel like the structure lacks polish, don’t
rush things because realizing there is a problem during the coding phase can
cause a world of issues.

Preparing Your Hardware

The really cool thing about coding is the hard fact that you don’t need a
fancy computer to get started. Even an ancient Windows XP laptop can be
capable of coding as long as you install the right software. Of course, your
mileage will be significantly reduced with low-end hardware so I’m going
to recommend something a bit more middle ground while keeping things
budget-friendly. Coding is not by any means a huge investment! Your
choice of hardware depends on where you will spend time coding for the
most part.
If You Are A Home And/Or Office Dweller
Desktop computers remain as the best bang-for-the-buck coding
workstations and it’s pretty easy to explain why. Mobile components and
chipsets tend to be more expensive and today’s powerful laptops are very
thin with sophisticated engineering. They also have parts that you don’t find
in desktops like trackpads, keyboards and batteries. Performance absolutely
matters when you are compiling a program, using an interpreter or
debugger, running a complicated program.
So what’s the best processor to choose? Or more specifically, what’s the
best combination of desktop specs to consider? The answer is
straightforward when it comes to coding and you don’t even have to worry
about the brand. For the CPU choice, the more cores, the better. The higher
the clock speed (in GHz), the better. If you are stuck picking between Intel
and AMD, go with the one with the lower price. If you have Windows 10,
you should at least have 8 GB of RAM or else coding might not be so fun
since Windows 10 tends to eat a significant chunk of your RAM with
nothing running and you will probably need a browser tab or two open
followed by whatever IDE or source-code editor you plan on using. More
RAM means your system is less likely to bog down when you have lots of
applications running at the same time.
The next key component of a coding workstation is the monitor. A modern
computer screen has a screen resolution of 1366×768. You can see what
that looks like below at 100% scaling.
It doesn’t look too bad. With a font size of 11, you can see about 27 lines of
code on a maximized screen and there is a little bit of space for a sidebar or
side panel which you can find in many IDEs and coding environments.
EmEditor is more on the source code editing side and is suitable for
beginners but when you factor in things like testing code, you are going to
wish you had a little bit more screen real estate. Having a Full HD display
or 1920×1080 resolution is a significant upgrade and pretty inexpensive
thanks to the advent of 4K displays. But could you go beyond 1080p?
Would 4K be a wise choice? If you are a beginner, 4K is a waste unless you
plan on using font scaling which will make the characters a whole lot
smoother. The real winner is to use multiple displays.

A pair of 1080p displays will make a world of difference even if you are a
beginner programmer. It is much better than those ultrawide displays that
spreadsheet fanatics love. You do not need an ultrawide display since
coders generally need more vertical screen real estate. But with a two
displays and set in “extended desktop” mode, you can have a full screen
dedicated to your coding environment and another screen for another
coding environment if you like doing multiple projects or managing
different codes or you can open up your browser for research or your
flowchart or anything you just want to drag there at your leisure.
Next up is the keyboard and this is going to surprise you if you’ve been
stuck with the same $10-$20 keyboard for the past several years. You might
even be pretty comfortable mashing away at 60-70 words per minute and
not thinking about “fixing what isn’t broken”. Try a mechanical keyboard
as soon as you have the budget.

If You Are A Road Warrior

Picking a laptop geared towards coding is going to be a little bit more
complicated since virtually all laptops come with each of their own
compromises. It’s really going to boil down to preference and what
strengths of a computer you really need and even then you might still have
a lot of laptops to choose from. But with this, should be able to narrow
down your selection to the point that all the remaining candidates are
winners. Prepare your checklist!
You obviously want to address the portability first as that should be the
reason why you want to consider a laptop in the first place. A heavier laptop
often means heavy-duty while a lighter laptop means more travel-friendly at
the expense of flexibility in terms of handling coding and programming
apps.
No matter what type of laptop you are going to get, having 8 GB worth of
RAM along with an SSD and a 1080p display should be the three core
essentials to consider. If you are really on a shoestring budget, the 1080p
display should be your minimum. Then make sure you can upgrade your
RAM and storage as there are several budget thin and light laptops that
have soldered parts and are therefore non-upgradable.

Preparing Your Software

Flowcharting Software
Drawing a flowchart is easy but if you want to present a pretty complicated
program flow in the cleanest way possible or just want to sort out your
thoughts and algorithm in a friendly way, you should use a flowcharting
software. If you have an active Internet connection, then I have some good
news; you don’t have to install any flowcharting software at all! Just head
to http://www.draw.io and you can immediately get started with illustrating.
Draw.io has a gridded interface and is pretty easy to learn as the
flowcharting shapes are readily available on the sidebar. Connecting the
shapes with arrows is pretty straightforward. You can save your work on
Google Drive, OneDrive, Dropbox and a few code repositories or you can
save it right on your computer. There is even an “Offline” option so you can
switch off your Internet without fear of the web-based app interrupting your
workflow.

Web Development Tools

C++ is a great programming language to play around with for
understanding the basics of coding but if you want to go hands-on the
fastest way possible, give HTML a shot because there is a useful and free
(with ads) sandbox for placing HTML codes called
https://htmlcodeeditor.com . The user interface isn’t exquisite but it has a
live preview so you can play around with the different codes and see the
end result in real-time. You don’t have to wait for anything to compile even
though you are restricted to pure classic HTML code. CSS support is only
available in the paid version.
If you want a free solution you can install to your Windows computer, give
openElement a try. This Chromium-powered Web authoring tool has been
around for several years and it is ready for the modern Web development
world with support for HTML5 and CSS3. It even comes with a local server
so you can test PHP scripts.

Source Code Editors

Whether you are going to take the nomadic route and do some pure raw
coding or you are going to try out fancy IDEs, it always helps to have at
least one source code editor installed in your computer. Source code editors
are generally not heavy apps by any stretch and beginners have no reason to
go for any paid software over the free ones. Just install Notepad++ and
you’ll see exactly what I mean. In addition to full HTML support for syntax
highlighting, Notepad++ supports more than a dozen other programming
languages. For a more elegant but still free alternative, you should try
Sublime Text and it has Mac and Linux versions too in addition to
Windows. The dark-themed interface should blend well with your dark
mode themes and it has a highly customizable user interface.

IDEs
Once you are ready to move on beyond HTML, Python should be your next
stop as it is one of the most accessible modern programming languages to
learn. To quickly get started, consider trying PyCharm which is an IDE that
even the pros use. The smart assistance feature helps with the debugging
while the extensive documentation can walk you through the different
features so you can run and test web apps. JavaScript, TypeScript,
CoffeeScript, HTML, CSS and other technologies are supported by this
IDE. If you want to expand beyond HTML and CSS and dive into
JavaScript, Java and PHP, install Apache NetBeans IDE. Google even has
its own IDE called Android Studio serving as the primary IDE for
developing Android mobile apps with Kotlin as the primary language.
 Chapter 3: Functions

Remember how we asked Merlin to store a set of commands in a file and

later referenced that file whenever we wanted to repeat the same exact

commands?

Well, we basically used what we’ll call from now on, “functions”. A
function is effectively a block of statements that takes in inputs from other
parts in the program, processes (or doesn’t, in some cases) these inputs, and
gives results.
So, an entire program can contain multiple functions and these functions
can be invoked multiple times depending on what use we have for them.
Why do we need functions though?
Well, primarily because we will need them sometimes. We will be dealing
with really complex problems where we will end up using functions in
order to write reusable code. Sometimes, problems are so big that we have
to break our approach to solving them into steps and we can model each
such step using a function. It is a very effective way of organizing both
code and our thoughts.
Quick question - what function have you already seen in C++? The main
function! It is a particular type of function that defines all the code that will
run.
Let’s see how we can define a function and run a function in C++:
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int sum(int a, int b) {
int returnSum = a + b;
return returnSum;
}
int main() {
int numOne = 10;
int numTwo = 20;
int sumValue = sum(numOne, numTwo);
//sumValue will have the value 30
cout << sumValue;
}
The above program creates and uses a function called sum, to compute the
amount of two numbers and return the result. Usually, you wouldn’t make
functions for
such trivial applications but we’re looking at the above program to learn
about functions.
Let’s look at the function call first -
int sumValue = sum(numOne, numTwo);
The above statement calls the function by passing in the variables numOne
and numTwo to be processed by the sum function (definition is mentioned
above the main function) and the result of the computation done by the
function is then assigned to the variable sumValue.
Let’s look at the function definition:
int sum(int a, int b) {
int returnSum = a + b;
return returnSum;
}
The variables in the parentheses (a and b) specify the datatype and labels
for the variables that will be sent to the function. Once returnSum is
computed, we use the “return” keyword to specify that we want this value
to be sent to back to wherever the function is being called once the
necessary computation/processing/work is done. Note that the variables a
and b hold the values that are sent to the function. Also, the reason the value
of the variable
returnSum will be accessible outside the function is that its value is being
sent out of the function. If you created any other variable for any other
purposes inside the function it wouldn’t be accessible outside the function.
In other words, it’s “scope” is limited to the function in which it is defined.
The function itself has a datatype. This data type specifies the data type of
the value being returned. So, if your function returns a string its value is
eventually being stored in a variable with a double datatype, C++ would
raise an error. It would first try to make sense of your mistake and try to
convert the string to a double but because such a conversion is not possible,
it would then raise an error.
Let’s look at another example of a function -
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
void functionExample() {
cout << "This function does nothing!" << endl;
}
int main() {
functionExample();
}
In the above function, we’ve defined a function called functionExample.
Pay attention to the syntax. The function’s data type is “void” which is a
keyword that indicates that the function does not return a result to from
where it was called.
The statements within the curly braces following the function name specify
what the function does. In order to utilize the function, you will have to use
it in other functions by specifying its name and passing variables. For
example, in the above program, the function is called from the primary
function by the command
“functionExample();”.
Pass By Value and Pass By Reference:
Remember how we passed variables to our functions? That’s a widespread
thing to do in any language that you will come across. However, C++ has a
unique feature when it comes to this particular process.
Let’s look at what this is through an example -
#include<iostream>
#include<string>
using namespace std;
void addTwo(int input) {
input = input + 2;
}
int main() {
int a = 10;
addTwo(a);
cout << a << endl;
}
The program above adds 2 to whatever the input value is. One would
usually expect that the output of the program would be a 12. But, it is
actually a 10. This is because even though the value 10 and the variable a is
passed to the function addTwo, it’s value is copied to the input variable in
addTwo. As a result, C++
treats the variables a and input as two separate entities even though they
share the same value. The variable input effectively copies the value of the
variable a.
Pass By Reference:
In order to modify this behavior, we’ll make use of the ampersand operator
(&) just before mentioning the label for the inputVariable. This would make
C++ look
at the inputVariable’s label as an alias for the variable that’s being passed in.
Any modifications made to this “alias” would now also affect the variable
whose value was passed in. This way of passing a variable to a function is
termed as passing by reference. Let’s modify the function we just worked
with -
#include<iostream>
#include<string>
using namespace std;
void addTwo(int& input) {
input = input + 2;
}
int main() {
int a = 10;
addTwo(a);
cout << a << endl;
}
The output would be 12.

Example - Write a program that reverses any string that the user provides.
#include<iostream>
#include<string>
using namespace std;
string reverseString(string input) {
string reverse = "";
for (int counter = input.size() - 1;counter >= 0;counter--) {
reverse = reverse + input[counter];
}
return reverse;
}
int main() {
string str;
cout << "Enter a string: ";
cin >> str;
string reversedString = reverseString(str);
cout << "Reversed String: "<<reversedString<<endl; cout << "Original
String: " << str << endl;
}
Example Output:
Enter a string: Library
Reversed String: yrarbiL
Original String: Library
Press any key to continue . . .
The above program takes in a string and passes it to the reverseString
function which traverses the string from the last letter and adds it to an
empty string until it reaches the index 0. The function then returns this
newly formed string. Since we are passing by value the value of the original
string (str) does not change.

Example- Check if a given string is a palindrome. Assume that every string

that is sent in as input is always in lowercase. (Hint - a palindrome when
reversed still matches the original string)
#include<iostream>
#include<string>
using namespace std; string reverseString(string input) {
string reverse = "";
for (int counter = input.size() - 1;counter >= 0;counter--) {
reverse = reverse + input[counter];
}
return reverse;
}
bool isPalindrome(string input) {
string reverse = reverseString(input);
if (reverse == input) {
return true;
}
else {
return false;
}
}
int main() {
string str;
cout << "Enter a string: ";
cin >> str;
string reversedString = reverseString(str);
cout << "Reversed String: "<<reversedString<<endl; cout << "Original
String: " << str << endl; if (isPalindrome(str)) {
cout << "The string you entered is a palindrome." << endl;
}
else {
cout << "The string you entered is not a palindrome" << endl;
}
}
In the above program, the isPalindrome function calls the reverse function
and uses the reverse of the input string to determine whether the string is a
palindrome or not. Notice how the function call (isPalindrome()) has been
used in an if-else block as it returns a bool value. This program can be
simplified and written better but it has been written in this way to show how
it can be built from the former program by just adding another function.
Example Outputs -
1)
Enter a string: madam
Reversed String: madam
Original String: madam
The string you entered is a palindrome.
Press any key to continue . . .
2)
Enter a string: palindrome
Reversed String: emordnilap
Original String: palindrome
The string you entered is not a palindrome
Press any key to continue . . .
 Chapter 4: Containers

Containers are precisely what their name conveys. They hold data in forms

that are easily accessible for us. We will look at arrays and vectors.

Arrays:
Arrays are containers that hold data of a particular data type and are fixed in
size. That is, once you initialize an array with a specific size you can’t
increase its size unless you create another variety of a larger size and copy
over all the elements. Arrays also hold data in a linear sequence and
preserve “order”. Once data is put inside an array, it stays in the exact place
you put it in unless you make changes to the variety.
Arrays are also not for beginner coders but when used properly, you can
make far more efficient programs. If you find yourself making too many
variables to store similar data, you can simplify things by creating an array
that can store these values in their own dedicated cells. Think about the way
apartments and condos work. Each room doesn’t have its private mailbox.
Instead, there is a dedicated room in the apartment containing a large
mailbox with individual compartments each with their own locks to
represent each room.
Let’s learn how to create an array through an example:
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int arrayOfNumbers[5] = { 10,23,45,67,12 };
}
The above example shows how to create an array. The array is defined by
the label “arrayOfNumbers”. The number within the square braces - 5 in
this case establishes the number of elements the array holds. The “int”
specifies that the array will contain only integers. This datatype can be
changed depending on what type of array you want to create. Finally, the
numbers within the curly braces represent the data that the array holds.
When you initialize an array with its values, you specify the values between
the curly braces.
To access a number, say 23, within the array, we do so by specifying an
“index”
as follows -
cout<<arrayOfNumbers[1];
The above statement will print the number 23 on to the screen. Now you
may notice I used the number 1 as my index and not 2. That’s because C++
follows zero-based numbering where the first number in a collection starts
at the index 0. So, in order to access the first number in arrayOfNumbers,
you would use the 0 index like -
cout<<arrayOfNumbers[0];
Instead of initializing the array at the very moment you declare it, you can
create it and later assign individual values to each position by indexing it.
By the same logic, you can modify the values in the array as well.
So, you can do things like -
arrayOfNumbers[1] = arrayOfNumbers[1] + arrayOfNumbers[2] - 5; Now,
arrayOfNumbers[1] would equal 63.
Everything looks fine and dandy until now doesn’t it? Well, what would
you do if your array had 200 elements and you had to go through each
component and add 5 to it? You can’t do something like arrayOfNumbers +
5, because arrayOfNumbers is a “container” that holds numbers. It points to
a memory space in your computer that contains the numbers in the array.
So, adding 5 to arrayOfNumbers doesn’t make sense and will actually
throw an error.
 Chapter 5: Strings

String refers to the group of words which can be of meaningful or without

meaning. String basically used to represent text and characters in

programming language. It always carry multiple characters to named as

string. In other words strings are array but of character datatype. An array

of character is called string. Strings are one dimensional array of character

which areASCII terminated by null character represented by ‘\0’. A-Z = 65-

90 a- z = 97-122 0-9 = 48-57

Example: Physical representation of

string of size 6 which conations string “Hello” in computer memory.
Address in computer memory
600 601 602 603 604 605 H e l l o \0 A[0] A[1] A[2] A[3] A[4] A[5]
Name of array
Function of Strings
There are basically four functions in String
1. Strlen()
2. Strcpy()
3. Strcat()
4. Strcmp()
strlen() :
This function is used to find the length of a String.
For example :-
Char str[5] = {“Hello”};
int l ;
l = Strlen(str);
strcpy() : This function is used to copy String from one string variable to
another string variable.
For ex :-
Char str[5] = {“Hello”} , str2[6] = {“World”} ; //Strcpy(destination ,
source);
Strcpy(str , str2);
strcat() :
This function is used to concat two string or to join two strings variable .
For ex :-
Char str[5] = {“Hello”} , str2[6] = {“World”} ; //Strcat(destination ,
source);
Strcpy(str , str2);
strcmp() :
This function is used to compare two string or to join two string variable.
For ex :-
Char str[5] = {“Hello”} , str2[6] = {“World”} ; //if (Strcmp (str , str2)==0)
Then both string variable are same
//if (Strcmp (str,str2)>0)
Then str is greater
//if (Strcmp (str,str2)<0)
Then str2 is greater
Chapter Programs
1. A Program to read and display string without any space
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char str [30];
clrcsr ();
printf (“\n Enter String : “);
scanf (“%s”,str);
printf (“\n You typed = %s “,str); getch();
}
2 .A program to read and display string with space
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char str [30];
clrcsr ();
printf (“\n Enter String : “); gets(str);
printf (“\n You typed = %s “,str); getch();
}
3. A program to find the length of the String
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char str [30] , l;
clrcsr ();
printf (“\n Enter String : “);
gets(str);
l = Strlen(str);
printf(“\n Length of String %s is %d “, str ,l );
getch();
}
4. A program to read two string variables and concat or join them
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char str [30] , str1[30] ;
clrcsr ();
printf (“\n Enter 1st String : “); scanf (“%s”,str);
printf (“\n Enter 2nd String : “); scanf(“%d”,str1);
strcat( str , str1);
Printf(“\n Result after concatenation : %s “,str);
getch();
}

5. A program to copy a word from one string variable to another variable

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char str [30] , str1[30] ;
clrcsr ();
printf (“\n Enter 1st String : “);
scanf (“%s”,str);
printf(“\n Enter 2nd String : “);
scanf(“%d”,str1);
strcpy( str , str1);
Printf(“\n Result after copying : %s “,str); getch();
}
6. A program to check which string variable is greater
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char str [30] , str1[30] ;
clrcsr();
printf (“\n Enter 1st String : “); scanf (“%s”,str);
printf(“\n Enter 2nd String : “); scanf(“%d”,str1);
if(strcmp (str , str1)>0)
{
printf(“\n %s is greater “,str); else
{
printf(“\n %s is greater “,str1); }
getch();
7. A program to count the number of alphabet ‘a’ in a sentence
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char str [30] ;
int count=0 , l , i ;
clrcsr ();
printf (“\n Write a sentence : “); scanf (“%s”,str);
l = strlen(str);
for(i=0 ; i<l ; i++)
{
If( str[i] == ‘a’)
printf(“\n Number of ‘a’ character in a sentence is : %d “,count);
getch();
}

8. A program to count the number of vowels in a sentence

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
char str [30] ;
int count=0 , l , i ;
clrcsr ();
printf (“\n Write a sentence : “);
scanf (“%s”,str);
l = strlen(str);
for(i=0 ; i<l ; i++)
{
If( str[i] == ‘a’ || str[i] == ‘e’ str[i] == ‘i’ || str[i] == ‘o’ || str[i] == ‘u’)
printf(“\n Number of vowels in a sentence is : %d “,count);
getch();
}

9. A program to count the number of consonant in a sentence

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
char str [30] ;
int count=0 , l , i ;
clrcsr ();
printf (“\n Write a sentence : “);
scanf (“%s”,str);
l = strlen(str);
for(i=0 ; i<l ; i++)
{
If( str[i] != ‘a’ || str[i] != ‘e’ str[i] != ‘i’ || str[i] !=‘o’ || str[i] != ‘u’)
printf(“\n Number of consonant in a sentence is : %d “,count);
getch();
}
10. A program to reverse a string
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char str [30];
clrcsr ();
printf (“\n Enter String : “);
scanf (“%s”,str);
strrev(str);
printf (“\n Reverse string = %s “,str); getch();
}
11. A program to change the string in both upper and lower case
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char str [30] , str1[30];
clrcsr();
printf (“\n String in lower case : “); gets(str);
printf (“\n String in upper case : “); gets(str1);
strupr(str);
strlwr(str1);
printf(“\n Lower to upper case %s”,str); printf(“\n Upper to lower case
%s”,str1); getch() ;
}
12. A program to compare two string variables without case comparing
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char str [30] , str1[30];
clrcsr();
printf (“\n Enter 1st word : “);
gets(str);
printf (“\n Enter 2nd word : “); gets(str1);
if( strcmpi (str , str1)==0) {
printf(“\n Same “);
}
Else
{
printf(“\n Not Same “);
}
getch();
 Chapter 6: Loops

Loops are a way for us to execute a set of statements multiple times. We

can specify the number of times we want to accomplish these statements or

we can also specify conditions which when are or are not satisfied with the

execution of this set of statements stop.

There are three types of loops we’re going to look at - for, while, do while
Let’s look at the for loop first -
The for loop is mostly used for executing a set of statements a set number
of times. It’s also used to iterate through extensive collections and do
something to each element.
Let’s look at an example and then see what for loop is all about.
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
cout << "hello" << endl;
}
}
The output is -
hello
hello
hello
hello
hello
hello
hello
hello
hello
hello
Press any key to continue . . .
The program above basically printed hello ten times. Basically, the for loop
that we just defined ran the statement below it 10 times and so “hello” was
published ten times.
But why correctly did it run 10 times?
We’ll know once we understand the structure of the for loop.
The for loop consists of three parts - initialization, logical comparison, and
the increment or decrement statement.
Initialization (int i=0):
In the for loop, the variable i is initialized to the value 0. The variable i
works as a counter and at the start of the circle, before any statements are
executed, the amount of this variable is 0. That is what initialization means.
Also, notice how I didn’t have to define the variable outside the loop and
then equate it to 0 within the loop (although I can do that as well). The fact
that I declared it within the loop means that the variable i will not be
accessible outside the loop. However, if I declared it outside the loop and
assigned to it an initial value inside the loop, I would still be able to access
the variable outside the loop.
Logical Comparison (i<10):
The logical comparison defines the condition that needs to be satisfied for
the loop to keep executing the statements inside it. This condition is
checked every single time the loop is run including the very first iteration.
In our example, we check if the variable i is less than 10. If that is true the
loop runs, otherwise, the loop is broken.
Increment (or Decrement) (i++):
Every time the loop finishes running, the increment or decrement part is
executed. In our example, the value of i increases after every iteration of the
loop. But this is also within our control. We could depending on our
purposes, decrement the variable we defined or increase it by multiplying it
by itself, etc.
How it all works together:
The loop counter is initialized, the condition is checked and if the condition
holds, the statement(s) below is/are executed. Then the increment or
decrement part is reached and the logical comparison part is rerun. If the
condition holds, the loop runs again, if not, it breaks.

The for loop can be used in different ways apart from just as a tool to do
something multiple times. We can use it to access elements in our array.
Here’s how we can do that -
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
const int arraySize = 10;
int arrayValues[arraySize] = { 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10 }; for (int counter = 0;
counter < arraySize; counter++) {
cout << arrayValues[counter] << endl;
}
}
In the code above, we’ve first declared the arraySize as 10 and as a
constant.
And then we’ve initialized our array with the numbers from 1-10. Now,
instead of individually accessing each element separately, we’ve used a for
loop to do the work for us.
Since the variable counter initially equals 0 and it grows one step at a time
and stops at 9, we can use counter’s value to index the array’s elements at
each position.
So, the output would look something like this -
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Press any key to continue . . .

We can also modify the array’s value depending on certain conditions.

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
const int arraySize = 10;
int arrayValues[arraySize] = { 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10 }; for (int counter = 0;
counter < arraySize; counter++) {
if (counter > 5) {
arrayValues[counter] = arrayValues[counter] * 2;
}
cout << arrayValues[counter] << endl;
}
}
In the above program, we’ve basically written the code such that it would
double an array element’s value if it’s index is greater than 5. The output is
as follows -
1
2
3
4
5
6
14
16
18
20
Press any key to continue . . .

Another way to loop is with while loops. Let’s explore with an example:
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int arrayValues[5] = { 5,6,7,8,9 };
int counter = 0;
while (counter < 5) {
cout << arrayValues[counter] << endl; counter++;
}
}
The while loop executes the statements inside it 5 times in the example. The
counter variable is initialized outside the loop and is incremented once all
the statements in the loop are specified. If you forget to update the counter,
the while loop will run forever!
A slight modification of the while loop above is the do-while loop. The do
while loop is exactly like the while loop, except that it runs the statements
inside at least once, irrespective of the condition.
Let’s look at an example based off of the while loops -
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int arrayValues[5] = { 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 }; int counter = 0;
do {
cout << arrayValues[counter] << endl; counter++;
} while (counter < 5);
}

In the above program, the statements within the “do” block are run at least
once irrespective of the comparison being made. Subsequent iterations are
however made on whether the condition is met.

Now that we know quite a bit about loops, let’s move back to arrays.
Remember how I said that arrays in C++ are fixed in size? Well, that can’t
be changed. However, C++ has a built-in container called a vector. A vector
is built on top of an array and doesn’t have a fixed size. It can be added to
as long as you want to.
To use vectors, you have to include the vector library.
As always, let’s learn through an example --

#include<iostream>
#include<vector>
using namespace std;
int main() {
vector< int> vec = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 }; cout << vec[0] << endl;
vec.push_back(7);
cout << vec[vec.size() - 1] << endl;
}

So, you can see that we’re using the vector library. And we’re initializing
the vector “vec” just like we initialized an array. However, there are a
couple of differences. The first one is that we’re specifying the data type of
the vector within angular brackets after the keyword “vector”. This data
type basically defines the datatype of all the elements within the vector.
Notice how indexing with vectors is just like indexing with arrays.
“vec.push_back(7)” adds the number 7 to vector. So, the vector now
contains 1,2,3,4,5,6,7. The “.push_back(7)” notation may be new to you. It
basically makes use of the “push_back” method to add a value to the vector.
The “.” basically specifies that this method applies to the vector you
created. We’ll look at methods in detail when we talk about Object Oriented
Programming.

Just as you added integers to the vector, you can also “pop” integers from
the end of the vector. For that you will use the pop_back method -
vec.pop_back().
Doing so will remove the last element from the array.
Here is a list of some commonly used vector methods: Method
Purpose
push_back(<value>)
Add’s <value> to the end of the vector
pop_back()
Remove the last element from the
vector
insert(<position>,<value>)
Adds <value> to the vector at the
index specified by <index>
clear()
Clears the entire vector

Alright, now let’s look at a comprehensive example.

Example - Create a vector containing the scores of all students in a class
(the number of students and the scores will be provided by the user).
Calculate the sum of all the scores, and the average score of the class.
#include<iostream>
#include<vector>
using namespace std;
int main() {
vector<double> scores;
int numStudents;
cout << "How many students are in your class?"; cin >> numStudents;
cout << endl << endl;
for (int counter = 1;counter <= numStudents;counter++) {
cout << "Enter the score for student #" << counter << " : ";
double scoreValue;
cin >> scoreValue;
scores.push_back(scoreValue);
}
double classScoreSum = 0;
for (int counter = 0;counter < scores.size();counter++) {
classScoreSum += scores[counter];
}
double average = classScoreSum / numStudents;
cout << endl << "Sum of all the scores - " << classScoreSum << endl; cout
<< "Class Average - " << average << endl;
}

Sample Output:
How many students are in your class? 5
Enter the score for student #1 : 75
Enter the score for student #2 : 70
Enter the score for student #3 : 80
Enter the score for student #4 : 92.75
Enter the score for student #5 : 93.50

Sum of all the scores - 411.25

Class Average - 82.25
Press any key to continue . . .

The first for loop takes in the score for each student and puts the score in a
vector. This vector is later accessed and all the scores are added to compute
the net score of the class. The average is then calculated by dividing this
sum by the number of students in the class.

Example - Build a calculator program that calculates the sum, the product,
and the difference between the two numbers and keep doing this until the
user enters the string ‘STOP’. This program has to run at least once.

#include<iostream>
#include<vector>
#include<string>
using namespace std; int main() {
string stopString;
do {
cout << "Enter the first number: "; double firstNumber;
cin >> firstNumber;
cout << endl << "Enter the second number: "; double secondNumber;
cin >> secondNumber;
cout << endl << "Sum: " << firstNumber + secondNumber << endl; cout <<
"Product: " << firstNumber*secondNumber << endl; cout << "Difference: "
<< firstNumber - secondNumber << endl; cout << "Enter STOP if you want
to stop otherwise enter any other string";
cin >> stopString;
} while (stopString != "STOP");
}
Here’s a sample output -
Enter the first number: 1
Enter the second number: 2
Sum: 3
Product: 2
Difference: -1
Enter STOP if you want to stop otherwise enter any other string continue
Enter the first number: 5
Enter the second number: 7
Sum: 12
Product: 35
Difference: -2
Enter STOP if you want to stop otherwise enter any other stringSTOP
Press any key to continue . . .
 Chapter 7: Modules

In Python, a module is a portion of a program (an extension file) that can

be invoked through other programs without having to write them in every

program used.

Besides, they can define classes and variables.

These modules contain related sentences between them and can be used at
any time.
The use of the modules is based on using a code (program body, functions,
variables) already stored on it called import.
With the use of the modules, it can be observed that Python allows
simplifying the programs a lot because it will enable us to simplify the
problems into a smaller one to make the code shorter so that programmers
do not get lost when looking for something in hundreds of coding lines
when making codes.

How to Create a Module?

To create a module in Python, we don't need a lot; it's straightforward.
For example: if you want to create a module that prints a city, we write our
code in the editor and save it as "mycity.py".
Once this is done, we will know that this will be the name of our module
(omitting the .py sentence), which will be assigned to the global variable
__city__.
This is a straightforward code designed for users of Python 2.
The print function is not in parentheses, so that's the way this Python
version handles that function.
But, beyond that, we can see that the file "mycity.py" is pretty simple and
not complicated at all, since the only thing inside is a function called
"print_city" which will have a string as a parameter, and what it will do is to
print "Hello, welcome to", and this will concatenate with the string that was
entered as a parameter.

Import Statement
This statement is used to import a module.
Through any Python code file, its process is as follows:
The Python interpreter searches the file system for the
current directory where it is executed.
Then, the interpreter searches for its predefined paths in its
configuration.
When it meets the first match (the name of the module), the
interpreter automatically executes it from start to finish.

When importing a module for the first time, Python will generate a
compiled .pyc extension file.
This extension file will be used in the following imports of this module.
When the interpreter detects that the module has already been modified
since the last time it was generated, it will create a new module.
Example:
This will print:
You must save the imported file in the same directory where Python is using
the import statement so that Python can find it.
As we could see in our example, importing a module allows us to improve
the functionalities of our program through external files.
Now, let's see some examples. The first one is a calculator where will create
a module that performs all the mathematical functions and another program
that runs the calculator itself.
The first thing we do is the module "calculator.py" that is responsible for
doing all the necessary operations.
Among them are the addition, subtraction, division, and multiplication, as
you can see.
We included the use of conditional statements such as if, else, and elif.
We also included the use of exceptions so that the program will not get
stuck every time the user enters an erroneous value at the numbers of the
calculator for the division.
After that, we will create a program that will have to import the module to
so that it manages to do all the pertinent mathematical functions.
At this time, you might be thinking that the only existing modules are the
ones that the programmer creates.
The answer is no since Python has modules that come integrated to it.
With them, we will make two more programs: the first one is an
improvement of the one that we have just done, and the second one will be
an alarm that will print on screen a string periodically.
First example:
The first thing that was done was to create the module, but at first sight, we
have a surprise, which is that math was imported.
What does that mean to us?
Well, that we are acquiring the properties of the math module that comes by
default in Python.
We see that the calculator function is created that has several options.
If the op value is equal to 1, the addition operation is made.
If it is equal to 2, the subtraction operation is made, and so on.
But so new is from op is equal to 5 because, if this is affirmative, then it
will return the value of the square root of the values num1 and num2
through the use of math.sqrt(num1), which returns the result of the root.
Then, if op is equal to 6, using functions "math.radians()" which means that
num1 or num2 will become radians since that is the type of value accepted
by the functions "math.sin()", meaning that the value of the sin of num1 and
num2 will return to us, which will be numbers entered by users arbitrarily
who will become radians and then the value of the corresponding sin.
The final thing will be to create the main program, as it can be seen next:
Here, we can see the simple program, since it only imports the module
"calculator.py", then the variables num1 and num2 are assigned the value
by using an input.
Finally, an operation to do is chosen and to finish is called the calculator
function of the calculator module to which we will pass three parameters.
Second example:
We are going to create a module, which has within itself a function that acts
as a chronometer in such a way that it returns true in case time ends.
In this module, as you can see, another module is imported, which is called
as "time", and as its name refers, functions to operate with times, and has a
wide range of functions, from returning dates and times to help to create
chronometers, among others.
First, create the cron() function, which starts declaring that the start Alarm
variables will be equal to time.time, which means that we are giving an
initial value to this function o know the exact moment in which the function
was initialized to then enter into an infinite cycle.
Since the restriction is always True, therefore, this cycle will never end,
unless the break command is inside it.
Then, within the while cycle, there are several instructions.
The first is that the final variable is equal to time.time() to take into account
the specific moment we are located and, therefore to monitor time.
After that, another variable is created called times, and this acquires the
value of the final minus start Alarm.
But you will be wondering what the round function does.
It rounds up the values; we do that to work easier.
But this is not enough, therefore, we use an if since, if the subtraction
between the end and the beginning is greater or equal to 60, then one
minute was completed, and what happens to this?
Why 60?
This is because the time module works with a second and for a minute to
elapse, 60 seconds have to be elapsed, therefore, the subtraction between
the end and the beginning has to be greater than or equal to 60, in the
affirmative case, True will be returned and finally, we will get out of the
infinite cycle.
Once the alarm module is finished, we proceed to make the program, as we
can see below:
We can see that the program imports two modules, the one we have created,
the alarm and the time module.
The first thing we do is to create the variable s as an input which tells the
user if he wants to start.
If the answer is affirmative, then the variable h representing the time will be
equal to "time.strftime ("%H:%M:%S")", which means that we are using a
function of the time module that returns the hour to use in the specified
format so that it can then be printed using the print function.
The next action is to use the alarm module using the command
alarm.cron(), which means that the cron() function is being called.
When this function is finished, the time will be assigned to the variable h,
again, to end printing it and being able to observe its correct operation.
We can say that the modules are fundamental for the proper performance of
the programmer since they allow to make the code more legible, in
addition, that it enables subdividing the problems to attack them from one
to one and thus to carry out the tasks efficiently.

Locate a Module
When importing a module, the interpreter automatically searches the same
module for its current address, if this is not available, Python (or its
interpreter) will perform a search on the PYTHONPATH environment
variable that is nothing more than a list containing directory names with the
same syntax as the environment variable.
If, in any particular case, these previous actions failed, Python would look
for a default UNIX path (located in /user/local/lib/python on Windows).
The modules are searched in the directory list given by the variable
sys.path.
This variable contains the current directory, the PYTHONPATH directory,
and the entire directory that comes by default in the installation.

Syntax of PYTHONPATH
A PYTHONPATH syntax made in windows looks like this:
Unlike a PYTHONPATH syntax made in UNIX
 Chapter 8: Files

Programs are made with input and output in mind.

You input data to the program, the program processes the input, and it
ultimately provides you with output.
For example, a calculator will take in numbers and operations you want.
It will then process the operation you wanted.
And then, it will display the result to you as its output.
There are multiple ways for a program to receive input and to produce
output.
One of those ways is to read and write data on files.
To start learning how to work with files, you need to learn the open()
function.
The open() function has one required parameter and two optional
parameters.
The first and required parameter is the file name.
The second parameter is the access mode.
And the third parameter is buffering or buffer size.
The filename parameter requires string data.
The access mode requires string data, but there is a set of string values that
you can use and is defaulted to "r".
The buffer size parameter requires an integer and is defaulted to 0.
To practice using the open() function, create a file with the name
sampleFile.txt inside your Python directory.
Try this sample code:
>>> file1 = open("sampleFile.txt")
>>> _
Note that the file function returns a file object.
The statement in the example assigns the file object to variable file1.
The file object has multiple attributes, and three of them are:
name: This contains the name of the file.
mode: This includes the access mode you used to access the
file.
closed: This returns False if the file has been opened and
True if the file is closed. When you use the open() function,
the file is set to open.

Now, access those attributes.

>>> file1 = open("sampleFile.txt")
>>> file1.name
'sampleFile.txt'
>>> file1.mode
'r'
>>> file1.closed
False
>>> _
Whenever you are finished with a file, close them using the close() method.
>>> file1 = open("sampleFile.txt")
>>> file1.closed
False
>>> file1.close()
>>> file1.closed
True
>>> _
Remember that closing the file does not delete the variable or object.
To reopen the file, just open and reassign the file object.
For example:
>>> file1 = open("sampleFile.txt")
>>> file1.close()
>>> file1 = open(file1.name)
>>> file1.closed
False
>>> _

Reading from a File

Before proceeding, open the sampleFile.txt in your text editor.
Type "Hello World" in it and save.
Go back to Python.
To read the contents of the file, use the read() method.
For example:
>>> file1 = open("sampleFile.txt")
>>> file1.read()
'Hello World'
>>> _
File Pointer
Whenever you access a file, Python sets the file pointer.
The file pointer is like your word processor’s cursor.
Any operation on the file starts at where the file pointer is.
When you open a file, and when it is set to the default access mode, which
is "r" (read-only), the file pointer is set at the beginning of the file.
To know the current position of the file pointer, you can use the tell()
method.
For example:
>>> file1 = open("sampleFile.txt")
>>> file1.tell()
0
>>> _
Most of the actions you perform on the file move the file pointer.
For example:
>>> file1 = open("sampleFile.txt")
>>> file1.tell()
0
>>> file1.read()
'Hello World'
>>> file1.tell()
11
>>> file1.read()
''
>>> _
To move the file pointer to a position you desire, you can use the seek()
function.
For example:
>>> file1 = open("sampleFile.txt")
>>> file1.tell()
0
>>> file1.read()
'Hello World'
>>> file1.tell()
11
>>> file1.seek(0)
0
>>> file1.read()
'Hello World'
>>> file1.seek(1)
1
>>> file1.read()
'ello World'
>>> _
The seek() method has two parameters. The first is offset, which sets the
pointer’s position depending on the second parameter.
Also, argument for this parameter is required.
The second parameter is optional.
It is for whence, which dictates where the “seek” will start.
It is set to 0 by default.
If set to 0, Python will set the pointer’s position to the offset
argument.
If set to 1, Python will set the pointer’s position relative or in
addition to the current position of the pointer.
If set to 2, Python will set the pointer’s position relative or in
addition to the file’s end.

Note that the last two options require the access mode to have binary
access.
If the access mode does not have binary access, the last two options will be
useful to determine the current position of the pointer [seek(0, 1)] and the
position at the end of the file [seek(0, 2)].
For example:
>>> file1 = open("sampleFile.txt")
>>> file1.tell()
0
>>> file1.seek(1)
1
>>> file1.seek(0, 1)
0
>>> file1.seek(0, 2)
11
>>> _
File Access Modes
To write to a file, you will need to know more about file access modes in
Python.
There are three types of file operations: reading, writing, and appending.
Reading allows you to access and copy any part of the file’s content.
Writing allows you to overwrite a file’s contents and create a new one.
Appending allows you to write on the file while keeping the other content
intact.
There are two types of file access modes: string and binary.
String access allows you to access a file’s content as if you are opening a
text file.
Binary access allows you to access a file on its rawest form: binary.
In your sample file, accessing it using string access allows you to read the
line “Hello World”.
Accessing the file using binary access will let you read “Hello World” in
binary, which will be b'Hello World'.
For example:
>>> x = open("sampleFile.txt", "rb")
>>> x.read()
b'Hello World'
>>> _
String access is useful for editing text files.
Binary access is useful for anything else, like pictures, compressed files,
and executables.
There are multiple values that you can enter in the file access mode
parameter of the open() function.
But you do not need to memorize the combination.
You just need to know the letter combinations.
Each letter and symbol stands for an access mode and operation.
For example:
r = read-only—file pointer placed at the beginning
r+ = read and write
a = append—file pointer placed at the end
a+ = read and append
w = overwrite/create—file pointer set to 0 since you create
the file
w+ = read and overwrite/create
b = binary

By default, file access mode is set to string.

You need to add b to allow binary access.
For example: "rb".

Writing to a File
When writing to a file, you must always remember that Python overwrites
and not insert file.
For example:
>>> x = open("sampleFile.txt", "r+")
>>> x.read()
'Hello World'
>>> x.tell(0)
0
>>> x.write("text")
4
>>> x.tell()
4
>>> x.read()
'o World'
>>> x.seek(0)
0
>>> x.read()
'texto World'
>>> _
You might have expected that the resulting text will be “textHello World”.
The write method of the file object replaces each character one by one,
starting from the current position of the pointer.
Practice Exercise
For practice, you need to perform the following tasks:
Create a new file named test.txt.
Write the entire practice exercise instructions on the file.
Close the file and reopen it.
Read the file and set the cursor back to 0.
Close the file and open it using append access mode.
Add a rewritten version of these instructions at the end of the
file.
Create a new file and put similar content to it by copying the
contents of the test.txt file.
 Chapter 9: Programming Paradigms

What follows is an introduction to the three main programming paradigms

based on popularity and application. You've heard me mention when

describing different programming languages, whether a specific language

was multi-paradigm or not. What this usually means is that with multi-

paradigm languages you can code your applications following these three

different "styles", even though there are more than just these three. The

paradigms are:

Procedural Programming
Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)
Functional Programming
Just like the programming languages themselves, these paradigms came
about with the idea to solve specific problems, and then, because we're all
lazy monkeys, we ended up forcing them to solve all problems. There is
nothing bad about any of them, although you may not believe this from
hearing me speak about them. Programming suffers from most of the same
issues regular writing does and we can boil them all down to one word:
clarity. How to code without repeating yourself? How to organize your code
so that you don't end up adding to your workload? How to make sure other
people can understand your code? How to make sure you can get back to
your code months from now and still understand it? These are all worthy
concerns in programming and each paradigm will try to address these
problems in their own way.
I chose to introduce the paradigms with the old and tried method of coding
the same thing in the three different styles. For this, I decided the game of
Cluedo (or Clue depending on where on the globe you grew up in). Not
unlike the way we coded the magic tricks, we'll transform a typical game of
Cluedo into code. I suspect the choice for this came from the fact that
procedural is a word often used to describe a type of murder mystery and
because OOP has the idea of "inheritance" as one of its unique concepts and
the word put me in mind of rich aunts being murdered for the sake of their
millions. I fear my mind thinks in puns.
Be aware that with the exception of the first paradigm, it will feel like
you're learning to program all over again. Relax. It's not true. Remember
that programming is just a bunch of simple operations (store, add, multiply,
compare...) built around strings, numbers, and booleans and abstracted to
readable syntax and structures (collections, loops, if statements, and
functions). Try to focus on these building blocks first and then take notice
of the curious ways things are accomplished through each paradigm. We'll
be adding new ways to add context to our code, new kinds of code blocks
with their own peculiar rules, and a whole bunch of new syntax and
abstractions, but at the heart of it, we're still talking about the same thing.
The paradigms also bleed into each other, the lines between them is quite
blurred, and when I introduce a concept connected to one of them I do not
mean that concept is not applicable to the others (remember, the languages
I've shown you here are all multi-paradigm). You can code procedurally
with a slight bent towards objects. You can code objects with a tendency
towards functional ideas, and with some functional languages, you can use
objects in your logic.
 Chapter 10: Object-Oriented Programming

Before proceeding, I want you to think about what an object is. Yes,

objects that you come across every day. What’s common to all objects? The

fact that a lot of them have specific characteristics and functions. A pen can

have a color and can be used to write. So in the case of a pen, its color is

one of its characteristics whereas its function is that it allows people to

write with it. Now, this same framework applies to living things too. A dog

has a breed, is of a certain height and can bark.

In C++, we can model such objects and work with them. Object-Oriented
Programming is basically building a program around objects! Each object
has attributes (the characteristics) and methods (the functions/utility). Now
in order to create an object, we have to give C++ a blueprint on how to
create this specific object that we’re trying to make. This blueprint is
termed a class. All objects are created from a class and come with a set of
attributes and functions that we can use.
Now, a valid question is why? Why do we even need Object Oriented
Programming?
The most significant benefit is that it lets us reuse code whenever and
wherever we want.
Once I create an object, I can use it wherever I want. And once a class is
designed (correctly, without any errors) every purpose that the class
produces is free of errors and can be used reliably, therefore, allowing us to
create more bug-free code. We don’t have to know how an object works
once we create it and use it.
We just need to know how to use it. This becomes an advantage when we
work with extended programs.
So to recap - An object has functions (we will call these “methods”) and
attributes (we will call these “instance variables”). There are other types of
variables called “static variables” or “class variables”.
Objects are created from classes which basically act as blueprints.
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
class EmptyClass {

};
int main() {

EmptyClass emptyClassObject;
}
The above program creates an empty class and instantiates an object.
class EmptyClass {
};
The above stub of code represents the class that we created. Notice how
we’ve used the keyword “class” to specify that we’re creating a class.
“EmptyClass” is the name of the class we’ve created. We can change this
depending upon the name we wish to give our class. All the instance
variables and methods will go within the brackets, but since we created an
empty class we don’t have any class members.
In the primary function, we’ve instantiated an object.
EmptyClass emptyClassObject;
emptyClassObject in the above stub is an object that’s created using the
EmptyClass class and thus holds all the properties that the class defines. But
because we haven’t set any properties within EmptyClass, its object is
practically useless.

But before we start adding stuff to the class we have to understand what
access modifiers are. Now, one of the features of object-oriented
programming is that it is able to abstract details of the class from parts of
the program outside the class.
This is also known as data hiding. The way we enforce this in C++ is
through access modifiers. There are three access modifiers in C++ - private,
public, and protected. We’re going to look at private and public.
When we use the private access modifier while defining a variable or a
method we’re basically saying that these members of the class cannot be
accessed outside of the class, even by their own objects! These members
can only be accessed by methods within the class. If you don’t want any
part of the code to access certain variables or methods, make them private!

When we use the public access modifier while defining class members,
we’re saying that they can be accessed from “everywhere”. They can be
accessed from outside the class using an object of the class.
Example:
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
class ExampleClass {
private:
int privateVariableOne;
public:
int publicVariableOne;
void initializePrivateVariableOne(int value) {
privateVariableOne = value;
}
int incrementPrivateVariableOne() {
privateVariableOne++;
return privateVariableOne;
}
};
int main() {
ExampleClass object;
object.publicVariableOne = 10;
//Error - object.privateVariableOne = 10;
object.initializePrivateVariableOne(20);
//OK! Now, privateVariableOne = 20
object.incrementPrivateVariableOne();
//OK! Now, privateVariableOne = 21
}
In ExampleClass, all variables and methods declared under the modifier
“private:” are not accessible outside the class. The opposite is true for
members declared under the “public:” label which can be accessed outside
the class through objects (also called “instances”) of the ExampleClass
class.
The primary function shows how an instance is created. Akin to how the
data type is used while declaring a variable, the name of the class is used
while creating an example of the class.
ExampleClass object;
In the above line of code, “object” is an instance of ExampleClass and can
access everything that is declared as public within the class. This access is
allowed for by using the dot operator (“.”).
object.publicVariableOne lets us access the publicVariableOne that is tied to
the instance. Keep in mind that if we create another example of this class,
we’ll get access to a completely separate and a brand new example which
won’t reflect changes made to the first instance that we created - “object” in
this case.
Now, there are times when we want to instantiate an object with a set of
predefined values. We can do using a constructor, which is declared within
the class definition. It has no datatype, and its name is the name of the class
followed by brackets that may or may not take in parameters (depending on
how you wish to create this class).
Let’s add a constructor to ExampleClass:
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
class ExampleClass {
private:
int privateVariableOne;
public:
ExampleClass(int publicVariableValue) {
//This is the constructor
publicVariableOne = publicVariableValue;
}
int publicVariableOne;
void initializePrivateVariableOne(int value) {
privateVariableOne = value;
}
int incrementPrivateVariableOne() {
privateVariableOne++;
return privateVariableOne;
}
};
int main() {
ExampleClass object(30);
//object.publicVariableOne is now 30.
object.publicVariableOne = 10;
//Error - object.privateVariableOne = 10;
object.initializePrivateVariableOne(20);
//OK! Now, privateVariableOne = 20
objet.incrementPrivateVariableOne();

//OK! Now, privateVariableOne = 21

}

In the above code stub, the following code represents the constructor -
ExampleClass(int publicVariableValue) {
//This is the constructor
publicVariableOne = publicVariableValue;
}
It takes in an integer and assigns its value to publicVariableOne.
To instantiate an object of the class where the value of publicVariableOne
will be 30, we do the following:
ExampleClass object(30);
Now, there’s another way of instantiating values in the constructor:
ExampleClass(int
publicVariableValue):publicVariableOne(publicVariableValue) {
//This is the constructor
}
Example- Create a Dog class that stores a dog’s age and the name and has
methods called bark and eat.
#include<iostream>
#include<string>
using namespace std;
class Dog {
private:
int age;
string name;
public:
Dog(int dogAge, string dogName) :age(dogAge), name(dogName) {}
void printDogName() {
cout << "Dog Name: " << name << endl;
}
void printDogAge() {
cout << "Dog Age: " << age << endl;
}
void bark() {
cout << "WOOOF WOOOOF!!" << endl;
}
void eat() {
cout << "I'm eating right now. Don't bother me!" << endl;
}
};
int main() {
Dog henryTheDog(2, "Henry");
henryTheDog.printDogName();
henryTheDog.printDogAge();
henryTheDog.bark();
henryTheDog.eat();
}
Here’s the output -
Dog Name: Henry
Dog Age: 2
WOOOF WOOOOF!!
I'm eating right now. Don't bother me!
Press any key to continue . . .
 Chapter 11: Misconceptions About Coding
Before we dive into this, something should be said about coding. You

should not get into it, especially as a career if you don't really like it if it is

not something you want to do. Certain people think that being a coder will

make you happy, especially when you start earning big bucks. Seriously,

more money is not going to make anyone happy. If you're depressed or

unhappy, it is something you should find a way to sort out and deal with

internally. Visit a therapist, psychologists, do something about it from the

inside.

Using coding as a way to escape will only last for so long. Coding is not the
way to the proverbial Nirvana or Utopia. Coders also have challenges
peculiar to their jobs. Later in this book, we'll talk about some of the
challenges coders face. True, being able to make something out of nothing
literally comes with some fulfillment, sometimes a lot actually, and it also
gives confidence. But if you're looking for happiness, you won't find it in
coding or in any other career for that matter. Of course, you won't find it in
a person, at least not for long. You are responsible for your own happiness,
just as we all are responsible for our happiness. Now that we've got this out
of the way let's do a deep dive into misconceptions about coding.
Coding Will Make You Wealthy
Indeed, coders earn good money, and they are some of the top earners in
many areas. But then again, the fact that you earn well will not make you
rich or wealthy. What will get you wealthier is actually your financial
habits; your ability to take the money and then multiply it. You don't have
to be a programmer to do this. But then again, being a programmer gives
you more room to earn more money, and therefore, more opportunities to
become wealthy.
It's only for the Young
They say you can't teach old dogs new tricks, and maybe you can't, but then
humans are not dogs. And really, I have always believed that any skill can
be learned. You might never become an elite in that skill, but I believe with
the right tools and effort, you can become proficient at almost any skill, this
includes programming too.
They say it is only for those who are from 18 – 30 years. This could not be
further from the truth. It is true that most of the popular coders, or any of
those who've really made money from this, started out at an early age:
Zuck, Larry Page, Gates, and many others. I just saw on Twitter today, a 45-
year-old man who got his first job as a developer, previously having a
career in accounting. Admittedly, it would be more difficult to say a middle-
aged man or woman to get a junior developer role (entry-level
programmer). For some reason, tech firms employ mostly young people.
One reason is that most tech firm startups are owned and run by the young,
and many older people themselves believe that coding is for the young, so
they don't even bother getting into it.
You have To Be a Math Guru to Code
The fact is the amount of math you know at the moment is probably enough
for you to learn how to code. At least at entry-level, high school
mathematics is good enough for you to begin learning to code. Some people
have asked, "What's the connection?" Why do some people think that you
have to know mathematics to code? I believe I have the answer to that
question. Most universities, which offer computer science or computer
science-related degrees, do have a lot of mathematics in their curriculum. In
fact, departments of mathematics and statistics in many colleges work hand
in hand, and a lot of time, they take the same or similar courses. In some
colleges, the departments of math and computer science are together. So
you have something department of Mathematics and Computer Science,
just like you'd have Mathematics and Statistics in some colleges. This, I
think, is how the talk of you being a math guru came up.
For beginner coders, you're just beginning to learn how the Internet and
computers really work. You're learning the jargon associated with the field,
learning about FTP (file transfer protocols) and debugging, and all the other
stuff. Don't forget you have Google, and, as a beginner, virtually all the
problems you'll face have been faced by someone else. And the
documentation or solutions are somewhere on the World Wide Web. All
you need to do is just find it.
Now, this is where your Googling skills will come in. Learning the
vocabulary associated with the language you're learning will help you find
solutions online easier. At this point, especially when you're teaching
yourself, it is a thing of trial and error, Googling, and all through this
process, increasing your knowledge. Of course, there's a bit of logic
involved in coding. Apart from the little mathematics, you'll actually be
doing a lot of copy and pasting, with little edits or tweaks. Although I'd
advise, you type in the code instead of copying and pasting. And really you
don't need any mathematics to do this. In fact, those who came from fields
where no Mathematics was needed, such as those in humanities, seem to
know how to do this well. Remember the term papers.
Some codes look like equations true, but then there are plug-ins and add-
ons for such things. Some people live for such things, and most of the time,
these calculations have already been taken care of in one way or the other,
and all you'll need to do it tweak it for your own use. So for web
development, you don't need much of mathematics. But if you intend to go
into video gaming, or you want to work in some high tech places like
Google, Goldman Sachs, NASA, then yes, you'll need to know
mathematics, loads and loads of it. For those doing AI, Crypto and other
related fields, some of the math needed is even above college undergrad
level, yeah it's that essential.
So what I'm basically trying to say is that for entry-level coding, don't
bother about mathematics, because you already have enough knowledge for
that. As you delve deeper, though, you'll realize the knowledge you don't
have or need and do whatever it takes to get there. But by this time, you
should already know enough coding to work in a variety of places where
coding is required.
The fact is that there are not many programmers that really known
mathematics, so knowing it will give you an edge, especially when it comes
to getting a job. But as a beginner or someone who will build CMS (content
management systems), you know all the math that you need.
Programming is Only for Geeks and Nerdy Fellows
The fact is that programming doesn't make you a geek. You're a nerd if you
are, and you're not; if you're not, it has nothing to do with programming.
People also think that programming is for the uncool gang, you know the
social misfits, the socially inept and awkward. Now, nothing could be
further from the truth than this. Coding doesn't turn you into any of this, nor
is it only for those who have some sort of social problem. Coding is also
done by some of those we'd consider cool. Coding is now seeing use in
clubs, wherewith code you can decide the kind of music to be played. Or
you can even write music with code, for clubs and other fun places.
Programming is Only for Men
Of recent, certain companies such as Andela have entirely changed that
notion, with the training and employment of female coders. Programming is
not gender-based; anybody, irrespective of gender, can do it. The reason
why we have many more males in coding than women is the reason why we
have more men in engineering and science and related fields. Men seem to
be naturally drawn toward STEM, while more women seem to gravitate
towards the humanities, art, and fashion. And of course, the self-limiting
belief and talks of people always telling women they can't succeed in
STEM-based fields. But we know all these things are wrong. Coding is
gender-neutral, given the same opportunities; women can code as good as
men can. And did you know that the first programmer was actually a
woman? Her name was Ada Lovelace, Countess of Lovelace, a British
Mathematician and writer. She was born in 1815, and she died 36 years
later. In fact, at about that time, most of the programming work was done by
women. It was as an offshoot of their secretarial duties. As time went along,
though, things changed.
To Be a Programmer, You need a Degree in Computer Science
Or the very least, a degree in STEM. This is one very big lie that a lot of
people have been sold, by who? Really I can't tell. Perhaps some 15- 20
years ago, a higher institution was the only place where you could get learn
coding. And then you had to have taken a degree in computer science. But
now every Tom, Dick, and Harry can learn how to program. In a university,
it will definitely take you longer to learn how to code, and of course, there'll
be students debts to be paid. However, it will definitely give you a good
learning platform and better preparation to learn many other programming
languages and also give you better career opportunities in tech. However, it
is not the only way. Just online with Freecodecamp, Coursera, or Udemy
and uncountable others, you can learn how to code at your own pace. There
are also coding boot camps, where you can learn how to code and meet
other students like you. The fact is that you'll just need to be persistent,
know what you want, and create a schedule for yourself to follow. With
this, you'll learn code in like a quarter of the time it will take someone
following a university curriculum to learn how to code.
 Chapter 12: Bash

Given the following Bash Code:

#!/bin/sh
cat 'testfile.txt' |
while read line ; do
echo "Line read: $line"
outputDirectory=${line##* }
echo "Output directory: $outputDirectory"
mv $outputDirectory/streamFolder/output/*.log
$outputDirectory/streamFolder/output/archive/ > /dev/null 2>&1
mv $outputDirectory/streamFolder/output/*.txt
$outputDirectory/streamFolder/output/archive/ > /dev/null 2>&1
done
Let's now apply the coding metrics to the above Bash script. Here is the list
of metrics.
1. Too short variable names and has no usage context
2. Code that gives no context or obvious purpose
3. Uneven spacing
4. Uneven parameter type definition
5. Incomprehensible code
6. Too long code
7. No exemption handling
8. No automatic resource management
9. External calls that are not kept in separate methods
10.
Insufficient abstraction - need for higher level code
11.
Code that is hard or impossible to change
Out of the metrics, I think only a few apply in the case of this Bash code.
This is an important issue: In real world code, don't expect it to be all bad!
If you're modifying legacy code, the original author may well have done a
great job with it. If this is the case, then your task is more straightforward.
In this case, the required change may be straightforward. However, there
may also arise a situation where you can make an improvement as part of
another change. We'll see this in the present example.
So, in my opinion the Bash code violates metrics 7 and 10 only:
No exception handling
Inadequate abstraction - need for higher level code

Why is this the case? Well, the calls to mv can fail and we won't know
about it. This is because the script is coded to swallow output and errors.
How do I know this? The clue is in the redirect code: > /dev/null 2>&1.
This has the intentional effect of not letting us see the result of the
preceding mv operation.
So, as per metric 7, we need to at least record if an exception occurs in the
calls to mv.
In regard to inadequate abstraction, the file name can be made into a
constant. Then, the constant can be referenced in the script. This is better
than embedding the name as a literal string value, mainly if the file name is
used in multiple places in the script. A downstream maintainer might be
tasked with changing the script and could easily forget to change the file
name in all areas. Defining the file name as a constant avoids this
unpleasant possibility.
So, with all of the above observations in mind, Listing 1 is the modified
version of the Bash code.

Listing 1 Post-metric Bash code

#!/bin/sh
readonly fileName='testfile.txt'
cat $fileName |
while read line ; do
echo "Line read: $line"
outputDirectory=${line##* }
echo "Output directory: $outputDirectory"
mv $outputDirectory/streamFolder/output/*.log
$outputDirectory/streamFolder/output/archive/ > /dev/null 2>&1
error=$?
if [ $error -ne 0 ] ; then
echo "First mv failed with exit code of $error"
fi
mv $outputDirectory/streamFolder/output/*.txt
$outputDirectory/streamFolder/output/archive/ > /dev/null 2>&1
error=$?
if [ $error -ne 0 ] ; then
echo "Second mv failed with exit code of $error"
fi
done
Notice in Listing 1 that we now have a constant called fileName
representing the file name. This constant can now be used throughout the
script instead of embedding the file name. So, if a different file name is
required at some future time, then it has to be changed in just one place
instead of potentially multiple places in the script.
The other major change is to store and examine the error code from each of
the mv calls. This allows us to know for sure if the mv call succeeded or
not. To complete the example, it would probably make sense to log the error
code details to disk. But, you get the idea! Following the metrics helps to
take the guesswork out of the code, mainly when errors occur.
There is still an issue with inadequate abstraction (metric 10) in Listing 1.
Can you see it? The new error handling code is an improvement, but it has
introduced a problem with code duplication. We should really try to fix this,
and one way to do this is to abstract the error handling code itself into a
function. Listing 2 illustrates the final offering for the Bash code.
Listing 2 Second iteration of the post-metric Bash code
#!/bin/sh

readonly fileName='testfile.txt'
errorHandler() {
echo $1
echo $2
if [ $2 -ne 0 ] ; then
echo "Failed in errorHandler $1 Exit code is $2"
fi
}

cat $fileName |
while read line ; do
echo "Line read: $line"
outputDirectory=${line##* }
echo "Output directory: $outputDirectory"
mv $outputDirectory/streamFolder/output/*.log
$outputDirectory/streamFolder/output/archive/ > /dev/null 2>&1
errorHandler "first call to mv", $?
mv $outputDirectory/streamFolder/output/*.txt
$outputDirectory/streamFolder/output/archive/ > /dev/null 2>&1
errorHandler "second call to mv", $?
done
Now, any failures that occur during execution of the code in Listing 2
appear as illustrated in Listing 3. These errors can be logged to disk if
required by adding more code to the errorHandler function.

Listing 3 - Running the modified Bash code

Line read: mydirectory
Output directory: mydirectory
first call to mv,
1
Failed in errorHandler first call to mv, Exit code is 1
second call to mv,
1
Failed in errorHandler second call to mv, Exit code is 1
Notice also, that by following the metrics the script in Listing 2 is nicely
divided (or modularized) into three parts:
1. Definition of constants
2. Definition of error handler and other functions
3. The main code

Also noteworthy in this example was the fact that we iterated twice through
the metrics. Again, this is a good practice - making small, focused changes,
reviewing the changes, and adding more minor changes. The combination
of the small changes adds up to a far better end result and the code can be
tested carefully as you go.
One noteworthy caveat is in relation to spacing. There might be a
temptation on the part of a Java (or other high level language) programmer
to introduce spaces into Listing 2. This might be done to try to improve
readability. One of the things about scripting languages, such as, Bash and
Python is that they are often very fussy about spaces, indentation, and so
on. Adding spaces to Bash code can introduce hard to find errors. So, be
careful with readability requirements!
Up to this point, we've seen the metrics in action in C code and now in Bash
scripting. How can the metrics approach be applied to Python code? Let's
find out.
A Python example
Given the following Python code.
f=open('myfile','r+')
f.write('abcdef012345')
As usual, let's apply the metrics to the Python code. Again, here is the list of
metrics.
1. Too short variable names and has no usage context
2. Code that provides no context or obvious purpose
 3. Uneven spacing
4. Uneven parameter type definition
5. Incomprehensible code
6. Code that is too long
7. No exemption handling
8. No automatic resource management
9. External calls that are not contained in separate methods
10.
Inadequate abstraction - need for higher level code
11.
Code that is difficult or impossible to change

I would say that the following metrics are violated by the Python code:
Variable names that are too short and provide no usage
context
Inconsistent spacing
No exception handling
No automatic resource management
External calls that are not contained in separate methods

Also, we have some assumptions lying at the heart of the Python code
example.
What are the assumptions? Well, the first line assumes that the file already
exists and the second line in turn assumes that the first line was successful.
A simpler and sturdier version is illustrated in Listing 4 where we use the
standard exception management of the Python language. Also, I've tried to
improve the file handle name by giving it some context in the wider
program.
Listing 4 - Incorporating better naming and exception management
try:
logfile = open('myfile', 'r+')
logfile.write('abcdef012345')
except IOError:
print('Encountered an error')
Now if the file is deleted before the script runs, then you get a meaningful
message rather than a runtime failure. It's essential always to remember that
when your code interacts with system resources (such as files), you're
handling somebody else's property! System resources are owned by the
system, so you have to handle them with care.
The moral of the story is to keep it simple and try to avoid assumptions.
Mother nature enjoys assumptions; they give her an opportunity to show us
who's boss!
The addition of exception code has still not produced particularly reliable
operation. We are still relying on the file existing in order for the code to
work. To fix this, before opening the file, we can first check that it exists as
illustrated in Listing 5:
Listing 5 - Incorporating an existence check
try:
if(os.path.isfile('myfile')):
logfile = open('myfile', 'r+')
logfile.write('abcdef012345')
else:
print('File does not exist')
except IOError:
print('Encountered an error')
So, the code now uses isfile() to check if the file exists before attempting to
open and update it. This means that we have now removed the assumption
about the file existence. If the file does not exist, then we'll know upfront,
rather than relying on an exception.
 Chapter 13: Regular Expressions

The Simple Patterns

The simple patterns are direct literal representations of the anticipated

inputs. First we present the necessary characters for the formation of simple

regular expression patterns.

Simple Pattern Characters

Characte Functions
rs
/…/ Patterns are enclosed in between two forward slashes like this
/a/. This matches a single alphabetic letter ‘a’ in an input
string “ant”.
[…] The braces represent a character set. The character set
matches any of the characters within the braces with no
exceptions for special characters and escape sequences, for
example [abc] would match the first three letters of the input
string “abcdef”. A range can be represented with a hyphen
like this [1-9], which matches any character from 1 to 9, same
as [123456789].
\ When the backslash character precedes a character, it makes
the character unique and gives it a special meaning different
from its literal meaning.
\d The lower case letter ‘d’ preceded by a backslash represents a
numerical input and matches a single digit, for example /\d/
matches digit 3 in the input string “32 Highway”.
\D The upper case letter ‘D’ preceded by a backslash represents
 any non numerical input and matches a single non digit input,
for example /\D/ matches ‘H’ in “32 Highway”.
\w The lower case letter ‘w’ proceeded by the backslash
character represents a single alphanumeric character in the
range 0 - 9, a – z, A – Z including the underscore.
\W The upper case letter ‘W’ preceded by the backslash character
represents a non alphanumeric character like the followings;
@, %, * and so on for example /\W/ matches the ‘@’ in the
email address feyi_dos1@yahoo.com.

The Simple Pattern Quantifier

Pattern quantifiers are used for specifying the frequency of occurrence of
the affected character under representation by the regular expression. The
quantifiers are presented in the table below.
Quantifi Function
ers
? This when applied to regular expression character implies 0
or 1 occurrence of that character. This can also be replaced
with {0, 1}. For example the proper expression /Shoes?/ or
/Shoes{0,1}/ matches the string “Shoe” in “Shoe lace”.
* The quantifier ‘*’ implies zero or more occurrence of the
regular expression character under representation. It can be
replaced with {0,}. For example the regular expression /lo*/
or /lo{0,}/ would match the character ‘l’ in string “lives” and
the sub-string “loo” in the string “looses”
+ The quantifier ‘+’ implies one or more occurrence of the
regular expression character under representation. The
quantifier can also be replaced with {1,}. For example the
regular expression /lo+/ or /lo{1,}/ would find no match in
the string “life” but would find the match “loo” in the string
“looses”.

The Simple Patterns Formulation

 We proceed to the implementation phase of the simple regular expression
patterns, starting with the development of an HTML5 input form. It will
validate the user inputs with JavaScript using our designed regular
expression patterns. We begin with the noun class pattern.

The Noun Class Patterns

The noun class represents the name of a person, a place or a concept on an
input form. This can be one of the following input fields; place of birth,
religion, nationality, occupation and name.
A name is made up of alphabetic characters with the characters in upper or
lower cases. To represent this, we use the following simple regular
expression; a combination of simple characters and quantifiers as shown
below.

Step 1:
We create the regular expression pattern for the first letters which normally
should be a single capital letter and in some exceptional cases can be more
than one. We use the character set A to Z to represent the pattern as shown
below:
[A-Z]+
Remember the quantifier ‘+’ implies one or more occurrence of the upper
case character set A to Z. We need this representation to be followed by
lower case character set a to z. The lower case character set is represented
as follows:
[a–z]+
Now we want a combination of the two sets, to achieve this we combine the
two sets as shown below.
[A-Z]+[a-zA-Z]+
Meaning you can have a noun class written in upper cases all through and a
noun class starting with an uppercase character, followed with a
combination of high and lowercases. In summary a noun class must begin
with a capital letter. The quantifiers ensure there is at least an alphabetical
input for both the upper and lower cases.

The Complex Patterns

The complex patterns are the combinations of simple characters, complex
characters, the alphanumeric, the non-alphabetic characters and the
quantifiers. We start off with the complex characters.

Comple Functions
x
characte
rs
$ Matches a character occupying the last position in the input
string, for example /r$/ matches the last alphabetic character
‘r’ in the input string “reader”, but finds no match in the input
string “read” or “READER” for the match is case sensitive.
^ Matches a character occupying the first position in the input
string. For example /^e/ matches ‘e’ in the string “eat”.
. Represents a single character input and matches the character
input. For example the regular expression /.n/ matches the
letters ‘In’ in the string “Into” and /.o/ matches the letters “to”
in the string “to”.
A|B The ‘|’ special character also called the ‘OR’ operator matches
A or B, whichever it finds in the input string. For example the
regular expression /boy|girl/ matches ‘boy’ in the input string
“boy scout”, girl in the input string “girl scout” and girl in the
input string “girl or boy” whichever it finds first.
\s Represents and matches a white space character, a tab or a
form feed.
\S Represents and matches a non-space character.
 (…) The capturing parentheses match their contents as single
entities and also remember the match for future usage. \1 to \n
denotes the sequence number of the parenthesized matched
items to be remembered. For example, the regular expression
/\w+(\s)\d+\1\w+/ matches the string “No 42 Highway” in the
input string “No 42 Highway road”. The only capturing
parenthesis is remembered with ‘\1’ in the expression and
applied as a white space between “42” and “Highway”.
(?:a) The expression (?:a) represents a set of non capturing
parentheses that match but do not remember the match as
done by the capturing parentheses. The main purpose of the
non capturing parentheses is for creating sub expressions to be
matched in a regular expression. For example in the
expression /(\w)+\s(?:\d+)\s\1/ the numeric part (?:\d) is
matched but never remembered.
A(?=B) This acts like a look ahead. It matches the expression A
provided that it is immediately followed by an expression B.
For example the regular expression /Coca(?=Cola)/ matches
“Coca” if and only if it is followed by “Cola” and it is case
sensitive. The regular expression /No(?=\d+)/ matches “No” if
and only if it is followed by one or more numbers.
A(?!B) The regular expression matches an expression A provided it is
not followed by an expression B. For example the regular
expression /No(?!\W)/ would match nothing in the strings
“No%” and “No@” but would match the “No” in the string
“No1 Gateway”.
[^abc] This expression represents a complimented character set that
matches any character set not in the complimented set. A
range can be represented with a dash. For example the regular
expression [^abc] performs the same function as the regular
expression [^a-c] and matches the character ‘r’ in the string
“car”.

A Username Expression Implementation

 The username is a combination of alphanumeric characters beginning with
at least an alphabetic character. There are two steps to this.

Step 1:
The alphabetic character is represented with the regular expression /[ a-zA-
Z]/ which matches any single upper or lower case alphabetic input. We
expect that our username should start with a minimum of a single
alphabetical input, for this reason we make use of the quantifier “+” to
arrive at the following expression:

/[ a-zA-Z]+/
Step 2:
We also expect that the above may be followed by a combination of
alphanumeric characters. The regular expression /\w/ gives a good fit. The
quantifier “*” (zero or more times) is used with the expression for a
complete representation as shown below:

/\w*/

Step 3:
The final step is to combine the alphabetic regular expression with the
alphanumeric regular expression such that the alphabetic is matched if
followed by an alphanumeric expression or not. This is as presented below:
/[ a-zA-Z]+\w*/

Complex Regular Expression Implementation

Examples of complex patterns are the email address and dates. We shall be
formulating the email address as a follow up practise to our username
implementation. An email address is has two parts; the username part and
the server address part separated by the ‘@’ sign. Therefore the formulation
process is divided into two stages.

Stage 1: Username Formulation

This is as done in 2.2 above..

Stage 2: Server Address Formulation

The sever address will always start with the ‘@’ symbol. This can be
represented literally by the ‘@ symbol itself followed by the organization’s
name, which can be represented by a username expression as shown below:
/@[ a-zA-Z]+\w*/
This is followed by the organization’s categorization (.com, .mil, .net, .org,
.edu) preceded by a full stop .e.g. yahoo.com as implemented below:
/(\.)[A–Za-z]{2,3}/
Note that the categorization is written in a minimum of two alphabetic
characters and a maximum of three, the reason for the use of the quantifier
{2,3} and that the expression for the full stop ‘\.’ Is enclosed in a capturing
parenthesis in order for it to be matched and remembered for a later re-use.
This may be followed by the country name as in .us, .uk, or .ng. As
observed this uses a maximum of two letters so that it can be represented
with the following regular expression:

/(\.)[A–Za-z]{2}/

The quantifier {2} accepts two character length input only. Now bringing
the components together we have the regular expression:
/@[a-zA-Z]+\w*(\.)[A–Za-z]{2,3}(?:\1[A–Za-z]{2})*/

The above regular expression would match the server name “@yahoo.com”
in the input string “123@yahoo.common”. Please note that the country
code component which is enclosed in a non-capturing parenthesis ‘(?:\1[A–
Za-z]{2})*’ has been made optional with the use of the quantifier ‘*’.

Step 3: Combining the Username and the Domain name

The final step is to combine the username and the domain name regular
expression to arrive at the complete pattern for matching an email address
as shown below:
/[a-zA-Z]+\w*(?:@)[a-zA-Z]+\w*(\.)[A–Za-z]{2,3}(?:\1[A–Za-z]{2})*/

From here on, you can design and implement any desired pattern for any
particular validation purpose, all you need is a little more practise though.
Remember, practise makes perfection. I wish you success in your practise.
 Chapter 14: Data Structures
List

Explanation: A list represents a set of ordered elements, which means that

each component can have another element before or after it. A linked list

consist of nodes that contain data. Each node, or position gets a certain

ordering number, depending on its ordering in the list: we talk about the

first element, the second etc. Each node contains a value; it can be an

integer, a string etc. When we refer to a specific position (for example when

we talk about the first element), there is maximum one entry that may

satisfy our request. This means that we cannot have two or more elements

in a position.

The first node is called head. Internally, each node points to the next one,
and the last one points to null. In Python we do not have to worry about
pointers.
Implementation: We can name our list with a name of our liking, usually
something that represents its functionality (be careful not to use a built-in
python name!).
Lets name our list a.
In the brackets that follow the name of our list, we place the index, the
position which we refer to:
a[0] refers to the element at the first position (position 0). We need to
assign a value in this cell.
a[0] = 5, assigns 5 in the first node of our list.
So, we have:
list[index] = value

We can easily create a list in Python. In order to define a list (initially

empty) we just do:
a = []
Else, we could initialize our list with some data:
b = [2,5,4]
Note that we do not have to specify the positions of our elements each time,
as the first element will always be in position 0 (b[0] is 2), the second in
position 1 (b[1] is 5) etc.
We can add add an element x in the end of the list:
list.append(x)
For example, b.append(7) will give us:
b = [2,5,4,7]
We can also add an element x in a certain position I of the list.
list.insert(i,x)

For example in our previous list, we can do b.insert(0,3), which will give
us:
b = [3,2,5,4,7]
We can remove an element that contains a certain value:
list.remove(x)
Note that this will delete the first element that contains this certain value.
For example in our previous list, if we do b.remove(2), we will get:
b = [3,5,4,7]

Tuple
Explanation: Tuples serve a similar functionality with lists, with the main
difference being that tuples are immutable: as soon as you add your data in
a tuple, they cannot be changed or deleted and it is not possible to insert
new data. The only way to perform such operations is to create a new tuple
containing the new or edited data etc.
In terms of syntax, tuples use parentheses to store the data in place of the
lists’ square brackets. There is also the possibility not to include
parentheses at all, and just separate data with a comma.
When we need to refer to a certain position in the tuple, for example
position 0 (first element), position 1 (second element) etc, square brackets
are used.
Implementation: We can create an empty tuple named t:
t = ()
We can also create a tuple that contains some numbers:
t_2 = (9,4,6,8,2)
or:
t_2 = 9,4,6,8,2
Now, we can refer to a certain element of the tuple, like for example the
first element:
t_2[0] = 9

Dictionary
Explanation: A dictionary is used to store data by using a unique key for
each entry. Key is somehow serving the same functionality as indices in
lists and tuples, when we want to refer to a certain element. The values
where each key refers to are not necessarily unique. Dictionaries are
mutable, so we can add, delete or modify the elements in it.
The entries of a dictionary are contained between curly braces {}. Each
entry is in the form key: value.
Implementation: We have a dictionary d:
d = {}
and we can populate it with key-value pairs:
d = { key1:value1,
key2:value2,
key3:value3,
...
}

Set
Explanation: A set is a collection of items that in contrast to lists/tuples, it is
unordered. There can be no duplicate elements. Sets are efficient when we
want to search if an item is contained in them or not. Later on, we are going
to talk about hash functions, which implement efficient searching. We can
add, delete or modify the items in a set. The set items are contained in {}.
Implementation: We can define an empty set s_empty:
s_empty = {}
or we can construct a set of certain items, like a set of fruits:
s_fruits = {‘orange’, ‘banana’, ‘apple’, ‘peach’}

We can add an item using the add() function:

s_fruits.add(‘cherry’)
‘cherry’ will be added in a random position in the initial set (remember, sets
are unordered!). For example:
s_fruits = {‘orange’, ‘banana’, ‘cherry’,‘apple’, ‘peach’}

or we can add multiple items in the s_fruits set using the update() function:
s_fruits.update([‘grapes’, ‘mango’])
s_fruits = {‘orange’, ‘grapes’, ‘banana’, ‘cherry’,‘apple’, ‘peach’, ‘mango’}

Array
Explanation: An array consists of an ordered collection of elements. We can
refer to each item by its index in the array. An array can have dimensions:
the widely used 2-dimensional table that we encounter very often in our
everyday life, but we can also have more dimensions. In computer science
theory, the difference between an array and a list is the way data are stored
in memory, which affects how we access an element. A list allocates non
sequential cells in memory, therefore they need a reference for the next cell;
this is what the index does. Lists support sequential access, where you need
to search an element by examining the first element, then the next one,
afterwards the third one etc until you find the element you are looking for.
An array allocates only sequential cells in memory. Arrays support
sequential access, as well as direct access.
Implementation: You may have noticed that Python lists have some array-
like features, according to the list analysis above. Python in fact uses array
functionalities in lists, like for example direct access to a certain position.
However, there is an array structure in Python, but it should be imported:
import array
We need to specify the data type that this array contains and also the list of
elements that the array is going to contain when we are creating it. For
example:
a = array.array(‘i’, [1,2,3])
Yes, array keyword is written twice, because we are calling the array
module from the array library. It is easier to rename the imported library
array though:
import array as arr
a = arr.array(‘i’, [1,2,3])

‘i’ refers to int Python type. Below is the list of all supported Python data
types and the letter they use to indicate this data type when we construct an
array:

Stack
Explanation: Stack is used to store items in the Last in – First out (LIFO)
manner. Operations like insert element (push) and remove element (pop)
can occur only from the ‘upper’ end of the stack. An overflow can occur if
we exceed the maximum size of the stack, while an underflow can occur if
we try to delete an element from an empty stack.
Implementation: In Python a stack can be implemented by using a list
structure. We can create a simple stack:
stack = []
# Pop elements from the stack
stack.pop()# ‘3’
stack.pop()# ‘2’
stack.pop()# ‘1’

Queue
Explanation: A queue handles item in the first in – first out (FIFO) manner.
We can add (enqueue) items from the ‘end’ of the queue and delete
(dequeue) items from the ‘beginning’ of the queue.

Overflow and underflow can

occur as in the case of the stack.
Implementation: In Python we can import the queue module:
import queue

Then we can create a queue by calling the method Queue in that module.
We can add (put) elements and we can delete (get) them in the FIFO way:
q = queue.Queue(maxsize = 100)
q.put(‘a’)
q.put(‘b’)
q.put(‘c’)

# q = [‘a’,’b’,’c’]
q.get()# ‘a’
q.get()# ‘b’
q.get()# ‘c’

Graph
A graph is a representation of a set of objects (nodes or vertices V) where
some of them are connected with links (edges E). Formally, a graph G is
defined as pairs (V, E) .
We can dynamically add and remove vertices and edges.
Note that the above is an undirected graph: this means that the connections
between the vertices have no direction, for example ab = ba etc.
In case of directed graphs there are directed arrows as edges,
and we can move only towards the direction of the arrow.
A sequence of edges that connect a vertex with another, either directly or
indirectly, forms a path. \

Tree
Trees are a subtype of graphs, which needs to satisfy the following
requirements:
- It needs to be acyclic: to contain no cycles
- It needs to be connected: Any node should be reachable through some
path, so there are not ‘stray’ nodes
Typically, the tree has a structure of a root node and children nodes. Root
node can be only one and it can have any number of children nodes
(directly connected to the root nodes). Any child can have any number of
children etc. Nodes that do not have children are called leaves.
 Chapter 15: Algorithms

Algorithm

In the coding phase, all the modules defined by the modular design will

become a program; that is, the final application will consist of the sum of all

the programs that are designed. But first, we must determine what the

instructions or actions of each of these programs are. To do this, algorithms

must be used.

An algorithm establishes, in a generic and informal way, the sequence of

steps or actions that solves a certain problem. The algorithms constitute the
main documentation that is needed to be able to start the coding phase, and,
to represent them, two types of notation are essentially used: pseudocode
and flowcharts. The design of an algorithm is independent of the language
that will later be used to encode it.

Pseudocode
The pseudocode is an algorithmic programming language; It is an
intermediate language between natural language and any specific
programming language, such as C, FORTRAN, Pascal, etc. There is no
formal or standard pseudocode notation, but each programmer can use their
own.
An algorithm written in pseudocode is usually organized in three sections:
header, declarations, and body. In the header section, the name of the
algorithm is written, in this case, add. In the declarations section, some of
the objects that the program will use are declared. In the tutorial of the
language of Abrirllave, the different types of objects that can be used in a
program are studied in detail, such as variables, constants, subprograms,
etc. For now, note that, in this example, the variables a, b, and c, they
indicate that the program needs three spaces in the main memory of the
computer to store three integers. Each of the variables refers to a different
memory space.

Flowcharts (Ordinograms)
Algorithms can also be represented, graphically, by means of flowcharts.
Flowcharts can be used for other purposes; however, in this tutorial, we will
only use them to represent algorithms. Such flow charts are also known as
audiograms. In other words, an ordinogram graphically represents the order
of the steps or actions of an algorithm.
Pseudocode and flowcharts are the two most used tools to design algorithms
in structured programming. Although, between both types of representation,
there are the following important differences:

Flowcharts Began To Be Used Before the Pseudocode

In pseudocode, three sections of the algorithm are usually defined (header,
declarations, and body). However, in one ordinogram only the body is
represented.
In an ordinogram it is usually easier to see, at first glance, what the order of
the algorithm's actions is.
The graphic symbols used in a flowchart have been standardized by the
American National Standards Institute (ANSI). However, there is no
"standard pseudocode."
Qualities of an algorithm
For any given problem there is no single algorithmic solution; It is the task
of the person who designs an algorithm to find the most optimal solution,
this is none other than one that more faithfully meets the desirable qualities
of any well-designed algorithm:
Finitude. An algorithm always has to end after a finite
number of actions. When the Add algorithm is already a
program, its execution will always be the same, since, the
actions described in the body of the algorithm will always be
followed, one by one, from the first to the last and in the
established order.
Accuracy. All the actions of an algorithm must be well
defined, that is, no action can be ambiguous, but each one of
them must only be interpreted in a unique way. In other
words, if the program resulting from an algorithm is executed
several times with the same input data, in all cases, the same
output data will be obtained.
Clarity. Normally, a problem can be solved in different ways.
Therefore, one of the most important tasks of the designer of
an algorithm is to find the most readable solution, that is, the
most understandable for the human being.
Generality. An algorithm must solve general problems. For
example, the Add program should be used to make sums of
any two whole numbers, and not only to add two specific
numbers, such as 3 and 5.
Efficiency. The execution of the program resulting from
coding an algorithm should consume as little as possible the
available resources of the computer (memory, CPU time,
etc.).
Simplicity. Sometimes, finding the most efficient algorithmic
solution to a problem can lead to writing a very complex
algorithm, affecting its clarity. Therefore, we must try to
make the solution simple, even at the cost of losing a bit of
efficiency, that is, we must find a balance between clarity and
efficiency. Writing simple, clear, and efficient algorithms is
achieved based on practice.
 Modularity. Never forget the fact that an algorithm can be
part of the solution to a bigger problem. But, in turn, this
algorithm must be broken down into others, as long as this
favors its clarity.

The person who designs an algorithm must be aware that all the properties
of an algorithm will be transmitted to the resulting program.
 Chapter 16: Logical Switches

Logical Switches are very similar to a series of if statements, in that they

allow for many different conditions to be checked and have varied output

depending on the value we are checking against. They look cleaner than a

series of ‘if’ statements, and there is some additional functionality that can

be done with switches that sometimes makes the desirable. Let's look at a

basic switch now.

switch (variable) {
case condition1:
// some code based on what you're doing
break;// exits the switch loop
case condition2:
// more code for what happens for this condition
break;
case condition3:
// you can have as many cases as you like
break;
default;
// code to do if none of the other cases are true
In this example, we can see the format that switches take. The term
'variable' is a component you will use to measure some varying quantity in
your sketch. The conditions, one, two, three, as many as you like, are
values you are comparing a variable against. They can be anything,
numbers, letters, words, even other variables, or the results of functions it is
kind of crazy what you can put as a condition. This is why they can be
extremely powerful in coding. You can make complex conditions or simple
ones, and both will have a clean, readable layout that has a very easy to
understand flow when you read it. This readability in your code is so
important for us humans to understand what is going on with it.
The code within each case will continue until it reaches the word ‘break’
which is an Arduino keyword and this tells the compiler that it should exit
the current function it is doing. In the case of a switch, it will exit the
switch when a break is encountered. If a break is missing from the code, it
will instead continue on and run the next line of code below in the next
case, which may leave unexpected results. It's best to make sure you add
break to your code at the same time as a case to make sure the code you’re
writing will flow properly.
Let's look at an example sketch:
File → Examples → 05.Control → switchCase
Okay, we start off with initializing our sensor minimum and maximums in
the form of constants that the coder determined from experiment. In setup()
we turn on serial communication so we can use our serial display. In the
loop function, we declare and initialize the variable we will use to read our
sensor, sensorReading. Zero to Six Hundred is a lot of cases to cover if we
just want to display relative brightness of the display. The user wanted four
data points to generalize the brightness, ranging from zero to four. They,
therefore, used the map() function, along with sensorReading, sensorMin,
sensorMax, 0, and 3 as the arguments, to scale the reading should be within
a 0-3 range instead. Notably, the map function will scale to the nearest
integer so we can safely know it will only contain four data points.
We now set up a switch to check the reading. We send ‘range’ to our
mapped sensor reading and have the switch as our variable. Our cases are
0, 1, 2, 3, which corresponds to the expected data range of our variable,
good so far. Now, if range got mapped to 0, we will print, dark. If range
gets mapped to 1, we will print dim. For range 2, medium, and for range 3,
bright. The user added a 1-millisecond delay for stability, forcing it to read
once per millisecond instead of much faster. Essentially the chip clock
speed, which by default, is 16Mhz or sixteen million instructions per
second.
Let's take a look at another switch example. Open up:
File → Examples → 05.Control → switchCase2
In this next example, again we see and initialize ‘Serial’ communications
like we've done before. Then we initialize our pins to OUTPUT using a
‘for’ loop, cycling from pins two through seven by one each pass. Next, we
have to check if we have received a character input from the serial port
(greater than zero means not FALSE), we will then create an integer which
will read the input from our keyboard. Alphanumeric keys come in the
form of ASCII characters, so for example 'a' = 97, 'b' = 98, 'c' = 99, etc.
This is why we record the input as an integer from Serial.read().
Next, we reach our switch, which varies based on the value we recorded
from our keyboard input inByte. We have set five possible cases and a
default in case we get a character other than our case values. For any
character a, b, c, d, e, we will toggle an LED to high. For any other value,
we will sequentially turn the LEDs off going from lowest to highest, using a
‘for’ loop.
This example shows that you can base your cases off of almost any kind of
variable. It doesn't have to be an integer. They can be anything you feel
you need to check what is happening in your sketch and react to that
condition.
Switches are a fantastic way to keep your code elegant and organized.
 Chapter 17: Coding Practices

Contained in this will be some of the best practices you can adapt to take

your coding to a higher standard. We have touched on this first topic

already, but we will expand and reiterate here. First up is naming

conventions.

Here are some best practices for your comments that will help other readers
understand you easier:
Start with a summary of the sketch and what it will
accomplish. Provide any links if it helps the understanding
of your design. Try to approach your block comments from a
user-friendly stance as much as possible to give a clear idea
of what you will be doing.
Write in the active voice. Use a clear, conversational tone for
your writing, as if you were speaking to another person
standing next to you.
For instructions to the user, use the second person, to invoke
in the user that they should be the ones to carry out your
instructions.
Use short descriptive phrases rather than complex phrases. It
is easier to understand one simple idea at a time.
Be explicit about what you are doing with your actions. For
example: “Next, you'll read the value of the sensor on pin
thisPin.”
Avoid phrases or words that are ‘fluff’ or do not contribute to
the explanation, e.g. you see, you'd want to, etc. Instead, skip
 those words and give a statement that's direct to the point,
e.g. set the pins.
Check your assumptions, make sure you have explained all
of your ideas and haven't left something that can only be
explained ‘in your head.’
Give a description for every variable or constant with a
comment of its purpose either before, or in line with the
variable or constant.
Similarly, give an explanation of a block of code that you're
about to perform before the instructions are executed, so it's
clear what's about to happen.
Every loop should have comments explaining why this loop
exists (e.g. what it is doing), and a verbal explanation of its
condition if it’s still not clear.

Coding Best Practices

Follow naming conventions

Do not create one letter variable names! Your naming conventions exist so
that you can, at a glance, read your code without having to refer to other
places to understand what is going on.
Write code that is reusable or modular

User-defined functions are a great way to accomplish this. By doing this,

you can write a segment of code in just one place and refer to it each time it
is necessary. This makes better sense and is much cleaner and simpler to
read.
Write a flow-chart of your sketch before you start coding

Seriously, this cannot be overstated how valuable this step is to write clean
code. By knowing all the pieces you will need to accomplish your sketch's
task ahead of time conceptually, you can successfully plan ahead and use
things like functions in a smart way.
 Keep things organize and together

If you make a function to smooth an analog sensor, make sure that's all it
does. Don't start doing other parts of your code within that function. If your
function needs to, you can have it call yet another function to help it
accomplish its task. Again think modular (small pieces make a big part).
Make yourself a toolbox

Make functions that do specific things. Then use your tools as needed in
your code.
Keep your sketches

Even if you think you won't need a sketch you made anymore, keep them.
If you need a piece of code that you've already written for another project
and you have followed these practices, you can simply snag that piece of
code and drop it into the new project you're working on. Brilliant!
Write your functions in a generalized way whenever possible
for these exact reasons

To put this simply, it means that if you were making a function to draw a
square, make a function to draw a rectangle instead since a square is a
special case of a rectangle, where the edges are equal.
Make sure your functions do what they say they will do

E.g., if it is a function named ‘flickerLeds’ (pinValue), it better be flickering

some LEDs!
Avoid pointers

We didn't even touch on them in this document, and we are only going to
tell you they exist to tell you not to use them unless you're an advanced
user. They are the most likely ‘tool’ to cause the crazy, bad kinds of
problems from happening in your coding, and are notoriously tough for a
beginner to use properly. So avoid them until you are sure you know what
you are doing.
 Embrace self-improvement

Understand from day 1 that as a fledgling coder that you will grow and
improve over time. Use each challenge you come across to try writing new
sketches as an opportunity to grow and hone your skills.
Reach out to the community for help and advice!

There are some really fantastic people in our big community of hobbyists
that are willing to help you learn and grow as an enthusiast.
Try to make things foolproof when you code

Try to make sure your for loops terminate, try to account for unexpected
inputs when checking values, try to constrain your data within expected
values. These ‘tedious’ steps are what keeps your program running smooth
and bug-free!
Know how to use debugging tools and techniques

It's a more advanced topic but learning about debugging tools and
techniques for large-scale projects such as robotics, or as a controller for
something like a pump mechanism will help expand your knowledge
further.
Write both brackets or both braces at the start then fill in the
date in-between

When writing functions, loops or anything with brackets and braces, this
trick helps to ensure that you will be closing all of your brackets and braces,
preventing unexpected results.
Try new ways to use your Arduino!

This is how you can really develop new skills. When you have more skills,
you can think of even more things you can do with the chip! The
possibilities with this micro-controller are nearly limitless and are bound
only by the limits of your imagination.
More Naming Best Practices
Functions follow the same rules as variables

The name should start with a lower-case letter, all one word, and additional
words are distinguished with capital letters.
Functions should use verb names to describe their function

E.g. stepMotor(), getValue(), smoothReadings(), etc. All these names

explain with an action word what this function should be doing.
Make the name describe the purpose of the function

Make sure the for loop variables are clear on what they
represent

Having a variable of x can work, but it really offers nothing to the person
reading your code for them to understand exactly what that variable is for.
 Chapter 18: How to Be an Expert Coder in the Shortest
Time Possible

Coding is not the easiest thing to do; at least this is something almost

everyone new to coding will agree with. However, as you actually go on,

you'd discover that coding is actually not so hard, challenging, yes, and it

will actually always remain challenging, but difficult and almost

impossible, that is just at the beginning. You'll also discover that what you

might find infinitely difficult might just be learning your first language.

This is quite understandable as you're just getting into a new field. As you

learn more languages, you'll discover that it actually becomes easier. The

previous languages just seem to prepare you to learn a newer one,

irrespective of the language that you've learned. This, I guess, is the reason

lots of coders advise that you learn HTML first. Although it's not a
programming language, it is very easy to learn and put into practice, and it

has a way of preparing yours for more difficult language in no time.

So how does one become an expert coder in the shortest possible time? In
fact, who's an expert coder, and how long will it take before someone can
be regarded as that?
The fact is that if you ask 5 different people in tech, they'll give you five
different answers about who an expert coder is. Here's the way I'd define an
expert coder. I consider an expert coder as one who can write good code.
Anyone can actually learn how to write code; writing good code, though, is
a different thing entirely. And this is where the tough part is, I think it
should be the aspiration of every coder to be able to write, neat, good, free-
flowing code.
Refuse To Be Intimidated
This is usually the first problem that beguiles most people learning code for
the first time. Especially those who think it is for the mathematical
geniuses. It all starts in your mind; you have to rid yourself of any form of
intimidation. "Anything can be learned," never forget this phrase. I'm not
trying to excite you up like a motivational speaker, though I'm not saying
this is bad in any way, I'm just trying to present the facts before you. And
with the array of resources available on coding, you'd be able to find a class
or two that totally resonates with your learning pattern.
Learn How To Learn
This, for me, is the most important skill every developer needs. Irrespective
of how far you've gone into coding, or how little about coding that you
know. Learn how to effectively learn, because you'd continue learning as
long as you're a coder. There's no point in the life of a programmer when he
can really say I have arrived, I have learned all that needs to be learned.
This character is something I have found amongst musicians, both
professional and those who do it as a hobby. When we meet at events and
someone does an introduction, which goes thus, "meet my badass
keyboardist friend," and then the badass keyboardist will say something
along these lines "please pay him no mind, I'm just a learner." And as the
introductions go round, and someone introduces someone who he thinks is
an excellent musician, the instrumentalist friend says, "I'm still learning."
At the event, a lot of times, it would turn out that a lot of the guys are
actually excellent instrument players. At first, I thought it was fake humility
until I started learning to play the keyboard. And the better I got, the more I
realized that there was so much more to learn about playing the instrument.
This is something most programmers understand; there's always something
to be learned. There are new code bases, new challenges you encounter as
you tackle novel projects, both personal and at work.
The rate at which the tech world is changing is astronomical. There are new
updates to languages, new tools and frameworks, and many other new
features coming out every day. A developer needs to be able to keep up;
otherwise, he/she will be left behind.
Learning is not easy. If it were, well, we'd have knowledgeable people
around us every day. If you really want to learn how to learn, then I'd
suggest that you take coursera's course. The course title is "Learning How
to Learn: Powerful mental tools to help you master tough subjects." At this
point, you'd agree that learning to code is a tough subject. The course is
free, and you'd be able to apply the skills and techniques you learn there to
any form of learning in your life, both technical and non-technical. This is
like the best free course I have taken all year, and I recommend it to
everyone who needs to or wants to keep on learning. It's going to make your
learning more efficient. I'll also suggest that you read Cal Newport's book
"Deep Work." The book contains strategies on how to learn faster and also
be more productive. It also has a very inspiring story about some guy
learning how to code and becoming very good at it and getting well paid. I
don't remember the fellow's name, but the thing is that this guy was an
entry-level accountant, but he wanted more, so he taught himself how to
code. And all these happened in less than a year.
As far as learning code is concerned, there'll be no point where you might
be able to say; I have learned it all; therefore, I know it all. Learning for a
coder is a continuous process; it never ends, the challenges, the pressure to
be the best you can be, it will not end. Perhaps until you decide to stop
coding, but one thing though that it that learning coding will get easier as
you go along. The better you get, the easier and faster it becomes for you to
learn more coding related things.
Learn To Write Code; Try the Hands-on Approach
There is the temptation by certain persons wanting to learn code to read all
the materials they can get on the language, read blog posts, and watch
videos before even writing a line for code. For effective learning, I'll say
you should begin writing code as soon as possible. That's another reason I
suggest you start learning from HTML; you can see the results of your code
immediately. You might think that you've gotten the concept of how to code
a certain feature because you saw the documentation, or you read it in a
book only to want to try it out, and you're stumped. This, I think, is one
reason I love freecodecamp, each concept you learn is paired with a
relevant exercise so that you can try out your hand on a concept. Until then,
no matter how much you think that you understood the concept from the
lesson until you do something with it, you can't be so sure. Something else
with coding is that things don't usually work right the first time; you'd be
stumped many times. So it's better you get used to getting stumped and
learning also to get yourself out of the quagmire.
Another way to reinforce learning faster is to use coding games, challenges,
and other interactive tutorials to reinforce learning. Hour of Code is one
coding game you might want to give a try, CodinGame is another coding
game you might want to try, it is more complex, but also you might be able
to put it on your resume.
Learn Computational Skills
Computational thinking is very important for a programmer. This is where
you learn to solve problems in the way a computer can interpret. These
skills are what people acquire when they study computer science. So you
see, a computer science degree is not a waste after all. Some of the topics
you'll encounter include loops, algorithms, recognizing patterns, amongst
others. These concepts will equip you with the skills to understand
programming languages easier and faster. With this knowledge, too, you
can take on more difficult projects and even design better products. Ideally,
the place you'll get this knowledge is from a degree program in computer
science from a university. However, there are online resources where you
can learn computer science for free or a token price. EdX, Coursera and
MIT OpenCourseware are some of the places you can learn about computer
science. You can also get videos on this YouTube channel.
Projects
You really can't say that you've understood a language well until you've
used it in a project. In fact, if you don't have projects in a certain language,
you might not be able to prove in a job interview that you really understood
a certain language. A project tasks you on most or all of the knowledge you
have acquired in a certain language. It reinforces what you've learned, and
also it pushes you to learn more. See, you don't have to wait until you've
gotten to the end of the course before you start attempting projects. Some
platforms like freecode camp have projects, real-life projects for real-life
organizations which you can tackle as a way to challenge yourself.
If you're looking to get into coding things very fast, you should start coding
with a project in mind, even without knowing jack about the language. It is
one easy way to learn about the features and tools. So you might decide that
you want to learn Android development, and then with your skills, you
want to be able to build an alarm clock app for your phone. So you go
online to search for resources on how to make that happen. In the process of
learning to build an alarm clock, you'll definitely learn a lot. It's a more
difficult route to use in learning, but it is a very effective one.
Tinker with Other Peoples' Code
This is after you've grasped the basics of whatever language you're learning.
At this point, it is time to find someone else's code, play around with it, and
see what happens. There are places where you can find code files; one of
them is GitHub. Open the file in your code editor and get to work. Try to
read the lines of code and try to see if you can understand what each line
does. If you can improve it, so if you have questions about the code, ask, if
you have comments, make them. And if, for any reason, you improved on
the code, upload it to GitHub or any developer forum you're on and see
people's feedback.
Join Developer Forums
This goes without saying. Development is not done in isolation. It's a group
of people building on what others have built and improving what others
have created. Most developers are open-hearted as far as sharing coding
knowledge is concerned. On these platforms, you can get people to answer
your questions, give you advice, share knowledge, and even get mentored.
Slack Overflow is a good place to be as someone learning to code. You'd be
inspired; you'd be challenged and encouraged by what you see in these
forums.
 Chapter 19: Other Factors

Becoming the best programmers depends on many factors besides learning

programming techniques in classes or over the internet. In simple terms, it

is not about programming as most beginners think. From my experience,

your level of impacts plays a lot in determining the level of your success or

how best you are as a programmer. Truly, people will not measure your

experience from how happy you look when doing programing projects but

how your programming projects are impacting the lives of many people in

society. For example, there are some people who always feel happy after

spending the whole day without doing any programming tasks while others

feel unhappy if they do not handle any projects. Also, drinking alcohol

everyday can make a person feel happy. Therefore, your level of experience
and knowledge does not show how happy you are but how you use the

learned skills.

Several studies have proved that slacking off in computer programming not
only makes person’s programming logic weaker but also destroys his/her
tempo. Normally, we miss many things when we don’t attend the classes
just like drinking coke every day ruins both our teeth and internal organs.
Just like alcohol has impacts in our bodies, your success in programming is
measured through its impacts. We will see you as a weaker programmer if
you do not use the learned programming skills to create positive impact to
you or to the society.

Levels of Impacts Resulting From Programming

Ideally, there are different levels of impacts we can use to determine how
perfect you are with programming. Yes, most programmers do not know
that their programming knowledge is judged on how it impacts them or the
society. The following are levels of the impacts:

First Level of Impact: You/ A Person

One of the step to determine how you can measure the impact is by looking
at the effects of programming has made on an individual. It is not only the
simplest way but also very important since all programmers have goals in
their mind before starting programming. Usually, you engage in various
activities or jobs because you want a result not nothing. For example, we
take our children to schools with two reasons; (1) get job in their future
lives to live better life, and (2) obtain knowledge that will help them
associate with other people in the society. It is important to know that doing
something without a purpose makes you to experience an unexpected result
on your way. Therefore, the impacts of programming on you show how best
and successful you are as a programmer.
Relationships in Life
Do you know that programming can cause certain impacts on your
relationship? In order to determine the effects of programming on your
relationship, we always look at how close you are to your love, friends, and
other people in the society. Some people chose to be software programmers
because it is their passion while others chose it because their friends are
doing it or their parents forced them.
Another main reason why people chose programming is getting jobs. In
most cases, we work in projects, deliver them, and earn income once users
use them. As programmers, we are only required to maintain the projects if
there are crashes or bugs. This gives us more time to spend on our
relationships. Truly, human life is all about relationship but not how much
we earn per day. You may be earning five or six digits but you are not
happy at all because you lack freedom to associate with people, particularly
your love ones and relatives. Let me tell you, people get more fulfillments
out of life when there are some people whom they love and care for. You
should spend your earnings with the people you love. As such, work is
supposed to improve your relationship with love and relatives.

Impacts on Your Health and Life

In this modern life, your mind and body are the two main assets you must
value most. Both body and mind are irreplaceable in our life. Therefore,
you must take care of our mind and bodies to avoid them deteriorating over
the time. Surely, every person wants to have a longer life, and as such, it is
important to consider health when measuring how best you are as a
programmer. You career as a programmer would not be either good if you
are not healthy.
Money is worthless when compared to our mind and health. I tell you,
money will always come on your way when you develop a good mind,
which include practicing daily to solve problems, looking for answers, and
thinking deep and creatively. You should not only get enough sleep but also
build a habit that will train your mind just like writing and reading books.
Make coding to be a favorite way to train you. The best programmers
always spend at least thirty to forty minutes per day on programming. This
is very important to their health. We can say health is your life and you
should take care of it in order to live longer.

Having Full Enjoyment

We have seen previously that happy is not the measurement of the success
of a person; it is only a part of it, though we need it. You can increase your
productivity in programming by engaging in things that you enjoy. What do
I mean? I mean that a person can be more productivity in his/her
programming work if he/she gives himself/herself a chance to enjoy life.
Being more productivity in programming has more impact too. In addition,
you should know that there is a great difference between passion and
hobbies. While hobby refers to doing something you enjoy, passion refers to
thing you like doing throughout the life. For example, my passion is coding
and my hobby is learning Japanese language. I always study Japanese when
I am a little bit frustrated with some complex coding. This gives enough
time to refresh my mind before diving back into the world of coding.
It is always better to give yourself enough time to relax or take a break to
make your brain work on the problem subconsciously. But what do you do
if you find it hard to solve the problem even after relaxing? It is easy. Just
give your brain enough time to solve the problem in the background. In
fact, this is one of the main reasons why most ideas come in our minds
when we are eating, showering, or drinking tea.

The Second Level of Impact:

This is to know how your programming knowledge and skills impact other
people and the society at large.

Impact on Others
Before you consider yourself as the best programmers, it is important to ask
yourself about the impact you cause to other people when you are coding.
Okay, you may be like that you know how to code because it is the most
useful tool available for impacting the lives of many people positively. You
can impact people by either enabling them to get data easily, improve their
websites, or increase sales. Every person must have a goal in mind why you
are doing a particular job. One of the goals in programming is helping other
people achieve their objectives. You will be recognized as the best
programmers when you help others and organizations to succeed and at the
same time meeting your goals. I know it is sometimes difficult for most
programmers, but you can become the best programmers if you do this.

Giving Purpose to Other People

Every person has a purpose in life, and this is seen when an individual
dedicate his/her life to doing certain thing. For programmers, their purpose
is revealed when they engage in building projects and software. Now, let us
ask ourselves where this sense of purpose comes from. In normal cases, our
purpose comes from the surrounding, society, friends, and internet. For
example, we develop an interest in programming after we encounter those
who do programming and have achieved a lot in their lives. To be precise,
they are the main people who can inspire you to engage in programming.
But what will you do in case those people fail to give us ideas? There is a
higher chance that you will not have a right purpose. We all have different
purpose in our lives and that is the main reason why we all do different
work. We were not born to do the same job. While some people are born to
be developers, others are born to be doctors, teachers, or politicians.
According to Mark Zuckerberg during his Harvard Commencement Speech,
people must have a generational challenge for our society to continue
moving forward. We should not only create new jobs for the youth or our
people but promote a sense of purpose. However, it is not easy to have a
purpose for yourself. You should also create a sense of purpose to other
people in the society. Let us take the following example. You need to hire
workers if you build a company. These workers play a significant role to the
growth of your company. It is, however, your responsibility, as an employer,
not only to give them a sense of purpose but also help them to grow in
society.
 Chapter 20: Landing a Job
Getting A Job Without Experience

Getting started with finding your first job can be difficult. There is quite a

bit of competition. Many recent college graduates compete for the same

position as you.

How to be chosen from all the other candidates?

The answer is to differentiate yourself, stand out from the rest.
What is the type of job you want?
The first thing you should do to stand out from the rest and get your first
job even if you don't have experience is to know what you want.
Do you want to be a front end developer, a back end developer or a mobile
developer? Neither is better than the other, it is about what you like, you
will spend the following years of your life coding, what better it is in those
technologies that you love.
Study the market offers
You have already decided the type of developer you will be, now you must
know what you need to know or know to get the desired job.
Depending on the country where you live, there are Internet portals where
employers publish the available job offers. Perform a search, you can try for
example with “Developer backend jr”. Do not be in a hurry to apply for
whatever job that appears in your search. What you should do is analyze the
market.
Most of the job offers will ask you for technologies that you must know and
divide them into two sections,
Required which you must know to get the job and the desired ones that are
a plus or extra if you know them.
Analyze various job offers and analyze the technologies that are repeated
and make a list of them. It will serve you later.
Some job offers publish the salary range and the benefits they offer in
others wait to make a call if they are interested in your profile. I'm going to
tell you this to give you an idea of what you can earn in your first job, since
getting out of that rank can affect your chances of being hired.
Acquire the skills you need for your dream job
Here is a news that will be a bit harsh. Everything you learned in college
during your 4 or 5 years spent in it is not enough for the world of work.
Most of what you learned just lays the groundwork for what's next (in
addition to giving you that valuable piece of paper called a title that
companies still ask to employ you).
Do you remember the list you made with the desired and required
technologies that are most repeated to you according to your choice of type
of development you want to dedicate yourself to? It is time to use it.
You will have to study and master these technologies. Most companies will
give you an oral or written exam to verify that you can perform the job for
which they are hiring you. So study and strive.
You can choose to review free tutorials on the Internet or videos on
YouTube. But my recommendation is that you buy courses on Udemy or
Platzi since their teachers and community will answer your questions and
guide you step by step. This will save you a lot of time, unlike searching for
information scattered throughout the Internet.
Show your knowledge
Now how do you show the employer that you have the necessary
knowledge?
Having no experience, you must demonstrate in another way that you have
the ability you claim to have.
In programming there is nothing better than github to demonstrate your
skills.
If you do not know Git and Github you are one step behind your
competition, but do not worry it is not something that with a little study you
cannot remedy.
Show off your skills by writing a blog or YouTube. Do not expect to fill the
blog with advertising or become a youtuber. The objective is not that. The
objective is to demonstrate that you have the necessary knowledge.
You want to go one step further, buy a domain with your name and a
hosting. It will make you look more professional.
The last option to demonstrate your knowledge is certifications.
Certifications are documents issued by authorized companies that when you
pass an exam (quite difficult at times) certify that you have extensive
knowledge of this technology.
Create a linkedIn account, fill out your profile to be visible and have an
online presence make sure to link your github or website.
Creating a Perfect Resume
Forget about putting the information of your preschool and high school, just
put relevant information, and put the information of your university only.
You can also put information about your middle school if it has technical
training in computer science or similar if it is not, also omit it.
The information you fill out will be related to your acquired skills.
Write all the technologies in which you have knowledge and link to the
blog, YouTube channel, Github or website where you demonstrate it.
Never you to put technologies that you do not know in your CV, it will
automatically untie you from the selection process and if it is very easy to
notice it in a technical interview, believe me.
Postulant
It's time to go back to the Job Search Portals and fill them with your
information, your new knowledge and your online github profiles and
personal sites.
Do a search with the characteristics you want from the job.
In the course you will find dubious offers, it is better to avoid them since
they will slow down your development.
I don't know if you noticed it during your search, but it is in the big cities
that most of the offers are concentrated in addition to being the best paid. If
you live in one of them you will have no problems, but if not, sooner or
later you will have to move.
In your search you have already found several companies where you would
like to work, contact them and send that resume that you made with so
much effort and patiently waiting for an answer. You can do this once a day
with new offers.
 Conclusion

The best way to learn programming is really just to challenge yourself.

Start putting yourself out there and seeking programming challenges. Think

of something that you want to do and then start looking into whether other

people have done it. If they have, look into the way that they did it and try

to find a way that you could do it yourself. If they haven’t, then this gives

you a perfect opportunity to be the first to do something. Get your hands

dirty and start looking into and learning as much about things having to do

with programming as you possibly can.

I’m going to say this right now: Programming is not easy. You have a long
and arduous journey ahead of you, and the truth about programming is that
to be a programmer means to submit yourself to constantly learning. At no
point in programming do you ever consider yourself “done with learning’.
One of the big problems they face when starting in this programming world
is that when you start you want to make complex programs, pages, and
professional applications, but at the critical moment there can be some
difficulties, even when you have the experience, for this reason, we decided
to share some tips to shorten the learning curve:
1-Know the origins first.
This does not mean that you completely learn the history of the computer,
but you must know it, that will give you the notion of how everything came
about, so you will know how everything works, from data to an operating
system.
2-Master basic concepts.
Know computer concepts such as what is a data, record, field, information
among others. As theoretical and boring as this may seem, it will help a
future to understand how multiple functions work and why they are made
that way.
3- Make an algorithm before starting to throw codes.
If you do not know what it is sincerely I tell you that you will less
understand what you do, this is a serious mistake that many programmers
make that we do not give importance to the analysis before starting, I advise
you that if you are starting as a programmer, you first practice informal
algorithms, then it happens to the computations.
This will open up your logic as a programmer and will make a kind of
connection between your mind and the computer so that both friends can
easily understand.

4-Study fundamental functions of programming

When we start as a programmer, it is necessary that we know perfectly the
functions like for "for," while "while," if "if" but "else," among others,
where our code starts, because it must have an end and a set of fundamental
operations that are in general use.
And you will ask yourself: What is all this for me to learn any programming
language? Simple and straightforward programming in general, and in any
programming language be it Python, PHP, C ++, C, C #, Java, etc. a "for"
will remain a "for" an "if" will continue to be "if" and a "function" will
continue to be "function" the only thing that varies are the details of the
language's own syntax.
5-Anyone can program
You must trust yourself and be persevering, what makes good programmers
is not that they have exceptional talent better than everyone or anything like
that, rather they know and master the concepts that I have mentioned
before, This means that they are made to learn both a new language and to
understand well what they do as programmers.
Be patient read, study, use the documentation that is offered, one of my
teachers says that when he started as a programmer he made many
mistakes, and it was very difficult to adapt to programming, today he is one
of the best and most recognized programmers from my country.
If you take these tips to the letter, success as a programmer awaits you, and
many doors will open in this wonderful world of technology.
 CODING WITH PYTHON:
A SIMPLE AND STRAIGHTFORWARD
GUIDE FOR BEGINNERS TO LEARN
FAST PROGRAMMING WITH PYTHON.

Eugene Gates
 Introduction

here are various operating systems that you are able to work without there.
Each of them is set up to handle different situations and help you to get
different things done with your work. But you will find that one of the best
coding languages out there, the one that will help you to get the most done
while still being easy to maintain and work with, is the Python language.
There are a lot of coders and programmers out there who love to work with
the Python language. And as we go through this guidebook and learn a bit
more about this language and what it is able to help us do, you will not take
long before you realize why it is such a popular option to work with, and
why so many people love it. Some of the different benefits that you will be
able to see when it is time to work with the Python language includes:
Python is an easy coding language to learn how to use. If you have never
had a chance to work with any coding language at all, then you are going to
really enjoy working with the Python language overall. This is going to
make it easier for us to handle some of the coding that we are not used to,
and you will be able to catch on to some of the basics that come with
coding in Python and more in no time at all.
Python has a lot of power and resources behind it. Sometimes there is worry
that working with this language is going to be too easy that you will not be
able to handle some of the more complicated codes that you would like to
work with. The Python language is often going to be advertised as a
beginner's language, and this can keep a few programmers away from it.
The good news here is that the Python language is not just a good coding
language for beginners to get started with. It is also a good language that is
going to help you to get a lot of the different codes that you want. We will
take a look at some of the different options that you can do when it is time
to code, and we are going to spend some time on them in this guidebook as
well. And you will be able to handle them with plenty of strength that
comes in the Python language.
And if there are a few things that you may struggle within this language, or
that are not strong enough to handle, then you will be able to combine in
another language, while still relying on the Python syntax. You will find
that Python works well with a lot of other coding languages, and several of
the libraries that work with Python can help you to get this done. This will
ensure that the few tasks you need help with will work well, while still
choosing the Python language.
Python has a great standard library to work with. For the beginner coder,
and someone who is just getting started with some of the work that comes
with the Python language, or any coding for that matter, you will find that
the regular library of Python is going to have all of the parts that you need.
You will be able to use the standard library of Python in order to handle all
of the coding that we are going to explore in this guidebook.
Python has a lot of extensions and other libraries that can help to add to the
capabilities that come with this language. Even though there is a lot that we
are able to do when it comes to working on the Python language, you will
find that there are also some good extensions that you can take a look at as
well. These are going to be good options to go with because they will
extend out what the Python language is able to handle, and will make it
easier to handle things like science, math, machine learning, data science,
and so much more.
The kinds of extensions that you are going to use will really depend on
what your goals are overall with the language. If you want to work with
machine learning and this language, then there are a lot of great libraries
and extensions that you are able to choose to help with that as well. But
there are also some that work with other features and capabilities as well, so
you need to make sure that you are choosing the right one for your needs.
Python has a large community that can provide beginners with the support
and helps they need. At some point, there will be some part of coding that
you are not sure how to do, or you are going to run into something that may
not make sense when it is time to work on your coding. This is going to
happen with many beginners, so it is nothing to be worried about But since
there is a nice community out there of other programmers and coders who
like to use Python, you will be able to find the assistance that you need in
no time.
This community will be there to help you to get going overall, and they can
answer all of your questions, make sure that you understand what is going
on, and just provide you with all of the resources that you need to make
sure you are doing well. You can visit this community as often as you need
to make sure that you are able to handle all of the different coding options
that you want to work with too.
Python is considered an OOP language that relies on classes and objects to
keep things nice and organized Right now, that may not seem to mean all
that much for you. But in the long run, it is going to help us to make sure
that we can keep all of the parts of our code organized and easy to work
with. The code is set up so that you can create the classes that you need
while still ensuring that you can add in the objects of the code and find
everything later on.
This was not something that we were able to find with some of the
traditional coding languages out there. These could sometimes be harder to
work with than Python and other options because they are not going to be
that organized and things can move around on you. But in Python, the code
is going to rely on those classes and more to ensure that it works the way
that you want, and that you are able to find the objects that you need.
Python is a great general-purpose language that is easy to learn, has all of
the features that you would want in a coding language, and so much more.
If you don’t want to get into a language that is too technical, but you do
want to make sure that you pick out a language that is able to handle a lot of
different programming tasks at the same time, then Python is the right
language for your needs.
You would want to go through and work with the Python language for many
reasons, especially when you are new to the world of coding. For those who
have never been able to do any coding in the past, you will find that the
Python coding adds in all of the ease of use that you need to see success
while still ensuring that you are going to be able to get all of the power that
you need actually to complete some of the coding that you would like.
 Chapter 1 What is Python?

he introduction of technologies, especially computers, has influenced our

behavior differently. Some people spend most of their time on computers
that create programs and websites to make a living, while others mess
around with computers to try to understand many different things about
how machines work. Programming is one of the areas in networks that most
people in the world focus on as a source of income. They can work in a
company or computer repair to protect computers from attacks such as
hackers or viruses. One of the most advanced programming tools is Python
because anyone, including beginners or experts, can easily use and read it.
The secret to using Python is that you can read it because it contains syntax,
which allows you as a programmer to express your concepts without
necessarily creating a coding page. This is what makes Python easier to use
and read than the other codes, including C ++ and Java. Overall, Python is
the best language for you because of its usability and readability. We are
therefore confident that it will be easy for you to read and understand all the
codes you enter while creating your first program during and after this
course.
 Features of the Python
Python has the following characteristics:
• Large library: it works with other programming projects
such as searching for texts, connecting to the web servers and
exchanging files.
• Interactive: Using the Python is very simple because
you can easily test codes to determine if they work.
• It is free software: so you can always download it from
the internet with your computer.
• Python programming language can be extended to
other modules such as C ++ and C.
• Has an elegant syntax that makes it easy for beginners
to read and use.
• Has several basic data types to choose from.

History of the Python

Python programming was discovered by Guido Van Rossum in 1989
while he was carrying out a project at the Dutch research institute CWI, but
it was later discontinued. Guido has successfully used a number of basic
languages, the so-called ABC language, to work on the Python. According
to Van Rossum, the strength of the python language is that you can either
keep it simple or extend it to more platforms to support many platforms at
once. The design allowed the system to communicate with the libraries and
various file formats easily.
Since its introduction, many programmers now use Python in the world, and
in fact, many tools are included to improve operation and efficiency. Many
programmers have taken various initiatives to educate everyone about using
python programming language and how it can help ease the fear of complex
computer codes.
However, the Python was made open source by Van Rossum a few years
ago to allow all programmers access and even make changes to it. This has
changed a lot in the field of programming. For example, there was a release
of the Python 2.0. Python 2.0 was community-oriented, making it
transparent in the development process. While many people don't use
Python, there are still some programmers and organizations that use part of
the version.
The Python 3, a unique version, was released in 2008. Although the version
has many different functions, it is completely different from the first two
versions and it is not easy to update the program. While this version is not
backwards compatible, it has a small creator to show what needs to be
changed when uploading the files.

Why You Should Use Python

There are many types of computer coding programs in the world, each with
its advantages and disadvantages. However, Python has proven to be the
best option for a variety of reasons, such as readability, and can be used on
many platforms without changing things. Using Python has the following
advantages;
Readability
Since it is designed in the English language, a beginner will find it easy to
read and us. There are also a number of rules that help the programmer
understand how to format everything, and this makes it easy for a
programmer to create a simple code that other people can follow when
using their projects with it.
Community
Today, there are many workshops for Python worldwide. A beginner can
visit online, offline or both to learn more or even seek clarification on
Python. Also, online and offline workshops can improve your
understanding of Python, as well as your socialization skills. It is best for
the personal computer as it works successfully on many different platforms.
In fact, all beginners find it easy to code or learn from the expert.
Libraries
For over 25 years, programmers have been using Python to teach the
beginners how to use different codes written with it. The system is very
open to programmers and they can use the available codes indefinitely. In
fact, a student can download and install the system and use it for their
personal use, such as writing your codes and completing the product.

General Terms in the Python

Understanding the standard terms used in Python is essential to you. It
makes everything easy to know when you get started. Following are the
most common terms in the Python programming language;
• Function: refers to a code block that is called when a
programmer uses a calling program. The goal is also to provide
free services and accurate calculation.
• Class: a template used for developing user-defined
objects. It is friendly and easy to use by everyone including the
beginners.
• Ver Immutable: refers to an object with a fixed value
and is contained within the code. These can be numbers, strings,
or tuples. Such an object cannot be changed.
• St Docstring: Refers to a string that is displayed in the
function, class definition, and module. This object is always
available in the documentation tools.
• List: refers to the data type built into the Python and
contains values sorted. Such values include strings and
numbers.
• LE IDLE: Stands for an integrated development
environment that allows the users to type the code while
interpreting and editing it in the same window. Best suited for
beginners because it is an excellent example of code.
• Interactive: Python has become the most suitable
programming language for beginners due to its interactive
nature. As a beginner, you can try out many things in the IDLE
(interpreter to see their response and effects).
• Qu Triple Quoted String: The string helps an individual
to have single and double quotes in the string, making it easy to
go through different lines of code.
 • Object: it refers to all data in a state such as attitudes,
methods, defined behaviors or values.
• Type: refers to a group of data categories in the
programming language and differences in properties, functions
and methods.
• Tuple: Refers to the datatype built into the Python and is
an unchanging set of values, although it contains some
changeable values.

Advantages of Python Language

Using the Python program has many advantages over other programming
languages such as C ++ and Java. You will be happy to see the availability
and how easy it is to learn and use the Python program. Ideally, these are
the best programming languages you can use right now, especially if you
are a beginner. Following are some of the advantages of using Python
language;
It is easy to use, write and read
Many programmers face some challenges when using programming
languages such as Java and C ++. They are difficult to view due to their
design. One has to spend a lot of his / her time learning about the use of
parentheses and it is not easy to recognize some of the words used in these
programming languages. Such words can scare you, especially if you are
just getting acquainted with the programming languages. Unlike Java and C
++ languages, Python does not use crazy brackets. It only uses indents,
making it easy to read the page. It uses English which makes it easy to
understand characters.
In addition to using indents, Python uses a lot of white spaces, making it
easy to learn and read what's needed. It consists of many places with
comments to allow you to understand or get clarification in case the
program confuses you. So check it out and you will see how easy it is to use
the Python programming language.
It uses English as the primary language
Using Python is easy because the main language is English. As a beginner,
you will spend less time reading and understanding the basic words used
when programming in Python. So, whether you speak native or non-native
English, Python is best for you because most words are simple and easy to
understand.
Python is already available on some computers
Some computers such as macOS systems and Ubuntu come with Python
pre-installed. In this case, you just need to download the text interpreter to
get started with Python programming. However, you must download the
program on your computer if you are using a Windows computer. In fact,
Python works fine even if you didn't install it from the beginning.
Python works perfectly with other programming languages
For the first time, you will be using Python alone. However, you will realize
that Python can work with other languages as you continue programming.
Some of the programming languages that you can work with Python include
C ++ and JavaScript. Try to learn more about Python and what it can do
practically. You will be able to discover many things over time.

Th Python can be used to test many things

You need to download the test interpreter once you have downloaded the
Python. Test interpreter plays an important role in enabling Python to read
the information. It's good to use a simple product like Notepad that is
available in your Windows or other interpreters.
Disadvantages of using Python programming
While there are many advantages to using Python, it is essential to
recognize some of the adverse effects of using it. Some individuals prefer to
use other programming languages such as C ++ and JavaScript for Python
because of the following negative effects of Python.
Python has a slow speed
While Python works well with other programming languages and is suitable
for beginners, it is unfortunate that Python is not ideal for programmers
looking for a high speed program as it is a slower translated language than
the other options. The level of speed depends on the content you are
translating because some benchmarks with Python code work faster
compared to other codes. Currently, many programmers around the world
are trying to solve this problem by making the interpreting speed faster. It is
hopeful that Python will run at the same rate or even faster than C and C ++
soon.
Python is not available in most mobile browsers
While Python works well for those who have regular computers and is
accessible on many server platforms and desktops to help individuals create
the codes they are looking for, it is not yet ready for mobile computing.
Programmers are trying to transition the program to mobile computing to
cater to today's large numbers of people who use cell phones.
Limited design
Python program is not a better option for programmers looking for a
program with many design options. For example, the design language is not
available in some other options; so you will need more time to test and
sometimes a lot of errors can occur when you run the program.
 Chapter 2 Why Python?
have experience coding in several programming languages. Last week, I
was discussing a project with a friend who is a developer, and out of
nowhere, he asked me the question “Why Python? Of all the languages that
are available, why did you settle with Python?” My friend definitely caught
me off guard because I had never thought about it. The day I started
programming with Python was the day I almost stopped coding in any other
language. I still occasionally use other languages depending upon the
project, but, if given the choice, I pick Python every time.
But, why? Yes, this is a small question but it carries a lot of weight. I spent
a few days figuring out the advantages of using Python over other
languages. Of course, I can list a few problems, too. I am going to share my
point of view with you now.
The Alternatives
Before we look into Python, let’s talk about the alternatives we can use for
programming.
The C Family
UNIX is arguably the first operating system that was widely used across
different computer systems. AT&T Bell Laboratories developed the
operating system for minicomputers in the late 1960s based upon a
language that we now call the C language. AT&T forced companies using
Bell systems to use UNIX which meant UNIX was ported to various
different computer systems along with the C language. Because the C
language became so common, many languages that were developed later
provided a similar coding environment to make it easier for C language
programmers to use them.
The list of C-family programming languages is a long one, but some
became more famous than others. C, C++ and C# are the three most
popular, closely followed by Objective C.
Advantages
• As of October 2019, C is the most widely used language
family after Java and Python. Embedded systems and operating
systems still depend heavily on C language
• Every programmer should learn at least one of the C, C++ or
C# languages to understand what happens in the background
during program execution

Disadvantages
• It is difficult to learn as it forces programmer to focus on
things that modern programming languages take care of
automatically
• The syntax, although it inspired a lot of other languages, is
very ugly.
• A lot of extraneous lines of codes are required even to perform
the most basic tasks.
Java Platform
Thanks to the millions of web applications developed using the language,
Java is possibly the most widely used programming language in the
world. Released as a core component of the Java platform in 1995 by Sun
Microsystems, it enabled applications built using Java to run on any
computer system that has Java Virtual Machine (JVM). Although it has a
syntax similar to C and C++ languages, it doesn’t demand low-level
considerations from the programmers. Oracle has acquired Sun
Microsystems and now manages Java platform.
For years, Microsoft’s C# and Sun’s Java remained in a cold war, each
trying to outdo the other programming language. Both languages were
heavily criticized for adding new features just to win a competition instead
of following a standard direction. It was not until 2004 that both languages
took to separate ways and developed into the unique languages as we know
them today.
Even then, Java remains the top programming language in the world and
Java platform runs on almost every laptop, game console, data center, and
even supercomputers.
Advantages
• Java frees the programmer from computer dependencies and
offers a vast degree of freedom
• Java is compatible with almost all computer systems. It means
almost every program created using Java language will run on all
those systems without any issues.
Disadvantages
• There have been serious security issues with Java over the
years. Severe security vulnerabilities were found in the last Java
version and Oracle advised every Java user to update to the latest
version.
• Java programs are known to be slower than the competition
even though there have been huge performance improvements in
recent versions.
• For a long time Java remained a proprietary platform. Even
after Sun declared it open-source, a long copyright battle ensued
between Oracle and Google over the use of Java in Google’s
Android.
Python is Different
We have briefly tackled the best options we have if we don’t want to use
Python. They are great options but before you jump ship, let me tell you
why I chose Python over others.
• Python is one of the easiest high-level programming
languages to learn. It means the time it takes from setup to
coding programs is very short.
• Code written in Python is easier to understand. It enables
programmers to consult codes written by other programmers to
adapt for their project.
 • Python is an interpreter language. Code is executed one line at
a time which makes debugging easier for beginners.
• Python code can run on any computer no matter if it’s
Windows, Linux, UNIS, or a macOS based system.
• Python has a vast standard library that provides methods for
unique project requirements.
• Python supports various coding paradigms including Object
Oriented Programming (OOP) and functional programming.
• Python programming language is free and open source. This
has helped create an active programmer community and detailed
tutorials are available for free on the Internet.
• The open source nature of the language has also enabled many
programmers to extend Python capabilities by writing special
libraries. These libraries are available on the Internet free of
charge for everyone’s use.
• It’s very easy to create Graphical User Interface (GUI)
through Python.
• One of the biggest advantages of Python is its ability to
integrate with different programming languages. You can import a
specific library and start coding in a completely different language
and Python will understand the codes. Python supports extended
integration with C++ and Java. Not only that, Python code can be
placed inside a code written with another programming language.
These are the general advantages of Python over other programming
languages. Depending upon your project, Python might be able to provide
even more benefits. We are going to see how Python makes data analysis
easy.
Advantages of Using Python in Data Analysis
Strong with Strings
Python has a special place for strings. There are multiple string related
operations supported by Python. These operations are a big help in data
analysis stages of parsing and processing if you are dealing with string
data.
Dedicated Libraries
There are dedicated libraries in Python that help make data analysis projects
easier to handle. The libraries are regularly updated which means they are
compatible with the latest analysis algorithms.
Some of the popular data analysis libraries available on Python are:

1. NumPy: Collection of mathematical functions for fast

calculations
2. SciPy: Offers advanced scientific tools
3. Pandas: Offers robust handling of mathematical components
using data structures
4. Matplotlib: Offers data visualization methods including line
plots, bar charts, and scatter plots.
Highly Scalable
Python is very efficient in handling large and complex datasets. This quality
has made this programming language invaluable to companies like
YouTube, Facebook, and Amazon that deal with huge data on a consistent
basis.
Fast Deployment
With a simple coding syntax and straightforward development process, it’s
definitely faster to create and deploy applications using Python as compared
to other languages.
If you look at the larger picture, Python provides the easiest yet most robust
coding environment. It’s faster to learn and deploy applications. It
integrates well with other programming languages and technologies. There
are tons of free tutorials and documentations available online for help if you
are not able to resolve an issue.
All of the above qualities make Python the best package when it comes to
programming languages. Yes, you might find that another programming
language suits your needs better for a specific application, for example, for
web applications JavaScript is more popular, and for database, SQL is used
more. But, as a whole, Python offers you everything you need for 90% of
the programming tasks.
Knowing all this, do you still think I made a mistake sticking with Python?
Personally, I think it was a great decision. I told my friend all these points
and he was amazed by how versatile Python is. Whenever I meet someone
who asks me where they should start with programming, I recommend they
start with Python.
 Chapter 3 Installing Python

o code in Python, you must have the Python Interpreter installed in your
computer. You must also have a text editor in which you will be writing and
saving your Python codes. The good thing with Python is that it can run on
various platforms like Windows, Linux, and Mac OS. Most of the current
versions of these operating systems come installed with Python. You can
check whether Python has been installed on your operating system by
running this command on the terminal or operating system console:
Python
Type the above command on the terminal of your operating system then hit
the Enter/Return key.
The command should return the version of Python installed on your system.
If Python is not installed, you will be informed that the command is not
recognized; hence you have to install Python.
Choosing a Python Version
The main two versions of Python are 2.x and 3.x. Python 3.x is obviously
the latest one but Python 2.x as of today is most likely still the most used
one. Python 3.x is however growing much faster in terms of adoption.
Python 2.x is still in use in many software companies. More and more
enterprises however are moving to Python 3.x. There are several technical
differences between the 2 versions. We can summarize in very a simple way
as Python 2.x is legacy and Python 3.x is the future. The advice for you is to
go for the latest version Python 3.x. From 2020 Python 2.x is not be
supported anymore.

General Installations Instruction

Installing Python is very easy. All you need to do is follow the steps
described below:

1. Go to Python downloads page

https://www.python.org/downloads/
 2. Click the link related to your operating system

3. Click on the latest release and download according to your

operating system
4. Launch the package and follow the installation instructions (we
recommend to leave the default settings)
Make sure you click on Add Python 3.x to PATH. Once the
installation is finished

you are set to go!

5. Access your terminal

IDLE
Test that all works by writing your first Python code:
☐ print ("I'm running my first Python code")
Press enter or return, this is what you should get
You can do the same also by launching this command using a file. We will
address this after we address the Python IDLE or another code editor.

Installation on Windows
To install Python on Windows, download Python from its official website
then double click the downloaded setup package to launch the installation.
You can download the package by clicking this link:
https://www.python.org/downloads/windows/
It will be good for you to download and install the latest package of Python
as you will be able to enjoy using the latest Python packages. After
downloading the package, double click on it and you will be guided through
on-screen instructions on how to install Python on your Windows OS.

Installation on Linux (Ubuntu)

In Linux, there are a number of package managers that can be used for
installation of Python in various Linux distributions. For example, if you
are using Ubuntu Linux, run this command to install Python:
$ sudo apt-get install python3-minimal
Python will be installed on your system. However, most of the latest
versions of various Linux distributions come installed with Python. Just run
the “python” command. If you get a Python version as the return, then
Python has been installed on your system. If not, go ahead and install
Python.

Installation on Mac OS
To install Python in Mac OS, you must first download the package. You can
find it by opening the following link on your web browser:
https://www.python.org/downloads/mac-osx/
After the setup has been downloaded, double click it to launch the
installation. You will be presented with on screen instructions that will
guide through the installation process. Lastly, you will have Python running
on your Mac OS system.

Running Programs
One can run Python programs in two main ways:
• Interactive interpreter
• Script from command line

Interactive Interpreter or Interactive Mode via Shell

Python comes with a command line which is commonly referred to as the
interactive interpreter. You can write your Python code directly on this
interpreter and press the enter key. You will get instant results. If you are on
Linux, you only have to open the Linux terminal then type “python”. Hit
the enter key and you will be presented with the Python interpreter with the
>>> symbol. To access the interactive Python interpreter on Windows, click
Start -> All programs, then identify “Python …” from the list of programs.
In my case, I find “Python 3.5” as I have installed Python 3.5. Expand this
option and click “Python …”. In my case, I click “Python 3.5(64-bit)” and I
get the interactive Python interpreter.

Here, you can write and run your Python scripts directly. To write the
“Hello” example, type the following on the interpreter terminal:
print("Hello")
Hit the enter/return key and the text “Hello” will be printed on the
interpreter:
 Script from Command Line
This method involves writing Python programs in a file, then invoking the
Python interpreter to work on the file. Files with Python should be saved
with a .py extension. This is a designation to signify that it is a Python file.
For example, script.py, myscript.py, etc. After writing your code in the file
and saving with the name “mycode.py”, you can open the operating system
command line and invoke the Python interpreter to work on the file. For
example, you can run this command on the command line to execute the
code on the file mycode.py:

python mycode.py
The Python interpreter will work on the file and print the results on the
terminal.

Python IDE (Integrated Development Environment)

If you have a GUI (Graphical User Interface) application capable of
supporting Python, you can run the Python on a GUI environment. The
following are the Python IDEs for the various operating systems:
• UNIX- IDLE
• Windows- PythonWin
Macintosh comes along with IDLE IDE, downloadable from the official
website as MacBinary or BinHex'd files.
 Chapter 4 What are Data Types?

very program has certain data that allows it to function and operate in the
way we want. The data can be a text, a number, or any other thing in
between. Whether complex in nature or as simple as you like, these data
types are the cogs in a machine that allow the rest of the mechanism to
connect and work.
Python is a host to a few data types and, unlike its competitors, it does not
deal with an extensive range of things. That is good because we have less to
worry about and yet achieve accurate results despite the lapse. Python was
created to make our lives, as programmers, a lot easier.

Strings
In Python, and other programming languages, any text value that we may
use, such as names, places, sentences, they are all referred to as strings. A
string is a collection of characters, not words or letters, which is marked by
the use of single or double quotation marks.
To display a string, use the print command, open up a parenthesis, put in a
quotation mark, and write anything. Once done, we generally end the
quotation marks and close the bracket.
Numeric Data Type
Just as the number suggests, Python is able to recognize numbers rather
well. The numbers are divided into two pairs:

Integer – A positive and negative whole numbers that are

represented without any decimal points.
Float – A real number that has a decimal point representation.
This means, if you were to use 100 and 100.00, one would be identified as
an integer while the other will be deemed as a float. So why do we need to
use two various number representations?
If you are designing a program, suppose a small game that has a character’s
life of 10, you might wish to keep the program in a way that whenever a
said character takes a hit, his life reduces by one or two points. However, to
make things a little more precise, you may need to use float numbers. Now,
each hit might vary and may take 1.5, 2.1, or 1.8 points away from the life
total.
Using floats allows us to use greater precision, especially when calculations
are on the cards. If you aren’t too troubled about the accuracy, or your
programming involves whole numbers only, stick to integers.
Booleans
Boolean (or bool) is a data type that can only operate on and return two
values: True or False. Booleans are a vital part of any program, except the
ones where you may never need them, such as our first program. These are
what allow programs to take various paths if the result is true or false.
Here’s an example. Suppose you are traveling to a country you have never
been to. There are two choices you are most likely to face.
If it is cold, you will be packing your winter clothes. If it is warm, you will
be packing clothes which are appropriate for warm weather. Simple, right?
That is exactly how the Booleans work. We will look into the coding aspect
of it as well. For now, just remember, when it comes to true and false, you
are dealing with a bool value.
List
While this is slightly more advanced for someone at this stage of learning,
the list is a data type that does exactly what it sounds like. It lists objects,
values, or stores data within square brackets ([]). Here’s what a list would
look like:
month = ['Jan', 'Feb', 'March', 'And so on!']

Variables
You have the passengers, but you do not have a mode of commuting; they
will have nowhere to go. These passengers would just be folks standing
around, waiting for some kind of transportation to pick them up. Similarly,
data types cannot function alone. They need to be ‘stored’ in these vehicles,
which can take them places. These special vehicles, or as we programmers
refer to as containers, are called ‘variables,’ and they are exactly what
perform the magic for us.
Variables are specialized containers that store a specific value in them and
can then be accessed, called, modified, or even removed when the need
arises. Every variable that you may create will hold a specific type of data
in them. You cannot add more than one type of data within a variable.
In other programming languages, you will find that in order to create a
variable, you need to use the keyword ‘var’ followed by an equals mark ‘=’
and then the value. In Python, it is a lot easier, as shown below:
name = "John"
age = 33
weight = 131.50
is_married = True
In the above, we have created a variable named ‘name’ and given it a value
of characters. If you recall strings, we have used double quotation marks to
let the program know that this is a string.
We then created a variable called age. Here, we simply wrote 33, which is
an integer as there are no decimal figures following that. You do not need to
use quotation marks here at all.
Next, we created a variable ‘weight’ and assigned it a float value.
Finally, we created a variable called ‘is_married’ and assigned it a ‘True’
bool value. If you were to change the ‘T’ to ‘t’ the system will not
recognize it as a bool and will end up giving an error.
Focus on how we used the naming convention for the last variable. We will
be ensuring that our variables follow the same naming convention.
You can even create blank variables in case you feel like you may need
these at a later point in time or wish to initiate them at no value at the start
of the application. For variables with numeric values, you can create a
variable with a name of your choosing and assign it a value of zero.
Alternatively, you can create an empty string as well by using opening and
closing quotation marks only.
empty_variable1 = 0
empty_variable2 = ""
You do not have to name them like this necessarily; you can come up with
more meaningful names so that you and any other programmer who may
read your code would understand. I have given them these names to ensure
anyone can immediately understand their purpose.
Now we have learned how to create variables, let’s learn how to call them.
What’s the point of having these variables if we are never going to use
them, right?
Let’s create a new set of variables. Have a look here:
name = "Jonah"
age = 47
height_in_cm = 170
occupation = "Programmer"
I do encourage you to use your own values and play around with variables
if you like.
In order for us to call the name variable, we simply need to type the name
of the variable. In order to print that to the console, we will do this:
print(name)
Output
Jonah
The same goes for the age, the height variable, and occupation. But what if
we wanted to print them together and not separately?
Try running the code below and see what happens:
print(name age height_in_cm occupation)
Surprised? Did you end up with this?
print(name age height_in_cm occupation)
^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax
Process finished with exit code 1
Here is the reason why that happened. When you were using a single
variable, the program knew what variable that was. The minute you added a
second, a third, and a fourth variable, it tried to look for something that was
written in that manner. Since there wasn’t any, it returned with an error that
otherwise says:
“Umm… Are you sure, Sir? I tried looking everywhere, but I couldn’t find
this ‘name age height_in_cm occupation’ element anywhere.”
All you need to do is add a comma to act as a separator like so:
print(name, age, height_in_cm, occupation)
Output:
Jonah 47 170 Programmer
“Your variables, Sir!”
And now, it knew what we were talking about. The system recalled these
variables and was successfully able to show us what their values were. But
what happens if you try to add two strings together? What if you wish to
merge two separate strings and create a third-string as a result?
first_name = “John”
last_name = “Wick”
To join these two strings into one, we can use the ‘+’ sign. The resulting
string will now be called a String Object, and since this is Python we are
dealing with, everything within this language is considered as an object.
first_name = "John"
last_name = "Wick"
first_name + last_name
Here, we did not ask the program to print the two strings. If you wish to
print these two instead, simply add the print function and type in the string
variables with a + sign in the middle within parentheses. Sounds good, but
the result will not be quite what you expect:
first_name = "John"
last_name = "Wick"
print(first_name + last_name)
Output:
JohnWick
Why do you think that happened? Certainly, we did use a space between the
two variables. The problem is that the two strings have combined together,
quite literally here, and we did not provide a white space (blank space) after
John or before Wick; it will not include that. Even the white space can be a
part of a string. To test it out, add one character of space within the first line
of code by tapping on the friendly spacebar after John. Now try running the
same command again, and you should see “John Wick” as your result.
The process of merging two strings is called concatenation. While you can
concatenate as many strings as you like, you cannot concatenate a string
and an integer together. If you really need to do that, you will need to use
another technique first to convert the integer into a string and then
concatenate the same. To convert an integer, we use the str() function.
text1 = "Zero is equal to "
text2 = 0
print(text1 + str(text2))
Output:
Zero is equal to 0
Python reads the codes in a line-by-line method. First, it will read the first
line, then the second, then third, and so on. This means we can do a few
things beforehand as well, to save some time for ourselves.
text1 = "Zero is still equal to "
text2 = str(0)
print(text1 + text2)
Output:
Zero is still equal to 0
You may wish to remember this as we will be visiting the conversion of
values into strings a lot sooner than you might expect.
There is one more way through which you can print out both string
variables and numeric variables, all at the same time, without the need for
‘+’ signs or conversion. This way is called String Formatting. To create a
formatted string, we follow a simple process, as shown here:
print(f“ This is where {var 1} will be. Then {var 2}, then {var 3} and so
on”)
Var 1, 2, and 3 are variables. You can have as many as you like here. Notice
the importance of whitespace. Try not to use the spacebar as much. You
might struggle at the start but will eventually get the hang of it.
When we start the string, we place the character ‘f’ to let Python know that
this is a formatted string. Here, the curly brackets are performing a part of
placeholders. Within these curly brackets, you can recall your variables.
One set of curly brackets will be a placeholder for each variable that you
would like to call upon. To put this in practical terms, let’s look at an
example:
show = "GOT"
name1 = "Daenerys"
name2 = "Jon"
name3 = "Tyrion"
seasons = 8
print(f"The show called {show} had characters like {name1}, {name2} and
{name3} in all {seasons} seasons. ")
Output:
The show called GOT had characters like Daenerys, Jon, and Tyrion in all 8
seasons.
 Chapter 5 How to Read Errors and Troubleshooting Your
Code

hese codes are great because they will save you a lot of time and will make
your code look nicer because you can reuse parts of your code without
tiring yourself out by having to rewrite it so many times. This is something
that you can do with object-oriented programming, or OOP, languages, a
category which Python is a part of. You can work with inheritances so you
can use a parent code and then make some adjustments to the parts of the
code that you want and make the code unique. As a beginner, you will find
that these inheritances can be quite easy to work with because you can get
the code to work the way you want it to work without having to write it out
a million times over.
To help you keep things simple and to understand how inheritances work a
little better, an inheritance is when you will take a ‘parent’ code and copy it
down into a ‘child’ code. You will then be able to work on the child code
and make some adjustments without having to make any changes in the
parent part of the code. You can do this one time and stop there, or you can
keep on going down the line and change the child code at each level
without making any changes to the parent code.
Working with inheritances can be a fun part of making your own code, and
you can make it look so much nicer without all that mess.

How to override the base class

The next thing that we can work on when it comes to inheritance codes is
how to override a base class. There will be a lot of times that while you are
working on a derived class, you have to go in and override what you have
placed inside a base class. What this means is that you will take a look at
what was placed inside the base class and then make changes to alter some
of the behavior that was programmed inside of it. This helps to bring in new
behavior which will then be available inside the child class that you plan to
create from that base class.
This does sound a little bit complicated to work with, but it can really be
useful because you can choose and pick the parental features that you
would like to place inside the derived class, which ones you would like to
keep around, and which ones you no longer want to use. This whole process
will make it easier for you to make some changes to the new class and keep
the original parts from your base class that might help you out later. It is a
simple process that you can use to make some changes in the code and get
rid of parts of the base class that is no longer working and replaces them
with something that will work better.

Overloading
Another process that you may want to consider when you’re working with
inheritances is learning how to ‘overload.’ When you work on the process
known as overloading, you can take one of the identifiers that you are
working with and then use that to define at least two methods, if not more.
For the most part, there will only be two methods that are inside of each
class, but sometimes this number will be higher. The two methods should
be inside the exact same class, but they need to have different parameters so
that they can be kept separate in this process. You will find that it is a good
idea to use this method when you want the two matched methods to do the
same tasks, but you would like them to do that task while having different
parameters.
This is not something that is common to work with, and as a beginner, you
will have very little need to use this since many experts don’t actually use it
either. But it is still something that you may want to spend your time
learning about just in case you do need to use it inside of your code. There
are some extra modules available for you that you can download so you can
make sure that overloading will work for you.
Final Notes about Inheritances
As you are working on your codes, you will find that it is possible that you
could work on more than one inheritance code. If you are doing this, it
means that you can make a line of inheritances that are similar to each
other, but you can also make some changes to them as well if needed. You
will notice that multiple inheritances are not all that different from what you
did with a normal inheritance. Instead, you are just adding more steps and
continuously repeating yourself so you can make the changes that you
want.
When you want to work with multiple inheritances, you have to take one
class and then give it two or more parent classes to get it started. This is
important once you are ready to write your own code, but you can also use
the inheritances to make sure the code looks nice as you write it out.
Now, as a beginner, you may be worried that working with these multiple
inheritances might be difficult because it sounds too complicated. When
you are working with these types of inheritances, you will create a new
class, which we will call Class3, and you will find that this class was
created from the features that were inside of Class2. Then you can go back
a bit further and will find that Class2 was created with the features that
come from Class1 and so on and so forth. Each layer will contain features
from the class that was ahead of it, and you can really go down as far as you
would like. You can have ten of these classes if you would like, with
features from the past parent class in each one, as long as it works inside of
your code.
One of the things that you should remember when you’re creating new code
and if you are considering to add in some multiple inheritances is that the
Python language will not allow you to create a circular inheritance. You can
add in as many parent classes as you want, but you are not allowed to go
into the code and make the parent class go in a circle, or the program will
get mad at you if you do so. Expanding out the example that we did above
to make another class or more is fine, but you must make sure that you are
copying the codes out properly before you even make changes so you can
get this program to work.
As you start to write out some more codes using the Python programming
language, you will find that working with different types of inheritances is
actually pretty popular. There are many times when you can just stick with
the same block of code in the program and then make some changes
without having to waste your time and tire yourself out by rewriting the
code over and over again.
 Chapter 6 Variables

Creating a Variable
t is very easy to create a variable in Python. The assignment operator “=” is
used for this purpose. The value to the left of the assignment operator is the
variable identifier or name of the variable. The value to the right of the
operator is the value assigned to the variable. Take a look at the following
code snippet.
Name = ‘Mike’ # A string variable
Age = 15 # An integer variable
Score = 102.5 # A floating type variable
Pass = True # A Boolean variable
In the script above we created four different types of variables. You can see
that we did not specify the type of variable with the variable name. For
instance we did not write “string Name” or “int Age”. We only wrote the
variable name. This is because Python is a loosely typed language.
Depending upon the value being stored in a variable, Python assigns type to
the variable at runtime. For instance when Python interpreter interprets the
line “Age = 15”, it checks the type of the value which is integer in this case.
Hence, Python understands that Age is an integer type variable.
To check type of a variable, pass the variable name to “type” function as
shown below: type( Age)
You will see that the above script, when run, prints “int” in the output which
is basically the type of Age variables
Python allows multiple assignment which means that you can assign one
value to multiple variables at the same time. Take a look at the following
script:
Age = Number = Point = 20 #Multiple Assignment
print (Age)
print (Number)
print (Point)
In the script above, integer 20 is assigned to three variables: Age, Number
and Point. If you print the value of these three variables, you will see 20
thrice in the output.
For any programming language, the basic part is to store the data in
memory and process it. No matter what kind of operation we are going to
perform, we must have the object of operation. It is difficult for a skillful
woman to cook without rice. In Python language, constants and variables
are the main ones. In fact, both of them are identification codes used by
program designers to access data contents in memory.
The biggest difference between the two is that the contents of variables will
change with the execution of the program, while the contents of constants
are fixed forever. In the process of program execution, it is often necessary
to store or use some data. For example, if you want to write a program to
calculate the mid-term exam results, you must first input the students'
results, and then output the total score, average score and ranking after
calculation. This part describes how to store and access this data.
Variable Naming and Assignment
In a program, program statements or instructions tell the computer which
Data to access and execute step by step according to the instructions in the
program statements. These data may be words or numbers. What we call
variable is the most basic role in a programming language, that is, a named
memory unit allocated by the compiler in programming to store changeable
data contents. The computer will store it in "memory" and take it out for use
when necessary. In order to facilitate identification, it must be given a
name. We call such an object "variable." For example:
> > firstsample = 3
> > > second sample = 5
> > > result = firstsample + secondsample
In the above program statement, firstsample, secondsample, result are
variables, and number 3 is the variable value of firstsample. Since the
capacity of memory is limited, in order to avoid wasting memory space,
each variable will allocate memory space of different sizes according to
requirements, so "Data Type" is used to regulate it.

Variable Declaration and Assignment

Python is an object-oriented language, all data are regarded as objects, and
the method of an Object reference is also used in variable processing. The
type of variable is determined when the initial value is given, so there is no
need to declare the data type in advance. The value of a variable is assigned
with "=" and beginners easily confuse the function of the assignment
operator (=) with the function of "equal" in mathematics. In programming
languages, the "=" sign is mainly used for assignment.
The syntax for declaring a variable is as follows:
variable name = variable value
e.g. number = 10.
The above expression indicates that the value 10 is assigned to the variable
number. In short, in Python language, the data type does not need to be
declared in advance when using a variable, which is different from that in C
language, which must be declared in advance before using a variable.
Python interpretation and operation system will automatically determine the
data type of the variable according to the value of the variable given or set.
For example, the data type of the above variable number is an integer. If the
content of the variable is a string, the data type of the variable is a string.
Variable Naming Rules
For an excellent programmer, readability of program code is very
important. Although variable names can be defined by themselves as long
as they conform to Python's regulations, when there are more and more
variables, simply taking variables with letter names such as abc will
confuse people and greatly reduce readability. Considering the readability
of the program, it is best to name it according to the functions and meanings
given by variables. For example, the variable that stores height is named
"Height" and the variable that stores weight is named "Weight." Especially
when the program scale is larger, meaningful variable names will become
more important. For example, when declaring variables, in order to make
the program readable, it is generally used to start with lowercase letters,
such as score, salary, etc. In Python, variable names also need to conform to
certain rules. If inappropriate names are used, errors may occur during
program execution. Python is a case-sensitive language. In other words,
number and Number are two different variables. Variable names are not
limited in length. Variable names have the following limitations: the first
character of a variable name must be an English letter, underlined "_" and
cannot be a number. Subsequent characters can match other upper- and
lower-case English letters, numbers, underlined "_,” and no space character
is allowed. You cannot use Python's built-in reserved words (or keywords).
Although Python version 3. X supports foreign language variable names; it
is recommended that you try not to use words to name variables. On the one
hand, it is more troublesome to switch input methods when inputting
program code. On the other hand, the reading of program code will not be
smooth. The so-called reserved word usually has special meaning and
function, so it will be reserved in advance and cannot be used as a variable
name or any other identifier name.
The following is an example of a valid variable name: pageresponse
fileName4563
level
Number_
dstance
The following is an example of an invalid variable name:
2_sample
for
$ levelone
The user name learning classroom uses the help () function to query Python
reserved word. The help () function is Python's built-in function. If you are
not sure about the method and property usage of a specific object, you can
use the help () function to query.
The Python reserved words mentioned above can be viewed by using the
help () function. As long as "help ()" is executed, the help interactive mode
will be entered. In this mode, the instructions to be queried will be input,
and the relevant instructions will be displayed.
We can continue to input the instructions we want to query in help mode.
When we want to exit help interactive mode, we can input Q or quit. You
can also take parameters when entering the help () command, such as help
(" keywords "), Python will directly display help or description the
information without entering help interactive mode.
Although Python uses dynamic data types, it is very strict in data
processing, and its data type is "strong type." For example:
> > > firstsample = 5
> > > secondsample = "45"
> > > print (firstsample + secondsample) #
shows that TypeError variable firstsample is of numeric type and variable
secondsample is of string type.
Some programming languages will convert the type unconsciously and
automatically convert the value A to the string type, so firstsample +
secondsample will get 545. Python language prohibits different data types
from operating, so executing the above statement obviously Indicates
information about the wrong type.
There is a difference between "strongly typed" and "weakly typed" in the
data types of strong and weak type programming languages in small
classrooms. One of the trade-offs is the safety of data type conversion. The
strong type has a strict inspection for data type conversion.
Different types of operations must be explicitly converted, and programs
will not automatically convert. For example, Python and Ruby prefer strong
types.
However, most weak type programming languages adopt Implicit
Conversion. If you don't pay attention to it, unexpected type conversion will
occur, which will lead to wrong execution results.
JavaScript is a weak type of programming language.

Static Type and Dynamic Type

When Python is executed, the way to determine the data type belongs to
"dynamic type."
What is the dynamic type?
The data types of programming languages can be divided into "Statically-
Typed" and "Dynamically-Typed" according to the type checking method.
1. ​Static types are compiled with the type checked first, so the variables
must be explicitly declared before they are used. The types of variables
cannot be arbitrarily changed during execution. Java and C are such
programming languages. For example, the following C language program
statement declares that the variable number is of int integer type, and the
initial value of the variable is set to 10. When we assign "apple" to number
again, an error will occur, because "apple" is a string, and compilation will
fail due to type discrepancy during compilation.
int firstsample = 10
firstsample = "apple"
#Error:
Types do not match
2. ​Dynamic types are compiled without prior type checking, and data
types are determined according to variable values during execution.
Therefore, there is no need to declare types before variables are used. The
same variable can also be given different types of values, and Python is a
dynamic type. For example, the following program statement declares the
variable number and sets the initial value to the integer 10. When we assign
the string apple to number, the type will be automatically converted.
firstsample = 10
firstsample = "love"
Print (firstsample)
# output string love
Python has a Garbage Collection mechanism. When the object is no longer
in use, the interpreter will automatically recycle and free up memory space.
In the above example, when the integer object number is reassigned to
another string object, the original integer object will be deleted by the
interpreter. If the object is determined not to be used, we can also delete it
by using the "del" command with the following syntax: del object name
For example:
> > number = "apple”
> > > print( number) # output apple
> > > del number # deletes string object number
> > > print( number) #Error: number does not define the execution result.
Since the variable number has been deleted, if the number variable is used
again, an undefined error message for the variable will appear.
 Chapter 7 Lists
n Python it is possible to define a list, to which a name can be attributed,
inserting elements in square brackets ("[..]"). Those who already work with
other languages for programming or development will certainly know
arrays, or "vectors", which are variables intended to contain further
variables; syntactically and conceptually the lists can remember arrays, but
their functioning has some peculiarities that make them different.
Basically a list can exist but be empty, that is, not present any element
inside it:
# Example of empty list
list_name = []
If a list is not empty, it will be necessary to separate the elements that
compose it by a comma. It is therefore possible to define lists that contain
elements associated with a single type of data:
# Example of a list containing only numeric values
list_name = [15, 25, 35, 45, 55]
# Example of a list containing only strings
list_name = ['Homer', 'Bart', 'Lisa']
Just as you can create lists that present elements of different nature:
# Example of list containing elements of different types
# numbers and strings
list_name = [65, 'Homer', 7.3]
Finally, the creation of nested lists is also allowed, i.e. lists that have other
lists among their elements.
# Example of nested list
list_name = ['Homer', 3.7, 10, [29, 39, 49]].
Automatic generation of lists of integers
range () is a native Python function (or more properly an "immutable
sequence type") designed to automatically generate a list based on a range
of values or a numeric value passed as an argument; it is particularly useful
when you need to define lists made up of a large number of numerical
elements.
In the case of a parameter expressed as an interval, we will have an
instruction like the following:
# Using range () to generate
# a list based on an interval
>>> range (1.8)
will lead to the generation of a list consisting of 7 elements:
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]
These elements will be the result of the call to the range () function which
will evaluate the two arguments of the range by returning a list containing
all the integer values starting from the first, included in the list, up to the
second, excluded from the list instead.
The two arguments of the interval may be followed by a third argument
called step; it specifies the interval between successive values, which is
why if, for example, you want to obtain a list made up of only the odd
numbers covered between "1" and "8" you could operate in this way:
# Using range () to generate
# a list based on an interval
# with steps equal to 2
>>> range (1,8,2)
# list generated
# [1, 3, 5, 7]
When, on the other hand, we pass the function an integer as in the example
below:
# Using range () to generate
# a list based on an integer
>>> range (5)
you will get a list populated like this:
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
The elements present will therefore be 8, placing the "0" as an element and
(not) initial value.
Indexing of the elements of a list
By default and lists in Python, internal elements are indexed numerically;
indexing will start from "0", so a list consisting of three elements will have
"0", "1" and "2" as indexes. It follows that a specific element of a list can be
called up via its index, as in the following example:
# Access to an element of a list
# through its index
# definition of the elements in the list
>>> list_name = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e']
# access to element with index "3"
>>> list_name [3]
In this case, the element called will be "d", ie the fourth inserted in the list,
this is because "a" is associated with the index "0", "b" to "1", "c" to "2"
and di consequence "d" has as index "3".
Access to the elements in the list could also take place through negative
indexing, where the last element will have the index "-1", the penultimate
"-2" and so on. A call like the following will therefore have the result of
allowing access to the "a" element.
# Access to an element of a list
# through the negative index
# definition of the elements in the list
>>> list_name = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e']
# access to element with index "-5"
>>> list_name [-5]
It is also possible to access the elements of a list on the basis of a range of
values; be careful that the two components of the range will correspond to
the index numbers, which is why an expression like this:
# Access to multiple elements of a list
# through an interval
# definition of the elements in the list
>>> list_name = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e']
# access to elements with interval "0: 2"
>>> list_name [0: 2]
will allow access to the elements "a", "b", ie those whose index goes from
"0" to "2" (excluded). The colon symbol (":"), used for the definition of the
interval, is called slicing operator. It can also be used for other purposes,
such as defining the index from which to start for data access:
# Access to multiple elements of a list
# starting from a specific index
# definition of the elements in the list
>>> list_name = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e']
# access to the first element in the list ('a') via negative index
# the last 4 elements will be excluded
>>> list_name [: - 4]
# access from the third element to the last
# 'c', 'd' and 'e'
>>> list_name [2:]
# access to all items in the list
>>> list_name [:]
Python has constructs that allow you to perform more advanced operations
than simply accessing values, such as those dedicated to manipulating lists.
 Chapter 8 Dictionaries
e will cover a new data type which facilitates a flexible way to organize
data. Using the knowledge about lists, soon you will be able to create data
structures that will be useful in almost any application you may think of.
A dictionary can store many values just like a list. However, they can index
different data types. Keys of a dictionary are associated with values. When
combined, that is called the key-value pair. Let’s start by creating a new
dictionary variable.
1. ​flat = {'rooms': '2', 'bathrooms': '1', 'floor': '3rd', 'apartment': '306'} #
Note the curly braces
2. ​print(f"My Apartment has {flat['rooms']} rooms, {flat['bathrooms']}
bathroom")
Program output:
C:\Users\...\PycharmProjects\GettingStarted\venv\Scripts\Python.exe
C:/Users/…/PycharmProjects/GettingStarted/Start.py
My Apartment has 2 rooms, 1 bathroom
Process finished with exit code 0
Dictionaries, unlike lists, can be identified by other data types that are not
necessarily integers, although it can use integers as keys as well.
Dictionaries vs. lists
The order of list items does matter when trying to compare them to other
lists. Meanwhile, dictionaries can find if a list that already exists, even if the
keys are out of order. This does not mean that the order is not important. If
a coder maintains a uniform order in their lists, then this is not an issue.
However, the main problem appears once you start getting unordered data,
especially from users.
Try this following sequence in the editor.
1. ​flat = ['rooms', 'bathrooms', 'floor', 'apartment']
2. ​apartment = ['apartment', 'bathrooms', 'rooms', 'floor']
3. ​print(flat == apartment) # When you use == you are asking if they are
equal to
each other
4. ​flat = {'rooms': '2', 'bathrooms': '1', 'floor': '3rd', 'apartment': '306'} #
Note the curly braces
5. ​apartment = {'apartment': '306', 'bathrooms': '1', 'rooms': '2', 'floor':
'3rd'}
6. ​print(flat == apartment)
Program output:
C:\Users\...\PycharmProjects\GettingStarted\venv\Scripts\Python.exe C:/..
False
True
Process finished with exit code 0

Useful methods
There are a few useful methods that you can use with dictionaries. These
methods are particularly useful when combined with loops. All of the
following methods need to be used by adding a dot notation after the name
of the variable followed by a parenthesis.
The first method is the keys(), which will output the keys to a dictionary.
The next method is the value(), which will output the values of keys. The
last method is the items() which will output both the keys and values
between parenthesis and separated by a comma.
Try out the example below.
1. ​flat = {'rooms': '2', 'bathrooms': '1', 'floor': '3rd', 'apartment': '306'}
2. ​print(flat.keys())
3. ​print(flat.values())
4. ​print(flat.items())
Program output:
C:\Users\...\PycharmProjects\GettingStarted\venv\Scripts\Python.exe
C:/Users/…/PycharmProjects/GettingStarted/MyFirstProgram.py
dict_keys(['rooms', 'bathrooms', 'floor', 'apartment'])
dict_values(['2', '1', '3rd', '306'])
dict_items([('rooms', '2'), ('bathrooms', '1'), ('floor', '3rd'), ('apartment',
'306')])
Process finished with exit code 0

Value or key check

While using a dictionary, one of the functions that will most likely be
needed regularly is to check for a certain value in your dictionary. For this
exercise, we will be using two operators; the ‘in’ and the ‘not’ operators.
These two operators can tell you if a certain key or value in a dictionary
exists. Note that these operators can also be used in lists as well as logic.
These operators will come out with a Boolean output either ‘True’ or
‘False’.
Here are some lines of codes to try out.
1. ​flat = {'rooms': 2, 'bathrooms': 1, 'floor': '3rd', 'apartment': 306}
2. ​print('rooms' in flat.keys()) # Determining if there is a key called
rooms
3. ​print('1st' in flat.values()) # Determining if there is a value called 1st
4. ​print(3 not in flat.items()) #Determining if there is neither a value nor
key of 3
Program output:
C:\Users\...\PycharmProjects\GettingStarted\venv\Scripts\Python.exe
C:/Users/…/PycharmProjects/GettingStarted/MyFirstProgram.py
True
False
True
Process finished with exit code 0
There is another method that can be used with dictionaries, and it makes it
easy to fetch a specific piece of data. This is called the get() method.
Check out the example below, to see how it is used inside the editor.
1. ​flat = {'rooms': 2, 'bathrooms': 1, 'floor': '3rd', 'apartment': 306}
2. ​print(f"I live in the apartment {flat.get('apartment')}") #getting the
apartment number
Program Output:
C:\Users\...\PycharmProjects\GettingStarted\venv\Scripts\Python.exe
C:/Users/…/PycharmProjects/GettingStarted/MyFirstProgram.py
I live in the apartment 306
Process finished with exit code 0
 Chapter 9 Functions

nother cornerstone of programming are the functions. Unlike the built-in

ones that are ready to go once you’ve started, user-defined functions open
up unlimited possibilities. Using functions helps programmers abstract their
code and simplify modifications in the future. Think of it as a container
which is labeled and will only run once you call it, making it perfect for
event-driven programming. In this part, we are going to take a closer look at
how to create, alter, and place functions to get the most out of your
programs.
Definition Statement and Function Calls
There is a distinct method to define a function. The syntax of that is in the
code that follows. In this hypothetical example, we will be creating a
function that will square a given number.
1. ​def greetUser(): # Definition statement starts with def which is
reserved, followed by the function name.
2. ​purpose = input('State your purpose: ') # First line of the code block.
3. ​print(purpose) # Second line of the code block.
4. ​#For good code writing practices, you should add two empty lines
(breaks) after your function bloc.
5. ​print('You have reached the umbrella corporation website') # This is
the first thing that will run in the program.
6. ​greetUser() # The function will only run after you call it like that
(name of the function followed by parenthesis).
Program output:
C:\Users\...\PycharmProjects\GettingStarted\venv\Scripts\Python.exe
C:/Users/…/PycharmProjects/GettingStarted/MyFirstProgram.py
You have reached the umbrella corporation website
State your purpose: I'm looking for Alice...
I'm looking for Alice...
Process finished with exit code 0
As explained, programs will run in a sequence of lines so that line one will
be followed by line two, and so on. For that same reason, a function needs
to be defined before calling it. If you try and call a function ahead of time,
your IDE will prompt you with an error.

Parameters
Now let’s explore how to add parameters to our functions. In many cases,
we need to take information from the user or elsewhere and use it inside of
a function. This technique is used by all programmers, regardless of what
kind of program they are creating. Follow the instructions below to see how
it works.
1. ​def greetUser(userName): # This is the parameter that we pass when
the function is called on lines 7 and 8.
2. ​purpose = input('State your purpose: ')
3. ​ print(f'Hello {userName.title()}, are these your intentions: "
{purpose}" ?')
# Here we are using the parameter.
# We are also using the title method, to avoid any user error.
4. ​
5. ​
6. ​print('You have reached the umbrella corporation website') # This is
the first thing that will run in the program.
7. ​greetUser("rEbEcEa") # Once you have added a parameter you need
to supply a value while calling the function.
8. ​greetUser("dr. Green") # Each time you call a function, the new
parameter is
passed.
Program output:
C:\Users\...\PycharmProjects\GettingStarted\venv\Scripts\Python.exe
C:/Users/…/PycharmProjects/GettingStarted/MyFirstProgram.py
You have reached the umbrella corporation website
State your purpose: I'm looking for Alice
Hello Rebecea, are these your intentions: "I'm looking for Alice”?
State your purpose: Create a virus!
Hello Dr. Green, are these your intentions: "Create a virus!”?
Process finished with exit code 0

Keyword Arguments
In most cases, you may be passing more than one parameter into your
program. In cases like these you need to pass the value of these parameters
with respect to how they were defined in the function. Let’s see an example.
1. ​def greetUser(firstName, lastName):
2. ​purpose = input('State your purpose: ')
3. ​print(f'Hello {firstName.title()} {lastName.title()}, are these your
intentions: "{purpose}" ?')
4. ​
5. ​
6. ​print('You have reached the umbrella corporation website')
7. ​greetUser("rebecca", "chambers") # In this function call we have the
first name as the first parameter.
8. ​greetUser('chambers', 'rebecca') # In this function call we have the
last name as the first parameter
Program output:
C:\Users\...\PycharmProjects\GettingStarted\venv\Scripts\Python.exe
C:/Users/…/PycharmProjects/GettingStarted/MyFirstProgram.py
You have reached the umbrella corporation website
State your purpose: Rescue Alice
Hello Rebecca Chambers, are these your intentions: "Rescue Alice”?
State your purpose: Rescue Alice
Hello Chambers Rebecca, are these your intentions: "Rescue Alice”?
Process finished with exit code 0
In rare cases, a programmer will need to pass parameters out of order.
Although this is not always recommended, there are cases where it is
necessary. To do that, all you have to do is add the parameter name while
calling the function. Let’s take a look at the next example.
1. ​def greetUser(firstName, lastName):
2. ​purpose = input('State your purpose: ')
3. ​print(f'Hello {firstName.title()} {lastName.title()}, are these your
intentions: "{purpose}" ?')
4. ​
5. ​
6. ​print('You have reached the umbrella corporation website')
7. ​greetUser("rebecca", "chambers") # In this function call, we have the
first name as the first parameter.
8. ​greetUser('chambers', 'rebecca') # In this function call, we have the
last name as the first parameter
9. ​greetUser(lastName = 'chambers', firstName='Rebecca') # We
swapped the order and still were able to pass the
parameters as desired.
Program output:
C:\Users\...\PycharmProjects\GettingStarted\venv\Scripts\Python.exe
C:/Users/…/PycharmProjects/GettingStarted/MyFirstProgram.py
You have reached the umbrella corporation website
State your purpose: Saving Alice
Hello Rebecca Chambers, are these your intentions: "Saving Alice" ?
State your purpose: Saving Alice
Hello Chambers Rebecca, are these your intentions: "Saving Alice" ?
State your purpose: Saving Alice
Hello Rebecca Chambers, are these your intentions: "Saving Alice" ?
Process finished with exit code 0

Return Values
There are many cases where you will take a piece of information from the
user, run a function and need to return that value to the user again. It is very
simply done by writing ‘return’ in front of the variables you wish to return.
In this next example, we are going to create a very simple function that will
calculate the square of any number and return the value to the user.
1. ​def squareNum(numA): # Parameter
2. ​return numA *numA # Add the return at the beginning or else, by
default, it will return none.
3. ​
4. ​print(squareNum(3)) # Note that the function was called as an
argument and it can also be saved into a variable if necessary.
Program output:
C:\Users\...\PycharmProjects\GettingStarted\venv\Scripts\Python.exe
C:/Users/…/PycharmProjects/GettingStarted/MyFirstProgram.py
9
Process finished with exit code 0
 Chapter 10 User’s Input and Loop

ython programming, like all other types of coding, is intended to solve the
problems that end users face. To do that, you need to get additional
information from the end user. For example, if someone needs to check if
he is eligible to play on the basketball team or if he is qualified to vote in
the elections, you can create a program that can give him the correct answer
he needs.
In this type of program, we need to know the age of the user before we give
an answer, which means that we have to build an interface that asks for an
answer from the user regarding his or his age. The user will enter his or her
age into the program using the input () method. Once he or she reaches age,
they can know the answer.
The input () method
The input () method is actually a stop for Python programs because it waits
for the user to fill in the program with some text. Once the Python program
has received the user's input, it can store the same in some kind mostof
variable that you create yourself. This makes programming and operation
easy. I have created a program that repeats the information you enter in the
shell prompt. It is interesting. Let's check it out.
message = input ("This program repeats everything you write. Just like a
parrot:")
print (message)
= RESTART: C: / Users / saifia-computers / Desktop / Python.py
This program repeats everything you write. Like a parrot: Terminator has
been destroyed.
Terminator has been destroyed.
>>> Sam
Retrace (most recent call last)
File "<pyshell # 136>", line 1, in <module>
Sam
NameError: name 'Sam' is not defined
>>>
= RESTART: C: / Users / saifia-computers / Desktop / Python.py
>>>
This program repeats everything you write. Just like a parrot: I have been
selected for the basketball team.
I have been selected on the basketball team.
>>>
You can see that the program returns whatever you say to it. The second
attempt gave an error because I did not run the program again. This means
that you have to run the program from the beginning every time you want to
run it.
The program took an argument from the user. It was a kind of instruction
that the adhering program used exactly the same wording as the user
entered. The prompt asks users to enter the information they want to display
in the shell. When the user presses enter, he executes the instructions.
You should write a clean code to make it easier for users to understand and
act on the instructions. The prompt should be clear and easy to follow so
that the user knows what to do. Let's write another program with the input ()
method.
qualification = input ("Enter your name and educational qualification:")
print ("Your information:" + qualification + "!")
= RESTART: C: / Users / saifia-computers / Desktop / Python.py
Enter your name and teaching qualification: John, MA (English literature)
Your data: John, MA (English literature)!
>>>
If you want to write a longer code that spans multiple lines, you can do that
with the input () function in Python. For example, if you want to let the user
know why you need a certain type of information, you can add an extra line
in the code. This code is longer than one line. This is useful because users
cannot easily enter the program with their personal information if you do
not tell them why you need a piece of information in the first place. To
achieve this goal, you can add the prompt within a variable and then pass
the variable to the input () function.
prompt = "We need your information to provide you with a custom job
search."
prompt + = "\ nEnter your name and educational qualification:"
qualification = input (prompt)
print ("Your information:" + qualification + "!")
= RESTART: C: / Users / saifia-computers / Desktop / Python.py
We need your data to let you search for a tailor-made job.
Enter your name and teaching qualification: Mazhar, MSc (Computer
Science)
Your data: Mazhar, MSc (Computer Science)!
>>>
Let's dig deeper into how the input () function works. When entering
information in the input () function, Python interprets it as a string. Let's see
how to enter numeric numbers. For example, you require the age of the user
to put in the record so you can do that with the following method.
user_age = input ("what is your legal age?")
= RESTART: C: / Users / saifia-computers / Desktop / Python.py
>>>
what is your legal age? 23
>>> user_age
'23'
>>>
= RESTART: C: / Users / saifia-computers / Desktop / Python.py
what is your legal age? 54
>>> user_age
'54'
>>>
The user's age information has been successfully stored in the variable
called user_age. When we ask Python to return the number, it returns in
quotes, meaning it is interpreted as a string. If you want to use the same as a
number, an error is displayed.
= RESTART: C: / Users / saifia-computers / Desktop / Python.py
what is your legal age? 25
>>> user_age> = 25
Retrace (most recent call last)
File "<pyshell # 143>", line 1, in <module>
user_age> = 25
TypeError: '> =' not supported between instances of 'str' and 'int'
>>>
Python displays an error because it cannot compare a string to an integer.
This problem can be solved if you use the int () function in your code. It
teaches Python how to treat an input as a numeric value. It converts a string
representation of a given number into a numeric representation. You can tell
Python to interpret a number as it is and to perform the math function you
want. You can run a conditional test by Python to see if your age is greater
than or equal to 25 or not.
user_age = input ("what is your legal age?")
user_age = int (user_age)
if user_age> = 25:
print ("\ nYou are legally entitled to vote!")
different:
print ("\ nYou are not eligible to vote. Return to your home.")
= RESTART: C: / Users / saifia-computers / Desktop / Python.py
what is your legal age? 20
You are not eligible to vote. Please go back to your house.
>>>
= RESTART: C: / Users / saifia-computers / Desktop / Python.py
>>>
what is your legal age? 25
You are legally eligible to vote!
>>>
= RESTART: C: / Users / saifia-computers / Desktop / Python.py
what is your legal age? 24
You are not eligible to vote. Please go back to your house.
>>>
= RESTART: C: / Users / saifia-computers / Desktop / Python.py
what is your legal age? 30
You are legally eligible to vote!
>>>
You can see in the examples above that Python is fully competent in
recognizing the numbers. It calculated perfectly and answered my questions
when I entered different numbers in the program.

The While Loop

A while loop can be used to count numbers and perform various other tasks
efficiently.
my_num = 1
while my_num <= 10:
print (my_num)
my_num + = 1
= RESTART: C: / Users / saifia-computers / Desktop / Python.py
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
>>>
The while loop requires that all variables in the code remain ready. The
Python while loop has a break statement that helps us stop the statement at
whatever point we want the loop to stop. We need to add the true element
which means that the loop will continue as long as the condition is true.
a=1
while a <10:
print (a)
if a == 5:
break
a+=1
= RESTART: C: / Users / saifia-computers / Desktop / Python.py
1
2
3
4
5
>>>
While loop is very interesting. I'll write the program that repeated what I
said to it and then put it in the while loop. The while loop will keep the
program running unless you press the keyword that I will put in the
program. Let's see.
prompt = "\ nMy creator made me repeat what you say:"
prompt + = "\ nI will continue unless you enter 'stop' to terminate the
program."
a = ""
while a! = 'stop':
a = input (prompt)
print (a)
= RESTART: C: / Users / saifia-computers / Desktop / Python.py
My creator made sure to repeat everything you say:
I will continue unless you enter 'stop' to terminate the program. I feel dizzy.
I feel dizzy.
My creator made sure to repeat everything you say:
I will continue unless you enter 'stop' to terminate the program. Are you
dizzy
Are you dizzy
My creator made sure to repeat everything you say:
I will continue unless you enter 'stop' to terminate the program. How did
you learn Python?
How did you learn Python?
My creator made sure to repeat everything you say:
I will continue unless you enter 'stop' to terminate the program. You repeat
so well.
You repeat so well.
My creator made sure to repeat everything you say:
I will continue unless you enter 'stop' to terminate the program. You are like
a parrot.
You are like a parrot.
My creator made sure to repeat everything you say:
I will continue unless you enter 'stop' to terminate the program. stop
stop
>>> Can you repeat it now?
SyntaxError: invalid syntax
>>>
You can see that after I quit, the program no longer accepts and repeats my
text. This way you can get rid of the while loop. If the thought goes around
in your mind that or you can use a different value instead of quitting, I'll
make it easier for you to understand the following example. I will use the
same program, but a different value to end the program.
prompt = "\ nMy creator made me repeat what you say:"
prompt + = "\ nI will continue unless you enter 'stop it' to terminate the
program:"
a = ""
while a! = 'stop it':
a = input (prompt)
print (a)
= RESTART: C: / Users / saifia-computers / Desktop / Python.py
My creator made sure to repeat everything you say:
I will continue unless you enter 'quit' to end the program: I want to reach
the top of Mount Everest.
I want to reach the top of Mount Everest.
My creator made sure to repeat everything you say:
I will continue unless you enter 'quit' to end the program: quit it
stop
>>>
The prompt in a while loop defines what action a user should take. It tells
him that there are generally two options: write what he or she wants to
repeat or exit the program. Python ran the while loop and repeated multiple
statements that I entered into the program. When I wanted to end the
program, I managed to do it by entering the keyword I set to separate from
the while loop.
There is still a problem. Python takes the keyword, stop it, as a message. It
ends the loop, but also displays the same text. The rest of the code is
retained, but there will be a small change to note.
prompt = "\ nMy creator made me repeat what you say:"
prompt + = "\ nI will continue unless you enter 'stop it' to terminate the
program:"
a = ""
while a! = 'stop it':
a = input (prompt)
if a! = 'stop it':
print (a)
= RESTART: C: / Users / saifia-computers / Desktop / Python.py
My creator made sure to repeat everything you say:
I will continue unless you enter 'quit' to end the program: I want to reach
the top of Mount Everest.
I want to reach the top of Mount Everest.
My creator made sure to repeat everything you say:
I will continue unless you enter 'quit' to end the program: quit it
>>>
(Matthes, 2016)
 Chapter 11 Tuples

tuple is a sequence type that contains an ordered collection of objects. A

tuple, unlike a list, is immutable; you won’t be able to change its elements
once it is created. A tuple can hold items of different types and can have as
many elements as you want subject to availability of memory.
Besides being immutable, you can tell a tuple apart from a list by the use of
parentheses instead of square brackets. The use of parentheses, however, is
optional. You can create a tuple without them. A tuple can store items of
different types as well as contain any number of objects.
How to Create a Tuple
To create a tuple, you can place the items within parentheses and separate
them with a comma.
Example of a numeric tuple
mytuple_x = (10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1)
Example of a mixed-type tuple
mytuple_y = ("soprano", 10, 4.3)
Example of a string tuple
mytuple_z = ("b", "Jon", "library")
It’s likewise possible to create a nested tuple:
my_tuple4 = ("Python", (5, 15, 20), [2, 1, 4])
You can create a tuple with only one item but since this will look like a
string, you’ll have to place a comma after the item to tell Python that it is a
tuple.
my_tuple5 = ("program",)
You may also create an empty tuple:
my_tuple = ()
You can create a tuple without the parentheses:
numbers = 5, 3, 4, 0, 9
Accessing Tuple Elements
There are different ways to access items in a tuple.
Indexing
If you know how to access elements in a list through indexing, you can use
the same procedure to access items in a tuple. The index operator indicates
the index of the element you want to access. The first element is on index
zero. Accessing an item outside the scope of the indexed elements will
generate an IndexError. In addition, accessing an index with a non-integer
numeric type will raise a NameError.
To illustrate how tuples work, create my_tuple with strings as elements.
>>> my_tuple = ('p', 'r', 'o', 'g', 'r', 'a', 'm', 'm', 'e', 'r')
>>>
To access the first element on the tuple:
>>> my_tuple[0]
'p'
>>>
To access the 8th element:
>>> my_tuple[7]
'm'
>>>
To access the 6th element:
>>> my_tuple[5]
'a'
>>>
Negative Indexing
As it is a sequence type, Python allows negative indexing on tuples. The
last element has -1 index, the penultimate element has -2 index, and so on.
>>> my_tuple = ('p', 'r', 'o', 'g', 'r', 'a', 'm', 'm', 'e', 'r')
>>> my_tuple[-1]
'r'
>>>my_tuple[-7]
'g'
>>>
Slicing a Tuple
If you want to access several items at the same time, you will have to use
the slicing operator, the colon (:). By now, you must be very familiar with
how slicing works.
To see how you can slice a range of items from a tuple, create new_tuple:
>>>new_tuple = ('i', 'm', 'm', 'u', 't', 'a', 'b', 'l', 'e')
>>>
To access the elements on the 4th to the 6th index:
>>> new_tuple[4:7]
('t', 'a', 'b')
>>>
4 is the index of the first item and 7 is the index of the first item to be
excluded.
To access tuple elements from index 2 to the end:
>>> new_tuple[2:]
('m', 'u', 't', 'a', 'b', 'l', 'e')
>>>
To access tuple items from the beginning to the 3rd index:
>>> new_tuple[:4]
('i', 'm', 'm', 'u')
>>>

Changing, Reassigning, and Deleting Tuples

A tuple is immutable so you cannot alter its elements. However, if it
contains an element which is a mutable data type, you can actually modify
this particular element. This is true in situations where one of the elements
is a list. In such cases, you can modify the nested items within the list
element.
>>> my_tuple = ('a', 5, 3.5, ['P', 'y', 't', 'h', 'o', 'n'])
>>>
Replacing a Tuple
To replace the item on index 2 of the list which is on index 3 of my_tuple:
>>>my_tuple[3][2] = 'x'
>>>
3 is the index of the list, 2 is the index.
>>> my_tuple
('a', 5, 3.5, ['P', 'y', 'x', 'h', 'o', 'n'])
>>>
While you may not replace or modify other data types, you can reassign a
tuple to an entirely different set of values or elements.
Reassigning a Tuple
To reassign a tuple, you can just list a different set of elements and assign it
to the tuple. To reassign new_tuple:
>>> my_tuple = ('c', 'o', 'd', 'e', 'r')
>>>
Deleting a Tuple
To delete a tuple and all the items stored in it, you will use the keyword del.
The syntax is:
del tuple_name
Hence, to delete new_tuple:
>>>del my_tuple

Tuple Membership Test

To test if a tuple contains a specific item, you can use the membership
operators ‘in’ and ‘not in’
>>> our_tuple = ('p', 'r', 'o', 'g', 'r', 'a', 'm', 'm', 'e', 'r')
>>>'g'in our_tuple
True
>>>'l'in our_tuple
False
>>>'e'not in our_tuple
False
>>>'x'not in'our_tuple'
True
>>>
Python Tuple Methods
Only two Python methods work with tuples:
Count(x)
Returns the number of elements which is equal to the given element.
The syntax is:
mytuple.count(a)
Example:
>>> new_tuple = ("p", "r", "o", "g", "r", "a", "m", "m", "e", "r")
>>> new_tuple.count('m')
2
>>> new_tuple.count(‘r’)
3
>>> new_tuple.count('x')
0
>>>
Index(x)
Returns the index of the first element which is equal to the given element.
The syntax is:
mytuple.index(a)
Example:
>>> new_tuple = ("p", "r", "o", "g", "r", "a", "m", "m", "e", "r")
>>> new_tuple.index('m')
6
>>> new_tuple.index(‘r’)
1
>>> new_tuple.index('g')
3
>>>

Built-in Functions with Tuples

Several built-in functions are often used with tuple to carry out specific
tasks. Here are the functions that you can use with a tuple:
Len()
Returns the number of elements on a tuple.
>>> tuple_one = ('cat', 'dog', 'lion', 'elephant', 'zebra')
>>>len(tuple_one)
5
>>>
Max()
Returns the largest element 0n a tuple.
>>> numbers_tuple = (1, 5, 7, 9, 10, 12)
>>>max(numbers_tuple)
12
>>>
When a tuple holds items of purely string data type, max() evaluates the
items alphabetically and returns the last item.
>>> my_tuple = ('car', 'zebra', 'book', 'hat', 'shop', 'art')
>>>max(my_tuple)
'zebra'
>>>
Using max() on tuples with mixed data types (string and numbers) will
raise a TypeError due to the use of unorderable types.
Min()
Returns the smallest element on a tuple.
>>> numbers_tuple = (1, 5, 7, 9, 10, 12)
>>>min(numbers_tuple)
1
>>>
When used on a tuple that contains purely string data type min() evaluates
the items alphabetically and returns the first item.
>>> my_tuple = ('car', 'zebra', 'book', 'hat', 'shop', 'art')
>>> min(my_tuple)
'art'
>>>
Sorted()
Returns a sorted list but does not sort the tuple itself.
>>> my_tuple = ('dog', 'bird', 'ant', 'cat', 'elephant')
>>> sorted(my_tuple)
['ant', 'bird', 'cat', 'dog', 'elephant']
>>>
The order of elements inside the my_tuple, however, remains the same:
>>> my_tuple
('dog', 'bird', 'ant', 'cat', 'elephant')
>>>
Sum()
Returns the total of all items on a tuple.
>>> my_tuple = (5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30)
>>>sum(my_tuple)
105
>>>
Tuple()
Converts iterables like string, list, dictionary, or set to a tuple.
How to convert a string to a tuple
Example #1:
>>>tuple("Programmer")
('P', 'r', 'o', 'g', 'r', 'a', 'm', 'm', 'e', 'r')
>>>
Example #2:
>>> my_string = ("Hello World")
>>>tuple(my_string)
('H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', ' ', 'W', 'o', 'r', 'l', 'd')
>>>
How to Convert a Dictionary to a Tuple
Example #1:
>>>tuple({'Name':'Joshua', 'Animal':'elephant', 'Color': 'blue', 'Age':22} )
('Age', 'Color', 'Name', 'Animal')
>>>
Example #2:
>>> my_dict = {'Name':'Jack', 'Area':'Florida', 'subscription':'premium'}
>>> tuple(my_dict)
('Name', 'Area', 'subscription')
>>>
How to Convert a List to a Tuple
Example #1:
>>>tuple(['red', 'blue', 'yellow', 'green', 'orange', 'violet'])
('red', 'blue', 'yellow', 'green', 'orange', 'violet')
>>>
Example #2:
>>> my_list = ['interest', 'rate', 'principal', 'discount', 'rollover']
>>>tuple(my_list)
('interest', 'rate', 'principal', 'discount', 'rollover')
>>>
Enumerate()
Returns an enumerate object containing the value and index of all tuple
elements as pairs.
>>> my_tuple = (1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15)
>>>enumerate(my_tuple)
<enumerate object at 0x03237698>
>>>

Iterating Through a Tuple

You can iterate through each item in a tuple with the ‘for’ loop.
>>> for fruit in ('apple', 'peach', 'pineapple', 'banana', 'orange'):
print("I love " + fruit)
I love apple
I love peach
I love pineapple
I love banana
I love orange
Tuples vs. Lists
Except for the symbols used to enclose their elements and the fact that one
is mutable and the other is not, tuples and lists are similar in many respects.
You will likely use a tuple to hold elements which are of different data
types while you will prefer a list when working on elements of similar data
types.
There are good reasons to choose tuple over a list to handle your data.
The immutable nature of tuples results in faster iteration which can help
improve a program’s performance.
Immutable tuple elements can be used as dictionary keys, something that is
not possible with a list.
Implementing unchangeable data as a tuple will ensure that it will stay
write-protected.
 Chapter 12 Control Statements

ometimes, you may need to run certain statements based on conditions. The
goal in control statements is to evaluate an expression or expressions, then
determine the action to perform depending on whether the expression is
TRUE or FALSE. There are numerous control statements supported in
Python:
If Statement
With this statement, the body of the code is only executed if the condition is
true. If false, then the statements after If block will be executed. It is a basic
conditional statement in Python.
Example:
#!/usr/bin/python3
ax = 7
bx = 13
if ax > bx:
print('ax is greater than bx')
The above code prints nothing. We defined variables ax and bx. We then
compare their values to check whether ax is greater than bx. This is false,
hence nothing happens. The > is “greater than” sign. Let us change it to >,
this symbol means: “less than sign”.
Let see how we can write:
#!/usr/bin/python3
ax = 7
bx = 13
if ax < bx:
print('ax is greater than bx')
This prints the following:

The condition/expression was true,

hence the code below the If expression is executed. Sometimes, you may
need to have the program do something even if the condition is false. This
can be done with an indentation in the code.
Example:
#!/usr/bin/python3
ax = 10
if ax < 5:
print ("ax is less than 5")
print (ax)
if ax > 15:
print ("ax is greater than 15")
print (ax)
print ("No condition is True!")
In the above code, the last print() statement is at the same level as the two
Ifs. This means even any of the two is true, this statement will not be
executed. However, the statement will be executed if both

Ifs are false. Running the program

outputs this:
The last print() statement as executed as shown in the result above.

If-Else Statement
This statement helps us specify a statement to execute in case the If
expression is false. If the expression is true, the Ifblock is executed. If the
expression is false, the Else block will run. The two blocks cannot run at the
same time. It’s only one of that can run. It is an advanced If statement.
Example:
#!/usr/bin/python3
ax = 10
bx = 7
if ax > 30:
print('ax is greater than 30')
else:
print('ax isnt greater than 30')

The code will give this result once

executed:
The value of variable ax is 30. The expression if ax > 30: evaluates into a
false. As a result, the statement below If, that is, the first print() statement
isn’t executed. The else part, which is always executed when the If
expression is false will be executed, that is, the print() statement below the
else part.
Suppose we had this:
#!/usr/bin/python3
ax = 10
bx = 7
if ax < 30:
print('ax is less than 30')
else:
print('ax is greater than 30')

This will give this once executed:

In the above case, the print() statement within the If block was executed.
The reason is that the If expression as true.
Another example:
#!/usr/bin/python3
ax = 35
if ax % 2 ==0:
print("It is eve")
else:
print("It is odd")

The code outputs:

The If expression was false, so the else part was executed.

If Elif Else Statement

This statement helps us test numerous conditions. The block of statements
under the elif statement that evaluates to true is executed immediately. You
must begin with If statement, followed by elif statements that you need then
lastly the else statement, which must only be one.
Example:
#!/usr/bin/python3
ax = 6
bx = 9
bz = 11
if ax > bx:
print('ax is greater than bx')
elif ax < bz:
print('ax is less than bz')
else:
print('The else part ran')

The code outputs the following:

We have three variables namely ax, bx, and bz. The first expression of the If
statement is to check whether ax is greater than bx, which is false. The elif
expression checks whether ax is less than bx, which is true. The print()
statement below this was executed.
Suppose we had this:
#!/usr/bin/python3
ax = 6
bx = 9
bz = 11
if ax > bx:
print('ax is greater than bx')
elif ax > bz:
print('ax is less than bz')
else:
print('The else part ran')

The code will output:

In the above cases, both the If and elif expressions are false, hence the else
part was executed.
Another example:
#!/usr/bin/python3
day = "friday"
if day == "monday":
print("Day is monday")
elif day == "tuesday":
print("Day is tuesday")
elif day == "wednesday":
print("Day is wednesday")
elif day == "thursday":
print("Day is thursday")
elif day == "friday":
print("Day is friday")
elif day == "saturday":
print("Day is saturday")
elif day == "sunday":
print("Day is sunday")
else:
print("Day is unkown")
The value of day if friday. We have used multiple elif expressions to check
for its value. The elif expression for friday will evaluate to true, hence its
print() statement will be executed.
Nested If
An If statement can be written inside another If statement. That is how we
get nested If.
Example:
#!/usr/bin/python3
day = "holiday"
balance = 110000
if day == "holiday":
if balance > 70000:
print("Go for outing")
else:
print("Stay indoors")
else:
print("Go to work")

We have two variables day and balance. The code

gives the following result:
The first if expression is true as it’s a holiday. The second if expression is
also true since balance is greater than 70000. The print() statement below
that expression is executed. The execution of the program stops there.
Suppose the balance is less than 70000 as shown below:
#!/usr/bin/python3
day = "holiday"
balance = 50000
if day == "holiday":
if balance > 70000:
print("Go for outing")
else:
print("Stay indoors")
else:
print("Go to work")
The value of balance is 50000. The first if expression is true, but the second

one is false. The nested else part is executed. We get

this result from the code:
Note that the nested part will only be executed if and only if the first if
expression is true. If the first if is false, then the un-nested else part will run.
Example:
#!/usr/bin/python3
day = "workday"
balance = 50000
if day == "holiday":
if balance > 70000:
print("Go for outing")
else:
print("Stay indoors")
else:
print("Go to work")
The value for day is workday. The first if expression testing whether it’s a
holiday is false, hence the Python interpreter will move to execute the un-

nested else part and skip the entire nested part. The code
gives this result:
 Chapter 13 File Management

Why Use Modules?

odules allow us to organize the elements and components inside our codes
in an easier way, providing us with a big package of variables that are auto
contained. Names that are defined on a superior level in a module file
automatically will become an attribute of the object of the imported
module.
Another advantage of using modules is that they let us reuse the code, using
data services and linking individual files to broaden our program.
The main reason why we think that the modules are a very useful tool when
it comes to programming is that they are really helpful to organize and
reuse our code. This is very important when we talk about OOP (Object-
Oriented Programming) since on that mode, the modularization and reusage
are very popular. Since Python is a programming language oriented for that,
it comes very user-friendly.
Imagine that you want to create an application or a program, more
complicated than what we have been doing until now. For it, you are going
to need one of the former codes to complement. Here is when you see the
real benefit of the modules since you will be able to simply add one of the
old codes to the complex application you want to do.
In modules, we will also have modularization. It is based on dividing our
codes into several tiny pieces of codes, so that, at the moment of making the
sophisticated program or application, it won’t have hundreds and hundreds
of lines of codes that could be annoying and hard to read. Instead, the code
will be separated into tiny files.

How Create a Module on Python

Creating a module is something straightforward that anyone can do, all that
needs to be done is to create a file with the .py extension, then, that file will
be stored on a folder of your preference; this is known as import.
In case we want to create a module of our own, you will have to do the
following. We will make a program on which we will create a module that
could be used later.
The module syntax is as follows:
As you could see, the syntax is straightforward, since it is pretty much like
creating a function. After we created it, we must be able to import it from
another program, in order to do that, we will use the import statement.

Import Statement
A module is able to contain definitions of a function and even statements,
which can be executable. With this, it is possible to initialize a module since
they execute only when our module is on the import statement.
Modules are capable of importing other modules that is why people use to
put the import type statements at the beginning of each since with the
names of our imported modules, they will locate on a space named global;
function that modules have for importing.
With the help of the last example, we can manage to import the module
created earlier and use the functions that we defined there.
As you see in this example, we created the op variable, who takes the task
of storing a string, which will specify the option that the users choose.
Then, two variables would be initialized, a and b; they will store the value
of the operators we are going to use to perform the mathematical
operations.
Afterward, the result variable will store the value that the function
calculator returns, according to the operators and the type of operation that
the users want. The function calculator comes from the module that we
have imported.
When the Python interpreter finds the import statement, it imports the
module, as long as it is located on the full search path. The search path is
nothing but a list where all the directories that Python accesses before
importing any module are located.

How to Import a Module?

For being able to import a module, we just have to follow some instructions
and steps that are performed at the moment of the execution:
We look for the module through the module search path, compile to byte
code, and lastly, we execute the byte-code of our module to build then an
object that defines it.

How can I search for a module through Search Path?

To search for a module, our search system compounds of the concatenation
of paths; these can be seen on the directory “Home” of our program. After
this, the environment PYTHONPATH will be located from left to right, and
that is how we will find the directory of default libraries.

Namespaces in Modules
As you know, modules are files. Python creates a module object in which
all the names that we assigned in that module-file will be contained. What
does that mean? This means that namespaces are just places where all the
names that later become attributes are created.

What Are the Attributes?

Attributes are the names that have been assigned to a value considered of a
higher level on a module file, which does not belong to a function or class.

Errors
When working with files, we will have an optional string. That string will
specify the way about how we will handle the errors of coding that may
arise in our program.
Those errors can only be handled and managed on files .txt
Ignore_errors()= This control statement will ignore the comments that have
a wrong format.
Stric_errors()= This control statement will generate a subclass or an
UnicodeError error type in case that there is any kind of fail, mistake or
error at the code of the file we are working with.

Encoding
Now we'll talk about string encoding, which we often use when we're
working with data storage. But what are data storages? This is just to say
that they are the representation in characters of the coding; your system is
based on bits and bytes in one familiar character.
The string encoding is expressed in the following way:
Newline
When we talk about the newline mode we refer to the mode that controls
the functionalities of creating a new line, these can be: '\r', " ", none,'\n', and
'\r\n'.
Newline statements are universal, and newlines are universal and can be
seen as a way of interpreting the text sequences of our code.
1. The end-of-line sentence in UNIX: "\n".
2. The end-of-line sentence in Windows: "\r\n"?
3. The end-of-line sentence in Max OS: "\r".
Handling Files
Handling the File Not Found Exception Error
There will be times when you will encounter the FileNotFoundError.
Handling such error depends on your intent or purpose with regards to
opening the file. Here are common reasons you will encounter this error:

You did not pass the directory and filename as a string.

You misspelled the directory and filename.
You did not specify the directory.
You did not include the correct file extension.
The file does not exist.
The first method to handle the FileNotFoundError exception is to make sure
that all the typical reasons do not cause it. Once you do, then you will need
to choose the best way to handle the error, which is entirely dependent on
the reason you are opening a file in the first place.

Xlsx files
These files are those that allow us to work in spreadsheets as if we were
working in a windows Excel program; if our operating system is windows,
these files will have a much smaller weight to a file of type xlsx in another
operating system.
This type of file is beneficial when we work with databases, numerical
calculations, graphics and any other type of automation.
To start working with this type of file, we will have to install the necessary
library and this is done through the command "pip3 install openpyxl" in the
Python terminal.
Once our command has been executed, the openpyxl module will be
installed in our Python file.
Now we will create our first xlsx file:
In this example we can see that we have created our file by importing the
workbook function, which belongs to the openpyxl module, then we have
added our parameters such as: "wb" assigning the workbook function and
declaring that it will be our working document, then we add the name and
save the file.
Add information to the file with the xlsx module:
To add information to our file, we will rely on the append function
Now, to our document docxlsx.xlsx, we have added a tuple that contains
words like Python, document. Once we have created this, the append
function will allow us to add the information contained in the tuple in a
message.
Here we can see that the main function of append() is to admit iterable data
such as tuples.
Read documents in xlsx:
To read an xlsx file, we will only need to import the load_workbook class
and know the name of the file we are going to work with. It is also very
important that the files are in the same folder in which the program is
stored; otherwise, an automatic error will be generated.
Once this is done, we will specify the object to work with, and we will ask
for the information we need to read in order to print and compile it finally.

What is Sequence in Python?

The sequence of program execution is not a highway linking the north and
the south. It can run from the north to the south to the end. The sequence of
program execution may be as complicated as a highway in the busy area,
with nine turns and 18 turns, which is easy to make people dizzy.
To write a good program, it is very important to control the process of
program execution. Therefore, it is necessary to use the process control
structure of the program. Without them, it is impossible to use the program
to complete any complicated work.
The programming language has been continuously developed for decades.
Structured Programming has gradually become the mainstream of program
development. Its main idea is to execute the entire program in sequence
from top to bottom. Python language is mainly executed from top to bottom
according to the sequence of program source code, but sometimes the
execution sequence will be changed according to needs.
At this time, the computer can be told which sequence to execute the
program preferentially through flow control instructions. The process
control of the program is like designing a traffic direction extending in all
directions for the highway system.
It is recognized that most program codes for process control are executed in
sequence from top to bottom line after line, but for operations with high
repeatability, it is not suitable to execute in sequence. Any Python program,
no matter how complex its structure is, can be expressed or described using
three basic control processes: sequence structure, selection structure, and
loop structure.
The first line statement of the sequence structure program is the entry point
and is executed from top to bottom to the last line statement of the program.
The selection structure allows the program to select the program block to be
executed according to whether the test condition is established or not. If the
condition is True, some program statements are executed. If the condition is
False, other program statements are executed.
 Chapter 14 Getting Started; Python Tips and Tricks

e are going to look at some of the tips and tricks that will help you to get
started with Python, along with how we can work with web scraping and
debugging some of our programs as well.
Let’s get started with this one to help us get started and finalize how good
our codes can be.
Web Scraping
Imagine for a moment that we are going to pull up a large amount of data
from many websites, and we want to be able to do this at a very fast rate.
How would we be able to go through this without having to manually go
through each of the websites that we have and gathering the data in this
manner?
This is where the process of web scraping is going to come into play.
Web scraping is going to be used by companies in order to collect a large
amount of information form websites.
But why does someone want to go through and collect all of this data, in
such large amounts, from these websites in the first place?
There are a lot of reasons for this, and some of them are going to include
the following:

Price comparison: Some of the different services that are out

there, such as ParseHub, will work with this process in order to
collect data from websites for online shopping and then can use
this in order to compare prices of similar products.
Email address gathering: We can use the process of web scraping
in order to help with marketing.
This can help us to collect the email IDs that come with customers and then
send out bulk emails to these individuals as well.
 Social media scraping: Web scraping is going to be used to
collect data from social media sites and then figure out what is
trending.
Research and development: Web scraping is going to be used to
help a company collect a lot of data from websites.
We can then analyze this and use it to finish our surveys and to help out
with research and development.

Job listing: Details regarding openings of jobs, interviews, and

more can be collected from a variety of websites and then we
can list them in one place in order to make them easier for the
user to access
Web scraping is going to be more of an automated method that we can use
in order to get a huge amount of data from any website that we choose.
The data that we are able to get out of these websites will be unstructured.
And this web scraping helps a company to collect all of this data and then
will ensure that they are able to store it in a structured form.
There are a variety of methods that we are able to use in order to scrape
these websites that we want, including online Services, writing out some of
your own codes, and APIs.
Talking about whether or not scraping of this kind if seen as legal or not, it
can depend on what the website says.
Some websites are fine with this, and some are not.
You can check with each website to figure out whether they are fine with it,
and if they are, you are able to continue on with your web scraping tools
and gather up the information that you need.
Since we are talking about Python here, we are going to take some time to
see how we are able to use Python to help out with web scraping.
But this brings up the reasons why we would want to work with Python to
help out with this process rather than working with some of the other
coding languages that are out there. Some of the features that come with
Python and can make it more suitable for web scraping will include:
 It is easy to use: The code that you are able to use along with
Python is going to be simple. This ensures that any of the codes
that you want to use for web scraping will not be as messy to
work with and can be easy to use.
A large library collection: There are a lot of libraries that work
with data science and web scraping that are also compatible with
what the Python language is able to do.
These include options like Pandas, Matplotlib, and NumPy.
This is why you will find that the Python language is going to be suitable
for web scraping and even for some of the other manipulations that you
want to do with the extracted data.

Dynamically typed: This is something in Python where you will

not need to go through and define all of the types of data that
you are using with our variables.
Instead, you are able just to use these variables wherever you would like.
This is going to save a lot of time when it comes to working on the codes
and can make your job faster than ever.

The syntax of Python is going to be easy to understand the

syntax that we are able to see with Python is easy to understand,
mainly because the statements that come with this are going to
be written in English.
It is going to be expressive and easy to read, and the indentations will make
it easier for us to figure out between the different parts of the code.

A small line of code is able to handle some large tasks.

Web scraping is a process that we are going to use in order to save some
time.
And with Python, you are able to write out a small amount of code in order
to get some of the big tasks that you would like to accomplish done.
This is going to save you time not only when it comes to figuring out the
important data that comes in that website, but can also help you to save time
when you would like to write out the codes.

Community: At times, when you are a beginner, you are going to

find that there are parts of the code that are hard to work with
and are not going to go as smoothly as you had hoped in the
process.
This is where you will find the Python language to be healthy.
If you get stuck while writing out some of your code, you will like that the
Python community is going to help you to answer your questions and get
things done on the code in no time.
Now that we know some of the benefits that come with Python, especially
the ones that are going to help us to handle some of the web scrapings that
we want to do, it is time for us to take things to the next step and look at
how the process of web scraping is going to work.
When you run out the code that you want to work within web scraping, you
will find that there is a request that is sent out to the URL.
Then there is going to be a response sent back from that request, and then
the server is able to send the data and allows you a chance to read the page,
whether it is XML or HTML at the time.
The code is then able to go through and parse the XML or HTML page,
find the data, and takes it out.
The location where you are going to find this data when it is extracted will
depend on what you told the code to do.
Often it is going to be moved over to a database so that you are able to
search through it later and learn more from it as well.
There are going to be a few simple steps that you are able to take to make
something to help us go through the process of extracting the data with the
help of web scraping in Python.
The steps that will help you to use Python to help with web scraping ill
include:

Find the URL that you would like to scrape in the first place.
 Inspect the page that you are planning on using.
Find the data that is on the page that you would like to extract.
Write out the code that you would like to use with the help of
Python in order to complete this process.
Run the code that you just wrote and then extract out the data
that you would like to use.
Store the data in the format that would be the most helpful for
you in the process.
There are also a few options that you are able to use when it is time to work
on the process of web scraping.
As we know, Python is already able to be used for a lot of different types of
applications, and there are going to be a ton of libraries with Python that is
going to be used for different purposes.
There are a few libraries that work the best when it comes to working with
the process of data web scraping will include:

1. Selenium: This is going to be a web testing library.

It is going to be used to help automate some of the activities that are found
on your browser.

2. BeautifulSoup: This is going to be one of those packages that

you are able to use with Python to help us to parse HTML and
XML documents.
It is also able to create parse trees that can help us to extract the data in an
easy manner.

3. Pandas: This is one of the best libraries to rely on when it is time

to handle any kind of work that you would like in data analysis
and data science.
Pandas are often going to be used to help out with any of the data analysis
and the data manipulation that you would like.
When it comes to web scraping, you will find that Pandas is going to be
used in order to extract the data and then get it stored in the right format in
the way that you would like along the way.
There are many times when a company is going to try and gather up data
from other websites and from many other sources.
This is one of the first steps that is going to be found when we are working
with data analysis and using that information to improve a business through
their customers, the industry, or from the other competition out there.
But going through and gathering all of that data in a manual manner is
going to take too long, and can be really hard to work with as well.
And with the large amounts of data that are being used and generated on a
daily basis, it is no wonder that so many companies are working with
processes like web scraping to handle all of the work in a timely manner as
well.
When we work with web scraping and do some of the codings that are
necessary with the help of Python, we will find that we are able to get
through the information in a fast manner and get it stored in the right place
for our needs, without having to do all of the work manually.
This can make the process of data analysis much easier overall and will
ensure that we are able to see some of the results that we want with this as
well.
And with some of the right Python algorithms and codes, we can get data
scraping done in no time.
 Chapter 15 Things We Can Do in Python

n this part, we will discuss many things that you can do in Python. Some of
the things we can do in Python include the comments, reading and writing,
files and integers, strings, and variables. We are sure that after reading this,
you will be able to create the program that will run effectively. Due to the
interactive and descriptive nature of the Python, a beginner can handle
many things using it. Therefore, we will discuss some aspects and
comments in Python to help you get started. You can make amazing codes
in a short time using the Python programming language.
Comment
A comment, in the Python programming, starts with the # sign. This
continues until the programmer gets to the end of the line. A good example
is;
# This is a comment
Print (hello, thanks for contacting us)
It instructs your computer to print “hello, thanks for contacting us”. In fact,
the Python interpreter ignores all the comments. As a programmer,
however, you should not leave a comment after every line. You can put in a
comment when you need to explain something. Since long comments are
not supported by Python, it is important to use short and descriptive
comments to avoid them going across the lines.

Reading and Writing

You will realize that some program requests specific information or show
the text on the screen. Sometimes we start the program code by informing
the readers about our programs. To make things look easy for the other
coders, it is important to give it the name or title that is simple and
descriptive.
As a programmer, you can use a string literal that comprises the print
function to get the right data. String literal is a line of the text surrounded
by the quotes. They can be either double or single quotes. Although the type
of quotes a programmer use matters less, the programmer must end with the
quotes that he/she has used at the beginning of the phrase. You can
command your computer to display a phrase or a word on the screen by just
doing as mentioned above.

Files
Apart from using the print function to obtain a string when printing on the
screen, it can be used to write something onto the file. First, you will have
to open up the myfile.txt and write on it before assigning it the myfile
which is a variable. Once you have completed the first step, you will have
to assign “w” in the new line to tell the program that you will only write or
make changes after the file has opened. It is not mandatory to use print
function; just use the right methods like read method.
Read method is used to open specific files to help you read the available
data. You can use this option to open a specific file. Generally, the read
method helps the programmers to read the contents into variable data,
making it easy for them to open the program they would like to read.
Integers
Always make sure that the integers are kept as whole numbers if you are
using them. They can be negative or positive only if there are no decimals.
However, if your number has a decimal point, use it as a floating number.
Python will automatically display such integers in the screen.
Moreover, you cannot place one number next to others if you are using the
integers because Python is a strongly typed language; thus it will not
recognize them when you use them together. However, you put both the
number and the string together by making sure you turn the number into a
string first before going to the next steps.

Triple Quotes
After reading and understanding both the single and double quotes, it is
now a time to look at the triple quotes. The triple quotes are used to define
the literal that spans many lines. You can use three singles, double, or single
when defining an authentic.

Strings
Although a string is seen as a complicated thing to many beginners, it is a
term used by the programmers when referring to a sequence of characters
and works just like a list. A string contains more functionality which is
specific than a list. You will find it challenging to format the strings when
writing out the code because some messages will not be fixed easily due to
its functionality. String formatting is the only way to go away within such a
situation.

Escape Sequences
They are used to donate special characters which are hard to type on the
keyboard or those that can be reserved to avoid confusion that may occur in
programming.

Operator Precedence
It will help you to track what you are doing in Python. In fact, it makes
things easy when ordering the operation to receive the right information.
So, take enough time to understand how the operator precedence works to
avoid confusion.

Variables
Variables refer to the labels donated somewhere in the computer memory to
store something like holding values and numbers. In the programming
typed statistically, the variables have predetermined values. However,
Python enables you to use one variable to store many different types. For
example, in the calculator, variables are like memory function to hold
values which can be retrieved in case you need them later. The variables
can only be erased if you store them in the newer value. You will have to
name the variable and ensure it has an integer value.
Moreover, the programmer can define a variable in Python by providing the
label value. For instance, a programmer can name a variable count and even
make it an integer of one, and this can be written as; count=1. It allows you
to assign the same name to the variable, and in fact, the Python interpreter
cannot read through the information if you are trying to access values in the
undefined variable. It will display a message showing syntax error. Also,
Python provides you with the opportunity of defining different variables in
one line even though this not a good according to our experience.

The Scope of a Variable

It is not easy to access everything in Python, and there will be differences in
the length of the variables. However, the way we define the variable plays a
vital role in determining the location and the duration of accessing the
variables. The part of the program that allows you to access the variable is
called the Scope while the time taken for accessing the variable is a
lifetime.
Global variables refer to the variables defined in the primary file body.
These variables are visible throughout the file and also in the file that
imports specific data. As such, these variables cause a long-term impact
which you may notice when working on your program. This is the reason
why it is not good to use global variables in the Python program. We advise
programmers to add stuff into the global namespace only if they plan to use
them internationally. A local variable is a variable defined within another
variable. You can access local variables from the region they are assigned.
Also, the variables are available in the specific parts of the program.
Modifying Values
For many programming languages, it is easy for an individual to define a
particular variable whose values have been set. The values which cannot be
modified or changed, in the programming language, are called constants.
Although this kind of restrictions is not allowed in Python, there are used to
ensure some variables are marked indicating that no one should change
those values. You must write the name in capital letters, separated with
underscores. A good example is shown below.
NUMBER_OF_HOURS_IN_A_DAY=24
It is not mandatory to put the correct number at the end. Since Python
programming does not keep tracking and has no rules for inserting the
correct value at the end, you are free and allowed to say, for example, that
they are 25 hours in a day. However, it is important to put the correct value
for other coders to use in case they want.
Modifying values is essential in your string as it allows a programmer to
change the maximum number in the future. Therefore, understanding the
working of the string in the program contributes a lot to the success of your
program. One has to learn and know where to store the values, the rules
governing each value, and how to make them perform well in a specific
area.

The Assignment Operator

It refers to an equal sign (=). You will be using the assignment operator to
assign values to the variable located at the left side on the right of the
statement. However, you must evaluate if the value on the right side is an
arithmetic expression. Note that the assignment operator is not a
mathematical sign in the programming because, in programming, we are
allowed to add all types of things and make them look like they are
equivalent to a certain number. This sign is used to show that those items
can be changed or turned into the part on the other side.
 Chapter 16 Working with Files

n this part, we’ll discuss working with files. Often during your
programming journey, you'll want to pull in data from external files and
manipulate that data. For example, maybe you have a large word document,
but you only want sentences that contain certain words and phrases. With
Python, you can read the document, do a search for the desired strings, join
these strings into a list, and write a new document containing just the target
strings. Python has many built-in functions and features that make loading,
reading, and even writing to external files simple. Let’s see the various
ways we can interact with a file using Python.
Opening and Reading
To begin our exploration of files, we’ll first need a text file to work with.
Copy any text you’d like into a text editor and save it to the same directory
as your Python scripts, saving it with the “.txt” format. If you need text to
work with, you can try writing the following and running the script:
import this
Running this script will activate a Python Easter Egg, printing out the Zen
of Python (a list of the principles that guide design in Python). If you would
like, you can copy that text into a text file and save it.
To open a file in Python, we can use the open() function, which takes two
arguments. The first argument is the file that you want to open, while the
second argument specifies the mode that the file will be opened in. For
instance, if you have a folder called “Projects” on your C drive, you would
have to specify that Python looks for the targeted file by passing in:
C:\\Projects\\test_text.txt.
With this in mind, you can assign the contents of a file to a variable by
doing this:
text_file = open("text_test.txt", "r")
The first argument specifies where Python should look for the file that you
want to open. If the file is in the same directory as the program you are
writing, all you need to do is provide the name and extension of the file. If
this isn’t the case and the file is located elsewhere, you’ll need to provide
the full path to the file, as mentioned above.
In the case above, the r specifies that we want to open the document in
read-only mode. The other file-handling options include:
w mode - Specifies you want to open the file in write-only mode.
w will create the file that has been passed in as the first argument if the file
doesn’t already exist. Be careful when using this, because the data in the
file will be erased if the file already exists.
a mode – Used for opening the file in appending-mode. Appending is for
adding text to the current body of the file. If the file doesn’t exist yet, the
file will be created. Unlike w, the existing data in the file isn’t erased if the
file already exists. This is because any new data is added to the end of the
file.
r+ - Specifies that you want to both read and write to the file.
After you have created a file object by using the open() function and the
assignment operator, it’s possible to read out individual lines in the
document by using the readline() function, which is done by using dot
notation on the file object:
text_file.readline()
Each time the readline() function is called, it moves to the next line in the
text document. This means that if you call the function and print the results
three times, Python will print out the first three lines in the document.
A more efficient way of printing out multiple lines from a file is by using a
for loop. We can easily print out all the lines in a text file by writing a
statement like:
for i in text_file:
print(i)
Now that you know how to open files in Python, you should also know how
to close them. You can close a file you’ve opened simply by using the
close() function on it, like this:
text_file.close()
You should get in the habit of closing files after you are done working with
them, because this frees up resources your system is using to keep the file
open.

Writing to Text Files

Let’s learn how to write text to a file in Python. For us to accomplish this,
we can use either the a or w modes, but if we use w, the current content of
our text file will be erased whenever our program runs. For this reason, it’s
often smarter to write to files in a/append mode. Writing to a file in Python
can be accomplished using the intuitively named write() function. The
function merely takes in the text you want to write as an argument and is
invoked with dot notation on the text file object you’ve created. We could
create and write to a text file by doing this:
target_file = open("write_test.txt", "a")
# \n creates a new line
target_file.write("All we have to do is type in a sentence to write to the
document. \n")
target_file.write("Using the write function multiple times will write
multiples lines to the document. \n")
Much like we can use a for loop to read from a text document, we can also
use a for loop to write to a text document. We could make a list full of
strings to write and then use a for loop to write to the document, which
would write our list items on different lines.
list_to_write = ["This", " is", " our", " word", " list"]
for w in list_to_write:
target_file.write(w)
target_file.close()
Remember that you can format how your string is written into the text
document by using the escape character and formatting options.

Buffer Size/Binary Files

When you first start writing your programs, you’ll probably only be
working with small text files that don’t take up a lot of memory. However,
when you start to work with larger collections of data and bigger text files,
you’ll want to know how to specify a buffer size. Buffering our file allows
us to read it in small chunks, so that it doesn’t take up too much memory.
Python will divide the text document up, reading it in by the specified
buffer size. We can declare the desired buffer size by using the read()
function and passing in the buffer size as an argument.
When we pass in the buffer size, Python expects a numerical value. We are
specifying the number of bytes to read at one time. Let’s say we wanted to
read our test text file 20 bytes at a time.
text = open("test_text.txt", "r")
print(text.read(20))
Printing the text variable would now display the first 20 bytes of the text
document. If you wanted to loop through the entire document, you would
need to use a while loop, setting the end condition as the length of the file,
and then updating the current value of the text variable by using the
function again to get the next 20 bytes. After opening the file, try running
the code below and notice it prints out the text file in blocks of 20 bytes.
text = target_file.read(20)
while len(text):
print(text)
text = target_file.read(20)
Python interprets non-text files in binary, so the term “binary file” describes
non-text files (as opposed to ASCII or other human-readable file
encodings). We can work with these non-text files by using specific modes
that let the open() function know we want to read or write binary: rb and
wb. If you were aiming to open an image file and copy it over to another
file, this could be done simply by opening an image file with the mode set
to rb and then copy the lines of data over by opening a new file with the
mode set to wb.

Deleting and Renaming

There are two other functions that you should be aware of when working
with files in Python. The remove() function and rename() function help you
deal with files in a folder, either by deleting the files or renaming the files.
These are part of the os library, so this means that the functions will need to
be imported before they can be used.
from os import remove, rename
This remove() function takes the name of the target file as its only
parameter, so the syntax looks like this:
remove(target_file)
Meanwhile, the rename() function takes in two arguments, the current name
of the target file and the name you wish to rename the file to.
rename("old_filename.txt","new_filename.txt")
 Chapter 17 Python in the Real World

ow that you know the basics behind Python programming, you might be
wondering where exactly could you apply your knowledge. Keep in mind
that you only started your journey, so right now, you should focus on
practicing all the concepts and techniques you learned. However, having a
specific goal in mind can be extremely helpful and motivating.
As mentioned earlier, Python is a powerful and versatile language with
many practical applications. It is used in many fields, from robotics to game
development and web-based application design. In this part, you are going
to explore some of these fields to give you an idea about what you can do
with your newly acquired skills.

What is Python Used For?

You're on your way to work listening to your favorite Spotify playlist and
scrolling through your Instagram feed. Once you arrive at the office, you
head over to the coffee machine, and while waiting for your daily boost,
you check your Facebook notifications. Finally, you head to your desk, take
a sip of coffee, and you think, "Hey, I should Google to learn what Python
is used for." At this point, you realize that every technology you just used
has a little bit of Python in it.
Python is used in nearly everything, whether we are talking about a simple
app created by a startup company or a giant corporation like Google. Let’s
go through a brief list of all the ways you can use Python.
Robotics
Without a doubt, you’ve probably heard about tiny computers like the
Raspberry Pi or Arduino board. They are tiny, inexpensive devices that can
be used in a variety of projects. Some people create cool little weather
stations or drones that can scan the area, while others build killer robots
because why not. Once the hardware problems are solved, they all need to
take care of the software component.
Python is the ideal solution, and it is used by hobbyists and professionals
alike. These tiny computers don't have much power, so they need the most
powerful programming language that uses the least amount of resources.
After all, resources also consume power, and tiny robots can only pack so
much juice. Everything you have learned so far can be used in robotics
because Python is easily combined with any hardware components without
compatibility issues. Furthermore, there are many Python extensions and
libraries specifically designed for the field of robotics.
In addition, Google uses some Python magic in their AI-based self-driving
car. If Python is good for Google and for creating killer robots, what more
can you want?

Machine Learning
You’ve probably heard about machine learning because it is the new
popular kid on the block that every tech company relies on for something.
Machine learning is all about teaching computer programs to learn from
experience based on data you already have. Thanks to this concept,
computers can learn how to predict various actions and results.
Some of the most popular machine learning examples can be found in:

1. Google Maps: Machine learning is used here to determine the

speed of the traffic and to predict for you the most optimal
route to your destination based on several other factors as
well.
2. Gmail: SPAM used to be a problem, but thanks to Google’s
machine learning algorithms, SPAM can now be easily
detected and contained.
3. Spotify or Netflix: Noticed how any of these streaming
platforms have a habit of knowing what new things to
recommend to you? That's all because of machine learning.
Some algorithms can predict what you will like based on
what you have watched or listened to so far.
Machine learning involves programming, as well as a great deal of
mathematics. Python's simplicity makes it attractive for both programmers
and mathematicians. Furthermore, unlike other programming languages,
Python has a number of add-ons and libraries created explicitly for machine
learning and data science, such as Tensorflow, NumPy, Pandas, and Scikit-
learn.

Cybersecurity
Data security is one of the biggest concerns of our century. By integrating
our lives and business into the digital world, we make it vulnerable to
unauthorized access. You probably read every month about some
governmental institution or company getting hacked or taken offline. Most
of these situations involve terrible security due to outdated systems and
working with antiquated programming languages.
Python's own popularity is something that makes it far more secure than
any other. How so? When something is popular, it becomes driven by a
large community of experts and testers. For this reason, Python is often
patched, and security issues are plugged in less than a day. This makes it a
popular language in the field of cybersecurity.
Web Development
As mentioned several times before, Python is simple yet powerful. Many
companies throughout the world, no matter the size, rely on Python to build
their applications, websites, and other tools. Even giants like Google and
Facebook rely on Python for many of their solutions.
The main advantages of working with Python so that we won't explore them
yet again. However, it is worth mentioning that Python is often used as a
glue language, especially in web development. Creating web tools always
involves several different programming languages, database management
languages, and so on. Python can act as the integration language by calling
C++ data types and combining them with other elements, for example. C++
is mentioned because in many tech areas, the critical performance
components are written in C++, which offers unmatched performance.
However, Python is used for high-level customization.
 Conclusion

hank you for making it through to the end of Coding with Python: A Simple
and Straightforward Guide for Beginners to Learn in the Fast Way the
Programming with Python, let’s hope it was informative and able to provide
you with all of the tools you need to achieve your goals whatever they may
be.
The next step is to spend some time taking a look at some of the different
parts that we are able to focus on when it is time to work with coding our
own applications and more. Many people are worried about getting into
coding because they think that it is going to be too difficult for them to get
started, and they worry that they will never be able to handle all of the work
that is going to come with their coding needs.
And that is part of the beauty that is going to come with using the Python
language, and we hope that you are able to see this when it comes with this
kind of language and with the examples that are in this guidebook, you will
find that you will be able to work with the Python language. This is going
to be an easy language for beginners and advanced coders to work with, but
you will find that it has a lot of power behind it and will help you to get
some of the work done in coding that you would like.
This guidebook has spent some time looking at the benefits of working with
the Python language, and all of the different options that you are able to
work with when it comes time to work on your program. We spent some
time looking at how to write out some of our own conditional statements,
our loops, exceptions, inheritances, and so much more. We even spent some
time looking more in-depth about the work we can do with OOP languages
and the classes that we would like to work with, and this will ensure that we
can keep things as organized as possible within the code that we do.
When we are able to put all of these parts together inside of our work of
coding, you will find that it is a lot easier to work with some of the coding
that we want, even when we are a beginner. You will find that this is easier
to accomplish than you think, and we are able to make codes that work with
all sorts of projects. And considering that Python is going to work well with
a lot of the major companies out there and some of the platforms that they
want to use as well, including the Google search engine and some of the
functionality of the YouTube site, you can see why this is a language that
you are able to learn, and get a lot of use out of as well.
You no longer have to be worried or scared about working with a coding
language. While some of the coding languages in the past may have been a
bit difficult to work with and would not provide you with the results that
you wanted all of the time, you will find that Python is not going to come
with this kind of situation at all. You may have even glanced through some
of the different parts of this ahead of time and noticed that it is easy enough
to read some of these codes, before even starting. Take that as a confidence
boost, and see how easy working with this language can be.
There may be a lot of different coding languages that we are able to work
with when it comes to focusing on the coding that you would like to
accomplish. But Python keeps proving that it is one of the best options out
there for us to work with. When you are ready to learn more about coding
in Python and all of the neat things that we are able to do with it, make sure
to check out this guidebook and take a look at how great it can be.
SQL PROGRAMMING FOR BEGINNERS:

THE ULTIMATE BEGINNERS GUIDE TO

ANALYZE AND MANIPULATE DATA
WITH SQL

Eugene Gates
 Introduction

etwork programs have become larger and more flexible.

In many cases, the fundamental scheme of operations is mainly a mix of

scripts that handle the command of a database.
When you look at the structure of any business, you will see that it
generates, holds, and then uses data.
Because of the different ways that the company will need to handle this
data, they will need to find some method of storing the information.
In the traditional methods, known as Database Management System or
DBMS, business organizations would have all the data in one place to help
them out.
These systems are pretty simple to use, but modern technology has forced
about some changes.
Even the most essential or basic data management systems have changed,
and now they are more powerful than before.
This can be an advantage to some companies that have a large amount of
data to keep track of or who may need to be careful with some sensitive
information.
Out of all this, there was a new breed of data management that has been
implemented known as the Relational Database Management System or
RDBMS.
This was derived from the renown traditional DBMS, but it is going to have
some more to do with the web as well as server and client technologies.
This basically means that they are going to help various companies with the
management of data.
One of these new relational databases that will help to store the data in an
easy and simple to use a method that also keeps it all safe is SQL.
What is SQL?
It is best to start at the beginning. SQL stands for ‘Structured Query
Language,’ and it is a simple language to learn, considering it will allow
interaction to occur between various databases found in a particular
system.
The original version was established in the 1970s.
This continued to progress in 1979 until IBM released a new prototype, the
Relational Software Inc. that published one of the first SQL tools in the
world.
This tool was at first called ORACLE, and it gained so much success that
the company was able to split off from IBM and create the Oracle
Corporation.
Even today, ORACLE is one of the leaders thanks to being able to use the
SQL language.
The SQL is a set of instructions that you can use to interact with your
relational database.
While there are a lot of languages that you can use to do this, SQL is the
only language that most databases can understand.
Whenever you are ready to interact with one of these databases, the
software can go in and translate the commands that you are given, whether
you are giving them in form entries or mouse clicks.
These will be translated into SQL statements that the database will already
be able to interpret.
If you have ever worked with a software program that is database-driven,
then it is likely that you have used some form of SQL in the past.
It is likely that you didn't even know that you were doing this, though.
For example, there are a lot of dynamic web pages that are database driven.
These will take some user input from the forms and clicks that you are
making and then will use this information to compose a SQL query.
This query will then go through and retrieve the information from the
database to perform the action, such as switch over to a new page.
To illustrate how this functions, think about a simple online catalog that
allows you to search.
The search page will often contain a form that will just have a text box.
You can enter the name of the item that you would like to search using the
form, and then you would simply need to click on the search button.
As soon as you click on the search button, the web server will go through
and search through the database to find anything related to that search
term.
It will bring those back to create a new web page that will go along with
your specific request.
For those who have not spent that much time at all learning a programming
language and who would not consider themselves programmers, the
commands that you would use in SQL are not too hard to learn.
Take your time in reading this book for this will be very helpful in guiding
you as a beginner to SQL Programming.
 Chapter 1 SQL Basics

he SQL (the Structured Query Language, Structured Query Language) is a

special language used to define data, provide access to data and their
processing. The SQL language refers to nonprocedural languages ​- it only
describes the necessary components (for example, tables) and the desired
results, without specifying how these results should be
obtained. Each SQL implementation is an add-on on the database engine,
which interprets SQL statements and determines the order of accessing the
database structures for the correct and effective formation of the desired
result.
SQL to Work with Databases?
To process the request, the database server translates SQL commands into
internal procedures. Due to the fact that SQL hides the details of data
processing, it is easy to use.
You can use SQL to help out in the following ways:

SQL helps when you want to create tables based on the data you
have.
SQL can store the data that you collect.
SQL can look at your database and retrieves the information on
there.
SQL allows you to modify data.
SQL can take some of the structures in your database and change
them up.
SQL allows you to combine data.
SQL allows you to perform calculations.
SQL allows data protection.
Traditionally, many companies would choose to work with the ‘Database
Management System,’ or the DBMS to help them to keep organized and to
keep track of their customers and their products. This was the first option
that was on the market for this kind of organization, and it does work well.
But over the years there have been some newer methods that have changed
the way that companies can sort and hold their information. Even when it
comes to the most basic management system for data that you can choose,
you will see that there is a ton more power and security than you would
have found in the past.
Big companies will be responsible for holding onto a lot of data, and some
of this data will include personal information about their customers like
address, names, and credit card information. Because of the more complex
sort of information that these businesses need to store, a new ‘Relational
Database Management System’ has been created to help keep this
information safe in a way that the DBMS has not been able to.
Now, as a business owner, there are some different options that you can
pick from when you want to get a good database management system. Most
business owners like to go with SQL because it is one of the best options
out there. The SQL language is easy to use, was designed to work well with
businesses, and it will give you all the tools that you need to make sure that
your information is safe. Let’s take some more time to look at this SQL and
learn how to make it work for your business.
How This Works with Your Database
If you decide that SQL is the language that you will work on for managing
your database, you can take a look at the database. You will notice that
when you look at this, you are basically just looking at groups of
information. Some people will consider these to be organizational
mechanisms that will be used to store information that you, as the user, can
look at later on, and it can do this as effectively as possible. There are a ton
of things that SQL can help you with when it comes to managing your
database, and you will see some great results.
There are times when you are working on a project with your company, and
you may be working with some kind of database that is very similar to
SQL, and you may not even realize that you are doing this. For example,
one database that you commonly use is the phone book. This will contain a
ton of information about people in your area including their name, what
business they are in, their address, and their phone numbers. And all this
information is found in one place so you won't have to search all over to
find it.
This is kind of how the SQL database works as well. It will do this by
looking through the information that you have available through your
company database. It will sort through that information so that you are
better able to find what you need the most without making a mess or
wasting time.
Relational Databases
First, we need to take a look at the relational databases. This database is the
one that you will want to use when you want to work with databases that
are aggregated into logical units or other types of tables, and then these
tables have the ability to be interconnected inside of your database in a way
that will make sense depending on what you are looking for at the time.
These databases can also be good to use if you want to take in some
complex information, and then get the program to break it down into some
smaller pieces so that you can manage it a little bit better.
The relational databases are good ones to work with because they allow you
to grab on to all the information that you have stored for your business, and
then manipulate it in a way that makes it easier to use. You can take that
complex information and then break it up into a way that you and others are
more likely to understand. While you might be confused by all the
information and how to break it all up, the system would be able to go
through this and sort it the way that you need in no time. You are also able
to get some more security so that if you place personal information about
the customer into that database, you can keep it away from others, in other
words, it will be kept completely safe from people who would want to steal
it.
Client and Server Technology
In the past, if you were working with a computer for your business, you
were most likely using a mainframe computer. What this means is that the
machines were able to hold onto a large system, and this system would be
good at storing all the information that you need and for processing
options.
Now, these systems were able to work, and they got the job done for a very
long time. If your company uses these and this is what you are most
comfortable with using, it does get the work done. But there are some
options on the market that will do a better job. These options can be found
in the client-server system.
These systems will use some different processes to help you to get the
results that are needed. With this one, the main computer that you are using,
which would be called the ‘server,’ will be accessible to any user who is on
the network. Now, these users must have the right credentials to do this,
which helps to keep the system safe and secure. But if the user has the right
information and is on your network, they can reach the information without
a lot of trouble and barely any effort. The user can get the server from other
servers or from their desktop computer, and the user will then be known as
the ‘client’ so that the client and server are easily able to interact through
this database.

How to Work With Databases That Are Online

There are a lot of business owners who will find that the client and server
technology is the one that works for them. This system is great for many
companies, but there are some things that you will need to add or take away
at times because of how technology has been changing lately. There are
some companies that like the idea that their database will do better with the
internet so that they can work on this database anywhere they are located,
whether they are at home or at the office. There are even times when a
customer will have an account with the company, and they will need to be
able to access the database online as well. For example, if you have an
account with Amazon, you are a part of their database, and you can gain
access to certain parts through this.
As the trend continues for companies to move online, it is more common to
see that databases are moving online as well and that you must have a
website and a good web browser so that the customer can come in and
check them out. You can always add in usernames and passwords to make it
more secure and to ensure that only the right user can gain access to their
information. This is a great idea to help protect personal and payment
information of your customers. Most companies will require that their users
pick out security credentials to get on the account, but they will offer the
account for free.
Of course, this is a system that is pretty easy to work with, but there will be
a number of things going on behind the scenes to make sure that the
program will work properly. The customer can simply go onto the system
and check the information with ease, but there will be a lot of work for the
server to do to make sure that the information is showing up on the screen
in the right way, and to ensure that the user will have a good experience and
actually see their own account information on the screen.
For example, you may be able to see that the web browser that you are
using uses SQL or a program that is similar to it, to figure out the user that
your data is hoping to see.

Why is SQL So Great?

Now that we have spent some time talking about the various types of
database management systems that you can work with; it is time to discuss
why you would want to choose SQL over some of the other options that are
out there. You not only have the option of working with other databases but
also with other coding languages, and there are benefits to choosing each
one. So, why would you want to work with SQL in particular? Some of the
great benefits that you can get from using SQL as your database
management system includes:
Incredibly Fast
If you would like to pick out a management system that can sort through the
information quickly and will get the results back in no time, then SQL is
one of the best programs to use for this. Just give it a try, and you will be
surprised at how much information you can get back, and how quickly it
will come back to you. In fact, out of all the options, this is the most
efficient one that you can go with.
Well-Defined Standards
The database that comes with SQL is one that has been working well for a
long time. In addition, it has been able to develop some good standards that
ensure the database is strong and works the way that you want. Some of the
other databases that you may want to work with will miss out on these
standards, and this can be frustrating when you use them.
 Chapter 2 Relational Database

relational database management system is a management system based on the

relational database model.
Its most common representation is as a table that contains rows and columns.
First introduced by E.F Codd, A RDBMS has several key components.
They include:

Table
Record/Tuple
Field/ Column
Instance
Schema
Keys
We will cover some of these components as we progress further into the SQL
lessons covered in the book. For now, let us look at tables and columns.
SQL Tables
Tables are objects used to store data in a Relational Database Management System.
Tables contain a group of related data entries with numeric columns and rows.
Tables are the simplest form of data storage for relational databases. They are also
a convenient representation of relations. However, a table can contain duplicate
rows while a relation cannot contain any duplicate. The following is an example of
a DVD rental database table:
The table shows information about customers in a DVD rental database.

SQL Fields
Tables break down further into smaller entities referred to as fields. Fields are
columns in tables designed to hold information about records in the specified table.
For example, in the table above, we can see fields that contain Customer_id,
store_id, first_name and last_name.

SQL Records
In a database, we use Records or Rows to refer to a single entry in a database table.
It represents a collection or related data. We can also regard it as the horizontal
entity in a database table. For example, in the above table, we have five records or
tuples.

SQL
Columns
In a database table, we use a column to refer to the vertical entity containing data
related to specific fields in a table. For example, in the above table, a column could

be first_name or last_name.

NULL Values
A null value is a value assigned to a blank field. This means that a field with a
value NULL has no value. In SQL, a zero or a space is not a NULL value. NULL
value mainly refers to a field that is blank in a record.

SQL Constraints
Constraints are rules applied to columns in a database table. We mainly use them to
govern the type of data stored within the table. This ensures that the database is
accurate and reliable thus minimizing errors.
We can set constraints on columnar or tabular level. Columnar level rules apply
only to the specified column while tabular level rules apply to the entire database
level.
SQL contains various rules applied to the stored data.
They include:

NOT NULL: This rule ensures that a table or column does not contain
null value, which means during record creation, you must enter either a
 zero, Space, or another value
UNIQUE: Ensures each value is unique and no duplicates are available
DEFAULT: We use this constraint rule to set a default value for a
column where we have an unspecified value
PRIMARY KEY: Identifies each record distinctively in a table. We
create this rule by combining NOT NULL and UNIQUE constraints
FOREIGN KEY: We use this constraint to identify (distinctively) a
record in another database table
CHECK constraint: We use this constraint to confirm if the values in a
column fulfill defined conditions
INDEX constraint: We use this to create and retrieve data from a
database

Data Integrity
Data integrity refers to the consistency and accuracy of the data. When creating
databases, you MUST pay attention to data integrity. A good database must ensure
reinforcement of data integrity as much as possible. Data integrity must also remain
maintained during manipulation and update of the database.
Various factors can lead to compromised data integrity within a database. These
factors include:

Connection failure during transfer of data between databases

Data input that is outside the range.
Deletion of wrong database records
Hacking and malicious attacks
Database backup failures
Updating of primary key value with the presence of foreign key in a
related table
Using test data in the database
These primary factors are often the ones that lead to loss of data integrity. To avoid
compromised data integrity, it is good practice to back up the database before any
operation.
Let us look at the types of data integrity available: These data integrity types exist
to each RDBMS:

Entity Data Integrity

Referential Data Integrity
Domain Data Integrity
User-Defined Integrity

Entity Data Integrity

Entity data integrity ensures that rows in a database table are unique and thus, no
row can be the same within the same database table. The best way to achieve this is
by primary key definition. The field in which the primary key is stored contains a
unique identifier thus no row can contain the same identifier.

Referential Data Integrity

Referential Data integrity means consistency and accuracy of data between a
relationship. A database relationship refers to the data link within 2 or more tables.
In a relationship, we use a certain foreign key to reference another primary key of a
certain table. Due to this referencing, we always need to observe data integrity
between database relationships.
Hence, Referential Data Integrity requires that the use of a foreign key must
reference to an existing and valid primary key.
Referential integrity prevents:

Addition of records to a related table if no record is available in the parent

table
Deletion of records in a parent table if records are matching a related table
Changing values in a primary table resulting in orphaned records in the
child table

Domain Data Integrity

Domain data integrity is the consistency and accuracy of data within a column. We
achieve this by selecting the suitable data type for a column. Other steps to
preserve this type of data integrity could include setting suitable constraints and
defining the data forms and range restrictions.

User-Defined Data Integrity

This type of data integrity is custom defined by the database administrator. It
allows the administrator to define rules that are not available using any of the other
type of data integrity.

Normalization
Normalization refers to the process of organizing databases to improve data
integrity and reduce data redundancy. This process aids the simplification of the
database design. Database normalization offers a range of advantages including:

Removes the null values available in the databases

It helps in query simplification
Helps in speed up operations such as searching and sorting the database
indexes
Helps to clean and optimize database structure
Removes data redundancy
Helps in achieving compact databases

Database Normalization Levels

Normalization occurs in various levels where each level builds upon the previous
levels. Databases must satisfy all the rules of the lower levels to attain a specific
level.
Let us discuss the types of database normalization levels. These levels appear
arranged in the order of their strength from the strongest to the weakest.
1: Domain-Key Normal Form
In this type of normalization level, the relation is to Domain-Key Normal Form
(DKNF) when every constraint in the relation follows a logical sequence of the
definition keys and domains. This removes the probability of non-temporal
anomalies as the domain restraint and enforcing keys roots all the constraints to be
met.
2: Sixth Normal Form
We say a database relation is in the sixth form normalization when every join
dependency of the relation is said to be trivial. We classify a join dependency as
trivial if only one of the components is equivalent to the related heading in its
total.
3: Fifth Normal Form
We say a database relation is in fifth normalization level if non-trivial join
dependency in the stated table is indirect by candidate keys.
4: Essential Tuple Normal Form
A database relational schema is in ENTF normalization level if it is in Boyce-Codd
form and components of every openly declared join dependency are a super key.
5: Fourth Normal Form
We say that a database table or relation is in Fourth Normal form if all of its non-
trivial multivalued dependencies are super-keys.
NOTE: We have many other database normalization levels not covered in this
book. They include:

Unnormalized Form
First Normal Form
Second Normal Form
Third Normal Form
Elementary-Key Normal Form
Boyce-Codd Normal Form

DBMS VS RDBMS
We have already covered RDBMS. DBMS is not different either. DBMS is a
software package we use to create and manipulate databases.
DBMS and RDBMS give programmers and users an organized way of working
with databases. DBMS and RDBMS are not very different since both provide a
physical database storage.
With the above noted, some relevant difference between them are worth
mentioning.
They include:
RDBMS DBMS
Supports Normalization Normalization is not available
in a DBMS
Supports Distributed Database Does not support Distributed
System Database System
Stores data in a table format Stores data is a normal
computer form
 Integrity constraints are defined Security for data
for the purpose of ACID manipulation is not applied
property by DBMS
Can handle large amounts of Designed to small scale data
data such as a Company and personal use
database
It supports multiple users Supports a single user
Cases of data redundancy are Data redundancy is a very
close to none common scenario
Stores data in tabular form and Mainly stores data in
utilizes primary keys hierarchical or navigational
format
Requires complex software and Low software and hardware
high-performance hardware to requirements for
implement implementation
Supports client-server Client-side architectures is
architecture not supported
They include PostgreSQL, Include file system files, xml
MySQL and Oracle etc. files, and windows registry.
At this point in the guide, you know enough to start working with SQL and
databases.
 Chapter 3 Data Types

The Basic Types of Data

ata types are attributes of the information itself, whose characteristics are
placed inside a table. For instance, you may require that a field should hold
numeric values only, stopping any user from entering alphanumeric data.
By assigning data types to certain fields in a database, you can minimize the
possibility of errors in data entry.
❖ Important Note: Each version of SQL has its own array of data types.
Nowadays, you should use version-specific data types if you want to
manage your database properly. The basics, however, are the same for all
SQL versions.
Here are the basic types of data:

Numeric strings
Character strings
Time and date values

The Fixed-Length Characters

Constant characters, or strings that have constant length, are saved via fixed
length data types. Here is the typical data type for a fixed-length character
in SQL:
CHARACTER(n)
“n” is the assigned (or maximum) length of the field you are working on.
Some SQL implementations utilize the “CHAR” data type to save fixed-
length information. You can use this data type to store alphanumeric
information. State abbreviations serve as excellent example for this: each
state abbreviation is composed of two characters.
When using fixed data types, database users often add spaces to fill excess
fields. That means if the assigned length was 15 and the data you entered
filled only 11 places, you should fill the remaining four places with spaces.
This method helps you to make sure that each value is fixed-length.
Important Note:
❖ If you’re working on fields that may hold values of different lengths
(e.g. usernames), make sure that you are not using fixed-length data types.
If you used this type incorrectly, you may encounter problems related to
data accuracy and storage space.

The Variable Characters

SQL also allows you to use varying-length strings (i.e. strings whose length
may change from one data unit to another). Here’s the standard notation for
varying-length characters:
CHARACTER VARYING (n)
“n” is a number that identifies the maximum or assigned field length.
VARCHAR2 and VARCHAR are two of the well-known variable-length
data types. ANSI (American National Standards Institute) considers
VARCHAR as the standard data type for variable-length characters.
Because of this, popular services such as MySQL and Microsoft SQL
Server use it for their regular operations. Oracle, a top-notch database
system provider, uses VARCHAR2 and VARCHAR. Character-defined
columns may hold alphanumeric data: you can enter letters and numbers
into these columns.
Varying-length data types don’t need spaces to fill excess fields. For
example, if the assigned length for a field is 15, and you enter a string of 11
characters, the overall length of that value is just 11. You don’t have to use
spaces to populate empty places.
Important Note:
❖ If you are working with variable character strings, you should use a
varying-length data type. This allows you to maximize database space.

The Numeric Values

A numeric value is stored in a field defined as a number. Numeric values
are commonly referred to as REAL, NUMBER, DECIMAL, and
INTEGER.
Here are the SQL standards for numeric values:
INTEGER
FLOAT(p)
BIT(n)
REAL(s)
DECIMAL(p, s)
BIT VARYING(n)
DOUBLE PRECISION(P)
“p” is a number that shows the maximum or assigned field length.
“s” is a number located at the right side of a decimal point (e.g. 15.ss).
The Decimal Values
A decimal value is a numeric value that contains a decimal point. Here is
the SQL standard for decimal values. Remember that p represents precision
and s represents the scale of the decimal.
DECIMAL(p, s)
Important Notes:
❖ Precision is the overall length of a numeric value. For this value:
(5.3), 5 is the precision. It is the length assigned to a numeric value.
❖ Scale refers to the total number of digits found on the decimal point’s
right side..
The Integers
Integers are numeric values that don’t involve a decimal point. That means
integers are whole numbers (regardless if they are negative or positive).
Here are some examples of valid integers:
2
0
-3
99
-199
200

The Floating-Point Decimals

A floating-point decimal is a decimal value whose scale and precision have
varying lengths. Virtually, floating-point decimals have unlimited character
lengths. That means any scale and precision is valid. The data type called
“REAL” assigns a column that holds single-precision, floating-point
decimals. The data type called “DOUBLE PRECISION,” on the other hand,
assigns a column that holds double-precision, floating-point decimals.
A floating-point number is only considered as single-precision if its
precision is 1 to 21. A floating-point number will be considered double-
precision if its precision is 22 to 53.

Time and Dates

Obviously, these data types are used to record data regarding time and
dates. Typical SQL distributions support data types known as DATETIME.
Here are some of the popular members of this category:
TIME
DATE
TIMESTAMP
INTERVAL
When working with these data types, you’ll encounter the following
elements:
Day
Year
Hour
Second
Minute
Month

The Literal Strings

Literal strings are series of characters (e.g. names, phone numbers, etc.) that
are specified by a program or database user. In general, a literal string is
composed of data with similar characteristics. The value of the entire string
is identified. The column’s value, on the other hand, is often unknown since
different values exist between data columns and data rows.
When using literal strings, you don’t really specify the data types. You are
just specifying the strings. The following list shows some literal strings:
‘Morning’
50000
“50000”
5.60
‘August 1, 1991’
Alphanumeric strings require quotation marks (either single or double).
Number strings, on the other hand, can be stored without any quotation
mark.

The Null Values

Basically, null values are missing values or columns in a data row that
hasn’t received a value yet. These values play an important role in almost
every aspect of SQL. You will use null values in creating tables, assigning
search conditions, and entering literal strings.
If you need to reference null values, you may use the following methods:
‘ ’ (i.e. single quotation marks with a space between them)
Enter “NULL” (i.e. the word NULL itself)
When working with a null value, you should know that data doesn’t have to
be entered in any field. If the fields you are working on require data, use a
data type followed by NOT NULL. If there’s a possibility that a field
doesn’t require data, you should use the null data type.

The Boolean Values

Boolean values are values that can be NULL, TRUE, OR FALSE. You
should use BOOLEAN values when comparing data units. For instance,
when you specify parameters for a search, every condition results to either a
FALSE, TRUE, OR NULL. If all of the parameters return the BOOLEAN
value of NULL or FALSE, data might not be retrieved. If the value is
TRUE, however, data is retrieved.
Here’s a simple example:

A database user may have used this line to perform a search. The system
will evaluate this line for each data row. If NAME’s value is equal to
SMITH in one of the data rows, the search gives TRUE as the result.
Afterward, the user will get the data linked with that search result.
 Chapter 4 Exploring a Database

database is properly organized and collected data that are stored and can be
accessed through electronic means from a particular computer. Formal
design and modeling methods are essential in developing a database. Before
a designer develops a database, his first assignment is to create a conceptual
data model that reflects the type of information to be kept in the database.
The database management system provides the access to the stored data.
The DBMS interacts with application users, and the database to analyze and
capture the stored data. It also allows end users have seamless interaction
with more than one database. Although there may be restrictions in
accessing some data, however this will be based on the security level made
by the programmer or database owner. The functions of a database are
diverse; it allows entry of information, storage of data and also retrieving
large files of information. Aside from doing all of these, it also provides
ways in which the data stored can be managed and organized effectively.
The Functions of a Database Management Systems
A database is known as the collection of data and a common example is a
spreadsheet or card index form. The DBMSs manages the data stored in the
below four categories.
Data Definition: Data definition consists of defining the structure of your
data, creation and modification of your data.
Update: After you have saved your data on your database, the DBMS gives
you the permission to insert new information, alter or modify the former
information, or even delete any of the information stored.
Retrieval: DBMS helps you provide information in a readable and usable
form. The stored data when retrieved may be available in the exact format it
was saved, or a new format.
Administration: For every data stored, there is an end-user, data and a
future need for the data. Every data stored needs to be secured properly, and
DBMS makes it easy for the application administrator to register and
monitor the data effectively, enforces data security to prevent unauthorized
personnel from accessing the data, to maintain the integrity and value of the
data without any corruption.

Benefits of Database
Database is helps to facilitate the development of a new application,
improves factors like data security, data access to enabled users, promotes
data integrity and also reduces data errors and redundancy.

Classification of Database
Database can be classified using the following criteria; type of the contents
stored, application area and technicality of the database, such as the
structure of the database. The classification you are about to read is made
based on database distribution, and there are four major distribution systems
for DBMS.
Centralized Systems: Databases that are stored in a single location so that
the data can be accessed and used by other systems are stored with a
centralized database system.
Distributed Database System: The actual databases in this system are
distributed evenly from different locations, which are connected to a
computer network.
Homogenous Distributed Database System: The same DBMS is used in
this database system, though they are from different location.
Heterogonous Distributed Database System: In this database system,
different DBMS are used by different sites, however there is a presence of
additional software to support easy exchange of data.

Types of Databases
The type of database you want is based on the usage requirements. You are
about to learn the available database in the market today.
Centralized database
Centralized database is abbreviated as CDB, it is a database that is stored,
located and maintained in a single location, and this location can be a
database system or in the central computer. Centralized database is often
used by organizations like a business company or a university.
The centralized database has a good number of advantages compared to
other types of databases. CBD maximizes the quality of a data properly,
helping the data to maintain its integrity, accuracy, and reliability. For the
fact that there is only one storage location, there is a higher level of security,
and better data preservation. Although CBD is easy to maintain and change
at any time, given it needs to be updated, yet it is highly dependent on
network connectivity.
The disadvantages of CBD are few, but they are however detrimental to the
organization. If for any reason the unexpected occurs, all data will be lost
and it may be difficult to retrieve the data, because it was saved in one
location.
Distributed database
When information is stored on multiple storage devices, or locations, it is
called distributed database. This information may be stored on difference
computers in the same physical place, but they are not stored on the same
processor. Distributed database can be subdivided into two groups namely,
homogenous database and heterogeneous database.
Distributed database involves two processes, the replication and
duplication.
Replication is the use of specific software that looks for changes in the
distributed database. The replication process is complex and time
consuming.
While duplication identifies one of the stored databases as the master and
duplicates what it does. However, both replication and duplication can keep
the integrity of the data in all distributed locations.
The distributed database should not be confused for centralized database.
Although the distributed database has a multiple storage location, it still
relies on the central DBMS which manages the storage devices remotely.
The benefits of having a distributed database will increase the reliability
and availability of your data, easy expansion improved performance and it
is also a mean of saving cost.
DBAs are very complex, which makes it a disadvantage because it needs
extra effort to ensure that all data are evenly distributed to all locations. It
also needs experienced hands to be able to manage the data, and provide
maximum security on the stored data.
Personal database
A personal database is a stored data on a personal computer, it is created to
be used, organized and managed by one person. It can be created by a
computer programming language like Practical Extraction and Reporting
Language (PERP). A personal database only support one application, makes
use of one computer.
End-user database
An end user is not usually concerned about the about the kind of
transactions and operations done, but it is only concerned about the
software or application. The end user database is specially meant for the
end user, who can be a manager who summarizes the collected information
in a database.
Commercial database
Commercial databases are information collected and presented
electronically, which are managed by commercial entities. These databases
are stored, and maintained for customers’ services, they are available to
customers for commercial purposes. There are 5 reliable sources where you
can access a commercial database; a commercial database retailer, internet
sources, library or places with site license, a help of a professional, and
personal subscription source.
Commercial databases have advantages and disadvantage, like every other
database.
The commercial database requires no physical space, since it is online,
unlike printed materials that need library or bookshelf. Aside from this part,
the database can be easily monitored, and can be accessed by multiple users
at the same time.
The disadvantages of commercial database are that it needs constant
network connectivity and cost of management can be expensive for both the
administrator and user.
NoSQL database
A NoSQL database was originally referred to as a non-relational database
or a non-SQL. It is used in managing big data, and real time web
applications. It is a database that is built to provide mechanism for retrieval
and storage of data that are modeled in other means used in such relational
database. There are different classifications, and sub-categories of NoSQL
database.

The Basic Classification of NoSQL Based On Data Model

Column
Column is the lowest level NoSQL object in a key space, which consists of
a name, value and timestamp. The name is a unique factor that is used to
reference the column. On other hand, the content of the column is referred
to as the value and the timestamp is used to determine the validity of the
content.
- HBase is an open source non-relational database written in Java language
and modelled after Google’s Bigitable
- Cassandra is a Java based system that is designed to manage large data
across commodity servers, and provide availability without any iota of error
or failure.
- Scylla is an open source distributed database that was designed to work
with the Casandra database.
- Accumulo is a popular NoSQL database that is written in Java language. It
is ranked as the third most popular column database.
Document
This is a computer program that was designed for the storage and retrieval
of document oriented information. The document NoSQL category is also
sub-divided into fourteen.
- Apache
- CouchDB
- ArangoDB
- BaseX
- Clusterpoint
- Couchbase
- Cosmos
- DB
Operational database
An operational database is used to manage stored data in real time.
Organizations make use of operational database because things like clients’
information, payroll records and employees bio-data
Relational database
A relational database consists of set of tables where data can be accessed in
various ways without an enabled user having to reorganize the tables.
Relational database allows users to access and categorize stored data that
can later be filtered to retrieve data. Relational database shares few
similarities with a database; however, the major difference between a
database and a relational database is that the later stores data in rows and
columns while the former stores data in files or document.
Cloud database
This is a database that is kept and managed on a cloud application. The
benefits of cloud database include fast automated recovery for lost files,
increased accessibility, maintenance of in-house hardware, and a better
performance. Despite all of these advantages, cloud databases have their
own drawbacks such as security issues and potential loss of data in case of
bankruptcy or disaster.
Object-oriented database
This is a database management system that represents information as
objects.
Graph database
Graph database (GDB) is a database that uses graph structures for semantic
queries that have nodes and edges to store data. It is a part of NoSQL
database, created for the purpose of addressing limitations attached to the
existence of relational databases. GDB is designed to allow a fast retrieval
of complex data.
There are notable graph database that have used for various purpose and
here are their descriptions.
- AllegroGraph was designed as a metadata data model, and its
programming language is C, C#, Common Lisp, Java and Python.
- Amazon Neptune is a graph database that is managed Amazon. Notable
users of Amazon Neptune databases include Samsung Electronics, Intuit,
FINRA, Siemens, AstraZeneca, LifeOmic, Blackfynn and Amazon
Alexa.
- AnzoGraph was developed to interact with sets of semantic data. Its
programming is C, C++
- ArangoDB is a multi-model database that supports key, documents and
graphs which are the three important data models. It uses languages like
C++, JavaScript, .NET, Java, Python, Ruby, Node.
- DataStax is a distributed real time database that supports Cassandra. It is a
Java only database.
- Microsoft SQL Server is software developed by Microsoft, to store and
retrieve data requested by other software applications.
 Chapter 5 Creating a Database

efore you can be able to do anything on your data, create a database. My

assumption is that you have installed either MySQL or SQL Server in your
computer.
To create a database in SQL, we use the CREATE DATABASE statement.
This statement takes the syntax given below:
CREATE DATABASE database_name;
First, login to MySQL by running the following command:
mysql -u root –p
Now you have logged into the MySQL database, it is time for you to create
a new database. In the command given below, we are creating a database
named school:
CREATE DATABASE school;

The output shows that the database was created successfully. However, it
will be good for you to confirm whether or not the database was created. To
do this, use the SHOW command as shown below:
SHOW databases;
The above output shows that the school database was created successfully.
The above command returns the list of databases you have in your system.
An attempt to create a database that already exists generates an error. To
confirm this, try to recreate the school database by running the following
command:
CREATE DATABASE school;

The above output shows an error because the database already exists. To
avoid this error, we can use the optional clause IF NOT EXISTS. This is
showed below:

The statement executed without returning an error.

Once you have created a database, it doesn’t mean that you have select it
for use. The target database must be selected using the USE statement. To
select the school database, for example, run the following command:
USE school;
After running the above command, the school database will receive all the
commands you execute.

RENAME Database
Sometimes, you may need changing the name of a database. This is after
you realize that the name you have given to the database is not much
relevant to it. You may also need giving the database a database name. This
can be done using the SQL RENAME DATABASE command.
The command takes the syntax given below:
RENAME DATABASE old_database_name TO new_database_name;
For example, in my case, I have the following list of databases:

Let us rename the database named movies by giving it the name movies_db.
This means we run the following command:
RENAME DATABASE movies TO movies_db;
The database should be renamed successfully.

Database Backup
It is always important to back up your database. This is because an
unexpected and unforeseen event may happen to the database. Examples of
such unforeseen events include Cyber-criminality and natural disasters. In
case of such an occurrence, it will be impossible for you to recover your
database if you had not backed it up. However, if your database had been
backed up, it will be easy to recover the database and resume normal
operations. You also need to back up your database to prevent the loss of
your data. SQL provides you with an easy way of creating a backup of your
database.
To create a database backup, you use the BACKUP DATABASE command.
This command takes the syntax given below:
BACKUP DATABASE database_name
TO DISK = 'file_path';
The database_name parameter denotes the name of the database you need to
back up. The file_path parameter denotes the file leading to the directory
where you need to back up your database. The above command should be
done when you need to back up the database from the beginning.
However, the differential command can be used if you need to create a
differential backup. When you do this, the backup will only be created from
the time you did your last full backup of the database. To do this, you must
change the command to:
BACKUP DATABASE database_name
TO DISK = 'file_path'
WITH DIFFERENTIAL;
We have changed the command by adding the WITH DIFFERENTIAL
statement. This means that the command will perform a differential backup
on the database.
Suppose we need to create a full backup of the database named school. We
will store the backup file in the local disk D.
The following command will help us accomplish this:
BACKUP DATABASE school
TO DISK = 'D:\schoolDB.bak';
If you need to create a differential backup of the database, just run the
following command:
BACKUP DATABASE school
TO DISK = 'D:\schoolDB.bak'
WITH DIFFERENTIAL;
We have just added the WITH DIFFERENTIAL statement to the command.
Note that with a differential backup, the backup will be created within a
short time. This is because you are only backing up changes that have
occurred within a short period. However, a full backup will take a longer
time to complete.
Creating Tables
To create a table, we have to define the table name, its column names and
their corresponding data types.
We create tables by running the CREATE TABLE command. The tables are
created within the database, meaning that one database can have many
tables. The tables hold the data. The table stores the data in the form of
rows and columns. The CREATE TABLE command takes the syntax given
below:
CREATE TABLE tableName (
column1_name datatype constraints,
column2_name datatype constraints,
....
);
To make it the above syntax easy to understand, we need to create a table
within the school database. Just run the following command from the
MySQL command line.
-- Syntax for MySQL Database
CREATE TABLE students (
 regno INT NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY AUTO_INCREMENT
UNIQUE,
name VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL,
birth_date DATE,
age int NOT NULL
);

In the above example, we have created a table named students with 4

columns. These columns include regno, name, birth_date, and age. Note
that the name of each column has been followed by a data type
representation, which dictates the type of data that the column will accept
for storage. For the case of some data types, we can define the length of
data we will store in it. This means you will not store more characters that
exceed what you have defined.
If you attempt to create a table that already exists, you will get an error. Let
us show this by trying to recreate the students' table:

The statement generates an error as shown above.

To avoid this, the IF NOT EXISTS statement can be used. This will create
the table if doesn’t exist and exit without an error if the table exists. It can
be used as follows:
-- Syntax for MySQL Database
CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS students (
regno INT NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY AUTO_INCREMENT
UNIQUE,
name VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL,
birth_date DATE,
age int NOT NULL
)
The statement runs without an error as shown below:

RENAME TABLE
Sometimes, you may need to change the name of your database table. This
could be after you realize that the current name of the table is not
meaningful. It then becomes necessary for you to change the name of the
table. This is possible by the use of the RENAME TABLE command. The
command takes the following syntax:
ALTER TABLE old_table_name
RENAME TO new_table_name;
;
For example, to change a table named employees to workers, we run the
following command:
ALTER TABLE employees
RENAME TO workers;
The table will be renamed successfully.
ALTER TABLE
This is the statement we use any time we need to change the columns of a
table. The modification in this can mean the need to add, change or delete a
table column. This command can also help you add or drop the various
constraints that may have been imposed on an existing table.
Adding a Column
To add a new column to a table, use the ALTER TABLE command with the
following syntax:
ALTER TABLE tableName ADD columnName column-definition;
However, you may sometimes to add multiple columns to the table. In such
a case, use the command with the following syntax:
ALTER TABLE tableName
ADD (column1 column-definition,
column2 column-definition,
.....
column_n column-definition);
Let us show this with an example. Suppose we have the workers table with
the following columns:

We need to add a column named home_town in which we will add the

hometown for each worker. We can do this by running the following
command:
ALTER TABLE workers ADD home_town varchar(15);
We have added a column named home_town of the varchar data type. To
confirm whether this happened, we can describe the table again:

It is very clear that the table was added successfully.

Modifying a Column
Sometimes, you may need changing a particular column table. This can be
done using the ALTER TABLE command with the following syntax:
ALTER TABLE tableName MODIFY column_name column_type;
If you need to change over one table columns, use the command with the
following syntax:
ALTER TABLE tableName
MODIFY (column1 column_type,
column2 column_type,
.....
column_n column_type);
Consider the workers table with the following data:
We need to change the datatype of the column named home_town from
varchar(15) to varchar(20). To do this, we run the command given below:
ALTER TABLE workers MODIFY home_town char(20);
The command should run successfully as follows:

To confirm whether the change happened, we can describe the table as

follows:

The above output shows that the change was successful.

Renaming a Column
You may need to change the name of a certain table column. This could be
when you need to give the table column a more meaningful name. To make
this change, use the ALTER TABLE command with the following syntax:
ALTER TABLE "tableName"
Change "column_1" "column_2" ["Data Type"];
The parameter column_1 should be the old column of the table while the
parameter column_2 should be the new name you need to assign to the
column. If you don’t specify the old column name correctly, you will get an
error since the column won’t be found.
Consider the workers' table with the following columns:

Suppose we need to change the column named home_town to home_city.

We can achieve this by running the following command:
ALTER TABLE workers
Change home_town home_city varchar(20);
The command should run successfully as shown below:

We can describe the table to see whether or not the change was reflected:
Dropping Columns
Sometimes, you may need to reduce the number of columns you have in a
certain table. In such a case, it will be necessary for you to drop or delete
some table columns. It is possible with SQL.
To delete a table column, we combine the ALTER TABLE and the DROP
statements. This is done using the syntax given below:
ALTER TABLE tableName DROP COLUMN column_name;
Again, we will use the workers table to show how to use the above
command. The table has the following set of columns:

We need to delete the last column of the table, which is home_city. To

delete it, we run the command given below:
ALTER TABLE workers DROP COLUMN home_city;
The command should run successfully as shown below:
To confirm whether or not the column was deleted, we run the describe
command against the table as shown below:

The above figure shows that the column deleted from the table successfully.
It is important to know the various data types supported in SQL. SQL data
types specify the data for every object. Every variable, column and
expression in SQL has an associated data type.
 Chapter 6 Getting Started with Queries

How Do Queries Work?

ueries are a principal working flow for SQL servers. Without querying
operations, it is technically impossible to maintain or regulate database
operations.
For successful querying database checks the following essentials:
1) Does the authorized user have permissions to execute this statement? If
not terminate the statement and show Authorization error.
2) If the user is authorized then the SQL server will check whether the
authorized user has permission to retrieve the data he is asking for? If not
terminate the procedure and display data retrieval errors for the user.
3) If the author is authorized and has permission to retrieve the data then the
SQL server will check the SQL syntax that the user has entered. If SQL
syntax is correct then the querying process will start and display results to
the end-user. If the SQL syntax is not right then syntax error will be shown.
If the statement entered satisfies these three complexities then your
statement will be sent to a query optimizer to analyze the syntax in detail.

What is a Query optimizer?

The query optimizer is a system that helps you to analyze the syntactical
structure of the syntax given. The optimizer will first check at all the from
clauses that are present and then will look at all of the indexes that are
supported. After analyzing all the clauses optimizer will choose the best
way to query the operation provided. According to the resources provided it
will proceed.

What Happens Next?

After an execution procedure is selected by the Query optimizer it is then
sent to the tool that you are using. This tool is the SQL application itself.
Then the SQL application will conduct the procedure and display results for
the query operation. If the operation succeeds the result will be shown if not
then an error will appear. There is also a chance for the query process with
no results.
Before knowing about the SELECT function it is necessary to know about
the importance of the FROM clause.
FROM
FROM is a simple SQL clause that helps you to point out an instance.
When using the SELECT statement it is mandatory to look out at an
instance for selecting the columns. This is where the FROM clause helps
you to select the columns from the databases.
An SQL statement is here:
FROM {instance name}
Here the instance name belongs to either database or table name. You can
also individually enter the column or primary key values to extract
information.
As we have sufficient knowledge about the FROM statement now, we will
discuss the SELECT cause in detail.
SELECT
The SELECT statement is usually used to select the columns provided
using the logical entities that are given. The select clause can often be
simple but sometimes it may lead to complex query operations.
Usually, select statements are performed at the end of the query operation
by the SQL server software because it is technically not possible to select
the things without having an update and changed table. For this reason,
SELECT statements are usually performed at the end and often take much
longer time than the other query operations.
Here is the SQL statement:
SELECT {Table or column values}
-> FROM {Instance name}
Now, we will discuss the parameters that are present in the syntax.
1) Table/ Column values - In this instance you need to enter all the columns
that you are going or willing to select by this query. You can use logical
expressions to denote the columns you need to select automatically. If you
want to select all the columns present then you can use an asterisk '*'.
2) Instance names - In this, we need to enter the database name we need to
retrieve the columns from. Without mentioning FROM statement, it is
technically not possible to select the columns.
To say in a single sentence, the Select clause is used to determine all the
columns for a query operation.
What else can you do with a SELECT statement?
1) You can use any numerical information such as the primary key id for
selecting it.
2) You can enter various logical and conditional expressions to expect
automated results.
3) You can sometimes also use inbuilt or scalar functions that SQL offers
for its users.
4) If there is no system function satisfying for your requirement then you
can build a user-defined function from scratch and use it for selecting.
ALIASES
Aliases are column names that are generated for the queries. Usually, SQL
generates custom column names for the query results. However, they are
often clumsy and it is essential to generate our columns for both query
results and function results. To make your column names usually aliases are
used.
Aliases can also be used to return column names that are generated using
logical expressions.
Here is the SQL statement:
ALIAS {Column name} {Logical expression}
Creating Indexes
When querying large amounts of data, indexing technology can be applied.
An index is a special type of database object that holds the sort structure of
one or more columns in a data table. Effective use of indexes can improve
the efficiency of the data query. This part focuses on the creation of indexes
and related maintenance work.
An index is a separate, physical database structure. In SQL Server, an index
is a decentralized storage structure created to speed up the retrieval of data
rows in a table. It is built for a table, and the rows in each index page
contain logical pointers to physical locations in the data table to speed up
retrieval of physical data.
Therefore, whether to create indexes on the columns in the table will have a
great impact on the query speed. The storage of a table is composed of two
parts, one part is used to store the data pages of the table and the other part
is used to store the index pages.
Usually, index pages are much smaller for data pages. In data retrieval, the
system first searches the index page to find the pointer of the required data,
and then directly reads the data from the data page through the pointer, thus
improving the query speed.
The way the database uses indexes is very similar to the catalog of books.
Indexes allow a chance of viewing through a complete book. In a database,
indexes can be used for introspecting a table without having to scan the
entire table.
After understanding the basic concepts of indexes, the following describes
the advantages and disadvantages of using indexes and the conditions for
using indexes.
1. Advantages of using indexes
(1) Create a unique index to ensure the uniqueness of each row of data in
the database table.
(2) The creation of indexes is directly proportional to the increase in the
speed of the system.
(3) The accelerator and the table are of special significance in realizing the
extra advantages of the data.
(4) When using GROUP BY and ORDER BY you should be aware that the
grouping and ordering time in the query can also be reduced.
2. Disadvantages of Using Index
(1) It is a very high turmoil to look at indexes and maintain indexes, which
increases with the increase in data volume.
(2) The index needs a lot of storage indication. In addition to the data table
occupying data space, each index also occupies a certain amount of
physical space. If cluster indexes are to be established, the space required
will be larger.
(3) When adding, deleting and modifying the data irrespective of
circumstances, the index is used in a separate mechanism such that it
reduces the overall capability of the system.

Classification of Indexes
The data in the database page of SQL Server can be divided into two types
according to the storage structure: Clustered Index and Non clustered Index.
1. Cluster index
Cluster index (also called "clustered index") means that the physical storage
order of data rows in the table is the same as the index order. Cluster index
consists of upper and lower layers: the upper layer is an index page, which
contains index pages in the table and is used for data retrieval; The lower
layer is the data page, which contains the actual data page and stores the
data in the table.
When creating a clustered index in a column of a table, the data in the table
will be reordered according to the index order of the columns and the table
will be modified. Therefore, only one cluster index can be created in each
table. Cluster indexes are created on columns that are frequently searched
or accessed sequentially.
2. Non-cluster index
The non-clustered index (also called "non-clustered index") does not
change the physical storage location of the data rows in the table. Data is
stored separately from the index and is linked to the data in the table
through the pointer carried by the index. Non-clustered indexes are similar
to those in textbooks.
The data is present in one place, the index is present in another place, and
the index has a pointer to the storage location of the data. The items in the
index are stored in the order of index key values, while the information in
the table is stored in another order (non-clustered indexes can specify this).
A table can contain multiple non-clustered indexes, and a non-clustered
index can be created for each column commonly used when looking up data
in the table.
The method of creating a clustered index is similar to that of the non-cluster
index, both uses CREATE INDEX statement, except that the CLUSTERED
clause needs to be specified to create a clustered index.

How to Create An Index?

All you need to do is enter the following syntax for creating indexes. As
explained above clustered index needs a separate parameter for creation.
Here is the syntax:
CREATE INDEX {Parameters}
In these parameters, we will define whether it is a clustered or non-clustered
index.
You can also use SQL server management software to create indexes with a
click.
MySQL Functions
Functions are an easy way to repeat a task. Functions consist of a set of
code that can be used in logical execution and expressions. SQL provides a
lot of scalar and aggregation functions for the database users.

Why are Functions Used?

For example, you can use SQL functions to find maximum or minimum
values for your column values. You can also use functions created by
yourself from scratch to repeat tasks automatically.
 Chapter 7 Turning Data into Information

hrough this part, when we bring up the topic of the operators that are inside
of the database, we are going to talk about the characters and the words that
we have reserved, and any that can be used along with the WHERE clause
of the statements we write. Operators are helpful because we are able to use
them to perform operations in the statements, such as comparisons and any
of the equations that we need in math, but they can also come in to make it
easier to set up some of the parameters that we want to see around our
statements. And we need always to remember that they are there to help us
connect together two or more parameters that we have in the same
statement if this is something that our code needs.
During this process, we are going to need to remember that there are a few
options of operators that you are able to use in these statements. The four
most common options that we are able to work with include:
Operators that are used to help negate conditions.

Logical operators
Comparison operators
Arithmetic operators.

Logical Operators
The first operator type that we are going to spend some time focusing on in
this guidebook will be the logical operators. These are going to be the kinds
of operators that we are able to use with the keywords of our statements,
and they are going to be easier to form with comparisons inside of the
statements. Some of the different logical operators that we are able to add
into our statements will include:

In—this operator will allow you to compare the value of

specified literal values that are set. You will get a true if one or
 more of the specified values is equal to the value that you test.
Like—the like operator is going to make it so that you can
compare a value against others that are similar. You will usually
combine it with the “_” or the “%” sign to get more done. The
underscore is used to represent a number or a character ad the %
is used for several characters, zero, or one.
Unique—with the unique operator, you will be able to take a
look at one or more of your data rows and see if they are unique
or not.
Exists—you will need to use this operator to find the data rows
that will meet the criteria that you put down. It basically allows
you to put down some criteria and see if there are any rows that
exist that meet with this.
Between—you can use this operator in order to find values that
will fall into a specific range. You will need to assign the
maximum and the minimum values to make this work.
Is null—the is null operator will allow you to compare the value
of your choosing with a NULL one.
Any and all—any and all values often go together. Any operator
is going to compare a value against all of the values on a list.
The list of values is to be set up with predetermined conditions.
ALL, on the other hand, will compare the values that you select
against the values that are in a different value set.
These are good operators to learn how to use because they will help us to
make some good comparisons and to help us look at a few of the points of
data that are already inside of our database that we are working with. You
are able to work with a few of these logical operators and see how they can
work with some of the different statements that you want to work with, and
see what will be the best for you.
Comparison Operators
The second operator that we are able to work with inside of the SQL
language is going to be the comparison operators. These are going to be the
ones that you would choose to use when you want to check on some of the
single values that are found in the statement here. This category is going to
be composed of a few mathematical signs, some that you are even familiar
with so it is not going to be too hard for us to figure out. Some of the best
comparison operators that we are able to work within this database will
include:

Non-equality—if you are testing the non-equality operator, you

will use the “<>” signs. The operation is going to give you the
result of TRUE if the data does not equal and FALSE if the data
does equal. You can also use the “!=” to check for this as well.
Equality—you will be able to use this operator in order to test
out some single values in your statement. You will simply need
to use the “=” sign to check for this. You are only going to get a
response if the data that you chose has identical values. If the
values aren’t equal, you will get a false and if they are equal, you
will get a true.
Greater-than values and Less-than values—these two are going
to rely on the “<” and “>” signs to help you out. They will work
as stand-alone operators if you would like but often, they are
more effective when you combine them together with some of
the other operators.
These are going to help us to see some of the single values that are found in
any of the statements of our database, and sometimes they are able to bring
out some unique things like the less than and great than options, resulting in
a few true and false statements that add in some power to the code we are
writing and can make our program stronger than ever before.
Arithmetic Operators
The third type of operator that we need to focus on is going to be the
arithmetic operator. These are going to be the most useful when we are
trying to add in some of the different mathematical operations that are
useful in the SQL language. There are going to be four main arithmetic
operators that we are able to use inside of these equations, and we are able
to combine a few of them together in the same statement if that is what is
needed for our code. The four main types of operators that we are able to
focus on here will include:

Addition—you will just need to use the “+” sign to get started on
using addition. For this example, we are going to add up the
values for the overhead column and the materials column. The
statement that works for this is:
SELECT MATERIALS + OVERHEAD FROM
PRODUCTION_COST_TBL.
Subtraction—you can also do some basic subtraction when it
comes to your SQL statements. You will simply need to use the
“-“ sign to do this.
Multiplication—it is possible to do multiplication from your
tables as well. You would need to use the “*” sign to do this.
Division—this one will just need the “/” sign to get started.
With the arithmetic operators, you will be able to gain a lot of freedom in
some of the codes that you are writing. You can combine a few of these
operators together and even end up with your own equation inside of the
statement. For example, you could have one statement with a bit of
multiplication along with some division and addition if you would like. You
can also have it so that you are just using a few multiplication signs in the
same statement as well. Whatever is needed to bring the code together and
make it work in the way that you want is available when it comes to these
arithmetic operators.
One thing that we need to remember when we decide to add in more than
one of these operators to our statement at a time is that we need to work
with something known as the principles of precedence to make sure that we
get it right. This means that the syntax is going to be able to take care of the
arithmetic operators in a certain way to help us get the right answer.
When we are doing this kind of principle in SQL, the syntax is going to
take care of everything that we need to multiply first, and then it will pay
attention to everything that we need to divide, and then it will do those that
should be added together, before finishing up with the things that should be
subtracted from one another. And the syntax is going to do this in a manner
that goes from left to right, along with going through the symbols in the
order that we did above. This makes sure that we are going to get the right
answers, and is similar to what we should remember from basic algebra
classes in the past.

Working with the Conjunctive Operators

Another type of operator that we need to spend some of our time on here is
the conjunctive operators. When you are doing some work with your
statements, you may find that there will be some times when new criteria
will be needed in order to make sure that the command is going to behave
the way that we want.
For example, if you are sending out a database search and your results that
might be a bit more confusing, you may find that adding in some different
criteria to the mix to get the results you want is a much better idea. You can
also use these when you would like to be able to combine together a few
different types of criteria within the single statement, and then you would
create a brand-new conjunctive operator that works for your needs.
Even though you are able to create one of the conjunctive operators that you
want technically, there are going to be a few of these that are already
predefined inside of the SQL language, and you are able to use them as you
need. Some of these operators are going to include:

OR—you will use this statement to combine the conditions of

the WHERE clause. Before this statement can take action, the
criteria need to be separated by the “OR” or it should be TRUE.
AND—this operator is going to make it easier to include
multiple criteria into the WHERE section of your statement. The
statement will then only take action when the criteria have been
segregated by the “AND” and they are all true.
These operators are all important and each of the categories is going to
make a big difference in what we are able to do with some of our own
statements. You are able to use the arithmetic operators to help with
mathematical equations, work on how to compare different parts of the
database, and so much more. You will not have to work longer with the
SQL language in order to see all of the cool things that you are able to do
with this language in no time at all.
 Chapter 8 Working with Multiple Tables

atabases usually consist of different tables with different column values and
types. However, some tables in the database consist of the same entities and
can be used to query two database columns with precision. To retrieve data
using this technique we use JOINS in SQL.
What are Joins?
Usually, we can query columns and rows using the SELECT statement.
However, SELECT statements only work for a single table and so is often
not useful for complex query operations. At this Joins come into operative
where they can query data from two or more tables with the help of
common columns present in the tables.
What are Unions?
Unions also are used to retrieve data from two or more tables. The only
difference between Joins and Unions is that Joins use only SELECT
statement whereas Unions use a different number of SELECT statement to
achieve the results.
How to Implement Joins?
Joins are usually implemented using two types of syntaxes. Explicit syntax
deals with the cartesian product of two tables. Whereas implicit syntax
deals with Where clauses. It is always recommended to use explicit
functionality because it is easy for queries to function and operate.
Cartesian product
Before going to learn about the advanced functionalities of Joins it is
important to know about the simple cartesian product.
Cartesian product is a simple mathematical operation that multiplies with
any entity without restrictions. By using the cartesian product you can
combine with any column of the other table.
To understand the cartesian product in layman terms it is just keeping two
tables side by side. For example, if Table A has 10 rows and Table B has 5
rows then the cartesian product will have a total of 50 rows.
Cartesian product is often under-discussed even though after being simple is
because it gives large output tables.
This cartesian product from SQL is explicitly known as cross join.
However, with the time SQL server has restricted cross join operations for
its huge data taking.
Here is the SQL statement for your reference:
SELECT * [ CROSS JOIN] {Enter parameters here}

SQL Inner Join

If cross join talks about the cartesian product of two tables natural join
discusses natural join of tables.
What is a Natural Join?
To explain natural join, we need to be aware of the tables we are trying to
target. There will be two tables known as the Source table and Target table.
The source table is which we use a SELECT statement to extract columns
and the Target table is the table that we use after the JOIN statement.
To understand Natural joins in a better way we will discuss this concept in
three scenarios. Follow along!
Scenario 1:
If there is only one same column in both of the tables
Explanation:
To demonstrate this example, we will introduce two tables known as
College and Place.
College table has 4 columns namely - BRANCH, BRANCH_NAME, HOD,
STREAM
Place table has 6 columns namely - PLACE_ID, STREET, PINCODE,
TOWN, COUNTY, STREAM
Now, if we carefully observe you can notice that both tables contain a
similar column known as STREAM. This column can be used as a Foreign
key to perform a natural join.
Here is the SQL statement to perform Natural join:
SELECT {enter columns here} FROM { Source table} JOIN { target table}
Note:
Always enter all the columns you want to retrieve in the second parameter
position. For the table mentioned above, we will enter Stream as a
parameter for join to function.
Scenario 2:
If there are more than two identical columns
Explanation:
If you have observed more than two identical columns in the target and
source table then it is important to enter only one column for retrieving user
desired columns. This type of join is known as pure natural join. Entering
one column can recognize all other columns and will give results.
Here is the SQL statement:
SELECT {enter columns here } FROM { Source table} JOIN { target
table} AND { Linked columns}
Scenario 3:
Retrieve columns by USING clause
Explanation:
If there are two columns and you need only one column you can use the
USING column to retrieve the column you are wishing for.
Here is the SQL statement:
SELECT {enter columns here } FROM { Source table} JOIN { target
table} USING { Required columns}
With this, we have given a thorough and complete introduction to inner join
and in the next part, we will discuss Left and Right joins using a few
examples. But before discussing these joins let us discuss equijoins and
non-equijoins for better understanding of these concepts. Although not
solely responsible for Right and Left joins these concepts are important for
an overall understanding of the subject. Follow along!
What is Equijoin?
Equijoin refers to comparing connected columns using an operator equal to
"=" in the connection condition. The query result will list all columns in the
connected table, including duplicate columns. The types of connection
columns in connection conditions must be comparable, but not necessarily
the same. For example, it can be both character type or both date type; It
can also be an integer type and a real type because they are both numeric
types.

SQL RIGHT & LEFT JOIN

SQL Right and Left join works on the concept of external join. The inner
join compares each column of records FROM the table in the FROM clause
and returns all records that satisfy the join condition.
However, sometimes it is necessary to display all records in the table,
including those records that do not meet the connection conditions. In this
case, the external connection is required. Using outer join can easily query
other records in a table in the join result. The query result of the external
connection is an extension of the query result of the internal connection.
An obvious feature of external connection is that some data that do not meet
the connection conditions are also output in the connection results. External
connection takes the specified data table as the main body and outputs the
data in the main body table that do not meet the connection conditions.
According to the different rows saved by external connections, external
connections can be divided into the following 3 types of connections.
(1) Left outer join: indicates that the results include data in the left table that
do not meet the conditions.
(2) right join: indicates that the results include data in the right table that do
not meet the conditions.
(3) Total External Connection: Data that do not meet the conditions in the
left table and the right table appear in the results.
In the JOIN statement, the left side of the join keyword represents the left
table and the right side represents the right table.

SQL Self-connection
Self-connection refers to the connection between the same table and itself.
All databases process only one row in a table at a time. Users can access all
columns in one row, but only in one row. If information of two different
rows in a table is needed at the same time, the table needs to be connected
with itself.
To better understand self-joining, one table can be thought of as two
independent tables. In the FROM clause, the tables are listed twice. To
distinguish, each table must be given an alias to distinguish the two copies.

SQL UNION
In SQL Server, combined queries are completed through the UNION
operator. The UNION operator can be displayed by combining data FROM
multiple tables, but unlike joins, UNION is not implemented by adding
multiple tables in the from clause and specifying join conditions, but by
combining the results of multiple queries.
The following points should be noted when using the UNION operator:
(1) The number of columns in the two query statements is required to be
compatible with the data type of the columns.
(2) The column name in the final result set comes from the column name of
the first SELECT statement.
(3) In combination query, duplicate rows will be deleted from the final
result set by default unless the ALL keyword is used.
(4) The query results will automatically sort the columns in the SELECT
list from left to right, regardless of the position of the query relative to the
UNION operator.
Here is the syntax:
SELECT {UNION}
Merging multiple result sets through UNION is explained below by using a
server management studio.
The operation steps are as follows:
(1) Select Start → All Programs → SQL Server Management Studio in
turn. In the pop-up connection dialog box, select "SQL Server
Authentication", login name is "Your choice" and password is empty.
(2) In the "Microsoft SQL Server Management Studio" window, click the
"New Query" button, then enter the corresponding code in the code editing
area, and click the Run button on the toolbar. The results will be displayed
in the window.
SQL UNION {Enter parameters} Merge {Enter column names here}

SQL UNION ALL

When the UNION statement is used to merge the result sets in the query
statement, the UNION statement will automatically delete duplicate rows
and automatically sort the result sets. The UNION ALL statement does not
delete duplicate rows in the result set and does not automatically sort. In
most cases, UNION statements are used for merging, and UNION ALL
statements are only used in some special cases.
For example:
(1) Know that there are duplicate lines and want to keep the duplicate lines.
(2) Know that there can be no repetition.
(3) I don't care if there are duplicate lines.
The UNION ALL statement will only be used in the above cases, and the
UNION statement is better for other cases.
Use UNION ALL to Preserve Duplicate Rows
The operation steps are as follows:
(1) Select Start → All Programs → SQL Server Management Studio in
turn. In the pop-up connection dialog box, select "SQL Server
Authentication", login name is "your choice " and password is empty.
(2) In the "Microsoft SQL Server Management Studio" window, click the
"New Query" button, then enter the corresponding code in the code editing
area, and click the Run button on the toolbar. The results will be displayed
in the window.
SQL UNION {Enter parameters} Duplicate {Enter column names here}
Improving the Readability of Query Results through UNION Statements
UNION statement can not only merge the query results of the SELECT
statement but also increase the readability of query results. That is, by
creating aliases for the column names in the results, the meaning of the
query results can be better reflected.
Determine the Source of Data by Text in UNION
In UNION, the source of data is determined by the text, mainly by adding a
new column to the result set and determining the source of data in the table
through the new column. This method can ensure that duplicate rows in two
tables are not deleted, and can show that duplicate rows come from
different tables.
 Chapter 9 Using Functions

n regard to SQL, a built-in function can be defined as a portion of

programming that accepts zero or any other input and returns an answer.
There are different roles of built-in functions. These include the
performance of calculations, obtaining of the system value, and application
in textual data manipulation. This part aims at examining the various SQL
built-in functions, categories of functions, pros and cons of functions and
types of built-in functions.

Types of SQL Functions

The SQL functions are grouped into two groups: aggregate and scalar
function. Working on Group by, the aggregate functions run on different
records and deliver a summary. Scalar functions, on the other hand, run on
different records independently.
These are as follows:
1. Single Row Functions-They provide a one-row return for any queried
table. They are found in select lists, START WIH, WHERE CLAUSE and
others. Examples of single-row functions include numeric_, data_mining,
Datetime_, conversion_ and XML_functions.
2. Aggregate Function-When you apply this kind of function, you see a
single row returns based on different rows. The aggregate function exists in
Select lists, ORDER BY and HAVING CLAUSE. They go hand in hand
with Group by Clause and SELECT statements. Many of them do not take
attention to null values. Those that are usually used include AVG, EANK,
MIN, SUM and others.
3. Analytic Function-They are used to compute an aggregate value that
are found on specific groups of rows. When you run this function, it
delivers many rows for every group. The analytic functions are the last one
to be run in a query. Examples of analytic functions include analytic-
_clause and Order-by-Clause.
4. Model Functions-These are found in SELECT statements. Examples of
model functions include CV, present and previous.
5. User-Defined Function-They are used in PL/SQL to offer functions
that are not found in SQL. They are mostly used in sections where
expressions occur. For instance, you can find them in select list of Select
statement.
6. SQL COUNT Function-It is used to provide the number of rows in a
table.

Categories of Functions
Functions are classified according to the role they play on the SQL
database. The following are some of the function categories available:
1. Aggregate Functions-They do a calculation on a specific set of values
and deliver a single value. The aggregate values are used in the SELECT
LIST and HAVING clause. The aggregate functions are referred to as being
deterministic. This means that they return the same value when running on
the same input value.
2. Analytic Function-They calculate an aggregate value according to a
group of rows. They return many rows for different groups. The analytic
functions can be used to perform different computations like running totals,
percentages and others.
3. Ranking Functions-They provide a ranking value for each portioned row.
These kinds of functions are regarded as nondeterministic.
4. Rowset Functions- They're used to return an object that can be applied.
5. Scalar Functions-They work on a single value to return the same. There
are various kinds of scalar values. These include configuration function,
conversion function and others.
a) Configuration Functions-They offer information about the present
configuration.
b) Conversion Functions-They support data changing.
c) Cursor Functions-They provide information concerning cursors.
d) Date and Time Data Type-They are concerned with operations as
regards date and time.
6. Function Determinism-Functions that are found in SQL servers are either
deterministic or nondeterministic. Deterministic functions provide the same
answers when they are used. Nondeterministic functions, on the other hand,
offer different results when they are applied.

SQL Calculations
There are various mathematical functions build-in the SQL server. The
functions can be classified into 4 main groups, including Scientific and Trig
Functions, rounding functions, signs and random numbers. Although there
are numerous mathematical functions within each class, not all of them are
used regularly. The various classes are highlighted and explained below:
1. Scientific and Trig Functions-Under this category, there are various
subclasses found under it. These include P1, SQRT, and SQUARE. P1
function is used to compute the circumference and area in circles. How it
works: SELECT 2 *10. SQRT connotes square root. This function is used
most of the time. The function recognizes any number that can be changed
to float datatype. Example: SELECT SQET (36) Returns 6.SQUARE
means that you multiply any number by itself. The concept of Pythagoras
theorem is useful here. This means that Asquared+Bsquared=Csquared.
This can be performed as SELECT SQRT (SQUARE (A) + SQUARE(B))
as C.
2. Rounding Functions- Under this class, there are various subcategories
which include the CEILING and FLOOR. The ceiling function is helpful
when dealing with a float or decimal number. Your interest is to find out the
highest or lowest integer. Whereas the CEILING is the best highest integer,
the floor represents the lowest integer. The ROUND function is applied
when you want to round a number to the nearest specific decimal place.
This is expressed as ROUND (value, number of decimal places).
3. Signs- There are occasions that require that you obtain an absolute figure
of a number. For instance, the absolute value of -7 is 7. The absolute
number doesn't contain any sign. To assist you with this task, it's essential
to utilize the ABS function.
4. COS (X)-This function recognizes an angle expressed as radian as the
parameter. After an operation, you get a cosine value.
5. SIN (X)-This function notices a radian angle. After computation, it
gives back a sine value.
6. Sign-You can use a sign function when you want a negative, positive,
or zero value.

The Importance of SQL Built-In Functions and Mathematical

Applications
The build-in functions are sub-programs that help users to achieve different
results when handling SQL database. These applications are used several
times when you want to manipulate or process data. The SQL functions
provide tools that are applied when creating, processing, and manipulating
data. The benefits of SQL in-build and maths functions are as follows:
1. Manipulation of Data-The in-built tools and maths functions play a
significant role in data manipulation. Manipulating massive data may be
difficult if you do it manually. This is especially when the data is massive.
Therefore, these functions play a significant role in ensuring that your data
is manipulated fast as per your demands.
2. Assist in The Processing of Data-To benefit from data; you must process
it. You may never have the ability to process big data manually. Therefore,
the built-in SQL functions and maths applications assist you in processing
your database.
3. Simplifies Tasks-In case you're a programmers, you can attest to the fact
that these functions and formulas make your work ease. You can work fast
when you apply these in-build functions and formulas. Due to these tools,
you'll accomplish many projects within a short time.
4. Increase Your Productivity-Using the in-built functions enhance your
productivity as a programmers. This is because the functions enable you to
work quickly on different projects. In case you were to handle data
manually, you may take much time before you accomplish a task which
ultimately injures your productivity. However, the built-in functions and
calculations allow quick execution of tasks.
5. Time Saving-Because functions are written once and used several times,
and they save much time. Besides timesaving, the functions offer support to
modular programming.
6. They Enhance Performance- When you apply functions; you enhance the
performance of your database. This is because the functions are prepared
and inserted prior to usage.
7. Enhances Understanding of Complicated Logic-Handling of SQL
database is a complex tax. Therefore, functions enable you to decompose
data into smooth and manageable functions. In this way, you find it easy to
maintain your database.
8. Cost Effective-Because the functions are in-build in the SQL database;
you can use them many times without the need to invest in new ones. In this
connection, therefore, they reduce the cost of operating and maintaining
your SQL database.

Downsides of In-Built Functions

The SQL in-built functions have various limitations, including:
1. Testability- When using the in-built functions, it's challenging to test their
business philosophy. This is a big challenge, especially when you want the
functions to support your business philosophy. You may never understand
whether the functions are in line with your business vision and mission.
2. Versioning-It's challenging to establish the kind of version that is used in
the SQL build-functions. You need to understand whether there're any new
versions that can probably provide the best service.
3. Errors-In case there are errors within the in-build functions which you
don't know, they may disrupt the program. This may prove costly and time-
wasting.
4. Fear of Change-In case there is change; you may not understand how it
will affect your SQL built-in functions. The world of technology keeps
changes, and this change may affect the in-built functions.
The SQL in-built functions and calculations are essential as they enable a
programmer to execute a task fast with minimal errors. The calculations in
the in-built database makes it possible to process and manipulate data.
 Chapter 10 Subqueries

Definition
n SQL, subqueries are queries within queries. The subqueries usually use
the WHERE clause. Also called nested query or internal query, subqueries
can also restrict the data being retrieved.
Creating subqueries are more complex than creating simple queries. You
have to use essential key words such as, SELECT, DELETE, UPDATE,
INSERT and the operators such as, BETWEEN (used only WITHIN a
subquery and not WITH a subquery), IN, =, < =, > =, >, <, < >, and similar
symbols.
In composing a subquery, you have to remember these pointers.

It must be enclosed with an open and close parenthesis.

It can be used in several ways.
It is recommended that a subquery can run on its own.
It can ascribe column values for files.
It can be found anywhere in the main query. You can identify it
because it is enclosed in parentheses.
If it displays more than one row in response to an SQL
command, this can only be accepted when there are multiple
value operators. Example is the IN operator.
In a subquery, the GROUP BY is used instead of the ORDER
BY, which is used in the main statement or query.
When creating subqueries, do not enclose it immediately in a set
function.
To create subqueries, it is easier to start with a FROM
statement.
Subqueries should also have names for easy identification.
 When using the SELECT key word, only one column should be
included in your subquery. The exception is when the main
query has selected many columns for comparison.
Values that refer to a National Character Large Object
(NCLOB), Binary Large Object (BLOB), Character Large
Object (CLOB) and an Array, which is part of a collection data
in variable sizes, should NOT be included in your SELECT list.

Working with the Queries

When you do set up the query that you would like to use, you will find that
you are basically sending out an inquiry to the database that you already set
up. You will find that there are a few methods to do this, but the SELECT
command is going to be one of the best options to make this happen, and
can instantly bring back the information that we need from there, based on
our search.
For example, if you are working with a table that is going to hold onto all of
the products that you offer for sale, then you would be able to use the
command of SELECT in order to find the best selling products or ones that
will meet another criterion that you have at that time. The request is going
to be good on any of the information on the product that is stored in the
database, and you will see that this is done pretty normally when we are
talking about work in a relational database.

Working with the SELECT Command

Any time that you have a plan to go through and query your database, you
will find that the command of SELECT is going to be the best option to
make this happen. This command is important because it is going to be in
charge of starting and then executing the queries that you would like to send
out. In many cases, you will have to add something to the statement as just
sending out SELECT is not going to help us to get some of the results that
you want. You can choose the product that you would like to find along
with the command, or even work with some of the features that show up as
well.
Whenever you work with the SELECT command on one of your databases
inside of the SQL language, you will find that there are four main keywords
that we are able to focus on. These are going to be known as the four
classes that we need to have present in order to make sure that we are able
to complete the command that we want and see some good results. These
four commands are going to include:

SELECT—this command will be combined with the FROM

command in order to obtain the necessary data in a format that is
readable and organized. You will use this to help determine the
data that is going to show up. The SELECT clause is going to
introduce the columns that you would like to see out of the
search results and then you can use the FROM in order to find
the exact point that you need.
FROM—the SELECT and the FROM commands often go
together. It is mandatory because it takes your search from
everything in the database, down to just the things that you
would like. You will need to have at least one FROM clause for
this to work. A good syntax that would use both the SELECT
and the FROM properly includes:
WHERE—this is what you will use when there are multiple
conditions within the clause. For example, it is the element in the
query that will display the selective data after the user puts in the
information that they want to find. If you are using this feature,
the right conditions to have along with it are the AND OR
operators. The syntax that you should use for the WHERE
command includes:
SELEC [ * | ALL | DISTINCT COLUMN1, COLUMN2 ]
FROM TABLE1 [ , TABLE2];
WHERE [ CONDITION1 | EXPRESSION 1 ]
[ AND CONDITION2 | EXPRESSION 2 ]

ORDER BY—you are able to use this clause in order to arrange

the output of your query. The server will be able to decide the
order and the format that the different information comes up for
the user after they do their basic query. The default for this query
 is going to be organizing the output going from A to Z, but you
can make changes that you would like. The syntax that you can
use for this will be the same as the one above, but add in the
following line at the end:
ORDER BY COLUMN 1 | INTEGER [ ASC/DESC ]
You will quickly see that all of these are helpful and you can easily use
them instead of the SELECT command if you would like. They can
sometimes pull out the information that you need from the database you are
working in a more efficient manner than you will see with just the SELECT
command. But there are going to be many times when you will find that the
SELECT command will be plenty to help you get things done when it is
time to search your database as well.

A Look at Case Sensitivity

Unlike some of the other coding languages that are out there and that you
may be tempted to use on your database searches, you may find that the
case sensitivity in SQL is not going to be as important as it is in some of
those other ones. You are able to use uppercase or lowercase words as you
would like, and you can use either typing of the word and still get the part
that you need out of the database. It is even possible for us to go through
and enter in some clauses and statements in uppercase or lowercase,
without having to worry too much about how these commands are going to
work for our needs.
However, there are a few exceptions to this, which means there are going to
be times when we need to worry about the case sensitivity that is going to
show up in this language a bit more than we may want to. One of the main
times for this is when we are looking at the data objects. For the most part,
the data that you are storing should be done with uppercase letters. This is
going to be helpful because it ensures that there is some consistency in the
work that you are doing and can make it easier for us to get the results that
we want.
For example, you could run into some issues down the road if one of the
users is going through the database and typing in JOHN, but then the next
person is typing in John, and then the third person is going through and
typing in john to get the results. If you make sure that there is some
consistency present, you will find that it is easier for all of the users to get
the information that they want, and then you can make sure that you are
able to provide the relevant information back when it is all done.
In this case, working with letters in uppercase is often one of the easiest
ways to work with this because it is going to make it easier and the user is
going to see that this is the norm in order options as well. If you choose to
not go with uppercase in this, then you should try to find some other
method that is going to keep the consistency that you are looking for during
the whole thing. This allows the user a chance to figure out what you are
doing, and will help them to find what they need with what is inside of their
queries.
 Chapter 11 SQL Views and Transactions

Database View in SQL is defined as a “virtual or logical table” described as

the SELECT statements containing join function. As a Database View is
like a table in the database consisting of rows and columns, you will be able
to run queries on it easily. Many DBMSs, including MySQL, enable users
to modify information in the existing tables using Database View by
meeting certain prerequisites, as shown in the picture below.
A SQL database View can be deemed dynamic since there is no connection
between the SQL View to the physical system. The database system will
store SQL Views in the form on SELECT statements using JOIN clause.
When the information in the table is modified, the SQL View will also
reflect that modification.

Pros of Using SQL View

A SQL View enables simplification of complicated queries: a SQL
View is characterized by a SQL statement which is associated with
multiple tables. To conceal the complexity of the underlying tables
from the end-users and external apps, SQL View is extremely
helpful. You only need to use straightforward SQL statements
instead of complicated ones with multiple JOIN clauses using the
SQL View.
A SQL View enables restricted access to information depending on
the user requirements. Perhaps you would not like all users to be
able to query a subset of confidential information. In such cases
SQL View can be used to expose non-sensitive information to a
targeted set of users selectively.
The SQL View offers an additional layer of safety. Data security is
a key component of every DBMS. It ensures additional security for
the DBMS. It enables generation of a read only view to display read
only information for targeted users. In read only view, users are
able only to retrieve data and are not allowed to update any
information.
The SQL View is used to enable computed columns. The table in
the database is not capable of containing computed columns but a
SQL View can easily contain computed column. Assume in the
OrderDetails table there is the quantity Order column for
the amount of products ordered and priceEach column for the price
of each item. But the OrderDetails table cannot contain
a calculated column storing total sales for every product from the
order. If it could, the database schema may have never been a good
design. In such a situation, to display the calculated outcome, you
could generate a computed column called total, which would be a
product of quantityOrder and priceEach columns. When querying
information from the SQL View, the calculated column information
will be calculated on the fly.
A SQL View allows for backward compatibility. Assume that
we have a central database that is being used by
multiple applications. Out of the blue you have been tasked to
redesign the database accommodating the new business needs. As
you delete some tables and create new ones, you would not want
other applications to be affected by these modifications. You could
generate SQL Views in such situations, using the identical
schematic of the legacy tables that you are planning to delete.
Cons of Using SQL View
In addition to the pros listed above, the use of SQL View may have
certain disadvantages such as:

Performance: Executing queries against SQL View could be

slow, particularly if it is generated from another SQL View.
Table dependencies: Since a SQL View is created from
the underlying tables of the database. Anytime the tables
structure connected with SQL View is modified, you also need to
modify the SQL View.

Create SQL View with JOIN Clause

The MySQL database allows you to create SQL View using JOIN clause.
For instance, the query below with the INNER JOIN clause can be used to
create a view containing order no, client name, and totl sale per ordr:
CREATE VIEW clientOrdrs AS
SELECT
x.orderNo,
clientName,
SUM(qtyOrdrd * pricEch) total
FROM
orderDetail d
INNER JOIN
order r ON r.orderNo = x.orderNo
INNER JOIN
clients y ON y.clientNo = y.clientNo
GROUP BY x.orderNo
ORDER BY totl DESC;
By executing the syntax below, the desired data can be retrieved from the
client order view:
SELECT *FROM
clientOrder;
The result set is displayed in the picture below:

Create SQL View with a Subquery

The query below can be used to generate a SQL View with a subquery,
containing products with purchase prices greater than the
average product prices.
CREATE VIEW abvAvgPdcts AS
SELECT
pdctCode, pdctName, buyPric
FROM
pdcts
WHERE
buyPric>
(SELECT
AVG(buyPric)
FROM
pdcts)
ORDER BY buyPric DESC;
The query to extract data from the aboveAvgPdcts view is even more
straightforward, as shown in the picture below:
SELECT
*
FROM
abvAvgPdcts;
The result set is displayed in the picture below:

Check if an Existing View is Updatable

By running a query against the is_updtble column from the view in the
info_schema database, you should verify whether a view in the database is
updatable or not.
You can use the query below to display all the views from the
classicmodeldb and check which for views that can be updated:
SELECT
tab_name,
is_updtble
FROM
info_schema.view
WHERE
tab_schema = 'classicmodel';
The result set is displayed in the picture below:
Dropping Rows Using SQL View
To understand this concept, execute the syntax below first to create a table
called itms, use the INSERT statements to add records into this table and
then use the CREATE clause to generate a view containing items with
prices higher than 701.
--- creating new tbl called itms
CREATE TABLE itms (
identity INT AUTO_INCREMENT PRIMARY KEY,
nam VARCHAR (110) NOT NULL,
pric DECIMAL (10 , 1 ) NOT NULL
)
-- addingrecords into itmstbl
INSERT INTO itms (nam,pric)
VALUES ('Comp', 600.54), ('Laptop', 799.99),('Tablet', 699.50) ;
--- creating views based on itmstbl
CREATE VIEW LxryItms AS
SELECT
*
FROM
itms
WHERE
pric> 899;
--- retrieve records from the LxryItms view
SELECT
*
FROM
LxryItms;
The result set is displayed in the picture below:

Now, using the DELETE clause record with identity value 3 can be
dropped.
DELETE FROM LxryItms
WHERE
id = 3;
After you run the query above, you will receive a message stating 1 row(s)
affected.
Now, to verify the data with the view use the query below:
SELECT
*
FROM
LxryItms;
The result set is displayed in the picture below:
Finally, use the syntax below to retrieve desired records from the
underlying table to confirm that the “DELETE” statement in fact removed
the record:
SELECT
*
FROM
itms;
The result set is displayed in the picture below, which confirms that the
record with identity value 3 has been deleted from the items table:

Modification of SQL View

In MySQL, you can use ALTER VIEW and CREATE OR REPLACE
VIEW statements to make changes to views that have already been created.
Using ALTER VIEWStatement
The syntax for ALTER VIEW works a lot like the CREATE VIEW
statement that you learned earlier, the only difference being that the ALTER
keyword is used instead of the CREATE keyword, as shown below:
ALTER
[ALGRTHM = {MERG | TEMPTBL | UNDEFND}]
VIEW [db_nam]. [vw_nam]
AS
[SELECT statemnt]
The query below will change the organization view by incorporating the
email column in the table:
ALTER VIEW org
AS
SELECT CONCAT (x.lastname,x.firstname) AS Emplye,
x.emailAS emplyeEmail,
CONCAT(y.lstname, y.fstname) AS Mgr
FROM emplyes AS x
INNER JOIN emplyes AS y
ON y.emplyeNo = x.ReprtsTo
ORDER BY Mgr;
You may run the code below against the org view to verify the
modification:
SELECT
*
FROM
Org;
The result set is displayed in the picture below:

Using CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW Statement

These statements can be used to replace or generate a SQL View that
already exists in the database. For all existing views, MySQL will easily
modify the view but if the view is non-existent, it will create a new view
based on the query.
The syntax below can be used to generate the contacts view on the basis of
the employees table:
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW cntcts AS
SELECT
fstName, lstName, extnsn, eml
FROM
emplyes;
The result set is displayed in the picture below:

Now, assume that you would like to insert the jobtitl column to the cntcts
view. You can accomplish this with the syntax below:
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW cntcts AS
SELECT
fstName, lstName, extnsn, eml, jobtitl
FROM
emplyes;
The result set is displayed in the picture below:
Dropping a SQL View
The DROP VIEW statement can be utilized to delete an existing view from
the database, using the syntax below:
DROP VIEW [IF EXISTS] [db_name]. [vw_name]
The "IF EXISTS" clause is not mandatory in the statement above and is
used to determine if the view already exists in the database. It prevents you
from mistakenly removing a view that does not exists in the database.
You may, for instance, use the DROP VIEW statement as shown in the
syntax below to delete the organization view:
DROP VIEW IF EXISTS org;
SQL TRANSACTIONS
Any actions that are executed on a database are called as transactions.
These are actions that are executed logically, either manually by a user
or automatically using by the database program.
Or simply put, they are the spread of one or more database modifications.
For instance, every time you create a row, update a row, or delete a row
a transaction is being executed on that table. To maintain data integrity and
address database errors, it is essential to regulate these transactions.
Basically, to execute a transaction, you must group several SQL queries and
run them at the same time.
 Conclusion

QL in full is the Structured Query Language and is a kind of ANSI

computer language that has been specially designed to access, manipulate,
and update database systems. SQL has different uses; the most significant
of them is managing data in database systems that can store data in table
forms. Additionally, SQL statements have been used regularly in updating
and retrieving data from databases.
What we have thought since childhood is the best to learn a new concept is
by practicing it. It is no exception; you have to do various equations related
to SQL as a way of learning about them. I hope you can apply what you
have learned from this book to be successful in your future projects.

Projects in SQL Programming

Below are random projects that you can encounter in SQL programming.
They have been picked and randomly, and I believe if you practice them
out, you will be better equipped in handling such situations. Before we list
the projects, we first should get to understand the differences between
exercises and projects. Well, logically, a task is more of a quick test you can
do without a lot of complications: it is less complicated compared to
projects. On the other hand, projects are a little more complicated and
sophisticated. It requires advanced skills as well as data research to do it.
Having learned that, let's discuss the potential projects you can encounter in
SQL programming.
i) Interviews
When making software for a particular company, you will need knowledge
of an existing system that belongs to that company. For such purposes, you
will have to carry out interviews for some individuals working in that
company and collect critical information. You will have to do interviews on
people that are aware of that software. Such people could be working as
hostel wardens or trainers.
ii) Discussions (Groups)
They can be a kind of group discussion that has occurred between
employees of the company you are working on. For a start, a good number
of ideas might appear clustered together or filled by concepts that already
exist. Such ideologies might be brought on board by programmers.
Additionally, it can be done through online observation. It is a procedure of
obtaining more essential details about the existing software or web apps
from the web. The primary purpose of this project is getting as close as
possible to the system. SQL programming plays a critical role in ensuring
the systems are up and running as recommended.

Application of SQL
The self-variable option lets you carry out the joining process on the same
table, saving you the time you spend organizing the final table. There are,
however, a few situations where this can be a good option. Imagine the
chart you created earlier has the columns consisting of country and
continent.
When faced with a task of listing countries located on the same continent, a
clearly outlined set below should give you a glimpse of the results expected.
SQL variable can further be subdivided into three different types: the left
join, the right join as well as the full outer join. The outer join primary role
is returning all the identified rows from a single table, and once the joining
target is archived, it includes the columns from another table. Outer joins
are different from inner joins in the essence that an inner join cannot
involve the unmatched rows in the final set of results.
When using an order entry, for instance, you may be faced with situations
where it is inevitable to list every employee regardless of the location, they
put customer orders. In such a case, this kind of joins is beneficial. When
you opt to use this kind of join, all employees, including those that have
been given marching orders, will be included in the final result.
This is a kind of outer join that is responsible for returning each row from
the first left side of the table and those row that match from the right side of
the table. In case there are no matches on the right side, left join returns a
null value for each of those columns. A type of outer join has the task of
returning each row from the right side of the table and merging with the
other side (left) of the table. Again, if there aren't any values for those digits
in the column, the join returns null values for them.
It has the task of returning rows from their initial location in the inner join,
and in case there is no match found, this join returns null results for those
tables.
This is a kind of variable that is essentially a product of Cartesian elements
that have been expressed in the SQL set up. Picture this; you require a
whole set of combinations available between both tables or even in just one
meal. You will have to use the cross join to achieve that technique. To help
you understand this join better, you can go back to the two tables we created
at the beginning of the article. Look at both the columns and try to compare
the impact each one of them has to the final result. The cross join plays an
essential in ensuring accuracy during merging. You ought to note that there
are apparent differences between cross joins and outer joins despite the fact
that the description makes them almost look similar.
Similarly, MySQL system has a slot that allows you to announce more than
one set of variables that has a common type of data. Again, most of the
technicians have had issues with how this command relays information to
related databases. In the various methods of storing variances and variables,
this one has proven to be more secure than others. Consequently, it has been
known to be the most popular of them all.
Variables can be applied in mathematical expressions, for example, adding
values altogether or combining and holding texts. This can be used as a
section of the general information. For your information, variables are also
applied in storing information so as one can participate in a kind of
calculations. Additionally, variables can be part of the parameters and are
used in procedural assessments. This is two in one method that not only lets
you declare a variable but also setting it up with values that have a similar
data type. Going back to the examples we gave earlier; we can affirm that
varchar is a kind of data that lets you sustain more than one kind of
character in just a single string.
Up to this point, you should be in a position to understand the kind of SQL
Exercises and Programs as well as the various types in existence. This will
not only let you be in an excellent place to tackle errors in case they occur
and prevent them from happening as well. When Mark Suaman, a renown
data scientist and a graduate of Havard University, first used varchar, he
recommended it for being efficient and accurate. He rated it among the best
types of data set in the market today. It does not have an allocation for
potential occurrences of errors. It is hard to interfere with such a highly
secure kind of data type.

Applications of SQL
Since its introduction in the computing world, SQL has played a significant
role in revolutionizing data storage in a systematic manner as well as direct
retrieval. As the digital world continues to grow steadily, the amount of data
stored quickly escalates, making organizations and personal data piling up.
Therefore, SQL acts as a platform where these data are stored while
offering direct access without the emergence of limitations. As such, SQL is
used in different sectors, including telecommunication, finance, trade,
manufacturing, institutional, and transport. Its presence primarily deals with
data but also accompanies other significant benefits on its application.
Data Integration
Across the sectors mentioned above, one of its main applications of SQL is
the creation of data integration scripts commonly done by administrators
and developers. SQL databases comprise of several tables which may
contain different data. When these data are integrated, it creates a new
experience essential for the provision of meaningful information, therefore,
increasing productivity. Data integration scripts are crucial in any given
organization, including the government, as it offers trusted data which can
be utilized to promote the achievement of the set goals.
Analytical Queries
Data analysts regularly utilize Structured Query Language to smoothen
their operations more so when establishing and executing queries. SQL
comprises multiple tables that consist of different datasets. When these data
are combined, it brings out more comprehensive information critical for any
individual or organization. The same is also applicable for data analysts as
they use a similar aspect. As they use an analytical query structure, queries,
and tables from SQL are fed into the structure to deliver crucial results from
varying sources. In this case, data analysts can readily acquire different
queries and customize them to have a more comprehensive data to depend
on as solutions.
Data Retrieval
This is another important application of SQL to retrieve data from different
subsets within a database with big data. This is essential in financial sectors
and analytics as to the use of numerical values typically consists of mixed
statistical data. The most commonly used SQL elements are create, select,
delete, and update, among others. The technique is made possible when the
user quickly can search the database and acquire the needed data as SQL
sieves the information to bring out the desired data. In some cases, the
language may deliver similar or related data when the required data is
missing. This is crucial as one can compare the results as well as make
changes where the need arises.
 CODING HTML:

Crash course to learn HTML & CSS language

From Scratch. Discover The Art Of Computer
Programming.
Design And Code Your Own Project.

Eugene Gates
 Introduction

TML stands for Hypertext Markup Language. It’s a special language that
web browsers understand. It’s basically a bunch of instructions about the
structure of the document.
Hypertext is probably the most important part of HTML letters because it
means that you can link one document to another one. Hypertext is a text
file that contains links to other text files.
This is the foundation stone of web, which at the beginning wasn’t much
more than few pages interconnected with links. Today, the web is no longer
just about text. Most of it is created by Hypermedia including video, photos
and music. But if you strip down all the bells and whistles, you will still
find this fundamental functionality of mutual linking between documents at
the core of any modern web application including Twitter, Gmail and even
the project we are about to build.
Markup means that HTML surrounds regular text with special code which
tells the browser how to display the content of the document. It tells the
browser what the structure of the document is.
Language means that HTML has some special syntax or the rules you need
to follow to create the correct content. Just like with other languages where
subjects and verbs have a special place in the sentence, HTML tags have a
special structure you need to use. For instance, when you need to nest tags,
you must place the closing part of the tag correctly.
When you build an HTML website, you actually need to learn different
coding languages (even though it is called an HTML website). The
structure or the core is provided by HTML, while CSS is about setting up
the looks and the visual feel, in order to make your website appealing and
pretty to look at. In order to make your website more dynamic and to add
additional interaction with the user, you can use JavaScript. As you can see,
in order to create a competitive website, you should at least learn the basics
and how these languages work.
These days, people use many devices with different screen sizes and
resolutions to browse the Internet, so it is very important to be able to
change the visible content based on what kind of device the user is currently
using. This is referred to as a responsive approach or responsiveness and we
will dive into it when we talk about CSS.
CSS provides styling for the structure. Let’s say you have a house with
three rooms. One room is a kitchen, one room is a bedroom and one is a
bathroom. Based on this description, you have a basic idea about the
structure of the house, but you have no idea how big those rooms are and
what are the colors of the walls. This is what CSS provides.
When it comes to real-world websites, the structure of the content is not
enough. You probably experienced this yourself. When you search on the
Internet for a restaurant, would you rather visit the one with a very nice,
professional looking website or the one with just a simple blank page with
general, unformatted text?
Regarding the content, they can both give you the same information as
menu, opening hours, contact, and so on, but as you know, it's the package
that sells the product.
That's why it's crucial to focus on the styling of your content in a way that's
pleasing and useful for the visitor of your website.
CSS (cascading style sheets) is technologies that will allow you to make
your page look anything you want without the need to change the structure
of the HTML document.
CSS is immensely powerful in transforming the styling of the website
without ever touching the content and its HTML structure.
Javascript provides the behavior. It gives HTML webpage event-driven
functionality, like what will happen when the browser finishes loading the
page or when the user clicks the Buy button on the web shop.
Javascript is the third language you are about to learn in this book. It is one
of the three languages every web developer must know and understand.
As you already know, HTML defines the content of web pages, CSS
specifies the layout and Javascript programs the behavior.
People usually don't appreciate the power of Javascript and this is probably
caused by two main reasons.
First, they lack the proper understanding of the language fundamentals.
Second, Javascript doesn't have a great reputation because in the early days
of the web, the vendors of browsers implemented Javascript however they
pleased. And this of course caused a lot of headaches to web developers,
because they couldn't be sure how their code would run in different
browsers, if at all.
Setting up frontend technologies is very easy. To get all three frontend
technologies up and running, you need just one product, a web browser.
Also, you will need a good plaintext editor. Just make sure it doesn't add
anything else to your code behind the scene. For this reason, you really
shouldn't use document processors like Microsoft Word or Apple Pages.
These are made for something entirely different and their built-in formatting
features will ruin your code.
 Chapter 1. Fundamentals of HTML
What Is HTML?

ivisions were used for a long time in building a webpage structure.

However, divisions have a problem in that they don’t provide a semantic
value, making it difficult to tell divisions intensions. However, new
elements which are structurally based are introduced by HTML5. These
elements include <header>, <nav>, <article>, <section>,
<aside>, and <footer>.
These elements give meaning to the way web pages are organized and
improve the structural semantics. All of these are block-level elements and
have no implied style or position. All of these elements can also be used
severally in a web page provided each element has a proper reflection of its
semantic meaning. Let us discuss this one by one.
Header
Just as the name suggests, the <header> elements help us to identify the top
of a web page, section or article, or any other segment of a web page. The
<header> element may have a heading, an introductory text, and navigation.
It is created as follows:
<header>...</header>
Don’t confuse this <header> element with the <head> element or headings
<h1> through <h6>. They all have different meanings when it comes to
semantics.
The <header> is a structural element that identifies the heading of a page
segment. It should be added within the <body> element.
The <head> element isn’t shown on a web page as it only provides the
metadata for a web page. Examples of such metadata include the title of the
web page and links to any external files. It should be added directly to the
<html> element.
The headings <h1> through <h6> help us to designate the multiple levels of
text headings throughout a web page.
Navigation
The <nav> element is used for identifying a section of the major
navigational links on a web page. The <nav> element should be used for
primary navigation sections only, like a table of contents, global navigation,
previous/next links and other groups of navigational links. It is created as
follows:
<nav>...</nav>
Article
We use the <article> element to identify a section of independent and self-
contained content that can be used or distributed independently. Use the
<article> element to markup newspaper articles, blog articles, user-
submitted content, and other related content.
Before using the <article> element, you have to ask yourself whether it is
possible for you to replicate the content elsewhere without introducing
confusion. If you remove the contents of the <article> element and you
place them somewhere else like in an email, the <article> element should
still be able to make sense. It is created as follows:
<article>...</article>
Section
We use the <section> element to identify a group with same theme of
content, which usually has a heading. The way the content is grouped
within the <section> element can be general, but it will be good to ensure
that the content is related.
Use the <section> element to separate and create a hierarchy within your
web page. It is created as follows:
<section>...</section>
Sometimes, determining the element to be used based on the semantic
meaning of the element might still be difficult for you to do. The trick is
simple, consider the content. The trick is simple, consider the content.
The <section> and <article> elements play a significant contribution to the
structure of a document and help in outlining documents. If styling is the
purposes for grouping the content without adding value to the document
structure, use the element <div>.
If the content has an impact on the outline of the document and can be
redistributed independently, use the element <article>.
If the content has an impact on the outline of the document and is a
representation of a group of content with a theme, use <section> element.
Aside
Use the <aside> element to hold contents such as inserts, sidebars and short
explanations that are related to the surrounding content. When it is used
with an <article> element, the <aside> element may be good for identifying
the publisher of an article.
See the <aside> element as the element that is displayed off to the sides
(left or right) of a page. Remember that all structural elements like the
<aside> are elements on a block-level and they will appear in a new line,
and they will occupy the entire width provided by the web page or cover the
whole length of the element they are nested within the parent element.
It is created as follows:
<aside>...</aside>
Footer
The f<footer> element is used to identify the end or closing of a web page,
or any other part of a web page. Usually, the footer is added to the bottom
part of its parent. It is created as follows:
<footer>...</footer>
Practice
We need to put all the above into practice by creating a basic website. We
will use hyperlinks to link together the various pages of the website.
Step 1) We will first link the “My Website” text inside an <h1> element
within the <header> element to the index.html page. This is the page that is
first loaded when the user opens the website, showing the home page. This
means that when a user clicks My Website text, they will be taken to the
home page of the website.
This is shown below:
<h1>
<a href="index.html">My Website</a>
</h1>
Step 2) For us to be able to navigate through the different web pages, we
will create the navigation menu using the <nav> element within the header
element. This will be done within the <header> element. We will add the
About Us, Services, Location and Contact Us pages to go together with the
Home page. We have to create links for all of these. The navigation menu
can be created as follows:
<header>
...
<nav>
<a href="index.html">Home</a>
<a href="about.html">About Us</a>
<a href="services.html">Services</a>
<a href="location.html">Location</a>
<a href="contact.html">Contact Us</a>
</nav>
</header>
Step 3) For convenience purposes, let us add the same navigation to the
footer section of the website. This can be done as follows:
<footer>
...
<nav>
<a href="index.html">Home</a>
<a href="about.html">About Us</a>
<a href="services.html">Services</a>
<a href="location.html">Location</a>
<a href="contact.html">Contact Us</a>
</nav>
</footer>
Step 4) In the <section> element, that introduces our website, we need to
add a link that will urge them to contact us now. It will be good for this link
to be added below a paragraph:
<section>
...
<a href="contact.html">Contact us Now</a>
</section>
Step 5) We need to add links to all sections that tease the other pages. Inside
every section, we will wrap both <h3> and <h5> elements within an anchor
element that links to the right page. This should be done for every section:
<section>
<section>
<a href="services.html">
<h5>Services</h5>
<h3>World-Class Services</h3>
</a>
 <p>We served different customers from all over the world, and these are
ready to share their testimonies.</p>
</section>
...
</section>
After that, you should create the other pages and make sure that they are
stored in the same folder as the index.html file. These pages are the
about.html, services.html, location.html and contact.html.
For the purpose of ensuring that all pages look the same, use the same
document structure for all pages and use the <header> and <footer>
elements as the file index.html.
Your combined code should be as follows:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<header>
<h1>
<a href="index.html">My Website </a>
</h1>
<nav>
<a href="index.html">Home</a>
<a href="about.html">About Us</a>
<a href="services.html">Services</a>
<a href="location.html">Location</a>
<a href="contact.html">Contact Us</a>
</nav>
</header>
<body>
 <section>
<section>
<a href="services.html">
<h5>Services</h5>
<h3>World-Class Services</h3>
</a>
<p>We served different customers from all over the world, and these are
ready to share their testimonies.</p>
...
</section>
<a href="contact.html">Contact us Now</a>
</section>
</body>
<footer>
<nav>
<a href="index.html">Home</a>
<a href="about.html">About Us</a>
<a href="services.html">Services</a>
<a href="location.html">Location</a>
<a href="contact.html">Contact Us</a>
</nav>
</footer>
</html>
It should return the following:
 Chapter 2. HTML Styles
Text Style

ext Style includes font-family, font-size, font-style, font-weight, font-

variant.

Font Value
Arial, Times New Roman, Courier New, Georgia,
font-family
Verdana
font-size 9px, 10px……Large
font-style normal, italic, oblique
font-weight normal, bold, number
font-variant normal, small-caps
Text Style can be specified by { property: value }.
Example 6.1
<html>
<style type = "text/css">
#f{ font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 28px; font-style: italic; font-
weight: bold; font-variant: normal }
</style>
<div id = "f">This is a text content using a different style.</div>
</html>
Output:
This is a text content using a different style.
Explanation:
“font-family, font-size, font-style, font-weight, font-variant.” specifies the
text style for the font.
Spacing
The line-height can specify line spacing.
The word-spacing can specify word spacing.
The letter-spacing can specify letter spacing.
Example 6.2
<html>
<style type = "text/css">
#lineSpacing{ line-height:500% }
#wordSpacing{ word-spacing: 10px }
#letterSpacing{ letter-spacing: 5px }
</style>
<p id = "lineSpacing">Line Spacing Sample.</p>
<p id = "wordSpacing">Word Spacing Sample.</p>
<p id = "letterSpacing">Letter Spacing Sample.</p>
</html>
Output:
Explanation:
“line-height:500%” specifies the line height as 500%.
“word-spacing: 10px” specifies the word spacing as 10px.
“letter-spacing: 5px” specifies the letter spacing as 5px.
Divided Style
The dividing <div></div> tags are used to group their content elements as
blocks. <div> tags are useful for styling purposes.
<div class = “xxx”></div>
<div id = “xxx”></div>
The <div> tag can have id and class attribute in css style.
Example 6.3
<html>
<style type = "text/css">
.d1{font-style: italic; color: purple;}
#d2{font-family: arial black; color: blue;}
</style>
<body>
<div class = "d1"> <p>AAAAA</p> <p>BBBBB</p> <p>CCCCC</p>
</div>
<div id = "d2"> <p>EEEEE</p> <p>FFFFF</p> <p>GGGGG</p>
</div>
</body>
</html>
Output:
AAAAA
BBBBB
CCCCC
EEEEE
FFFFF
GGGGG
Explanation:
<div class = "d1"></div> is divided as the first group which contains three
pairs of <p> tags. They use “.d1” style.
<div id = "d2"></div> is divided as the second group which contains other
three pairs of <p> tags. They use “#d2” style.
Span Style
<span></span> can be used to group elements for styling purposes (using
the class or id attributes).
<span class = “xxx”></span>
<span id = “xxx”></span>
The <span> tag can have id and class attribute in css style.
Example 6.4
<html>
<style type = "text/css">
div{background-color: yellow}
.d1{font-style: italic;color: purple;}
#d2{font-family: arial black;color: blue;}
</style>
<body>
<div><p>This is AAA text,
<span class = "d1">This is BBB text,</span>
This is CCC text,
<span id = "d2">This is DDD text,</span>
This is EEE text.</p></div>
</body>
</html>
Output:
This is AAA text, This is BBB text, This is CCC text, This is DDD
text, This is EEE text.
Explanation:
The above uses <span></span> tags to set the css style of two pieces of text
within a paragraph which is contained in a block.
<span> is very much like a <div> element, but <div> is a block-level
element whereas a <span> is an inline element.
Border Style

border-style: value
“border-style: value” can set the border style by specifying different value.
The “value” may be “solid, double, dashed, dotted, groove, ridge, inset,
outset”.
Example 6.5
<html>
<style type = "text/css">
#b1{border-style: solid; border-width: 10px;}
#b2{border-style: double; border-width: 10px;}
#b3{border-style: dashed; border-width: 10px;}
#b4{border-style: dotted; border-width: 10px;}
#b5{border-style: groove; border-width: 10px;}
#b6{border-style: ridge; border-width: 10px;}
#b7{border-style: inset; border-width: 10px;}
#b8{border-style: outset; border-width: 10px;}
</style>
<body>
<p id = "b1">This is solid border.</p><br>
<p id = "b2">This is double border.</p><br>
<p id = "b3">This is dashed border.</p><br>
<p id = "b4">This is dotted border.</p><br>
<p id = "b5">This is groove border.</p><br>
<p id = "b6">This is ridge border.</p><br>
<p id = "b7">This is inset border.</p><br>
<p id = "b8">This is outset border.</p><br>
</body>
</html>
Output:
Explanation:
The “border-style: value” may be “solid, double, dashed, dotted, groove,
ridge, inset, outset”.
The “border-width: 10px” specifies the border width as 10 px.
Border Color

border-color: value
“border-color: value” can set the bonder properties for color.
Example 6.6
<html>
<style type = "text/css">
#b5{border-style: groove;border-width: 20px; border-color:blue }
#b6{border-style: ridge;border-width: 20px; border-color:purple }
</style>
<p id = "b5">This is groove border.</p>
<p id = "b6">This is ridge border.</p>
</html>
Output:

Explanation: “border-color: value” can set the bonder color.

Padding Style
The padding is the area around the text content in a content box. The
padding width can be specified with a padding attribute.
padding: value
Example 6.7
<html>
<style type = "text/css">
#b1{border-style: solid; border-width: 5px; padding: 10px }
#b2{border-style: dotted; border-width: 5px; padding: 20px }
</style>
<p id = "b1">This padding is 10px.</p>
<p id = "b2">This padding is 20px.</p>
</html>
Output:

Explanation: “padding: value” can set the padding width.

Margin Style
The area around the border edges is called the margin..
The margin width can be specified with a margin attribute.
margin: value;
Example 6.8
<html>
<style type = "text/css">
#b1{border-style: solid; border-width: 5px; margin: 30px }
#b2{border-style: dotted; border-width: 5px; margin: 0px }
</style>
<p id = "b1">This margin is 30px.</p>
<p id = "b2">This margin is 0px.</p>
</html>
Output:

Explanation: “margin: value” can set the margin width.

Absolute Positioning
The content position can be specified by position attribute.
position: absolute; top: value; left: value;
“position: absolute” sets the precise location of the contents.
“top: value” sets the distance from the top edge of the window.
“left: value” sets the distance from the left edge of the window.
Example 6.9
<html>
<style type = "text/css">
#a1{ position:absolute; top: 0px; left: 30px }
#a2{ position:absolute; top: 30px; left: 60px }
</style>
<p id = "a1">This is position1.</p>
<p id = "a2">This is position2.</p>
</html>
Output:
Explanation: “position: absolute; top: value; left: value;” specifies the
absolute distance from the browser window edge.
Relative Positioning

position: relative; top: percentage; left: percentage;

“position: relative” sets the relative location of the contents based on the
browser window resolution or window size.
“top: percentage” sets the distance from the top edge of the window. “left:
percentage” sets the distance from the left edge of the window.
Example 6.10
<html>
<style type = "text/css">
#r{ position:relative; top: 3%; left: 5% }
</style>
<p id = "r">This is the relative position.</p>
</html>
Output:

Explanation:
“position:relative; top: 3%; left: 5%” specifies the relative position based on
the resolution or size of the browser window.
Html Symbols
In HTML documents, when you meet some special symbols such as &, <,
>, and space, you need to use corresponding codes, &amp; &lt; &gt;
&nbsp;
Symbol
Source Codes
s
< &lt;
> &gt;
& &amp;
“” &quot; &quot;
© &copy;
® &reg;
space &nbsp;
! &#33;
: &#59;

Example 6.11
<html>
<body>
&lt; Java in 8 Hours &gt; &amp; &lt; Python in 8 Hours &gt; are very
books&#33;<br>
Copyright &copy; 2016 by Ray Yao &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
All Rights Reserved&#33;
</body>
</html>
Output:
< Java in 8 Hours > & < Python in 8 Hours > are very books!
Copyright © 2016 by Ray Yao All Rights Reserved!
Explanation:
Symbol Code
s
< > &lt; &gt;
> &gt;
& &amp;
© &copy;
space &nbsp;
! &#33;
 Chapter 3. Forms In HTML
Web Forms Basics

eb pages are not just about reading documents and articles, but are also for
social and business applications. You can hardly imagine any kind of web
app without asking some data from users—just think about the most
common functions, such as login and registration.
HTML forms are the part of the markup since the earliest versions, and
now, after several twists—that are related to HTML-XHTML debates—we
have a refined model of forms in HTML5, which still works with older
browsers.
How Web Forms Work
 This shows a web form in
action, which contains user interface components—or, with another name,
controls. Not only textboxes, checkboxes and radio buttons are controls in
this form, but labels, and frames surrounding the sections, too, as well as
the Register button.
A web form in action
To design and code web forms, you need to understand how they work.
Here is a simplified overview:
When the browser displays a web form, it simply renders its controls just
like any other element, such as text, menus, images, and so on. Users fill it
out, and then click a button that submits the form. The submission of a form
means that the browser collects the data entered by the user, puts it into an
HTTP/HTTPS request, and sends it to the server. When the server side
receives the request, the web server finds out the type of application or
module to dispatch the request with the collected data. The entity receiving
the request analyzes the information collected, and decides what to do next.
For example, if the request contains registration data, the web server may
store it in the database and send back a message about the success of
registration. Or, if the data is invalid, for example a mandatory field has not
been filled out, the webserver might send back the original form with the
data specified by the user, and with additional markup that summarizes the
issues found by the server application.
So, this process contains these fundamental steps:
1. The browser collects the form data, and sends it to the web server.
2. The web server processes the data, and sends back the result to the
browser.
3. The browser visualizes the result (which may be a web page, an error
message, or some other kind of information, etc.)
Of course, the most difficult part of this process is step 2, which is carried
out at the server side. There are many server technologies that can process
web forms, but in this book we do not dive into them, we will only scratch
the surface.
As the web evolved, and users expected fluent experience, new
asynchronous technologies appeared, such as AJAX (Asynchronous
JavaScript and XML). These do not expect the web server to retrieve a full
web page, but only a part of the page—affected by the changes in regard to
the information the users specified. This approach results in smaller
network packages, and less flickering on the screen. The main virtue of the
asynchronous technologies is that they can send data to—and retrieve data
from—a server asynchronously in the background, without preventing user
interaction.
In this chapter you will focus on building and using web forms at the client
side.
Representing Web Forms in HTML
The key HTML element is <form> that defines a web form within a page.
The simplest web form takes only a few lines of markup:
<form action="ProcessAtServer.html">
<input type="submit" value="Do it!"/>
</form>

This <form> contains a single

<input> tag that is decorated with the type="submit" attribute, and it
represents a submit button. The action property of <form> is set to
ProcessAtServer.htlm, so when the user clicks the submit button, the
content of the form will be sent to that page. Of course, as shown in the
figure below, this form does not have any other useful element, so actually
there is no information to send to the action page.
A very simple and useless web form
So, let’s create a form with a few real input fields:
<form action="#">
<input name="fname" />
<br />
<input name="lname" />
<br />
<input type="submit" value="Do it!"/>
</form>
This markup contains two input fields, having the names fname (first name)
and lname (last name), respectively. Their corresponding <input> tags are
not decorated with the type attribute so that these fields will be rendered as
text boxes. The action attribute of the form is set to #, which will send the
form data to the page itself.
 Let’s assume, you’ve put this code
into the form.html file. When you display it in the browser, you can type
data into the text boxes, as shown in figure below.
A simple form with two input fields
When you click the submit button, the form sends the data to the form.html
file through a web request. The page is displayed again, with empty input
fields. Only the address bar of your browser tells you that the page is
displayed as a result of web request from the form, its URL is something
like this:
http://127.0.0.1:8080/?fname=John&lname=Smith#
In the URL you can see the form data as ?fname=John&lname=Smith,
indicating that this information was passed through the URL.
Controls Overview
In these small markup snippets above you’ve already seen a few controls,
such as the textbox and the submit button, but there are much more. You
will learn to use them through exercises, but first you’ll be given a short
overview of them.
So, as you already know, <form> is the markup element that encapsulates
all controls. Most controls can be rendered with the <input> element that
has a type attribute. This attribute specifies the type of the control, it
determines how the control is rendered in the browser, and how it behaves.
If you do not specify type, the control will be a textbox (and this is the same
as setting type to text). You can choose from several kind of buttons, such
as button (clickable button mostly used with JavaScript), checkbox, radio
(radio button), submit (submits the form), image (an image as the submit
button), and reset (resets all form values to their defaults).
There are several predefined textual controls with some extra semantics,
such as password (characters are masked), email (defines a field for an
email address), url (field for entering an URL), tel (field for a telephone
number), search (field for search text), and number (field for entering a
number). The type file provides a file-select field with a Browse button for
file uploads. You can place hidden fields in a form, used to set form values
programmatically.
HTML5 adds a number of date and time related controls to the old markup
through the type attribute of <input>: date (date control with year, month,
day, and no time), datetime (date and time control with the precision of
fraction of a second, based on UTC time zone), datetime-local (date and
time control with no time zone), month (a month and year control), time (a
control for entering time, no time zone), and week (a week and year control,
not time zone).
NOTE: Using date and time related controls on your web pages means
you’re walking on thin ice. These controls are relatively new, and—as of
this writing—in most browsers they are rendered only as text boxes, and not
as nice date and time pickup controls.
HTML5 also adds two other types, color (color picker), and range (a kind of
slider to choose a number in a specified range).
Beside <input> there are a few other HTML tags to allow specifying user
data. With <select>, you can define a dropdown list with option values. To
type in longer text, use the <textarea> element.
The <fieldset> element lets you group related controls into sections, the
<legend> element adds a caption to a <fieldset> element.
Input fields do not tell anything about their role to users. You can use the
<label> element to provide appellation to input controls. Besides adding a
descriptive text, <label> element provides an improvement for people who
uses mouse, because when the user clicks on the text within <label>, it
allows it for control (for example a check box, or radio button), or moves
the focus to the related input field.
Used with the button, submit or reset types, <input> elements are rendered
as pushbuttons. With the <button> element you can create clickable buttons
with the same behavior, but you can create compound button content
instead of a simple text.
 Chapter 4. Frames, Colors, And Layout Of HTML
HTML Frame

rames used to decrease day by day. At the present time the frame is not
useless, because it is quite hard to print finished pages using frames
together. Apart from it, many dislike it. Instead, CSS is now used to divide
a page into more than one section. But there is a need to have some idea
about frames to enrich the knowledge base of HTML.
Example Programs
<html>
<head>
<title> www.lifeguruji.tk </title>
</head>
<body bgcolor ="#00cc99">
<frameset rows ="12%,88%">
<frame src = "style.html" scrolling ="no">
<frameset cols ="27%,74%">
<frame src ="link.html">
<frame src ="textfor.html">
</frameset>
</frameset>
</body>
</html>
Create a folder with any file name and put it in style.html, link.html and
textfor.html three html files. Open a Notepad and enter the code above and
click on Save as the File menu, save as file name: index.html, Save as type:
All files, open the index.html file using Mozilla Firefox or Google Chrome,
and check how it’s look...
Discuss the program
First, frameset rows = "12%, 88%"> is divided into two parts along the row
on the entire page.
Through the frameset cols = "27%, 74%"> the bottom row is divided into
two sections along the column.
<frame src = "style.html" scrolling = "no"> The style.html page is displayed
in the first frame.
<frame src = "link.html"> and <frame src = "textfor.html"> Arrangements
are made to display links.html and textfor.html pages in the 1st and 2nd
frame respectively.
Eye Frames
Eye frames are one of the main ways to display one or more web pages on a
web page. It is important to publish a link to different web pages on topics
relevant to the presentation, as well as it is not bad if it can be scrolled in
the short space.
Example Programs
<html>
<head>
<title> www.lifeguruji.tk</title>
</head>
<body bgcolor=" #f00">
<center>
<h2 style="color:#f00">This is an example of iframe.</h2><br/>
<iframe src="http://www.lifeguruji.tk/bangla/html/" width="350"
height="170">
<p>This browser does not support iframes.</p>
</iframe>
</center>
</body>
</html>
Open a Notepad and enter the code above and click on Save as from the
File menu, save as file name: index.html, Save as type: All files, open the
index.html file using Mozilla Firefox or Google Chrome, and check how
it’s look.

Sorry I don’t have internet at the moment….

Program discussion
<Iframe> </iframe> tags are used to create eyebrows.
width = "350" height = "170" These two attributes indicate the size of the I
frame.
If a browser does not support the I frame, then this page does not support
iframes. <P> This browser does not support iframes. </P> The text will be
displayed.
Colors And Codes
The use of colors on web pages is very important. A web page is composed
of one or more paragraphs, titles, tables, borders, borders, etc. Each of these
elements has to use some colors. To specify the background color of a
particular page, after writing body in the <body> tag, bgcolor = "" should
be written with a space followed by black, silver, gray, white, marrow, red,
purple, fuchsia, green, lime, OLIVE, YELLOW, NAVY, BLUE, TEAL, and
AQUA, any one of these sixteen colors will be visible in the page's
background. Since case is not sensitive, there is no problem writing in
lower case, as written, <body bgcolor = "green">.
Apart from the hexadecimal code, the background color can also be
selected. For example, the above code can be written as: <body bgcolor =
"# 00FF00">
The color piker can easily be collected for different color hexadecimal
codes. Apart from the chart below, you can also do the job. The
hexadecimal code has to start with a # symbol at the beginning of the code.
There is another interesting method to give a background color. These three
colors are red, green and blue, and all the other colors are composed of
these three colors. If you combine these three colors and create new colors,
then it is not bad. To accomplish this task, the green background can be
written as follows
<body bgcolor = "rgb (0,255,0)">.
Here rgb stands for red green blue (0, 255,0), meaning that the colors of red,
green, blue, respectively, are 0%, 100%, 0% because of the pure green color
here. And any color value can be up to 0-255. Since the value of g or green
is 255 so that is 100%. By changing the color of the three colors to 0-255,
you can create new colors as desired.
Example Programs
<html>
<head>
<title> www.lifeguruji.tk</title>
</head>
<body bgcolor="green">
<h2 style=" color:#ff0000" >
This is the body of your web site.
</h2>
<p style="color:#093">
This is a paragraph.<br/>
This is a paragraph. <br/>
This is a paragraph.<br/>
This is a paragraph.<br/>
</p>
</body>
</html>
Open a Notepad and enter the code above and click on Save as from the
File menu, save as file name: index.html, Save as type: All files, open the
index.html file using Mozilla Firefox or Google Chrome, and check how
it’s look...

Layout
On the page layout, depending on how good a webpage should be.
Previously all web site layouts were made using HTML only. Currently
CSS is used with HTML. Rows and columns of <table> are used to create
layouts using HTML only.
Example Programs
<html>
<head>
<title> www.lifeguruji.tk</title>
</head>
<body bgcolor="green">
<table width="400" border="0">
<tr>
<td colspan="3" style="background-color: #93C;">
<h1> Web Page header</h1>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td style="background-color: #C99;width:100px;text-align:top;">
<p><b>Side bar</b><br />
<a href="#">PHP</a>
<br />
<a href="#">HTML</a>
<br />
<a href="#">CSS</a>
<a href="#">Wordpress</a>
</p></td>
<td style="background-color:#EEEEEE;height:200px;width:400px;text-
align:top;"><h2 style="color:#900">This is heading.</h2>
<p style="color: #006">This is a paragraph.This is a paragraph. This is a
paragraph.<br />
This is a paragraph.This is a paragraph. This is a paragraph.<br />
This is a paragraph.This is a paragraph.This is a paragraph.<br />
This is a paragraph.This is a paragraph.This is a paragraph.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="background-color:#999;text-align:center;">
Copyright © 2018 by Omar Faruq</td>
</tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>
Open a Notepad and enter the code above and click on Save as from the
File menu, save as file name: index.html, Save as type: All files, open the
index.html file using Mozilla Firefox or Google Chrome, and check how
it’s look...
 Chapter 5. How to Put Images in HTML?

here is a famous quotation that “picture says a thousand words”. Quotation

shows how powerful pictures are in terms of delivering a message. Web
sites show pictures to make web pages more exciting, optical and lively.
How do we show image or picture on any web page?
Examples of Images
Let’s see an example of picture on web page. Please go to the following
page in Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein . You see
images as shown below:
 Images

Example
You can see that I have marked two images – one is of Albert Einstein and
other is of Wikipedia Logo. Don’t you agree that these images have made
this page lively? Images on the web page can be used in two ways:
ü✓ One way is just show image. Just show; nothing else.
ü✓ Other way is to use image as hyperlink. It means when you click on the
image, it will take you to some other page. How interesting!
Learning The Details
How do we show image on web page? We use <img> tag for this purpose.
Please check the example below:
<img src="location of the image" alt="alternate text" width="width in
pixel" height="height in pixel"></img>
We start <img> tag and then we close with </img> tag like we do for any
HTML tag. But then we use various other attributes to make sure image is
shown on the web page. Let’s look into these attributes in the table below.
Table 6.1: Attributes of the <img> tag
<img> tag attribute Purpose
src src stands for source. Like hyperlink, you enter address of the
image for this attribute. Address is the location where this image has
been stored.
The address could be internet based image. It means image is stored
at internet somewhere like any web page. Example is Albert Einstein
image stored at Wikipedia. Address is:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Einstein_19
21_by_F_Schmutzer_-­‐ _restoration.jpg/220px-­‐
Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutzer_-­‐ _restoration.jpg
Or it could an address from your computer/laptop hard disk. It means
the image is stored somewhere in your local computer hard disk. You
provide folder location of the image. Example is -­‐ “file://C:/
Books\HTMLforKids/mybook.jpg”
You can use most types of images such as jpg, jpeg, png, gif and bmp.
alt alt stands for alternate text. This is the text shown on web page
if image could not be shown on web page due to some reason. It is
like a backup plan. You want to show some text in case image could not
be shown due to some problem.
width This tells the width of the image. If you don’t provide this value,
then it will show image in its original width.
Width is measured in pixel. One pixel is like a dot on the screen. Just like
you measure distance in meter or centimeter; in the same way you
measure length of the image in pixel.
height Tells the height of the image. Similar to width, it is also measured
in pixel.
If you don’t provide this value, then it will show image in its original
height.
Let me show you image in HTML. I am going to use Albert Einstein image
address given in the table above and will show that in my HTML page. I
will make height 200 pixel and width also 200 pixels; like square. The
HTML looks like following:
<html>
<head>
<title></title>
</head>
<body>
<h2>Albert Einstein</h2>
<img
src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Einstein
_1921_ by_F_Schmu tzer_-_restoration.jpg/220px-
Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutzer__restoration.jpg” alt="Albert Einstein"
width="200" height="200"></img>
</body> </html>
The HTML page will be displayed as shown below.

Web Page Display

You see it shows image in the square size (200 x 200) as I have me
ntioned in <img> tag attribute.
What will happen if some problem comes with image? For example, you
give wrong address to image. I suggest you try it yourself.
You observed it right. It is showing Alternate Text as defined in <img> tag
attribute in place of the image.
Let’s move next! What about using image as hyperlink? Sounds great!
Right? Following is the structure of hyperlink tag:
<a href="Address of web page"> text of hyperlink </a>
To make image as hyperlink, you will replace text of hyperlink with <img>
tag. For example, if I want to make image of Albert Einstein hyperlink
which will take me to Wikipedia page, then my HTML <a> tag will look
like the following:
<a href=" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein"> <img
src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Einstein
_1921_ by_F_Schmu
tzer_-_restoration.jpg/220px-Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutzer_-
_restoration.jpg” alt="Albert Einstein" width="200" height="200"></img>
</a>
Is this not simple and intuitive? I am sure you will agree with me.
 Chapter 6. HTML Tables

ables are very useful to represent the data in grid format. The data is divided
into rows and columns. It helps us to understand the data on two axes. Each
block in the table is called as table cell. Let’s take a look at how table is
created in the HTML.
Table Creation
<table> element is used to create a table. The contents of the table are
written out row by row. <tr> element is used to represent a start of each
row. <tr> means table row. Each cell of the table is represented using a <td>
element. A table row can also be divided into table headings with
the <the> tag. Let’s take a closer look at table creation with an example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<body>
<table>
<tr>
<td>A</td>
<td>X</td>
<td>1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>B</td>
<td>Y</td>
<td>2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>C</td>
<td>Z</td>
<td>3</td>
</tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>

Table looks good with borders. We will learn how to draw borders around
the tables using CSS.
Table Headings
The heading for either a row or column is represented using <th> element.
<th> means table heading. Foe an empty cell you should use <td> or <th>
element otherwise the table will not be created correctly. The scope attribute
can be used on the <th> element to indicate whether it is row or column. It
takes the values, row to indicate heading for a row or col to indicate
heading for a column. The contents of <th> element is displayed in the
bold and centered way. Table can also be given caption using <caption> tag.
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<body>
<table>
<caption><b>Ticket Sales</b></caption>
<tr>
<th></th>
<th scope="col">Saturday</th>
<th scope="col">Sunday</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Tickets Sold</th>
<td>50</td>
<td>20</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Total Sale</th>
<td>100</td>
<td>150</td>
</tr>
</body>
</html>
 Spanning Columns
Sometimes you may need the entries in the table to stretch across many
columns. For this purpose, colspan attribute is used. It indicates how many
columns cell should run across.
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>
table, th, td {
border: 1px solid black;
border-collapse: collapse;
}
th, td {
padding: 5px;
text-align: left;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<h2>Cell that spans two columns:</h2>
<table style="width:100%">
<tr>
<th>Name</th>
<th colspan="2">Telephone</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Mr ABC</td>
<td>666 77 854</td>
<td>888 77 855</td>
</tr>
</table>
 Spanning Rows
In order to span a cell more than one row, you can use
the rowspan attribute. Check example below.
<html>
<head>
<style>
table, th, td {
border: 1px solid black;
border-collapse: collapse;
}
th, td {
padding: 5px;
text-align: left;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<h2>Cell that spans two rows:</h2>
<table style="width:100%">
<tr>
<th>Name:</th>
<td>Mr XYZ</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th rowspan="2">Telephone:</th>
<td>222 77 854</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>888 77 855</td>
</tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>
There is lot of code in HTML for formatting the table. But now we can use
CSS for better formatting. Hence, details about table formatting in HTML
have been omitted.
Chapter 7. Fundamentals Of CSS

eb page development used to be relatively simple. Developers simply write a Web page in
HTML that can be accessed by other similar computers. But times are changing in two
ways. First, Web sites are becoming vastly more complex, often with hundreds if not
thousands of Web pages, dynamic HTML that adjusts to different users, and greater demands
from the customer base. Writing a page at a time can be a nightmare for developers, a
problem for maintenance, and can cause inconsistencies across pages within a Web site that
annoy the customers or viewer.
Second, Web pages used to be accessed by a computer with a monitor, or even a laptop with
a reasonable viewing area. Now we access Web pages with tablets, small web books, phones,
and even black and white eBook readers (like that Amazon Kindle, pre-Fire). Viewers using
non-computer devices can get very frustrated as the viewing area exceeds the screen by
several thousand percent, or keystrokes are required, or data entry exists with no easy way to
enter the data. There is a wide diversity of browsers on the market now, but often, Web
developers insist on developing for the 1024 x 768 pixel (or larger) computer monitor.
Web developer or managers should try to make their Web pages as universally accessible and
available to their viewers or client base as possible, including those who want to view
content on a smaller device. This can be done with newer technology, newer formatting, and
newer Web page validation that have not been available for that long.
Previous versions of HTML (versions 3.2 and before) make use of the<font> tag and
background tags for every HTML element, so that a table at the top of the page could (and
often did) have different formatting than a table at the bottom of the page. The result was that
many Web pages had vastly different appearances in HTML 3.2. Studies showed that this
annoyed the users. A user who was used to one page would click on a link and be exposed
to a whole new page, with new formatting, new form and table colors, and an overall new
look. HTML 4.0 attempted to change this, by standardizing the look of every page, often
through the use of a Cascading Style Sheet (also known as a CSS). The conceptual
difference between HTML 3.2 (and before) and HTML 4.0 (and beyond).
Conceptual Changes in Html 4.0
This shows how we can manage the formatting of a page from a single CSS. By using a
single CSS linked to every page on your site, you not only streamline the look of your Web
page across your site, but you also streamline maintenance and development costs by
defining the formatting of page elements (like tables, text, and lists) only once.
Html Styles
The ways of formatting Web pages that were accepted in the 1990s and early 2000s have
fallen out of favor.
Implementing styles requires some changes to your HTML. To make formatting consistent,
you now use a style attribute to determine how something should look. This caused a change
in the HTML language. Older tags, like the <font> tag, and older attributes, like bgcolor or
border that used to control the appearance of HTML elements are now considered
deprecated, or obsolete. The format for the style attribute is as follows:
<tagname style=" attribute1: value1;
attribute2: value2;
attribute3: value3;">
You can usually apply a style attribute to almost any HTML tag (like<li>,<td>,<p>, etc.).
However, if you are just typing, and you want to change the font, color, etc., of the next
paragraph or the rest of the sentence, you can use either a <div> or a <span> tag. A <div>
tag returns to the next line before going any further. A <span> tag keeps you on the same
line, and allows you to make a single line have different fonts, colors, etc. For example, the
following <div> tag shows how to display text in red:
<div style="color: Red;">
This text will be red
</div>
Fonts
Fonts are great for giving your page a crisp look that differs from the default font. The style
attribute (or the <font> tag on older, pre-4.0 Web pages) is used to control the font displayed
on your HTML page. Table 1 shows some things you can do with the style attribute and most
tags, or use the <span> tag or the <div> tag (or the <font> tag, if you must).

Current/Strict Deprecated/Transitional
Example
(New Way -- HTML 4.0) (Old Way -- HTML 3.2)
<div style="font-family: <font face="Comic Sans MS,
Comic Sans MS, Arial, arial,helvetica"> Browser will try
Change the Helvetica;">
Browser will try Comic Sans Comic Sans MS
Font (Font Browser will try Comic Sans
MS first, then Arial, then first, then Arial,
Family) MS first, then Arial, then
Helvetica then Helvetica
Helvetica
</font>
</div>
<span style="font-size:
<font size="5">
Set Font Size 18pt;">
define the font size define the font size
(Absolute) define the font size
</font>
</span>
<font size="+3">
Increase Font <td style="font-size: 2em;"> increase the size of the increase the size of
Size increase the size of the text
text the text
(Relative) </td>
</font>
<span style="font-size:
<font size="-2">
Decrease .6em;">
decrease the size of the decrease the size
Font Size decrease the size of the
text of the text
(Relative) text
</font>
</span>
Table 1. Setting Fonts
pt vs. px vs. em
When you are specifying font size, you can specify the size in one of three ways:

pt gives you the absolute point size which is defined by the user's client
machine.
px gives you the absolute pixel height, which is independent of machine
(but can shrink with lower resolution and grow with higher resolution). This
often used for setting borders and margins.
em gives you the relative height, which is gives the height as the number of
times the current height. This is a relative measure, depending on the current
size.
You choose what you need.
 Colors
Colors on computer monitors are defined by light, not pigment, so the primary colors are red,
green, and blue. Also unlike pigments, combining all the colors of light results in a white
light, whereas removing all the colors of light results in a black color. Figure below shows

how the primary colors mix, and how that mixture looks, at a very
high level.
Colors are specified one of two ways. First, you can use an actual color (red, blue, purple,
etc.) Second, you can use a RGB (red, green blue) representation of the color by providing
the red component, the green component, and the blue component, each a number from 0
(hexadecimal #00 – black) to 255 (hexadecimal #ff – bright). For example, to get this color
of purple, you specify <span style="color: #880088">. You can also use decimal with an
RGB function, like <span style="color: rgb(133, 0, 133)">.
As with fonts, colors can be controlled using the <font> tag, but newer standards suggest
using a style attribute, possibly in conjunction with a <span> or <div> tag. Table 6 shows
the HTML for some color manipulation.

Current/Strict Deprecated/Transitional
Example
(New Way -- HTML 4.0) (Old Way -- HTML 3.2)
<span style="color: red"> <font color="red">
Set the Change text
Change text color to red Change text color to red
Color color to red
</span> </font>
<td style="background: rgb(221, 153, Change
<td bgcolor="#dd99dd">
221)"> background to
Set the Change background to whatever
Change background to whatever whatever color
Background color this is using Hex
color this is using RGB this is using
</td>
</td> RGB
Table 2. Using Colors
Alignment and Borders
You can use styles to control borders or to align images or text. The use of the float attribute
can also make text float to the left or right with other text wrapping around the floating
object. Table 7 shows some use of alignment.

Current/Strict Deprecated/Transitional Example

 (New Way -- HTML 4.0) (Old Way -- HTML 3.2)
<td style="text-align: right">
929
<td align="right">
<div style="text-decoration:
929 929
underline">
Align Text to the Right <br><u>+ 84</u> + 84
+ 84
<br>1013 1013
</div>
</td>
1013
</td>
<div style="text-align: center"> <center>
Centered
Center Text Centered <br /> Text Centered <br> Text
Text
</div> </center>
<td style="vertical-align: top"> <td valign="top""> Vertical
Vertically Align Text (Top, top
vertical top vertical top
Middle, Bottom)
</td> </td>
<table style="margin-left:auto;
margin-right:auto"> <table align="center">
<tr> <tr> head head
<th>head 1</th> <th>head 1</th> 1 2
<th>head 2</th> <th>head 2</th>
</tr> </tr>
Center a Table
<tr> <tr>
<td>cell 1</td> <td>cell 1</td>
<td>cell 2</td> <td>cell 2</td> cell cell
</tr> 1 2
</tr> </table>
</table>
<div
style="border-width: 5px;
border-style:
outset;
border-color:
Place Border on Text (or {Cannot be done without a
blue;
anything else) single-cell table}
text-align:
center">
Text with
border
</div>
Table 3a. Alignment and Borders
(continued …)

Current/Strict Deprecated/Transitional
Example
(New Way -- HTML 4.0) (Old Way -- HTML 3.2)
Place Border on Table <table <table border="1"> cell 1 cell 2
style="border-width: 1px; <tr> cell 3 cell 4
border-style: outset;"> <td>cell 1</td>
<tr> <td>cell 2</td>
<td </tr>
style="border-width: 1px; <tr>
border-style: inset;"> <td>cell 3</td>
cell 1 <td>cell 4</td>
</td> </tr>
<td </table>
style="border-width: 1px;
border-style: inset;">
cell 2
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td
style="border-width: 1px;
border-style: inset;">
cell 3
</td>
<td
style="border-width: 1px;
border-style: inset;">
cell 4
</td>
</tr>
</table>
Table 3b. Alignment and Borders (continued)
 Chapter 8. CSS

style sheet is a type of document that contains formatting rules. A Web

browser will simply read these rules and apply the formatting to your page.
Using style sheets allows you to control page elements such as borders,
colors, and margins, and even to embed fonts that aren't available locally on
your computer.
Style sheets are officially known as CSS (for Cascading Style Sheets). CSS
is a separate language with its own syntax, but don't let that frighten you.
This language was specifically developed for formatting Web pages. It's so
powerful that with a single command you can alter the appearance of a Web
page.
You should always put your CSS rules into a separate file instead of
embedding them directly into your Web page. The reason we do this is that
it separates HTML code from your CSS rules and makes updating code
much easier in the long run.
Before the introduction of CSS, Web designers looked for other ways to
change the layouts on their Web pages. One such way was using table tags--
a separate set of HTML tags that are used to make tables, table headers,
table row, and so forth. But table tags were often misused. Instead of adding
structure to a page, they were often being used to layout Web pages. And
back before CSS, making changes to a large Web site with table tags or
other formats was just difficult, time consuming and expensive, because
you had to edit each page of a site individually.
CSS was specifically developed to eliminate the difficulties, expense, and
time involved in using table tags. Just by editing a single CSS file you can
instantly make changes to a large and complex Web site. For example, you
can create a CSS rule to format font sizes, and every page on your Web site
will then be updated to reflect those specific changes.
Your First Style Sheet
Now we should put all of the things we've learned together and create your
first CSS (Cascading Style Sheet).
If you're familiar with Web and have visited many Web sites, you'll know
that your browser displays text links in blue and with an underline. (This is
the browser's default (automatic) format display for text links.) But what if
the blue links are at odds with the general look and feel of your own Web
page?
You can build a style sheet rule that will change the text color of the link on
your Web page. To do this, you simply have to use a CSS style attribute and
declare it within an HTML element. Here is an example:
<a href="#" style:"color: red;"> Click Here </a>
A style attribute is made up of two parts: a property name and a value. Here
is the format every attribute follows and how it looks as code:
<style: property; name: value;>
In this example, the property specifies the type of formatting that is applied
to your HTML element. Here "color" is the property, which sets the color of
the anchor link. The value is the actual name of the color ‒ "red. In
another example of a CSS style attribute, the property name might be "font"
and the value could be the "size" of font.
This CSS rule is commonly known as a statement. A statement is simply a
piece of code; here, all it does is specifying the style property as color and
make the anchor link ("Click Here") red (the color "value").
Create a new document in Sublime Text 2 by selecting File | New. Now
type this code exactly as you see here:
<!doctype html>
<html>
<head>
<title> My First Style Sheet </title>
<meta charset="UTF-8" />
</head>
<body>
<p> <a href="#" style="color:red; text-decoration:none;">
Click Here </a> </p>
</body>
</html>
Once you've done this, save your file with the name colors.html in your
HTML folder on your desktop. Now preview your file in your Web browser
to check your work.
To remove the standard underlined text from your anchor link, use the text-
decoration attribute and the value none (see example above, after color:
red). The text-decoration is used to set the appearance of text – you can
remove underlines, underline standard text, add a line above or through the
middle of text and make the text blink.
The text-decoration attribute has the following possible values: underline,
line-through, over line, none and blink. Here is an example of code for text
decoration that makes the text blink:
text-decoration: blink;
Open up the Web page we've just been working on called colors.html and
add the other values to the text-decoration attribute. Preview the file in your
Web browser to see how your work is displayed.
<p> <a href="#" style="color:red; text-decoration:blink;">
Click Here </a> </p>
Try experimenting yourself by adding the values: underline, line-through
and over line to the text-decoration attribute and see what happens.
Inline Styles
Inline styles allow you to insert a property name and value of a style sheet
right into an HTML tag. But you should try to avoid using this approach if
you can. As Inline styles mix formatting with HTML markup, and it
becomes difficult to make changes to your Web page: every style on a page
must be hunted down in the source code ‒ as you'll soon see.
So here is our earlier example used to format an anchored link:
<a href="#" style="color:red; text-decoration:none;"> Click Here </a>
The rule above removes the default underline of the anchored link and
makes the text color red. Inline style may seem much easier to use ‒ it's
straightforward, and you can apply it wherever you want on a page. But if
you format a page like this it can get quite messy and confusing. You'll soon
realize why Web designers tend not to use this technique. Adding inline
style to each and every HTML tag on your Web page not only makes the
code difficult to read, but it is almost impossible to separate the presentation
formatting (style sheets) from the actual HTML. For example, let's consider
our earlier example but with several inline style rules added to the tag:
<a href="#" style="color:red; text-decoration:none; border-style: solid;
border-color:blue; text-align: left; font-size: 16"> Click Here </a>
See how the anchor tag is already becoming a bit disorderly and chaotic. It's
quite difficult to separate content ("Click Here") from the presentation
formatting in the example above. So as good practice, HTML markup
should always be in a separate, presentation-free document. If you can, try
to avoid using inline styles entirely.
The Anatomy of A CSS Rule
A style sheet is made up of rules. A rule is a formatting instruction that tells
the Web browser to apply specific styles to your Web page.
Here is an example of a CSS rule that sets the color of a <p> paragraph
element to red:
p { color:red;}
The CSS rule is then applied to our <p> paragraph element in the HTML
document like this:
</p>
This shows an example of this paragraph style in action in a standard Web
browser.

A css rule applied to the paragraph element

If you open up a style sheet to view the code in your browser, you'll see that
CSS rules don't have any resemblance to HTML markup. Every CSS rule is
basically made up of three things: selectors, properties and values.
Ordinarily the property and value is always terminated by a semicolon(;).
Here is the format every CSS rule follows:
Selector {property: value;}
And here is what each part of the CSS rule actually means:
The selector is an HTML element that you want to apply
formatting to. For example, the (<p>) paragraph tag can be
used as a selector. A Web browser will then look for all the
common elements in your Web page that match the selector
and apply the code within the curly braces to your elements.
The property simply identifies the type of formatting you
want to apply to your HTML element. So here you can
choose from colors, fonts, sizes and so forth.
The value sets a value for the property. For example, if the
property is color, then the value could be green or light blue.
Selectors, properties and values are essentially the basic building blocks of
CSS rules. Once you begin to understand these, you're well on your way to
becoming a style sheet guru.
 Creating an External Style Sheet
a{
color:red; text-decoration: none;
}
h1 {
font-family: arial, sans-serif
}
Before you go any farther, save your file with the name style.css in your
main HTML folder on your desktop. A style sheet can have whatever name
you want but must always use the file name extension .css. Remember,
always save the style sheet in the same folder as your HTML pages,
otherwise your page will not display the formatting.
Instead of embedding a style sheet directly into an HTML tag, you will be
adding a link to the external .css style sheet from within the <head> portion
of your document.
In the colors.html file, simply remove the inline style that was added to the
anchor link previously. For comparison purposes, below are the old
colors.html file with inline style and new colors.html file without inline
style:
COLORS.HTML FILE WITH INLINE STYLE ‒
<!doctype html>
<html>
<head>
<title> My First Style Sheet </title>
<meta charset="UTF-8" />
</head>
<body>
<h1> My First Style Sheet </h1>
<p> <a href="#" style="color:red; text-decoration:none;">
Click Here </a> </p>
</body>
</html>
COLORS.HTML FILE WITHOUT INLINE STYLE ‒
<!doctype html>
<html>
<head>
<title> My First Style Sheet </title>
<meta charset="UTF-8" />
</head>
<body>
<h1> My First Style Sheet </h1>
<p> <a href="#"> Click Here </a> </p>
</body>
</html>
View the file in your web browser after you save it to check your work. You
will see that the formatting rules in the style sheet has not yet been applied
to your Web page. This is because we haven't told the browser to point
(link) to the style sheet.
You have to add the <link> element to the <head> portion in your HTML
document in order to do this. The <link> element simply points the browser
to the external style sheet and the browser will then apply the style sheet's
formatting rules to your page.
Here is the <link> element added to the <head> portion of our page:
<!doctype html>
<html>
<head>
<title> My First Style Sheet </title>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css" />
<meta charset="UTF-8" />
</head>
<body>
<h1> My First Style Sheet </h1>
<p> <a href="#"> Click Here </a> </p>
</body>
</html>
The <link> element has two parts to it. The rel attribute simply defines the
relationship between the current page and the linked document. In actual
fact, you are telling the Web browser it's a style sheet.
The href attribute (href stands for hypertext reference) points to the actual
location of the external style sheet. When you're linking to a style sheet the
rel attribute should always be a style sheet.
Save the file and then open it in your Web browser to see your work.
Congratulations! You've just created your first external style sheet.
 Chapter 9. CSS Links, Tables, And Forms

ou can use a lot of other CSS properties to work with links and tables. You
will learn how you can add color to each column of the chart to make it
stands out of the rest. Similarly, you will also learn how to beautify the
forms such as submissions forms, survey forms and any other form that you
have created in HTML.
You will be able to create beautiful buttons that can be integrated into the
forms. Each code example also contains the displayed results of the code.
You can take up the code, recreate it, modify or run it to see how it works.
Even simply reading it will give you a general idea of how you have to
proceed.
<html>
<head>
<style>
a{
color: green;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<h1> Let me tell you a story.</h1>
<h2><b><a href="default.asp" target="_blank">Watch the video story here.
</a></b></h2>
<p> Once, there was an eagle that flew high in the skies,
<br> touching upon the tip of the mountains.
<br> One day she found a ring, stuck in the branch of an apple tree. </p>
<p>She took it and flew to her nest. While playing with it, she got her head
stuck in it.
<br>She didn't panic or hit her head on the stump of a tree to get rid of it.
<br>One day she drenched her head in oil and the ring came off of her
neck.</p>
</body>
</html>
The result of the above style is as under. You can see the second line of
code which has got a link hidden inside.
Let me tell you a story.
Watch the video story here.
Once, there was an eagle that flew high in the skies,
touching upon the tip of the mountains.
One day she found a ring stuck in the branch of an apple tree.
She took it and flew to her nest. While playing with it, she got her head
stuck in it.
She didn't panic or hit her head on the stump of a tree to get rid of it.
Then, one day she drenched her head in oil and the ring came off of her
neck.
------------------------
CSS links are critical because many a time you have to connect your
webpage to another website to offer your users an amazing and fruitful
experience. There are four kinds of links that you can use for different
purposes. They are named as a: link, a: hover, a: active, a: visited. Each link
has a specific purpose. For example, a: hover is used to allow users to hover
over the mouse on the link and make it open. Let’s try to create links by all
the four methods.
<html>
<head>
<style>
/* This is an unvisited link */
a:link {
color: green;
}
/* This is a visited link. */
a:visited {
color: blue;
}
/* This is a hover link. */
a:hover {
color: violet;
}
/* This is a selected link. */
a:active {
color: red;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<h1> Let me tell you a story.</h1>
<h2><b><a href="default.asp" target="_blank">Watch the video story here.
</a></b></h2>
<p> Once, there was an eagle that flew high in the skies,
<br> touching upon the tip of the mountains.
<br> One day she found a ring, stuck in the branch of an apple tree.</p>
<p>She took it and flew to her nest. While playing with it, she got her head
stuck in it.
<br>She didn't panic or hit her head on the stump of a tree to get rid of it.
<br>One day she drenched her head in oil and the ring came off of her
neck.</p>
</body>
</html>
You might be thinking that I had entered four links, but just one color can
be seen in the results if you have already tested the code. Links change their
status. In the start, they are unvisited. Then you hover your mouse over
them. Then you click them open and leave them visited. So, technically,
you can add four different colors according to the status of your link. Let’s
see what other things we can do to the links. Also, we can decorate the text
of links and also add color to the background. Let’s see how to do that.
<html>
<head>
<style>
/* This is an unvisited link */
a:link {
color: green;
text-decoration: none;
background-color: yellow
}
/* This is a visited link. */
a:visited {
color: blue;
text-decoration: none;
background-color: gray
}
/* This is a hover link. */
a:hover {
color: violet;
text-decoration: underline;
background-color: pink
}
/* This is a selected link. */
a:active {
color: red;
text-decoration: underline;
background-color: hotpink
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<h1> Let me tell you a story.</h1>
<h2><b><a href="default.asp" target="_blank">Watch the video story here.
</a></b></h2>
<p> Once, there was an eagle that flew high in the skies,
<br> touching upon the tip of the mountains.
<br> One day she found a ring, stuck in the branch of an apple tree.</p>
<p> She took it and flew to her nest. While playing with it, she got her
head stuck into it.
<br> She didn't panic and hit her head into the stump of the tree to get rid of
it.
<br> One day she drenched her head in oil and the ring moved out of her
neck. </p>
</body>
</html>
CSS Tables
CSS allows you to transform the way your tables look in HTML. You can
add colors to the headings and to the columns. The font style and font size
of the text inside the tables can also be changed. Let’s create one.
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>
#countries {
font-family: "Courier New", Gerogia, Helvetica, sans-serif;
border-collapse: collapse;
width: 80%;
}
#countries td, #countries th {
border: 2px solid green;
padding: 6px;
}
#countries tr:nth-child(even){background-color: violet;}
#countries tr:hover {background-color: #ddd;}
#countries th {
 padding-top: 15px;
padding-bottom: 15px;
text-align: left;
background-color: #ffAc2b;
color: gray;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<table id="countries">
<tr>
<th>Country</th>
<th>Capital</th>
<th>Reasons for fame</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Germany</td>
<td>Berlin</td>
<td>BMW</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>United States of America</td>
<td>Washington DC</td>
<td>Marvel</td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>China</td>
<td>Beijing</td>
<td>cheap products</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Pakistan</td>
<td>Islamabad</td>
<td>Footballs</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Japan</td>
<td>Tokyo</td>
<td>Robotics</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>United Kingdom</td>
<td>London</td>
<td>Thames</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Egypt</td>
<td>Cairo</td>
<td>Pyramids</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>India</td>
 <td>New Delhi</td>
<td>Taj Mehal</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Brazil</td>
<td>Sao Paulo</td>
<td>Statue of Jesus</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Kingdom of Saudi Arabia</td>
<td>Riyadh</td>
<td>Pilgrimage</td>
</tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>
The results of the above code example can be seen below. You can change
the values and yield out a different output in the internet browser. Tables are
an essential element for a web page. You need them if you are running a
website that displays information about the rise and fall in the prices of
stock market shares. If you don’t style them properly with CSS, your
visitors are not going to like their dull and boring look. Appropriately
colored tables appear well on the website and keep visitors engaged for a
while.

Country Capital Reasons for fame

Germany Berlin BMW

 United States of Washington DC Marvel
America
China Beijing cheap products
Pakistan Islamabad Footballs
Japan Tokyo Robotics
United Kingdom London Thames
Egypt Cairo Pyramids
India New Delhi Taj Mehal
Brazil Sao Paulo Statue of Jesus
Kingdom of Saudi
Riyadh Pilgrimage
Arabia

You can alter the colors, the border, and padding by making slight changes
in the HTML document. Adding more columns or rows to suit your specific
requirement is also being done. In the above example, I have added
background colors, padding, border colors and have also adjusted the width
of the columns. You can take the example document and customize for
learning practice.
CSS Forms
HTML provides us with an easy way to create different types of forms that
we can use to collect user information like their usernames, passwords, and
email addresses. Some are subscription forms while others are survey
forms. When we create an HTML form, its look is rigid and dull. Thanks to
CSS, we can change that. We can make it look exceptionally well. Let’s
create a form and then transform its look by adding some simple CSS
properties.
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<style>
input[type=text], select {
width: 100%;
padding: 15px 25px;
margin: 10px 0;
display: inline-block;
border: 2px solid green;
border-radius: 6px;
box-sizing: border-box;
}
input[type=submit] {
width: 50%;
background-color: pink;
color: black;
padding: 12px 18px;
margin: 10px 0;
border: 2px solid green;
border-radius: 2px;
cursor: pointer;
font-size: 25px
}
input[type=submit]:hover {
background-color: #45b049;
}
div {
border-radius: 4px;
 background-color: #f1f1f1;
padding: 15px;
}
</style>
<body>
<h1>I will be using CSS to style this raw HTML Form</h1>
<div>
<form action="/action_page.php">
<label for="name">Please enter your first Name</label>
<input type="text" id="name" name="firstname" placeholder="Plese
enter here..">
<label for="lname">Please enter your last Name</label>
<input type="text" id="lname" name="lastname" placeholder="Please
enter here..">
<label for="country">Where do you live?</label>
<select id="country" name="country">
<option value="USA">USA</option>
<option value="canada">Canada</option>
<option value="UK">UK</option>
<option value="china">China</option>
<option value="pakistan">Pakistan</option>
<option value="france">France</option>
</select>
<input type="submit" value="Submit">
</form>
</div>
</body>
</html>
The result is as under:

I have styled the border, the input fields, the submit button and a lot more.
Let’s learn more about designing the buttons, as they are an essential part of
forms on your web page.
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>
input[type=refresh], input[type=submit], input[type=process] {
background-color: #4CAFBB;
border: 2px solid green;
color: white;
padding: 19px 34px;
 text-decoration: none;
margin: 6px 4px;
cursor: pointer;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<h1>You are seeing styled input buttons.</h1>
<input type="refresh" value="Refresh It">
<input type="process" value="Process">
<input type="submit" value="Submit">
</body>
</html>
The result is as under:

In the end let’s see an example of a complete form.

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>
*{
box-sizing: border-box;
}
input[type=text], select, textarea {
width: 50%;
padding: 8px;
border: 1px solid #bbb;
border-radius: 2px;
resize: vertical;
}
label {
padding: 10px 0;
display: inline-block;
}
input[type=submit] {
background-color: #4CAF50;
color: white;
padding: 10px 18px;
border: none;
border-radius: 4px;
cursor: pointer;
float: right;
}
input[type=submit]:hover {
background-color: #45a049;
}
.container {
border-radius: 7px;
background-color: #f2f2f2;
padding: 15px;
}
.col-25 {
float: left;
width: 50%;
margin-top: 4px;
}
.col-75 {
float: left;
width: 50%;
margin-top: 4px;
}
/* Clear floats */
.row:after {
content: "";
display: table;
clear: both;
}
/* Responsive layout */
@media screen and (max-width: 400px) {
.col-25, .col-75, input[type=submit] {
width: 50%;
margin-top: 0;
}
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<h2>This is an example of a responsive Form</h2>
<p>You will have to resize the browser window to see the effect.</p>
<div class="container">
<form action="/action_page.php">
<div class="row">
<div class="col-25">
<label for="nname">Please enter your First Name</label>
</div>
<div class="col-75">
<input type="text" id="fname" name="firstname" placeholder="Please
enter here..">
</div>
</div>
<div class="row">
<div class="col-25">
<label for="lname">Please enter your Last Name</label>
</div>
 <div class="col-75">
<input type="text" id="lname" name="lastname" placeholder="Please
enter here..">
</div>
</div>
<div class="row">
<div class="col-25">
<label for="country">Please choose your country</label>
</div>
<div class="col-75">
<select id="country" name="country">
<option value="usa">USA</option>
<option value="canada">Canada</option>
<option value="uk">UK</option>
</select>
</div>
</div>
<div class="row">
<div class="col-25">
<label for="bio">Please enter your bio here.</label>
</div>
<div class="col-75">
<textarea id="bio" name="bio" placeholder="Write here.."
style="height:200px"></textarea>
</div>
</div>
 <div class="row">
<input type="submit" value="Submit">
</div>
</form>
</div>
</body>
</html>
Your form will look like this:
 Chapter 10. Image Manipulation in CSS

ou can add images to your documents using the img tag, or you can add a
background image to the entire document.

Setting an image as background for a website.

You can use body tag’s background-image property to set a background
image for the entire page.
body { background-image: url('draft.gif'); }

Positioning the background Image

Use the background-position property to specify where your background
image will appear.
body {
background-image: url('draft.gif');
background-position: bottom right;
background-repeat: no-repeat;
}
You can use the following keyword combinations with the background-
position property:

Keywords
top left center left bottom left
top center center center bottom center
top right center right bottom right

These keywords can be written in either order. For example, “top left” and
“left top” will both work correctly. The other value will default to center if
you only specify a single value.
You can also use percentages to set the position.
background-position: 30% 80%;
If you want to position the image in the top left 0% 0% is the value, and
100% 100% would place it in the bottom right. Setting the background-
position to 50% 50% would center the image, as would center center.
The following list shows how keyword settings match percentage settings:

Keywords Percentages
left top 0% 0%
center top 50% 0%
right top 100% 0%
left center 0% 50%
center center 50% 50%
right center 100% 50%
left bottom 0% 100%
center 50% 100%
bottom
right bottom 100% 100%
If you use keywords or percentages, your background image’s position will
adjust to the size of the window. You can also use pixels to set a non-
adjusting position:
background-position: 20px 20px;
Adjusting background color or image position.
You can use the background-clip property to specify whether the
background includes the border, padding, or only the content.

div {
padding:10px;
border: 5px dotted #000;
background-color: #f00;
background-clip:border-box;
}
div {
padding:10px;
border: 5px dotted #000;
background-color: #f00;
background-clip:padding-
box;
}
div {
padding:10px;
border: 5px dotted #000;
background-color: #f00;
background-clip:content-box;
}
Adding more than one image to the background
With CSS3, you can specify multiple background images. If you are
supporting old browser versions, you can specify one background image
with the html tag and another with the body tag.
CSS approach
body {
background-image: url('logo.gif'), url('draft.gif');
background-position: bottom right, 50% 50%;
background-repeat: no-repeat;

}
Older browser version approach
html {
background-image: url('logo.gif');
background-position: bottom right;
background-repeat: no-repeat;
}
body {
background-attachment: fixed;
background-image: url('draft.gif');
background-position: 50% 50%;
background-repeat: no-repeat;
}
Fixing a background image to avoid scrolling
You can use the background-attachment property to fix an image in place
and prevent it from scrolling with rest of the page’s content.
body {
 background-attachment: fixed;
background-image: url('draft.gif');
background-position: 50% 50%;
background-repeat: no-repeat;
}

Value Description
repeat The background repeats horizontally and vertically.
This is the default setting.
repeat-x The background repeats horizontally but not vertically.
repeat-y The background repeats vertically bit not horizontally.
no- The background does not repeat horizontally or
repeat vertically.
How do I resize a background image to fit an element?
You can use the background-size property to resize a background image to
fit a larger or smaller element automatically.

Value Description
contain Scales the image so the height and width fit in the element
cover Scales the image so the height or width fits (whichever is
smaller)
length Sets the height and width
If you only specify one value, the image is sized proportionally.
percentag Sets the height and width as a percentage of the parent element
e If you only specify one value, the image is sized proportionally.
Adding a shadow to the image
You can use the box-shadow property to add a shadow to images.
img { box-shadow: 5px 5px 10px 10px #f00; }
You can specify the following options for the shadow:
Value Description
blur Amount (in pixels) of blurring around the shadow's
edge
color The shadow's color
offset- Horizontal offset (in pixels) of the shadow
x
offset- Vertical offset (in pixels) of the shadow
y
inset Specifies an inner shadow
spread Size (in pixels) of the shadow
0 – shadow is the same size as the element
Using an image as a border
You can use the border-image property to use an image as an element's
border.
border-image:url(diamond.png) 20 20 round;
The following properties can be used to specify border images for different
sides of the element:
border-top-image
border-right-image
border-bottom-image
border-left-image

Value Description
border-image- Path to the image
source
border-image-slice The image's height and width offset
border-image-width The image's width
border-image-outset The image's height
border-image-repeat Whether the image should be repeat or
stretch
Wrapping text to an image
You can use the float property to wrap text around an image.
CSS rule
.caution {
float: left;
margin-right: 10px;
}
Usage
<p><img class="caution" src="caution.jpg" />
caution caution caution</p>

The margin-left property can be used to add space between the image and
the text.
Placing of text on top of image
You can assign negative values to the position, top, and left properties to
position text on top of an image. If the version is below the picture, setting
its top property to a negative value will move the text on top of the film.
CSS rule
.overlap {
position: relative;
top: -200px;
left: 180px;
color: #ffffff;
}
Usage
<img src="sample.jpg" />
<p class="overlap">floating text</p>

Adding a border around the image

Borders are most often used with tables, but you can also add borders
around images using the border properties.
img {
border-width: 3px;
border-style: solid;
border-color: #000000;

}
You can also use CSS shorthand to specify borders:
img { border: 1px solid #000000; }
The examples above will add a border to all images. You can create a class
if you want to apply borders only to specified images.
.imgBorder { border: 1px solid #000000; }
<img class=“imgBorder” src=“sampleImage.jpg” />
Or, you can apply a border to all images inside a div tag:
CSS rule
#menuBar img { border: 1px solid #000000; }
Usage
<div id=“menuBar”><img src=“sampleImage.jpg” /></div>
Adding a drop shadow to an image
You can use Internet Explorer’s filter property to add a drop shadow to an
image.
img {
filter: progid:DXImageTransform.Microsoft.dropShadow (offX='3',
offY='5', color='#c0c0c0', positive='true');
}

The filter property was created by Microsoft and is not a part of the CSS
recommendation. It is only supported by Internet Explorer.
For more information about Internet Explorer filters, see “How do I use
Internet Explorer's filters?”
For other browsers, you can use the box-shadow property can be used to
add a drop shadow around an image. However, it will not add the drop
shadow inside transparent images.

Another option is to use HTML5's canvas element. See the following

website for an example:
philip.html5.org/demos/canvas/shadows/various.html
Making an image transparent
Using the opacity property to make an image transparent can also be done.
For Internet Explorer, you can use the IE-specific alpha filter.

img {
filter:alpha(opacity=50);
 opacity:.50;
}
Removing link borders from an image
You can set an image’s border property to “0” to remove the border that
appears around image links by default.
img { border: 0; }
How do I zoom images when the user hovers over them?
You can use the hover pseudo class to change an image’s width and height.
First, wrap a link around the image:
<a href="javascript:void(0);">
<img src="clickstart.jpg" />
</a>
Then, specify the image’s width and height when the user hovers over the
image’s link:
a:hover img { width: 800px; height: 400px; }
In this example, the image will expand to 800x400 when the user hovers
over the image, and when the mouse moves from the image it will return to
its original size.
Making image expand on hover
You can use the transition property to make an image expand when the user
hovers over it and shrink when it loses focus. For example, you could
provide a "thumbnail" of an image that expands to full-size when the user
hovers over it.
CSS rule
.thumbTrans {
width: 50px;
height: 50px;
-moz-transition-property: width,height;
 -moz-transition-duration: 4s;
-moz-transition-delay: 1s;
-webkit-transition-property: width,height;
-webkit-transition-duration: 4s;
-webkit-transition-delay: 1s;
-o-transition-property: width,height;
-o-transition-duration: 4s;
-o-transition-delay: 1s;
transition-property: width,height;
transition-duration: 4s;
transition-delay: 1s;
}
.thumbTrans:hover {
width: 100%;
height: 100%;
-moz-transition-property: width,height;
-moz-transition-duration: 4s;
-moz-transition-delay: 1s;
-webkit-transition-property: width,height;
-webkit-transition-duration: 4s;
-webkit-transition-delay: 1s;
-o-transition-property: width,height;
-o-transition-duration: 4s;
-o-transition-delay: 1s;
transition-property: width,height;
transition-duration: 4s;
 transition-delay: 1s;
}
Making an image ‘pop-out’ on hover
You can use the hover pseudo class to rotate images and add a shadow.
img:hover {
box-shadow:1px 2px 5px #666666;
-moz-transform:rotate(5deg) scale(1.5);
-webkit-transform:rotate(5deg) scale(1.5);
transform:rotate(5deg) scale(1.5);
}

Inserting content using CSS

Using the content property to insert content before or after an element can
also be done.
To insert content at the top or bottom of the page:
body:before {
content: "Confidential";
font-weight: bold;
}
body:after {
content: "\000A Copyright 2012";
}
To insert content before an element:
h1:before {
content: ">> ";
color: silver;
}
To add quotes before and after an element:
p.quotes:before { content: open-quote; }
p.quotes:after { content: close-quote; }
To add curly quotes:
p.boldCurlyQuotes { quotes: "\201C" "\201D"; }
p.boldCurlyQuotes:before { content: open-quote; }
p.boldCurlyQuotes:after { content: close-quote; }
The following table provides the Unicode values for commonly-used
characters that can be inserted using the content property.

Symbo Description Unicode

l value
" double quotation 0022
' single quotation 0027
(apostrophe)
“ double left curly quotation 201C
” double right curly quotation 201D
< single left angle quotation 003C
> single right angle quotation 003E
« double left angle quotation 00AB
» double right angle quotation 00BB
` grave accent 0060
´ acute accent 00B4
 Chapter 11. Length Units

s you have followed this tutorial, you may have noticed that when you
change the size of text using CSS, there are a number of options.
You can see this for yourself in TopStyle.
Create a new style sheet, and click the "New Selector" button. Select the
"Simple" tab and select h1 from the HTML elements list. Next click the
"Add" button, followed by "OK".

In the style inspector, scroll down

to the font category and click on the font-size property. Click the
downward arrow on the right of this row to view the options available:
In this book, we will concentrate on the first two items in this list –
Percentage and Length.
Percentage is a relative measurement (i.e., it defines a size that is relative to
another one).
Length is an absolute measurement, since it defines an exact analysis.
However, with precise measurements come units.
What are the units for an absolute measurement?
Well, let's find out. Click on the font-size dropdown arrow, and select
length.
Another dialogue box opens up, with another dropdown box (set to the
default 'px').

Click on the down arrow of that

dropdown box, and you'll see several more options:
WOW! That’s a lot of different units.
These units can be divided into two groups:
1. relative units (size is comparable to something)
2. absolute units (size is an exact measurement)
The 'relative' units are:
- ex
- em
- px
(The percentage unit is also relative).
The 'absolute' units are:
- cm
- mm
- pc
- in
- pt
The main reason for using absolute units is to freeze the design of the web
page so that it always looks the same, no matter how it's viewed.
When relative measurements are used, the web design may look different,
depending on the users Web browser settings.
Let's look at an example.

There are two headers, one defined in absolute terms, and the other in
relative terms.
Older web browsers use to allow users to change the size of the fonts in
their browsers to:
- Largest
- Larger
- Medium
- Smaller
- Smallest
The problem was that any font size defined in absolute terms would not
increase in size because it was set in total measurements, and therefore
would always appear the same size on the screen. The font size defined in
relative terms would increase in size.
If you increased the font size to "Largest", you’d see the relative header
increase in size while the absolute header would stay at the same size.
To some extent, web browsers have taken away the functionality of absolute
measurements because they introduced a zoom feature instead of a font size
feature. This then magnified all text, absolute or relative, to the same
extent, throwing out some web designer's carefully designed layouts.
OK, let's consider the units for measurements, and what they represent.
The five absolute measurements are as follows:
1. cm - centimeters
2. mm - millimeters
3. in - inches
4. pc - picas (1/6 inch or 12 points)
5. pt - points (1/72 inch)
It should be noted that even if absolute measurements did work properly in
browsers with the new zoom features, they would only ever work as desired
if the browser knew the size of the screen, and the number of pixels the
screen displayed. In many cases, the browser would have to guess! This,
together with the more recent addition of zoom features, means that
absolute measurements aren't the best units to use when designing your
pages so that we won’t be looking into these.
It was important to mention absolute measurements in this book though,
because I am sure you will come across them when you are exploring the
CSS of your own (and other people's) web pages.
So relative measurements provide us with the best solution, especially when
we don't know what device the end user will be viewing the site on. For
example, nowadays they could be browsing on a computer, a tablet, a
Smartphone, or even some e-readers. With relative measurements, the font
sizes will be comparable to the size of the screen, and therefore give the
user the very best viewing experience.
Here are the relative measurements in some detail:
EX
The 'ex' is a measurement relative to the size of the font's lowercase 'x'. I
never use this measurement so that we won’t be looking at it in this book.
PX
The px is a relative measurement in screen pixels.
Pixels offer the designer the best control over layouts. You will see them
used a lot for things like borders, margins, padding, plus height and width
of screen regions when creating CSS layouts without tables.
What pixels are not recommended for is text size. Most modern browser
won’t have a problem, but some of the older ones won’t resize pixel-based
text.
Percentage
Percentage measurements are always relative to another value. For
example, if we want to increase the spacing between lines of a paragraph,
you can define the line-height as a percentage (it will be a percentage of the
font size).
Say for example we have: line-height: 150%. This will create a space
between the lines that is 150% of the font size. Therefore, if the font size is
10px, then the space between lines will be 15px. It is wise to define the
font-size in your CSS file if using percentages, otherwise results can be
unpredictable in the different browsers. This is because the font-size will be
taken from the web browsers default CSS file.
Here is an example showing line spacing using percentages:
(9.1.html and 9.1.css)
EM
The "em" is a relative measurement for the font size. Think of it as being
the size of a capital "M" to help you remember it, though that isn't entirely
accurate, but it is an excellent way to memorize it.
This is my preferred unit for defining text size. Because it's a measurement
relative to the font size, if we set a font-size of say 10px, then one em is
equal to 10px. 2 em would be similar to 20px, and 1.5 em would be 15 px.
To make this as easy as possible, it's a good idea to define the font size in
the style sheet as follows:
Create a new style sheet.
Click on the "New Selector" button, and then go to the "Simple" tab.
Select body from the HTML Element list, and then click the "Add" button
followed by "OK".
You'll see the following in your style sheet:
body {
}
Whatever properties you enter will be the default properties for all elements
on the page that appear between the <body></body> tags, i.e., everything.
I can define a default font-size like this:
body { font-size: 11px; }
This would make the default font size 11px. Here is a web page where I
have defined the default text size in this manner:
(9.2.html and 9.2.css)
In some older browsers, if you choose a larger font size, these sizes will
remain the same because we defined the default font as 20 px – an absolute
measurement. However, since most browsers now use the zoom feature,
this is less of a problem that it used to be. Nevertheless, just to be safe, we
are probably better off defining the default font-size this way:
body { font-size: 0.7em; }
This would make the default text size 70% of the default text size. So just
what is the default text size?
Well, every browser has its own default CSS that it uses to display web
pages. If you want to see what that size looks like in different browsers,
create a style sheet that sets the body text size to 1em.
body { font-size: 1.0em; }
Then create a web page with some text on it that uses the style sheet, and
view it in a few different browsers, or just look at 9.3.html and 9.3.css, as I
have done this for you.
Here is an excellent article on using em for sizing text. Richard Rutter uses
percentages instead of em to define the default font-size:
http://clagnut.com/blog/348
 Chapter 12. CSS IDs and Classes

D selectors can only (or should only), be used ONCE on a web page, and
identify ONE item on the page.
By using an ID selector to reference two images on the page, I was breaking
a CSS rule. I should have used a CLASS instead.
ID Selectors and classes do mostly the same thing, BUT, an ID can only
be used once on the page, whereas types can be used multiple times.
Before we look at classes, let me give you an easy way to remember this:
Your ID refers to YOU and you alone. No one else can have your ID.
A class is a group of people so that a level can refer to multiple individuals.
Therefore, an ID is only used once, and a class can be used multiple times.
For this reason, we will use IDs for page elements that only occur once,
e.g., when we come to look at page layouts using CSS, we'll define IDs for
the page header area, the right and left margins, the main content section,
and the footer. These are obvious choices, since each of those sections only
occurs once per page.
We will use classes whenever we want to reuse a style on a page more than
once, for example, the alignment of images, font styling, and bullet points,
etc.
OK, we know that IDs and Classes can be used to override default display
properties, but we still haven't looked at how to create or use them yet. Let's
look at that now, so that you can start using them in your page designs.
ID Selectors
Start TopStyle and click on the "New Selector" button.
Switch to the "advanced" tab, and you will see a pair of radio buttons (aka
option buttons), labeled Class and ID.
Select ID, and then in the box underneath the radio buttons, type in a name
for your ID. I typed in "logo" for mine, since I am going to create the ID to
be applied to the logo on the page (it only appears once).
You will notice that as you type, TopStyle adds a '#' to the start of your ID.
Click the "Add" button (located above the radio buttons), and then click the
"OK" button on the bottom right. This will add this selector to your style
sheet.
In style sheets, the '#' symbol specifies that what follows is an ID. Here's
how mind looks:
#logo {
}
You can now add some styles to the ID in exactly the same way we have
done in other examples. I’ve added a few to mine, and here the finished
logo ID:
#logo {
font-size: 3em;
font-variant: small-caps;
font-weight: bolder;
background-color: Silver;
font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;
}
The idea of this ID is to change the text properties in the logo area of my
page so that it is more extensive ("em" is a unit of measurement). My
sample here uses small caps, bold, has a silver background, and is the
Verdana, Geneva… font family. You probably knew this from seeing the
style sheet though, didn’t you?
You can see the effects of what this does to the page here:

(8.1.html and 8.1.css)

To use the ID in a web page, you simply modify the HTML tag to include:
ID = "logo"
Here is the HTML code before modifying:
<p>Mylogo.com</p>
Just before the first single right-pointing angle quotation mark ">", is where
you insert your ID code:
<p ID="logo">Mylogo.com</p>
Now, anything inside the <p></p> tags will be formatted according to the
properties of the ID "logo".
You will notice that in the raw HTML, the text is lowercase apart from the
first letter “M”. In the web page preview (above), the book is small
capitals, or small caps. That is what happens when we add the property:
font-variant: small-caps;
Classes are used in a very similar way, so let's now take a look at that:
Class Selectors
Create a new style sheet, and click on the "New Selector" button. Go to the
"Advanced" tab again and click on the "Class" radio button. Enter a name
for your class underneath the radio button. I am using "yellowhighlight" for
mine, as that is what my class will do. i.e., highlight some text in yellow.

You’ll notice that as you type, TopStyle adds a "." in front of the text you
are typing. In CSS, that "." specifies that whatever follows is a class.
OK, once done, click the "Add" button and then click "OK" to save the
changes to your style sheet.

This is what mine looks like:

.yellowhighlight {
}
I will make just one style change to the background color:
.yellowhighlight { background-color: Yellow; }
Now I can simply highlight a paragraph in yellow by adding the following
code to the HTML tag for the paragraph I want to change:
class="yellowhighlight"
We add it in the exact same way that we added the ID earlier. Insert it right
after the first ">" of the <p> tag.
Here is the html code:
<p class="yellowhighlight">the paragraph goes here</p>
Now look at this page:

(8.2.html and 8.2.css)

The second paragraph is now highlighted in yellow. Note how the <p> tag
has been modified from <p> to <p class = "yellowhighlight">:
Here is the HTML.
Because I used a class to define the highlighting, I can happily use it on
multiple paragraphs if I want to:
(8.3.html and 8.3.css)
That's how easy it is to identify and use classes.
Before we leave this though, I can hear you asking: "But what if we only
want to highlight certain text in a paragraph, and not the whole section?"
Well, the problem here is that the way we have used the class so far is to
modify a complete HTML tag (the whole paragraph), because we declared
the course within the <p> tag.
However, there is another option. You can use a "span" tag, to surround a
selection of text, and apply a class only to the "spanned" text. To do this,
you have to surround the text you want to highlight with a <span></span>
tag. Let’s look at an example:
<p>I only want to highlight <span>this text</span>here.</p>
We can now add the class within the opening <span> tag, right before the
">", in much the same way as you saw previously with the other tags:
<p>I only want to highlight <span class="yellowhighlight">this text
</span>here.</p>
Here it is in action on a web page:

(8.4.html and 8.4.css)

This is an integral part of the CSS course, with some big lessons to learn.
We learnt how to use IDs and Classes to modify the elements of our web
pages, and although there's still more to cover on classes, we'll take a break
for now.
 Chapter 13. The Box Model In CSS

he basis of the CSS layout is the box model since it directs the way in
which elements are shown and the way in which they associate with one
another. Imagine every element on the page as a rectangular box. Every box
is made of particular dimensions and takes up a particular measure of space.
The space the box occupies depends on the content in it, as well as the
margins and the padding borders around the content:

So, the
box model is what dictates the amount of space each element has on the
page. Now, let’s dive somewhat deeper into this idea by revising the main
components that constitute the CSS box model. Start thinking of each
HTML component on the page as a box. In fact, you can apply a global
style rule that will add a red outline to all the elements on the page. To do
this, simply add the following style rule to the top of the stylesheet:
*{
outline: 2px solid red;
}
This will add an outline to all the elements on the page and it will let us
easily visualize each of the items on the page as a box:

Each element is designed with a box or rectangle. Now, to effectively

understand the concept of the CSS box model, it is essential that we know
the two ways in which elements can be displayed. Every detail has a display
property, depending on the kind of item it is. The default of most items is
inline or block. Now, block elements are composed of a separate block that
has to take up the full width that is available. A few examples of block
elements include, list items, paragraphs, divs and any heading tag.
You can observe how the block-level divs on our page, and also the lists and
headings are taking up a whole line of content. They’re additionally forcing
another new line of text before and after the next element. Also, inline
elements only take up as much width as they have to. They don’t constrain
any lines, and they remain in line with whatever remains of the rest of the
text. A few examples of inline elements are images, anchor elements, and
span tags.
In the title span element, observe how its width consumes the space of its
text, and the reason it’s shown on its line is because a block-level h1 part
exists beneath it. The block-level h1 forces the new line. So now, let’s
examine how the margins, borders, and padding interact with one another to
form a box since it’s essential to understand. The box model is designed
with four distinct parts.

The core component and

innermost area of the box is the content area. This is the area in which the
actual content, such as image or text of the element is contained.
Surrounding the area of the text is the padding area. Padding is used to give
elements some breathing space. The next outermost part of the box is
known as the border area of the box. Think of it as an outline to the box
model. There are a range of styles for borders such as thickness and color.
Finally, the margin area is positioned outside of the box. This is the space
around an element that isolates it from different components.
The padding area makes space inside of the box, and the margin area makes
space outside of and around the box. Imagine you have a cardboard box that
you have filled with fragile items, but you have surrounded it with bubble
wrap to cushion any impact. The padding in the box model is similar to the
bubble wrap, in that it is added inside the box. The Google Chrome dev
tool provides a really clear view of the box model for each element on the
page. If you click on View > Developer > Developer Tools:
It will display the chrome developer tool panel at the bottom of the page:

Once you have the dev tools panel open, in the elements tab on the left,
open up the header element and click on the h1 element. This will be the
element selected in the chrome dev tool and you will see the h1 highlighted
on the page:
Once the h1 element is selected, you can increase the width of the styles tab
on the right and scroll down until you see the box model for the h1:

As you can see from the above screenshot, the h1 element’s box model can
be seen clearly. We have a default margin applied to the top and bottom,
and it has no border or padding. Hopefully, this will give you a better
understanding of how each element on the page is represented, and how
they interact with each other based on their display type.
 Chapter 14. Step By Step Addition Of CSS To HTML
Document
The Three Ways To Add CSS To An HTML Document

ou may recall from your HTML knowledge that there are three ways to add
CSS to an HTML document: as inline style, as an internal style, and as a
link to an external stylesheet. In this the book internal style method will be
used because it more easily demonstrates, for learning purposes, how CSS
relates to HTML in a single screen window and when using short
economical code snippets. However, normally you will want to be using
CSS script in external style sheets, since that is the generally preferred
method. Also for visual clarity, many redundant elements will be omitted,
such as <!DOCTYPE html>, <html> and <body>. Just assume that, if these
examples were used on real web pages, you would have all the requisite
elements in place.
For review, let’s just remind ourselves of the syntax and method for each
manner of adding CSS to an HTML document.
Inline Style
Inline CSS is presented within the opening HTML tag, where style is a
Global Attribute that can be used by any HTML element. The value of any
applied style attribute is a property:value pairing declared inside of
quotation marks, attached to the attribute through the assignment operator
equal sign, = . Every property:value pairing should end in a semi-colon, and
similarly when combining more than one inline style, each property: a
semicolon should separate value pairing.
Before Cascading Style Sheets, a vast amount of work was entailed by
having to style every HTML element individually. Any change of a style
decided later on meant that each element that had the style had to be
manually adjusted. Here’s an example of inline CSS as part of an HTML
text file:
<h1 style="color:red; font-style:italic; font-weight:100;">Red Heading
Typography</h1>

Above three styles have been applied, making the font color red, its
style italic, and the font weight 100 (on a 9-item scale 100 to 900– note that
not all fonts support all nine available CSS weights).
Internal Style
With internal CSS, the style is placed inside the <head> section of the
HTML document, which is always above the <body> section, you will
recall. This method is internal to the HTML document, i.e. a single web
page, as a whole, rather than specific to a single element, which is why it is
called internal. The CSS is applied within the <style> HTML opening and
closing tags instead of a style attribute declaration and is declared in the
standard CSS format. The basic CSS syntax is:
s ​{
​property : value;
​property: value;
​}
The “s” above stands for “selector”, which is any HTML element (in this
context, “s” is not the HTML tag for “strikethrough!”). With internal CSS,
the property:value pairs are declared within curly braces, { }, instead of
quotation marks. The property:value pairs taken together with the curly
braces make up a declaration in CSS. At a high level, the syntactical
construct can be understood as:
Selector {Declaration} {Declaration} {Declaration}
Selector {Declaration} {Declaration}
And each declaration in turn is made up of:
{property:value; property:value; property:value;}
{property:value; property:value;}
etc.
A selector and its declaration(s) together make up a rule set:
rule set = selector {declaration(s)}
To ground this syntax in a typical example, let’s look at the use of multiple
declarations applied to a single selector. Note that sometimes the order of
declarations has no effect on the visual result, but in other cases the order
does have an effect.
<style>
h2 {
text-align: center;
font-family: cursive;
color: orange;
}
</style>
<h2>
Hi, I've been styled.
</h2>

Multiple declarations on the <h2> selector.

Instead of declaring styles one after the another on the same line as with
inline CSS, with internal CSS each style declaration starts a new line and is
completed with a semicolon. You must always complete a declaration with
a semicolon even with the final one, since it’s possible that later on you or
another designer may add new styles and not realize that there are missing
semicolons above in the code that can cause a bug when rendering the style.
The code below is the internal CSS version of the same style we applied
above in the inline example. The CSS is now located inside of curly braces,
which are inside of the <style> tags which are inside of the <head> section.
The CSS is applied in the head first (before the body) since a browser
linearly parses the code. In this way, the browser does not first load an
unstyled version of a page and then get to work restyling it all, which is
what would happen if internal CSS was placed at the bottom of the .html
file. Rather, the browser obtains the needed style information first in the
<head>, then all subsequent HTML content is rendered in the style that was
first parsed from the internal style declarations.
<head>
<style>
h1 {
color: red;
font-style: italic;
font-weight: 100;
}
</style>
</head>
<h1>Red Heading Typography</h1>

External Stylesheet
Well-developed styles are made up of many lines of code, and for this
reason it is usually impractical to create too many style statements as
internal CSS within the <head> area of an .html document. Instead, CSS
code is usually placed in its own text file(s) that have the file extension .css.
This external style is then linked to in the <head> of an .html document via
a <link> element. This link to the external .css file will instruct the browser
to obtain the styling information from the external file first before
continuing to load, and style, the subsequent HTML content. When using
code editors to write CSS les, make sure you set the file’s syntax to CSS,
though many editors will automatically detect the language you are writing
in. When you save the file, make sure it has the .css file extension so that it
is usable as a style sheet for a browser.
<html>
<head>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="css.css" type="text/css">
</head>
<body>
</body>
</html>
Above, we define the relationship (the rel attribute in <link>) between the
.html document and the external resource as a stylesheet relationship. The
URL to locate the external style sheet is a relative URL path– in this
example, the CSS file is in the same directory as the index.html document.
As your websites become more complex, you will eventually want to have
your CSS source code files in their directories or folders, in which case the
URL in the href might instead be “CSS/css.css” or “scripts/css.css” and so
on. These forward slashes indicate that the .css file is to be found inside of a
directory called “CSS” or “scripts,” and that these directories are in the
same directory as the .html file. Finally, the Media Type of the stylesheet is
declared with the type attribute. CSS, like all source code, is always just a
text file, but instead of the usual .txt file extension used for text files, .css is
used so that the browser knows to parse the code as containing styling
information.
Placing the .css file in the same directory as the .html file, OR alternately, in
a scripts directory. The value of the href attribute has to specify the path
needed to find the external style document.
 Chapter 15. Introduction To JavaScript

TML is used to develop web pages, and web pages can become complex
documents that define the content of a page. Materials produced using
HTML can get CSS added to it, and done in different ways like attaching a
background color, changing font sizes, image size, typeface, shadow, colour
intensity, and so on. HTML and CSS can be used to attain a static beauty of
a web page. With JavaScript, you can inject life into web pages using
JavaScript effects such as form validation, modal, slider, pop up, and so on.
The practice of developing web pages or applications with HTML, CSS,
and JavaScript is called Frontend development, and it enhances the user’s
interaction with web pages. JavaScript is a well-built client-side scripting
language. JavaScript is also generally used for mobile and game application
development.
A Brief History of JavaScript
· 1995: While working at Netscape, "LiveScript" was created by
Brendan Eich and later renamed to "JavaScript."
· 1996: Javascript released by Microsoft, a port, for IE3.
· 1997: JavaScript became standardized in the "ECMAScript" spec.
· 2005: "AJAX" was coined, and the web 2.0 age began.
· 2006: jQuery 1.0 was released.
· 2010: node.JS was released.
· 2010: angular.JS was released.
· 2012: ECMAScript Harmony spec nearly finalised.
Several programmers tend to believe that JavaScript and Java belong to the
same category, and this opinion is false because Java and JavaScript are
different from each other. Java is a sophisticated programming language,
while JavaScript is a scripting language only. The C programming language
influences the JavaScript Syntax.
What does the future hold for JavaScript?
The technologies of HTML5 and JavaScript can be used to create
extensions for Windows 8 desktop widgets, browsers, Chrome OS, and
Firefox OS applications. A large number of non-web related applications
also adopt the scripting language of JavaScript, and it can be used to create
HTML templates (Mustache), attach activities to PDF documents, database
interaction (MongoDB), and also control (Cylon.js). JavaScript has a bright
future because web platforms continue to mature and advance its usage
beyond only browsers. This scripting language will remain an integral part
of future developments.
How to Run JavaScript?
JavaScript is a scripting language that cannot run on its own. The browser
does the code running of JavaScript. When a user requests an HTML page
that contains JavaScript, the browser receives the script, and then the
browser gets to decide its execution. All modern browsers support
JavaScript, which is a massive advantage for the scripting language.
JavaScript also runs on operating systems like Linux, Mac, and Windows.
Requirements to Learning JavaScript
● Basic knowledge of HTML and CSS
● A text editor
● A browser
● Logical thinking and tenacity
Programming
Computer programming is the act of implementing and creating a different
set of rules to allow a computer to perform a specific task. It is the process
of speaking the computer language, which involves picking an algorithm
and encoding it into a notation so that the computer can get it executed.
Types of Programming Languages
1. Low-level language
• Machine code
• Assembly language
2. High-level language
Inscribed in different languages such as Java, PHP, C, C++, JavaScript, C#,
Python, etc. Computer programs can be either interpreted or compiled
language, although JavaScript is an excellent example of Interpretation.
Keeping Them Separate
HTML: It defines the page content.
CSS: It determines the content’s presentation.
JavaScript: It controls content characters.
When these technologies are used in developing a web page, they must be
stored differently.
1. Create a separate .html file for HTML
2. Create a separate .css for CSS
3. Create a separate .js for JavaScript
The Wrong Approach
<p>
Whatever you do, <a href="666.html" style="color: red;" onclick="alert('I
said dont
click')">don't click this link</a>!
</p>
The Right Approach
<p>
Whatever you do, <a href="666.html" id="warning">don't click this
link</a>! </p>
<style>
#warning{
color:red;
}
</style>
<script>
var warningLink=document.getElementById("warning");
warningLink.addEventListener('click',alerter, false);
function alerter(){
alert("I said don't click");
}
</script>
The best approach is to save the style and script into a separate .css file and
.js file and unite them via link tag and script tag in the HTML document.
This approach is utilized in this manual.
<link rel="stylesheet" href="warning.css" /> <p>
Whatever you do, <a href ="666.html" id="warning">don't click this
link</a>!
</p>
<script src="warning.js"></script>
JavaScript Basics
Statements
The JavaScript syntax is also known as a C-style syntax which is related to
the syntax used by PHP. A JavaScript program consists of JavaScript
language construct, command, and keyword. This manual will teach you
how to develop amazing things with the use of JavaScript language
constructs, command and keyword. Every statement must end with a
semicolon or a new line. By popular convention a JavaScript programmer
should write one statement per line and with a semicolon at the end.
 document.write('Hello World') document.write('Here comes the
JS Engineer')
document.write('Hello World'); document.write('Here comes the JS
Engineer');
document.write('Hello World');
document.write('Here comes the JS Engineer');
Comments
These are human-readable texts which the computer disregards. JavaScript
consists of two types of comments:
//This is a single line comment
/*
This is a multiple line comment on line one
This is a multiple line comment on line two
This is a multiple line comment on line three
*/
Variable
To declare a variable, Use the “var” keyword.
A variable is used to store data and references the memory location in
computer memory (RAM.) A variable can perform 3 actions, and they are:
1. Declaring the variable
2. Inserting data inside the variable
3. Getting the data into the variable
It is important to name a variable to enable easy differentiation. Few rules
guide naming variables.
Variable naming rules
● They consist of the following character; numbers, letters, dollar signs
or underscores but a number cannot be the first character
● Variables are case sensitive, therefore ‘number-one’ differs from
‘NumberOne.’
● Variables cannot be JavaScript reserved words
● Variables select meaning and clarity
● Variables do not hold space variable that creates more than a word,
therefore ‘number one’ is written as ‘numberone’ but for easy
readability ‘numberone’ is often written as ‘number_one’ or
‘numberOne.’
● Select a naming convention and become accustomed to it.
var 2numberOne; //invalid variable name because it started with number
var numberOne!; //invalid variable name because it contains a non-
permitted character!
var x; //valid variable name but not descriptive
var numberOne; //variable declaration
var numberTwo; //variable declaration
numberOne=5; //assigning data to variable
numberTwo=10; //assigning data to variable
document.write(numberOne); //calling data inside a variable
document.write(numberTwo); //calling data inside a variable
var numberOne=3; //variable declaration and assignment
var numberOne, numberTwo, numberTwo; //multiple variable declaration
var numberOne=2, numberTwo=4, numberTwo=6; //multiple variable
declaration and assignment
 Chapter 16. JavaScript Syntax

e finally start to see JavaScript source code! So far everything we have seen
in this manual may have seemed very theoretical, but from now on we hope
you find it more enjoyable to start seeing more practical and directly related
to programming.
The JavaScript language has a syntax very similar to Java because it is
based on it. It is also very similar to that of the C language, so if the reader
knows any of these two languages ​it will be easy to handle with the code
Comments in The Code
A comment is a part of code that is not interpreted by the browser and
whose utility lies in making it easier for the programmer to read. The
programmer, as he develops the script, leaves individual phrases or words,
called comments, which help him or anyone else to read the script more
easily when modifying or debugging it.
Some JavaScript comments have been seen previously, but now we are
going to count them again. The language has two types of comments. One
of them, the double bar, is used to comment on a line of code. The other
comment can be used to comment on several lines and is indicated with the
signs / * to start the comment and * / to end it. Let's see some examples.
<SCRIPT>
// This is a one-line comment
/ * This comment can be extended
along several lines.
The ones you want * /
</SCRIPT>
Upper Case and Lower Case
In JavaScript uppercase and lowercase letters must be respected. If we
make a mistake when using them, the browser will respond with an error
message, either syntax or indefinite reference.
For example, the alert () function is not the same as the Alert () function.
The first displays text in a dialog box, and the second (with the first capital
A) simply does not exist, unless we define it ourselves. As you can see, for
the function to recognize JavaScript, you have to write all lowercase. We
will see another clear example when we deal with variables, since the
names we give to the variables are also case sensitive.
As a general rule, the names of things in JavaScript are always written in
lowercase, unless a name with more than one word is used, since in this
case the initials of the words following the first will be capitalized. For
example, document.bgColor (which is a place where the background color
of the web page is saved), it is written with the capital "C", as it is the first
letter of the second word. You can also use capital letters in the initials of
the first words in some cases, such as the names of the classes.
Separation of Instructions
The different instructions that our scripts contain must be conveniently
separated so that the browser does not indicate the corresponding syntax
errors. JavaScript has two ways of separating instructions. The first is
through the semicolon (;) character and the second is through a line break.
For this reason, JavaScript statements do not need to end with a semicolon
unless we put two instructions on the same line.
It is not a bad idea, anyway, to get used to using the semicolon after each
instruction because other languages ​such as Java or C force them to be
used and we will be getting used to making a syntax more similar to the
usual one in advanced programming environments.
Variables in JavaScript
This is the first of the articles that we are going to dedicate to variables in
JavaScript within the JavaScript Manual. We will see, if we do not already
know, that variables are one of the fundamental elements when making
programs, in JavaScript as well as in most of the existing programming
languages.
So let's start by getting to know the concept of a variable and we'll learn
how to declare them in JavaScript, along with detailed explanations of their
use in the language.
Variable Concept
A variable is a space in memory where data is stored, an area where we can
store any type of information that we need to carry out the actions of our
programs. We can think of it as a box, where we store data. That box has a
name, so that later we can refer to the variable, retrieve the data as well as
assign a value to the variable whenever we want.
For example, if our program performs sums, it will be very normal for us to
store in variables the different addends that participate in the operation and
the result of the sum. The effect would be something like this.
adding1 = 23
adding2 = 33
sum = adding1 + adding2
In this example we have three variables, adding1, adding2 and sum, where
we save the result. We see that their use for us is as if we had a section
where to save a data and that they can be accessed just by putting their
name.
Rules for Variable Naming in JavaScript
Variable names must be constructed with alphanumeric characters (numbers
and letters), the underscore or underscore (_), and the dollar character $.
Apart from this, there are a number of additional rules for constructing
names for variables. The most important is that they cannot start with a
numeric character. We cannot use rare styles such as the + sign, a space, or
a - sign. Supported names for variables could be:
Age
country of birth
_Name
$ element
Other $ _Names
We must also avoid using reserved names as variables, for example we will
not be able to call our variable words like return or for, which we will see
that they are used for structures of the language itself. Let's now look at
some variable names that you are not allowed to use:
12 months
your name
return
for
more or less
pe% pe
Variable Names in JavaScript Are Case Sensitive
Remember that JavaScript is a case-sensitive language, so variables are also
affected by that distinction. Therefore, the variable named "myname" is not
the same as the variable "myName". "Age" is not the same as "age".
Keep this detail in mind, as it is a common source of code problems that are
sometimes difficult to detect. This is because sometimes you think you are
using a variable, which should have a specific data, but if you make a
mistake when writing it and put upper or lower case where it should not,
then it will be another different variable, which will not have the expected
data. Since JavaScript does not force you to declare variables, the program
will run without producing an error, however, the execution will not provide
the desired effects.
Declaration of Variables in JavaScript
Declaring variables consists of defining, and incidentally informing the
system, that you are going to use a variable. It is a common custom in
programming languages ​to explicitly specify the variables to be used in
programs. In many programming languages ​there are some strict rules
when it comes to declaring variables, but the truth is that JavaScript is quite
permissive.
JavaScript skips many rules for being a somewhat free language when
programming and one of the cases in which it gives a little freedom is when
declaring the variables, since we are not obliged to do so, contrary to what
happens in other programming languages ​like Java, C, C # and many
others.
Variable Declaration with Var
JavaScript has the word "var" that we will use when we want to declare one
or more variables. Not surprisingly, that word is used to define the variable
before using it.
Note: Although JavaScript does not force us to declare variables explicitly,
it is advisable to declare them before using them and we will see from now
on that it is also a good habit. In addition, in successive articles we will see
that in some special cases, a script in which we have declared a variable and
another in which we have not, will not produce exactly the same results,
since the declaration does not affect the scope of the variables.
var operand1
var operand2
You can also assign a value to the variable when it is being declared
var operand1 = 23
var operand2 = 33
It is also allowed to declare several variables on the same line, provided
they are separated by commas.
var operand1, operand2
Declaration of JavaScript Variables with Let and Const
From Javascript in modern versions (remember that JavaScript is a standard
and that as it evolves over time), specifically in Javascript in its ES6
version, there are other ways to declare variables:
Let declaration: This new way of declaring variables affects their scope,
since they are local to the block where they are being declared.
Const Declaration: Actually "const" does not declare a variable but a
constant, which cannot change its value during the execution of a program.
Perhaps at this point in the Javascript manual it is not necessary to delve too
deeply into these declaration models and for those who are learning we
recommend focusing on the use of declarations with "var". However, if you
want to have more information about these new types of variables, we
explain them in the article Let and const: variables in ECMAScript 2015. If
you want to see other news about the Javascript standard that came in 2015,
we recommend reading the ES6 Manual.
 Chapter 17. Definition of Arrays in JavaScript

nother thing we need to take a look at when we work in this language is

what an array is all about. To keep it simple, an array is just going to be a
structure of data that can contain our group of elements. In most coding
languages including JavaScript, we will find that the items inside an array
are usually the same type of data, such as a string or an integer. Collections
are going to be used in order to help a computer program, or your coding
language, organize and sort your data so that a set of values that are related
can be sorted through or searched through well.
No matter what kind of coding language you decide to work with, you will
find that keeping the data and the objects organized will be necessary. If
you don’t take care of these objects and types of data, they are going to float
around the work you are doing, and you will run into some troubles in the
code. The part of the system you are in will not be able to find the objects
and classes they need and your order won’t work.
But when you are working with many of the modern types of coding
languages out there, including JavaScript and a few others, you are going to
rely on a bit more organization than what we are going to find in some of
the older languages. You need to make sure things are organized, and the set
of values that are related are going to be easy to search through and sort
through as much as you would like.
While the program is able to create a new variable, if it wanted, for all of
the results that are found in it, this can really take up a lot of time and space
in some of the codings you are doing, and it is definitely not going to be the
most efficient method you can use here. Instead, you will find that storing
all of the results (while we are still on the search engine example) in an
array will be a more efficient method to use to pull up the results you want,
while also managing your memory.
Now, there are going to be a few different parameters and properties that
can come with the array you would like to create. Being able to make this
come together and work the way you want is essential, and understanding
what each of these properties is all about will be a great way to get a better
understanding of what you can do with them. Some of the features that
come along with your array object, along with information on what all of
these means, includes:

1. Constructor: This will help us get back a reference to our

array function, the one that was able to create the object.
2. Index: This will be the property in our array that will
represent the zero-based index that will match up to that part
inside of our string.
3. Input: This will be a property we are only going to see in
specific arrays. When a range has been created by a regular
expression and it all matches, then we are going to have this
input.
4. Length: This will show us the number of elements we are
going to be able to see in our array.
5. Prototype: We will discuss this one more in this guidebook,
but this particular property will allow us a way to add
methods and features to our object.

This may not make a lot of sense right now, but we are going to expand
upon it a bit and see more about what we will be able to do with these
arrays and the different parts that come with it. Before we move into this
though, we need to take some time to talk about some of the array methods
that are important to our code. There are a lot of different ways that happen
with our object of an array, so let’s take a look at what all of these mean.

1. Concat: This one will return to us a new array that will be

comprised of not only this array but with the other values or
ranges that we need.
 2. Every(): This one will return true if we find that each and
every element that falls in our array will satisfy the testing
function that we provided.
3. Filter(): This one is responsible for creating a new array with
all of the elements that fall into the current range for which
the provided filtering function will give us honestly as the
result.
4. forEach(): This one is responsible for calling up a function
for each of the elements that are inside of our array.
5. indexOf(): This one will return the first (or the least) index
that comes with the element that is inside of our array, as
long as it is equal to the value that we specify. Or it will work
with -1 if nothing is found to match in it.
6. Join(): This one will join together all of the elements of an
array and can help turn these into a string.
7. lastIndexOf(): This one will return the previous, or the
greatest, index of your element in the array as long as that
element is equal to the value that we are trying to specify, or
we will work with -1 if we can’t find a match in the array.
8. Map(): This one is responsible for helping us to create a
brand new array with the results of calling up a provided
function of all the elements that fall into this array.
9. Pop(): This one will help us remove the last element out of
our array and then will return the item that we want.
10. Push(): This one is nice because it is able to add in at least
one, but sometimes more, elements to the end of your array and
then will return to you the new length that this makes your array.
11. Reduce: This will apply the function that you want at the
same time against two values of the array, going from the left side
over to the right side, in order to reduce it by one amount.
12. reduceRight(): This will be the same idea, but instead of
going from the left side to the right side, we are going to reverse
this and go from the right side to the left side.
 13. Reverse: This will be responsible for reversing the order that
your array elements are going to be in. The first element in the array
will become the last element, and then the part that was the last one
will go to the beginning of the collection.
14. Shift(): This one will remove the first element out of your
array and then will give you a return of that element.
15. Slice: This one will extract a section of your array and will
give you a return that has a brand new collection in it.
16. Some(): This one will return true as long as you have one or
more elements in the array that is able to satisfy the testing function
that you provided.
17. toSource(): This one will help us to represent the source
code that comes with our object.
18. Sort(): This one can be useful because it will help us to sort
through all of the elements that come with our array.
19. Splice: This one will be there to help us to either add or
remove the elements of the array.
20. toString(): This one will return a string that will represent
the array and all of the elements that happen in it.
21. Unshift: This final one will take some time to add in one or
more elements to the beginning of our array and then will let us
know what the new length of this array will be when it is done.

As we can see here, there are a lot of possibilities that we can work with
when it comes to handling the arrays that show up in our codes. These
arrays are going to help us to hold onto some of the data that we have more
efficiently and will ensure that we can put it all together and pull out the
elements that we need and want without a lot of struggle along the way.
Make sure to take a look at some of the methods and functions available
with these arrays, especially with JavaScript, so you know how to use them
for some of your own needs as well.
 Chapter 18. What to Do Next?

opefully by now, you have a somewhat solid understanding of how HTML

and CSS work together. It's important to understand that we've only
scratched the surface of HTML and CSS.
What's important to take away from this book is not to memorize all the
different elements in HTML and properties in CSS. It's to be able to
understand the two and how they work hand-in-hand.
There's no need to learn every single element and property. It will do more
harm than good and chances are, you're not going to absorb all that
information. That's precisely why I didn't want this book to be a 500-page
manual of all the HTML elements and CSS properties. When you learn
English, you don't just open up a dictionary and start reading. Coding is no
different.
The critical skill that hopefully you have by now is to be able to look at new
HTML elements and CSS properties and deduce and understand their
functionalities from the code.
Debugging
By far the most powerful tool in all of HTML and CSS is the ability to
identify and fix errors. If you master this skill, it doesn't really matter how
much you know and it doesn't matter if your initial code is filled with
mistakes because it's the ability to spot and fix errors that brings you to your
end result. It's also going through this process that allows you to absorb and
understand concepts truly.
When it comes to debugging, your best friend is a browser developer tool.
All of the main browsers have developer tools for you to look at the HTML
and CSS of any given page you load. Safari has web inspector, Firefox has
firebug, and Chrome has inspected element. We're going to showcase
Chrome's inspect element.
So you're coding away and you open up your web page in your browser and
something's not right. It looks off but you have no idea where you've made
an error. Open up inspect element (right click -> click on inspect element).
Inspect element will show you exactly why the code is displayed in the way
it is. As the mouse hover over the elements in the HTML on the left side, it
will highlight the corresponding area in your window. Clicking on an
HTML element, will show the CSS rule that corresponds to it on the right
hand side. If you drag down the 'compound style' tab, it shows exactly the
property values that are given and where they're coming from. A lot of the
times, CSS rules are passed down from parent elements, and with this, you
can see which parent rule is resulting in the given value.
Apart from the occasional careless mistake that takes a second to fix once
you have realized it, the more trivial errors are always related to the CSS
properties display and position. Things like font-size, colors, borders, etc.
are all one-step fixes. Display and position can get way more complicated.
It's by far the hardest concept to grasp for HTML and CSS. If you know
display and position inside out, you're a HTML/CSS master.
The reason display and positioning can get complicated is because of the
number of variables in play. Your output is not only indicative of the value
of one property, but a combination of many. The display, position, and float
properties of sister elements all work hand-in-hand. Not only that, but they
also correlate to the properties of the parent element. Debugging this is not
as simple as looking at one element. You must look at the bigger picture.
Here's how you should debug display and positioning errors.
Isolate your error. Figure out which element is resulting in the wrong
display or position. Look at your declarations of not only this element, but
also the sister and parent elements. When you debug display and position,
it's important to realize that you have to look beyond just the specific
element.
If you have an idea why the error is present, try and fix it in your browser.
Remember, you can change and update values in your inspect element and
the changes will be reflected live. If you're right and the changes correct the
error, go to your code and make the same changes.
If you're completely clueless and have no clue why your position or display
is wrong, do some research. Turn to Google and search for your problem.
Simple searches like 'absolute position center issue' or 'can't see fixed
position element' will render plenty of results. Literally every question that
you can think of related to HTML and CSS has been asked and answered
online. Tutorials and forums are great places to find answers. Use them
hand-in-hand.
As for forums, the place for everything and anything coding related is
stackoverflow.com. Chances are your answers will be there, but if not, there
are plenty of more resources out there.
Learning More
You're in a position now where you understand the language of HTML and
CSS. What separates you from someone who's a master of HTML and CSS
is simply experience. The way to learn and be good at coding is to code.
Reading books or online manuals on all the specific rules is pointless. What
you should do is set out to create a product. Even if you're not completely
sure how to complete it, just get the ball rolling. Your generic questions will
turn into specific questions, which you'll be able to find the answers to.
One last thing to keep in mind:
You can look for any code on any website, that’s the beauty of the HTML
and CSS language. Your browser is the most powerful tool for learning.
When you come across a website that has a spectacular design or something
you want to implement, you can look at how it's done right in your browser.
Take advantage of the power of your browser.
You can also use this for debugging. If you're drawing a blank for a display
and position error, resort to reputable websites and see how they do it. The
top technology websites spend a lot of money to hire the best of the best to
code their website. Take advantage of this. Go to their websites and see how
they style things. If there's something that Google or Facebook or Amazon
or Twitter does that intrigues you, you can't go wrong learning from how
they do it. There are no more hidden secrets and techniques when it comes
to HTML & CSS. Everything is out there.
 Chapter 19. Art of Computer Programming

ecoming the best programmers depends on many factors besides learning

programming techniques in classes or over the internet. In simple terms, it
is not about programming as most beginners think. From my experience,
your level of impacts plays a lot in determining the level of your success or
how best you are as a programmer. Truly, people will not measure your
experience from how happy you look when doing programing projects but
how your programming projects are impacting the lives of many people in
society. For example, there are some people who always feel happy after
spending the whole day without doing any programming tasks while others
feel unhappy if they do not handle any projects. Also, drinking alcohol
everyday can make a person feel happy. Therefore, you level of experience
and knowledge does not on how happy you are but how you use the learned
skills.
Several studies have proved that slacking off in computer programming not
only makes person’s programming logic weaker but also destroys his/her
tempo. Normally, we miss many things when we don’t attend the classes
just like drinking coke every day ruins both our teeth and internal organs.
Just like alcohol has impacts in our bodies, your success in programming is
measured through its impacts. We will see you as a weaker programmer if
you do not use the learned programming skills to create positive impact to
you or to the society.
Levels of Impacts Resulting from Programming
Ideally, there are different levels of impacts we can use to determine how
perfect you are with programming. Yes, most programmers do not know
that their programming knowledge is judged on how it impacts them or the
society. The following are levels of the impacts:
First Level of Impact: You/ a person
One of the step to determine how you can measure the impact is by looking
at the effects of programming has made on an individual. It is not only the
simplest way but also very important since all programmers have goals in
their mind before starting programming. Usually, you engage in various
activities or jobs because you want a result not nothing. For example, we
take our children to schools with two reasons; (1) get job in their future
lives to live better life, and (2) obtain knowledge that will help them
associate with other people in the society. It is important to know that doing
something without a purpose makes you to experience an unexpected result
on your way. Therefore, the impacts of programming on you show how best
and successful you are as a programmer.
Relationships in Life
Do you know that programming can cause certain impacts on your
relationship? In order to determine the effects of programming on your
relationship, we always look at how close you are to your love, friends, and
other people in the society. Some people chose to be software programmers
because it is their passion while others chose it because of peer pressure or
their parents forced them.
Another main reason why people chose programming is getting jobs. In
most cases, we work in projects, deliver them, and earn income once users
use them. As programmers, we are only required to maintain the projects if
there are crashes or bugs. This gives us more time for our relationships.
Truly, human life is all about relationship but not how much we earn per
day. You may be earning five or six digits but you are not happy at all
because you lack freedom to associate with people, particularly your love
ones and relatives. Let me tell you, people get more fulfillments out of life
when there are some people whom they love and care for. You should spend
your earnings with the people you love. As such, work is supposed to
improve your relationship with love and relatives.
Impacts On Your Health and Life
In this modern life, your mind and body are the two main assets you must
value most. Both body and mind are irreplaceable in our life. Therefore,
you must take care of our mind and bodies to avoid them deteriorating over
the time. Surely, every person wants to have a longer life, and as such, it is
important to consider health when measuring how best you are as a
programmer. You career as a programmer would not be either good if you
are not healthy.
Money is worthless when compared to our mind and health. I tell you,
money will always come on your way when you develop a good mind,
which include practicing daily to solve problems, looking for answers, and
thinking deep and creatively. You should not only get enough sleep but also
build a habit that will train your mind just like writing and reading books.
Make coding to be a favorite way to train you. The best programmers
always spend at least thirty to forty minutes per day on programming. This
is very important to their health. We can say health is your life and you
should take care of it in order to live longer.
Having Full Enjoyment
We have seen previously that happy is not the measurement of the success
of a person; it is only a part of it, though we need it. You can increase your
productivity in programming by engaging in things that you enjoy. What do
I mean? I mean that a person can be more productivity in his/her
programming work if he/she gives himself/herself a chance to enjoy life.
Being more productivity in programming has more impact too. In addition,
you should know that there is a great difference between passion and
hobbies. While hobby refers to doing something you enjoy, passion refers to
thing you like doing throughout the life. For example, my passion is coding
and my hobby is learning Japanese language. I always study Japanese when
I am a little bit frustrated with some complex coding. This gives enough
time to refresh my mind before diving back into the world of coding.
Giving yourself enough time to relax or take a break to make your brain
work on the problem subconsciously is always the right thing to do. But
what do you do if you find it hard to solve the problem even after relaxing?
It is easy. Just give your brain enough time to solve the problem in the
background. In fact, this is one of the main reasons why most ideas come in
our minds when we are eating, showering, or drinking tea.
The Second Level of Impact
Now let us discuss how we can measure you programming level using the
second level of impact.
 Impact On Others
Before you consider yourself as the best programmers, it is important to ask
yourself about the impact you cause to other people when you are coding.
Okay, you may be like that you know how to code because it is the most
useful tool available for impacting the lives of many people positively. You
can impact people by either enabling them to get data easily, improve their
websites, or increase sales. One of the goals in programming is helping
other people achieve their objectives. You will be recognized as the best
programmers when you help others and organizations to succeed and at the
same time meeting your goals. I know it is sometimes difficult for most
programmers, but you can become the best programmers if you do this.
Giving Purpose to Other People
Every person has their own purpose (known or unknown) in life, and this is
seen when an individual dedicates his/her life to doing certain thing. For
programmers, their purpose is revealed when they engage in building
projects and software. Now, let us ask ourselves where this sense of purpose
comes from. In normal cases, our purpose comes from the surrounding,
society, friends, and internet. For example, we develop an interest in
programming after we encounter those who do programming and have
achieved a lot in their lives. To be precise, they are the main people who
can inspire you to engage in programming. But what will you do in case
those people fail to give us ideas? There is a higher chance that you will not
have a right purpose. We all have different purpose in our lives and that is
the main reason why we all do different work. We were not born to do the
same job. While some people are born to be developers, others are born to
be doctors, teachers, or politicians.
According to Mark Zuckerberg during his Harvard Commencement Speech,
people must have a generational challenge for our society to continue
moving forward. We should not only create new jobs for the youth or our
people but promote a sense of purpose. However, it is not easy to have a
purpose for yourself. You should also create a sense of purpose to other
people in the society. Let us take the following example. You need to hire
workers if you build a company. These workers play a significant role to the
growth of your company. It is, however, your responsibility, as an employer,
not only to give them a sense of purpose but also help them to grow in
society.
 Conclusion

reating a web page is something that has been wreathed in mysticism and
cyber mumbo jumbo for years, but I hope that I’ve shown you that it’s not
as scary as you might think. In fact, HTML is actually fairly straight
forward. If you’re looking for a hobby that can really accomplish something
and is easy to explain, then you’ve come to the right place. These are the
foundations for you to build your web page and push on to greater things
like CSS, Java, JavaScript, C++, and the list goes on and on. Remember,
that you can never really get in over your head if you master and truly
understand what it is that you’re working on in the moment.
If something doesn’t make sense to you or is confusing, my best suggestion
to you is to open up your TextEdit or Notepad and start working on it. Pull
it up in your browser and have a look at what it does for your page. Taking
everything step by step will inevitably lead you to the path of success.
There is never a reason to jump ahead without fully understanding what it is
that you’ve done.
All of these programming languages are quite vast in their own right.
However, since they are also simple and easy, you should not have too
much of a problem mastering them. With hard work and a bit of time, you
will be able to create full-fledged websites in no time at all. The concepts
will help you understand and apply the different scope of variables, invent
types, loops and arrays, form structure, positioning, and so on.
Of course, this book should have given you enough to have a good base for
all three languages. You should have already seen the hello world examples
and noted how easy they are. As such, you should have no problems with
the basic syntax for each language.
You will have come across the basic functions, statements, and tags that are
commonly used in these languages. More importantly, you should no longer
have any problem using them in a web page of your creation.
In HTML, you came to know how a simple web page can be written and
filled with content. Then, with CSS, you will have been able to stylize that
web page and make it look attractive. Finally, JavaScript allowed you to
make your web page more interactive. As such, your web page should now
be looking and feeling a lot like the web pages you have previously
admired.
As we get to the end, you have learned quite a lot about web development,
and you learned the creation of functional and well-structured HTML
documents as well as styling, color usage, layouts, and typography using
tags. Practice what you have learned because practice is the best way to
learn.
With everything that I have presented to you, you should be able to get the
grasp on the beginnings of a web page and if you can get the beginning, it’s
just a matter of taking the next step piece by piece. So good luck and get out
there and make an amazing web page.
I hope you have learned something!