Module – 3 Research design

Research design
 “A research design is the arrangement of
conditions for collection and analysis of data in
a manner that aims to combine relevance to the
research purpose with economy in procedure.”
 In fact, the research design is the conceptual
structure within which research is conducted; it
constitutes the blueprint for the collection,
measurement and analysis of data.

Research design includes an outline of…..

1. What is the study about?
2. Why is the study being made?
3. Where will the study be carried out?
4. What type of data is required?
5. Where can the required data are found?
6. What periods of time will the study include?
7. What will be the sample design?
8. What techniques of data collection will be used?
9. How will the data be analyzed?
10. In what style will the report be prepared?

Important features of a research design

1. It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of
information relevant to the research problem.
2. It is a strategy specifying which approach will be
used for gathering and analysing the data.
3. It also includes the time and cost budgets since
most studies are done under these two constraints.
4. One single design cannot serve the purpose of all
types of research problems.
Research design must, at least, contain—
A clear statement of the research problem
Procedures and techniques to be used for
gathering information
The population to be studied
Methods to be used in processing and analysing
data.

Three tenets/principles of research designs

1. Convert the research question and stated
assumptions /hypotheses into operational variables
that can be measured;
2. Specify the process that would be followed to
complete the above task, as efficiently and
economically as possible; and
3. Specify the ‘control mechanism(s)’ that would be
used to ensure that the effect of other variables
that could impact the outcome of the study has
been minimized/negated.
Classification of research designs

Types of research designs

 Exploratory research designs
The simplest, most flexible and most loosely
structured designs.
The basic objective of the study is to
explore and obtain clarity on the problem
situation
The main purpose of such studies is that of
formulating a problem for more precise
investigation or of developing the working
hypotheses.
 It can be used when you must define the
problem more precisely, identify relevant
causes of action, or gain additional insight
before an approach can be developed.

Exploratory research could be used by following

purposes
• Formulate a problem or define problem more
precisely
• Identify alternative course of action
• Develop hypothesis
• To find key variables and relationship for further
examination
• Gain insight in to developing an approach to the
problem
• Establish priorities for further research.
Methods for doing exploratory study:
1. Secondary resource analysis: Contains the details
of previously collected findings and can be
presented in relatively easier and inexpensive way.
Govt and non Govt publications.
Advantages: Easy availability, Less time, Easy to
compare.
Disadvantage: Difficult to interpret, Wrong
data, Authenticity of data is questionable,
Context in which data is collected could be
different, Time frame, out dated.
2. Comprehensive case method: Reveals complete
presentation of facts as they occur in a single entity.
• It is focused on a single unit of analysis.
• This unit could be individual employee or
complete country analysis.
 Advantages: more accuracy, in-depth analysis, Right kind of
solution
 Disadvantages: Time consuming, Difficult in data collection.
3. Expert opinion survey: Conducted when no
previous information or data is available on a topic
of research. It is formal &structured in general.
• It is advisable to quiz different experts sources as
no expert, no matter how learned can be solely
relied upon to arrive at any conclusion.
Advantages: Can come out with concrete
information, Quality work can be done, More
precision, Reliable data & results.
Disadvantages: Expensive, Chances of
confusion, Time consuming.

4. Focus group discussion: used for customer and

motivational studies.
• Carry out discussion with individuals associated
with the problem under study.
• There are carefully selected small set of
individuals, representative of larger population
under study. Selected candidates discuss on the
topic for 90 mini to 2 hrs. Usually group comprises
of 6 to 10 individuals.
Advantages: Different views at the same time,
Get new questions for research, Observe
behaviour & expression of person, effective
solution, less time consuming, less expensive.
Disadvantages: Difficult to gather all people at
same place, Sample may not be representative.

• With moderator:
1. Moderator participate and remain present in the
discussion.
2. Structured.
3. Ad: Conflicts can be avoided, Team members will
not be diverted from the topic, Discipline can be
maintained, Moderator can contribute new points,
Queries can be solved, equal chances to all the
members.
4. Disad: Discomfort among the participants,
Informal discussion cant be there, biasness,
elimination of many important point

• Without moderator: Moderator is not present for

discussion, he may observe from other room.
1. Non-structured and informal.
2. Ad: Natural behavior, informal discussion,
participants can discuss freely, no biasness.
3. Disad: All members may not participate,
Diversion from topic, conflict may arise, lack of
discipline.

Conclusive research:
• Formal and structured
• Based on large representative samples
• Data obtained are subject to quantitative analysis.
Descriptive research
• Descriptive research studies are those studies
which are concerned with describing the
characteristics of a particular individual, or of a
group.
• Clear definition of the population.
• Provision for protection against bias and must
maximize reliability with due economical
completion of the study.
• Must be rigid and no flexible.

Descriptive research should focus attention on the

following:
(a) Formulating the objective of the study (what the
study is about and why is it being made?)
(b) Designing the methods of data collection (what
techniques of gathering data will be adopted?)
(c) Selecting the sample (how much material will be
needed?)
(d) Collecting the data (where can the required data
be found and with what time period should the data
be related?)
(e) Processing and analyzing the data.
(f) Reporting the findings.

Difference between exploratory and descriptive

Types of descriptive studies
• Cross-sectional studies make comparisons at a
single point in time, whereas longitudinal studies
make comparisons over time.
Cross-sectional research designs: two criteria
1. Carried out at a single moment in time, therefore
the applicability is temporal specific
2. Conducted on a sub-section of the respondent
population
Variations
Single/multiple cross- sectional designs
Cohort analysis: Cohort analysis is a study that
focuses on the activities of a particular cohort.
rather than looking at all users as one unit, it
break them into related groups for analysis.
These related groups, or cohorts, usually share
common characteristics or experiences within a
defined time-span. conducted at regular time
intervals.
 The cohort refers to the group of respondents
who experience the same event within same
time interval. E.g: Consumption of soft drink by
various age groups.

Longitudinal studies: three criteria

1. The study involves selection of a representative
group as a panel.
2. It involves fixed sample of population elements
that is measured repetitively. Sample remains same
over times and thus provides series of pictures,
when viewed together can highlight changes that
are taking over time.
3. Once selected the panel composition needs to
stay constant over the study period.
Causal/experimental research
• A type of conclusive research where the major
objective is to obtain evidence regarding cause and
effect relationship.
• Purpose:
1. To understand which variables are the causes
(independent variable) and which variables are the
effects (dependent variables) of a phenomenon.
2. To determine nature of relationship between the
causal variables and the effect to be predicted.

Necessary conditions for making causal inferences.

1. Concomitant variation: C.V is the extent to which
a cause X and effect Y occur together or vary
together.
2. Time order of occurrence of variables: It may be
possible for each of two events to be both cause
and effect of each other.
3. Absence of other possible factors, the change in
dependent variable may be because of some other
variable.

Type of experimental research

a) Informal experimental designs:
Before-and-after without control design.
After-only with control design.
Before-and-after with control design.
b) Formal experimental designs:
Completely randomized design (C.R. Design).
Randomized block design (R.B. Design).
Latin square design (L.S. Design).
Factorial designs.