KAIMOSI FRIENDS UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION

COURSE OUTLINE

COURSE CODE: CIT 299

COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO TEACHING AND SCHOOL

OPERATIONS – 1

BACHELOR OF EDUCATION-SECOND YEAR COURSE- 2022/2023

FIRST SEMESTER

COURSE LECTURERS: DR. SAMUEL INZAKHULI

DR. ERIC WANGILA
MS. JOANNE NABWIRE

UNITS: 3 UNITS COURSE- COMPULSORY

Introduction
This is the theory part of the course. The course is taught during the second year,
first semester. It is designed to prepare students for School Attachment, which
involves observation and participatory activities in the school.

Purpose
To produce: a holistic graduate with reflective thinking, well nurtured in pedagogy,
administration and both formal and non-formal curricular activities. The course is
designed to be responsive and practical both to the student and school needs and
improve both the product and the process.

Course objectives
At the end of the course all students will be expected to:

• Clearly understand and appreciate the concept of school.

• Understand the tenets of school; being able to identify key aspects of school as
a phenomenon and as it relates to the teacher.
• Acquire basic research skills in education focusing on operations and
problems of the school.
• Design a portfolio, which entail specified activities for the entire Semester.

TOPICS

1. Rationale for the course

2. The school: Concepts, functions, and types in Kenyan Education system

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 3. Structural framework for school operations
4. School Curriculum; context and actual design
5. Current issues and their influence on Curriculum
6. Introduction to research focusing on operations and problems of the school
7. Field School.
8. Teaching Career and Teaching profession
9. Evaluation.
Methodology

Team teaching shall apply. Interactive lectures, discussion, written reports, field
school, group work and resource persons.

Evaluation

The student will be evaluated in the portfolio, which will involve the following:

• Research proposal
• Proposal for Attachment
• Semester Essay paper on critical aspect of school.
• Field school report.
• Any other class take away assignments and group projects as may be deemed
necessary.

The theory part will constitute 50% of the entire course.

Reading List

Fisher Robert (2003.) Teaching Thinking

Philosophical enquiry in the classroom 2nd Edition
London: continuum.

Muthoka M. Rego, A. and Rimbui Z. (1998).

Environmental Education: Essential knowledge for Sustainable
Development
Longhorn Kenya Ltd, Nairobi

Mbiti M. D. (2007). Foundations of School administration. Revised Edition

Oxford University press, Nairobi.

Okumbe, J. A. (1999). Educational Management: Theory and Practice.

Nairobi.
Otunga, R. (2011). A handbook for Curriculum and Instruction. Moi
University Press

Pollard, Andrew (2002). Readings for reflective Teaching:Continuum. New

York

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 KAIMOSI FRIENDS UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION

INTRODUCTION TO TEACHING AND SCHOOL OPERATIONS – II

(SCHOOL ATTACHMENT)

Preamble
This is the practical part of the course. It is a re-packaged course, initially referred to
as Short Teaching Practice. All education students will take it during third term
following the second semester of second year of study. It entails Observation of
School Processes and Participation, which will involve collaborative teaching between
the student and the regular teacher.

The course has been revised and repackaged to be reflective and responsive to meet
the attributes of a knowledgeable and practical graduate teacher. Studies have shown
glaring empirical deficiencies among many teachers who are in schools but don’t
understand the concept of school. This course is therefore geared towards that
concern.

Purpose
The course hopes to produce a graduate with practical and reflective thinking, well
nurtured in education administration including both formal and non-formal
curriculum. The course also aims at providing participatory and observation skills to
school processes.

Course Objectives
At the end of the course students are expected to demonstrate the following
behaviours:

▪ Demonstrate clear understating of the school processes through purposive

observations
▪ Appreciate collaborative teaching as arranged between the student and the
regular teacher. The student however is not expected to take over the class
▪ Demonstrate a working knowledge of school environment
▪ Identify a specific simple educational problem and prepare a research project
paper
▪ Design a teaching aid for submission to the department.

Course Duration

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The course is designed to take eight weeks, during which student will be in the
schools. This will make the programme less disruptive to school processes and enable
Student – Teachers acquire a variety of skills other than teaching skills.
Activities

All students on school attachment will be involved in the following School

Experience activities:

1. Observation and assessment of school processes such as: Staff meetings, the
preparation of lessons by regular teachers, observe live lessons by colleagues,
time tabling procedures, school assembly, departmental meetings, games and
sports.
2. a) Active participation in both formal and non-formal curricular
activities.
b) Carryout school environmental study, which will entail; School plant,
infrastructure, economic activities and socio-political issues which
affect the curriculum and learning.
3. The student will also be required to develop a portfolio that covers the
following ten tasks:

• Undertake simple research in identified school issue

• Develop a research proposal
• Design a teacher’s diary
• Write a report on school environmental study
• Develop a curriculum vitae
• Write a sample official application letter
• Develop a self evaluation report on personal school experience
• Report on school-community relations
• School critique
• Field school

The student will be evaluated on the basis of the portfolio, report by the university
advisor and report by the school principal or Quality Assurance and Standards
Officer.
The Practical (School Experience) will constitute the other 50% of the course.

Course Lecturers
i) Dr. Samuel M. Inzahuli Sign …………………..Date ……………
ii) Dr. Eric Wangila Sign …………………..Date ……………
iii) Ms. Joanne Lyanda Sign …………………..Date ……………

COD: Dr. Aggrey A. Amugune Sign……………………Date……………

DEAN:..………………………… Sign……………………Date…………….

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TOPIC ONE: INTRODUCTION TO TEACHING AND SCHOOLS OPERATIONS
General remarks
This is the theory part of the course. The course is taught during the second year, first
semester. It is designed to prepare students for school attachment / practice which involve
observation and participatory activities in the school.
Purpose
To produce a holistic graduate with reflective thinking well nurtured in pedagogy,
administration and both formal and non-formal curricular activities.
The topics under this area include:
I. Rationale for the course
II. The school: Concepts, functions and types in Kenyan Education System
III. Structural framework for school operations
IV. School Curriculum; context and actual design
V. Current issues and their influence on Curriculum
VI. Introduction to research focusing on operations and problems of the school
VII. Field school
VIII. Teaching Career and Teaching profession

Methodology
The following shall apply: Team teaching, Interactive lectures, Zoom lessons, Discussions,
Written reports, Field school project, Group work and use of Resource persons.
Evaluation
The student will be evaluated on the portfolio, which will involve the following;-
• Research proposal
• Proposal for attachment
• Semester Essay paper on critical aspect of school
• Field school report among other areas

Any other class take away assignment and group projects as may be deemed necessary.
The theory part will constitute 50% of the entire course.

TASKS IN THE ACADEMIC PORTFOLIO

1. Field school project
As the student you must be able to start / organize a club at school e.g. creative
journalism club, environmental education, and rabbit rearing.
2. Demonstrate that you can write an application letter to become a teacher.
Features of an official letter:
• Two addresses however (copy to ) has three addresses
• Salutation
• Subject (Ref.)
• Body- First paragraph of the body where you got the advert from, why you are
applying.
• Thanking the person in advance.
• Closing tag i.e. name, signature can write title after signature.
3. Writing a curriculum vitae

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 Curriculum vitae (CV) provides your personal information, educational background
working experience and any other relevant information, that may help you secure
employment, scholarship or admission to an institution of higher learning.
A CV is usually sent together with or attached to the letter of application.
In USA and Canada, a resume is used. A resume is shorter than a CV and provides
specific information such as skills and achievement
Components of a CV
I. Title: This is the word CURRICULUM VITAE. It can be capitalized or written in the
title case (Curriculum Vitae).
II. Personal data: These are personal details such as official name, contacts (postal
addresses, telephone number and e-mail addresses) date of birth, gender, nationality
and may also include the languages you know
III. Educational background: This is listing of the school(s) you attended the school/
institution and the qualification attained.
IV. Other courses: Other courses that are not educational are listed here. Start with the
most recent. Also indicate the years, institution and the qualification attained.
V. Work experience: This is a list of organizations worked for, stating with the current or
most recent. Indicate the positions held and provide the duties and responsibilities at
each of the organizations.
VI. Membership: The name(s) of professional organizations you are affiliated to are
provided here e.g. Law Society of Kenya, for lawyers and African Academy of
Sciences for scientists
VII Interests/ Hobbies: A list of favorite pass time activities and personal preferences such
as reading, sports, community service etc.. List those that will help you to be
favorably considered for the job.
VIII Referees:
These are persons who can recommend you with regard to your character and
professional ability. Provide their names titles and current contacts. Your teacher /
lecturer, former employers or senior professional colleagues may be listed.
Always obtain the consent of your referees before nominating them. Family members
or other relatives cannot be your referees.
N/B: Keep in mind that you are writing to advertise yourself, your skills and knowledge:
Your CV should reflect your true picture.
4. You must keep a diary – this is a teacher’s / school diary. Take note of the events of
the day.

Tabulate as below:
Day/Date Time Event Facilitator Remarks

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 Activities in the school that affect teaching and learning;
- Extra lessons, workshops, seminars education day, AGM, academic days, sports
day, a visit by government official, half term etc. should be noted.
5. Self-evaluation reports.
Can you objectively evaluate yourself in the context of a teacher / as a professional
teacher?
6. Teacher peer evaluation report.
Another teacher will evaluate you e.g. A HOD, Deputy Principal or Principal can
evaluate you.
What are your strengths? What are your weaknesses?
What does the teacher need to improve?
7. School critique
Select one aspect and do a detailed critique say of;
Curriculum, discipline in the school, structures, facilities, games, timetable, textbooks,
etc. When doing a critique identify, describe, point out the strengths, the weaknesses,
analyze, synthesize and make recommendations.
8. School Environment study
Carry out the nature / status of the school e.g. Physical environment (topography etc.)
What about the: climate/ weather, economic activities, social environment, political
environment, spiritual environment? How do the above influence the operations of the
school? How does the climate affect the operations of the school?
9. Develop a research proposal
A proposal has;
Front matter e.g. covers page, declaration, certification, dedication,
acknowledgement, abstract, table of contents and list of appendices, abbreviations and
acronyms.
Summary of Proposal and research project
Chapter One: Introduction
Background of the study, statement of the problem, purpose, objectives, basic assumptions,
justification of the study, scope and limitations of the study, theoretical framework, operation
definition of terms, summary.
Chapter Two: Review of related literature
-Introduction
-Themes based on objectives
-Knowledge gap
Chapter three: Research design and methodology
- Introduction
- Research design
- Location of the study
- Population of the study
- Sampling techniques and sample size
- Instruments for data collection e.g. questionnaire, interview schedule etc.
- Reliability and validity of research instruments
- Procedure for data collection
- Data analysis

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 - Ethical considerations
- References
- Appendices
N/B Mind your tense when handling a proposal.
10. Research report is normally captured in chapter four
- Selection of a problem
- Carry out an investigation whose findings will be analyzed/ reported in
chapter four

Chapter Four: Data presentation, interpretation and discussion

- Introduction
- Demographic characteristics of respondents
- Data presentation, interpretation, discussion based on objectives
- Summary

Chapter Five: Summary, conclusion and Recommendation

- Introduction
- Summary/ conclusions and recommendations based on objectives.
- Conclusion.
- Recommendations, summary, references appendices (back matter).

N/B: Each item is ten marks, however the examiner may decide to allocate more marks to
some items/tasks and reduce for others but the total marks for the portfolio remains 100%
- Attempting is 5 marks for each item / task = 50%
- Copying / academic plagiarism will earn you a zero mark (0%)

TOPIC TWO: THE CONCEPT OF EDUCATION TEACHING AND SCHOOL

Introduction
A teacher has to educate, teach and operate in a school.

Education

School Teach

- Education is as old as humanity. Has evolved over many years. The teacher is a
custodian of education.
Education

- Teaching is an innovation in education to facilitate learning

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 - Socrates is the father of teaching. Plato and Aristotle were students of Socrates.
Socrates had no school. He kept moving from place to place as he taught.

- With time the school came into play.

- Being educated is the ultimate goal of teaching. Education is life long- womb to tomb.

- Education is not the same as schooling. Education begins from the time you were
born (informal education) through parents, village and community. You are educated
through your mother tongue, stories, legends, myths, rituals, taboos, rules and
regulations etc.

- A time comes for schooling / formal schooling that is coordinated, structured and
organized on a time table. The student sits in a classroom, learns, does assignments
and does much more.

- Schooling is not education.

- Who is an educated person? You can be schooled but not educated. You can be an
educated fool who cannot be self- reliant.

- Any successful teacher has to understand the concept of education, teaching and
school.

- As a teacher you cannot teach effectively if you do not understand your environment.

- At face value education sounds a common place word. In details it is very intricate
process and concept. Therefore, as a teacher, you must talk about education in a very
special way.

- Education is a key social institution.

- Education began in the Garden of Eden at creation. It is therefore a divine gift for
man. It is ordained by God.

- Education is a universal need.

This is because it comes with peace, production, organization hence we have to

educate or perish.
Real concept of education is seen in your character, behaviour and not money, wealth and
possessions.
Formal education has to do with schools, colleges and universities. There is a timetable /
school routine. Things are well, organized, coordinated through the time table / school
routine, library, books and laboratories.

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Non-formal education
Any organized activity outside the structure of the formal education system that is
consciously aimed at meeting specific learning needs of a particular group of children, youths
or adults in the community.
- It includes various kinds of educational activities such as agricultural extension, skill
training, health and family planning, educational work amongst youth and women
and functional literacy.
- In informal education there is no attempt as structuring it, things that children learn
from family, friends, experience encountered and the like.
An educated man / woman / person;
- Understands himself / herself
- Understands the environment.
- Interacts with that environment positively and progressively.

Philosophy of education
A number of questions must be asked e.g.
Education for what? Why educate? Who is supposed to be educated?
Functions of education:
- Change, a source of new ideas and knowledge
- Economic exploits / industrialization, more production of goods
- Political awareness / political socialization of the child
- Sieving of students
- Informed citizenry / makes people critical
- Has conservative function- preservation of society’s dominant culture.
- New wave of thinking through mass media, industry, publishing, networking.

National goals of education of Kenya and underpinning factors

• National unity (national anthem, national flag, KICD, Centralized system, national
schools).
• National development (career education, manpower development, education and incl.
linkages).
• Social equality, access to education for all, one system of education, bursaries for
needy, affirmative action).
• Individual development (System of elections, talent academies, career guidance)
• International consciousness (Geography / history of nations, student exchange,
globalization, international languages).
• Environmental conservation (Environmental education, eco-school concept,
conservation programmers’ in schools).
• Moral development (life skills, CRE/IRE/HRE, Pastoral programs for schools, G& C
in schools).
• Preservation of Kenya’s varied and rich culture
o School drama and music festivals
o Cultural issues across the curriculum
o Development of indigenous language

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 o Instruction in local languages
o Cultural exhibitions

Example II
A surgeon will start performing operations on dead bodies, then some minor
operations under the strict supervision of a skilled supervisor, and after showing a high
level of performance he / she will be allowed to practice surgery.
The three (3) features of training are; -
i. Consistency of practice. The trainee practices the skill from time to time, over
and over again.
ii. Repetition – The activities involved are greatly strengthened by repeated use.
Transfer value – The skill learnt must be transferred from one

TOPIC THREE: THE NATURE OF TEACHING AND LEARNING

Specific objectives: -
By the end of the topic/chapter, the learner should be able to: -
I. Define the term teaching.
II. Differentiate modes of teaching.
III. Identify the main components of teaching.
IV. Explain the model of good teaching.
V. Explain principles of teaching.
VI. Discuss reflective teaching.
1) Define the term learning.
2) Classify learning according to the domains of learning.
3) Differentiate between inductive and deductive learning.
4) Identify factors that affect learning.
Teaching is the process that facilitates changes in learners and entails telling and persuading
showing and demonstrating, guiding and directing the learners’ efforts’ or a combination of
these efforts (Lafrancois,199
The process of passing knowledge in form facts, concepts, procedures and principles.
Shiundu and Omulando (1992) define teaching as a professional human activity in which one
creatively and imaginatively uses herself/ himself and his/ her knowledge to promote learning
and welfare of others.
Teaching has also been defined as both an art and a science.
Gage (1984) described it as an art that requires improvisation, spontaneity, style, pace,
rhythm and appropriateness. It calls for reflective thinking about content, methodology,
resource etc. As a science it requires one to have knowledge and skills on how to teach how
to select and apply correct formula for each classroom situation. It requires techniques,
procedures and skills that can be systematically studied and described and therefore
transmitted and improved.

SUMMARY
Teaching is:
The process of helping learners to learn
The process of transmitting knowledge to learners
It entails training learners to acquire certain skills.

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It has to do with transmission of attitudes and values to learners.

What does it mean to be a professional teacher?

o Possesses specialized knowledge, skills, attitudes and values.
o Has specialized training.
o Has a code of ethics.
o Certification is a must/ licensure/ registration
o Professional development through continuous education, in-service courses, seminars
etc.
o Expected entry standards must be met.
o Has prestige and power.
o A member of a professional body (KNEC, KICD,).
o Provides essential service to the learner/ community.
o Has a term of service/ salary/remuneration/leave.
o Requires a high sense of commitment, calls for integrity, honesty, preparedness,
honesty democracy, accountability, reliability, cultured, loyalty, availability.
o Professional security/ job security.
o Should be able to influence policy that is, have solutions to social issues/ can offer
suggestions on curriculum change.
o Teaching refers to passing knowledge in form of facts, concepts, procedures and
principles.
o Teaching has also been defined as both an art and a science. As an art it calls for
inspiration, intuition, talent and creativity. (Gage, 1984) describe it’s an instrumental
or practical art which requires improvisation, spontaneity, style, appropriateness etc.

As a science it requires one to have knowledge and skills on how to teach, how to select and
apply the correct formula for each classroom situation.

As an art it calls for reflective thinking (being thoughtful and inventive) about the content,
methodology, resources and the like. As an art it means dynamic and ready to adapt to
changes taking place in the curriculum, knowing where to get knew knowledge, how to get it
and how to help learners understand it.
T - Taught, schooled, knowledgeable on theory and practice
E - Educated/ trained knowledgeable on theory and practice
A - Advanced/ developed entity.
C - Cultured, has values, adaptable, environmental awareness.
H - Honest (Free, frank, fair)
E - Experienced- comes with age leading to self-management and others.
R - Reliable/ trustworthy

Summary: -
In teaching,
There is at least a teacher.
He/ she does something, such as talking, telling, explaining, showing etc.

The main components of teaching:

Components: - One of several parts of which something is made of, this could be components
of machine, components of teaching et-el.

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1) Consultation of the syllabus
2) Stating instructional objectives. This means identifying what to be achieved in a given
situation (SMART).
3) Identifying the content/ topics to be taught. It refers to specifying what is to be taught, its
structure and role.
4) Selecting appropriate teaching methods and techniques. This is related to how to go about
it, in relation to the nature of the learners to be instructed.
5) Identifying suitable instructional resources and materials to be used for the objectives to
be realized.
6) Actual presentation of the content through lessons using appropriate methods and
resources.
7) Giving tests and measurements to find out to what extent the objectives have been
attained.
8) Evaluation of all that took place in the whole process of learning and getting a feedback
on whether the objectives set had been achieved or not.

A five-step pattern that makes up a model for good teaching: -

a) Diagnosing learner’s entry behaviors, that is, the state of knowledge the learners have,
their experiences, needs and desires as a basis of determining what should be taught
and where to begin. Relate the content to the child’s world so that it makes sense, help
them develop emotionally and socially.
b) Prepare for teaching by planning lessons, motivating pupils, gathering materials and
arranging the setting for instruction.
c) Guiding the learners in the actual instruction. How? Showing pupils how to perform,
how to present their information etc.
d) Evaluating the learning outcome, assess the learners progress and the success of
instruction.
e) Follow up by helping learners to fill in what they have missed, and to build on what
they have learned.
Relationship between teaching and learning
i) Teaching is supposed to promote learning.
ii) Incidental learning helps in teaching as it provides the necessary foundational
experience for the learner.
iii) Teaching in itself involves some amount of learning’
iv) Both teaching and learning are processes, which are continuous in nature. The
learner can sometimes be the teacher since he/she also influences the teacher’s
behavior.
Modes of Teaching and learning
Training
It aims at shaping behaviors so that the individual is able to perform a certain skill. It assumes
the concept of competency, performance, proficiency, and efficiency. It refers to teaching
with emphasis on mastery of a skill.
i. Conditioning

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Training becomes conditioning when it is aimed less at displaying intelligence e.g. a dog
salivating at a sound of a bell.
Instruction
Search of truth/understanding, giving reasons, evidence, argument and justifications.
Indoctrination
Teaching which aims at establishing certain beliefs or matters of doctrine.
Principles of teaching: -
These are beliefs or ideas which teachers should use as guides when planning their own
teaching (Taylor: 1970)
i. Respect for each child. How? Recognize the rights of a child as a human being
with respect and dignity.
ii. Have concern for learner’s experience and activity. Does the learner
understand his/her world and the results from that interaction?
iii. Helping the learner to see purpose, value and point of what she/he is doing.
The teacher therefore has to arrange situations that have interest and meaning
for the learner. Meaning for the learner is constructed through experience,
helping and encouraging children to explore to think and to learn in their own
way. The teacher has to recognize the differences in children and plan
teaching based on these difference
iv. Assisting and encouraging learners to share their experiences, thinking and
learning. As social beings’ learners must be assisted to have plenty of social
experiences.
v. Learning must move from simple to complex each step building on the one
before it. This leads to further development of skill or understanding attitude.
vi. Evaluating learning from time to time in order to take stock of progress and of
difficulties and to look again at objectives and procedures used.
Characteristics of effective teaching: -
A part from academic ability of the teacher she/he should have the command of the subject
matter and the ability to assess the learner’s academic achievements and social learning.
Other higher attributes / characteristics required include; -
a) Being knowledgeable on theory and practice of learning and using this
information to practice.
b) Possessing best teaching, models, strategies and procedures and using then
for classroom instruction and in interaction with other adult members of
the school.
c) Having dispositions and skills to approach all aspects of your work in a
reflective, collegial and problem-solving manner.
d) Viewing learning and teaching as lifelong process and having dispositions
and skills for working towards improving your own teaching as well as
improving schools.
Reflective teaching
According to Bennars (1998.30) education practice in Africa lacks reflection. He observes
that “presently most teachers in African schools operate as mere instructors, rigidly sure of
their facts, unwilling to tolerate critical questions and highly authoritarian in their behavior.
These teachers lack liberating/enabling pedagogy for the sake of high performance in the
examination.

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Reflective teaching as a notion stems from Dewey’s ideas (1993) of reflective action as
opposed to routine action. Routine action/teaching is guided by factors such as tradition, habit
authority and institutional definitions end expectations.

Reflective teaching is all about constant self-appraisal and development, implying flexibility
rigorous analysis and social awareness.This is a vision of teaching that is both liberating and
empowering (Bennars 1998) Dollard (1997) defines it as a process through which the
capacity to make professional judgements in deciding how to act can be developed and
maintained.
Berens (1997) says that through reflecting teaching teachers encourage interactive learning so
that they are able to think reflectively about teaching.
Characteristics of reflective teaching
Being critical of aims and objectives of education in one’s country i.e. are they professional
or impracticable, educationally sound or mentally questionable?
Applied in a cyclical or spiraling process which teachers monitor, evaluate and revise their
own practice continuously. Teaching is dynamic and it calls for planning making provision
and acting.
Having an attitude of open mindedness, intellectual responsibility and whole heartedness. Be
open to learners’ views, accept responsibility etc.
It is enhanced through collaboration and dialogue with colleagues. It calls for interaction
among teachers both in academic and social set-up.
The teachers have to use judgment all the time as they adapt their teaching to them.

Roles of the teacher (in their professional capacity at school level)

1. As an instructional expert, the teacher has to know and identify teaching materials and
methods to use in class, based on ability, needs of the learners and the overall aims
and objectives of education of specific objects.
2. Motivator – the teacher has to apply techniques of motivation to get the learners
actively involved in learning.
3. Has to know how to manage time and plan his /her activities accordingly.
4. As a leader he /she only leads the class but also cultivates leadership qualities in class
members leading to promotion of individual growth.
5. As a counselor, she / he responds to learners’ personal needs and offers counseling
services accordingly.
6. Models learners like imitating the adults. So, the teacher is always modeling, either
intentionally or unintentionally. Modeling consists of displaying honesty, friendliness,
good manners, correct speech, modesty, prudence, responsibility, desirable values,
attitudes, as well as intellectual processes.
7. Reflective professional. This includes one understanding effects of actions in
classroom as they affect learners and acting on those reflections. It also calls for one
for one up -dating his / her knowledge and understanding through regular reading.
8. A teacher has to be on effective communicator of extent and exhibit through mastery
of content and speak fluently and at reasonable pace.
9. Humane. It calls for treating learners as human beings with respect, rights, and
dignity.
10. Curriculum developer and implementer.

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 11. Additionally, a teacher is expected to be a person of refined tests and sophistication,
an explorer in the world of ideas and an expert in child development (Datta
1984.116).
12. The is an evaluator (use of tests, examinations, grades)
The teacher maintains some kind of order in classroom as a disciplinarian, stands in for the
parents by supplementing what the parents do at home, and decides what is right and what is
wrong in the academic field.

NB- A teachers ‘success is gauged by how successfully learners master subject matter.

Sub- roles of a teacher: -

o A confidant. Must therefore know the learner
o A mediator of learning
o Explorer of knowledge
o A judge and jury
o Widely read, has content and travelled
o The teacher as a student
o The teacher has to know the nation’s education policy, goals of education and
how to implement them.
o The teacher is a planner. He / she considers the meaning and implications of the
national goals of education. Must arrive at appropriate decisions.
o As a skilled craftsman the teacher: presents learning materials in an interesting
way, illustrates, demonstrates, asks and answers questions, gives and corrects
assignments and finally reinforces learning by praising those who behave well.
o The teacher is a decision maker

A summary of teacher’s role

Arrends (1994) conceptualizes the teacher’s work under three main functions: -
1. Executive function – This refers to the leadership roles teachers are expected to
play in their classroom such as providing, motivation, planning and allocating
scarce resources.
2. Interactive function- it refers to the methods and processes teachers employ as
they provide day-by-day instruction to students.
Organizational function- it points to the teachers work in school community, including
work with colleagues, parents and school leadership personnel.
The teacher may assume many roles in the community: spouse, parent, member of a local
church/mosque/temple, club member and participating citizen.
On the whole, however, parents expect the teacher to be a special kind of model for their
children. Although the parent’s habits may be unethical and at times illegal, they do not
want the teacher to exhibit such behavior.
Since teacher’s behavior is held up for public display, teachers must use discretion in
their personal lives.
Instruction
It refers to a situation when events of learning are deliberately planned to support
learning. These events may directly influence individual learning (Gagne 1987 p400).

16
 Characteristics of instruction
i. External events do not produce learning instead they can only support the learners
internal processing.
ii. It does not have a single unitary purpose. Instruction has several functions e.g.
may arouse behavior, transfer learning et-el.
iii. Decisions about instruction must be made in the context of the skill or skills to be
learned e.g. instruction for information is not the same as instruction for motor
skills.
N/B – In addition to teaching, instruction may be delivered by print materials,
television, computers and other media.

Nature of instruction design: -

I. Must be planned to facilitate learning of an individual learner.
II. Both immediate and long-range phases are included in the design of instruction.
III. Should not be haphazard or provide merely a nurturing environment – must be
systematically.
IV. Should be designed using system approach i.e. organized, sequential selection of
components that make use of data and theoretical principles as input at each
planning stage.
V. Be delivered from knowledge about how human beings learn.
Training
o Farrant (1980) defined training as a process used in developing attitudes, habits, skills
and standard procedures and is dependent on a system of punishments and regards
and repeated practice.
o To teach someone so that the person is fit, qualified or proficient (Barnhart 1970).
o To give or to be given a course of instruction or practice especially a profession or
skill (Longman, 1987). It implies involvement in teaching of someone on how to
perform a particular skill or task.
A teacher may train somebody (learner) by teaching him/her how to perform a certain
task. In this case in the model of “training” we have: -
i. A teacher (playing the role of a trainer)
ii. A teacher (the trainee)
iii. And teaching helping his/her learners in such a way that the learner will perform
a certain task.
In school some teachers are untrained, while others are trained. If you have
joined a college/ university as a teacher, then you are here to become a trained
teacher.

As a teacher, you are supposed to have knowledge of the subject which you are
going to teach your learners.

Methods of training in skills

Graham and Bennet (1992), have given a brief definition as “a practiced, expert
way of perceiving a relevant stimulus then responding to it “.

Example 1

17
 As a teacher trainee you will be trained to perform tasks / sub skills efficiently.
Example 1 _ Task of asking learners questions.
i. You will learn: -
_ Why to ask questions
_How to ask questions
_What type of question to ask
_When to ask
_How to deal with responses etc.
ii. You will be shown (demonstration) how this task is
performed by the teacher.
iii. You will be put in a situation (stimulated), where you will be
expected to ask your learners questions until they have
mastered the skill. (integrating all sub-skills) on your peers
iv. Lastly you will perform these teaching tasks in an actual
situation i.e. in the classroom under the direct supervision of
your teacher(trainee)
v. After performing the task again and again to the satisfaction
of your trainer you will earn the tittle of a trained teacher.
iii. institution to another.
Example III
In skill training a systematic approach to training is used: -
i. A trainer (supervisor) dividing the content of the training program in self-
contained stages where each can be taught as a unit. Each stage is examined
to identify and describe key points.
ii. The trainer makes sure the materials and equipment required for training is
properly arranged.
iii. The super visor talks to the trainee to find out what is already known about
the job one is being trained for in order to arouse the trainee’s interest in
learning.
iv. The skill to be acquired is then demonstrated carefully, with particular
emphasis on key points.
v. The trainee is allowed to perform the skill with the trainer observing to see
that no mistakes are made and asking questions to ensure that the trainee has
understood.
vi. The trainer puts the trainee to work or in the field, watching fairly closely at
first but gradually relaxing supervision as the trainee gains confidence and
skill.
In summary, we can conclude that in training, a learner achieves mastery of performing
certain acts, a result of a systematically organized practice program.
It is assumed that the skill acquired during training schedule will be helpful to the
learner in performance of the same or similar tasks in real situations.
Thus, there is improvement over teaching in ‘training’ that in training, both trained and
learner are sure to judge whether training, which was absent in teaching, has taken place
or not.
Learning: -
Definitions

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Kimble G. A. (1961) Learning is defined as a relatively permanent behavior resulting
from reinforced practice.
Woodfolks (1990) A process that occurs when experience causes a relatively permanent
change in an individual’s knowledge or behavior.
Farrant (1980). The process by which we acquire and retain attitudes, knowledge, skills,
understanding and capabilities that cannot be attributed to the inherited behavior
patterns or physical growth.
Key terms in the definition.
i. Permanent change
ii. Behavior
iii. Reinforcement
iv. Practice
A. Permanent Change
Learning can be assumed to have taken place if there is a permanent change in
behavior for instance a test will prove that the learning has taken place however the
test must come after some time when what was learnt has gone from the short term
memory (30 seconds) to the long term memory.
B. Behavior
Behavior is the only evidence we have to show that learning has taken place. You
can see the behavior with your eyes mentioned, proved, read etc. It is an empirical
evidence.
C. Reinforcement
The act of making something stronger especially a feeling or an idea. The things
that make learning stronger can be reward of even a punishment bonus for doing
something we like/ approve.
Depending on the consequences learning can be repeated if the experience was
pleasant. If it was bad the experience may not be repeated. Your B. Ed course is a
reward, a thing of value because after graduation you will be employed, get a higher
salary, gain respect of a professional teacher. Reinforcement’ theorists include: B.F.
Skinner, Thorndike and Hull.
D. Practice
Practice, trials, rehearsals make one master a lot of things. There more you practice,
the more you learn. The more complex the task the more practice you will require
to master it.
When you practice too much you go behind the point of mastery. You actually over-
learn.
Things that are over-learnt cannot be forgotten e.g. language. As a teacher you must
over learn in order to teach well.

Classification of Leaning
i. Cognitive learning
This is learning by mental process such as reasoning, remembering and
reading. It leads to the development of intellectual skills.
Blooms B. S. Taxonomy of educational objectives

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 CATEGORY SUB – CATEGORIES
a) Knowledge Knowledge of: specifics, terms facts
- Ways and means of dealing with
specifics
- Principles and theories
b) Comprehension - Transition
- Interpretation
- Extrapolation
c) Application Practical aspect of knowledge / putting it to
use
d) Analysis Analysis of elements relationship and
principles. Break it into pieces
e) Synthesis Putting things together
Production of a plan of operation
Derivation of relations
Production of a unique communication
f) Evaluation Judgement in terms of internal and external
evidence / testing can it work

ii. The Affective Domain

Learning which explains changes in interests, attitudes, feelings and
adequate adjustment.
Category Sub- category written in terms of
learner’s behavior
Receiving - listens, attend, prefer

Valuing - accept, recognize and participate

Organization - Organize, Judge, relate
Characterization - revise, change, face
iii. Psychomotor Domain
This is learning by development of skills which require efficient co-
ordination between the brain and the muscles.
Sub-categories Examples
Draws - Reproduction of a picture diagram
Arranges apparatus - set up equipment quickly and correctly
Operates machines - operate a sewing machine skillfully
Performs on instrument - Play a guitar, violin
Demonstrates skill - swimming, driving, etc.
iv. Social relating or perceptual- This is learning which comes through ability
to observe social etiquette, discuss, or interact with others in a social setting.
v. There are two ways of learning: deductive and inductive
o Deductive learning is a process whereby the teacher presents the
learner with hypothesis or general principal and applies a number of
tests to it to discover whether it is true or not.

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 o Inductive learning involves formulation of general principles based
on knowledge of specific examples and details.
Factors that affect learning: -
i. Intelligence of the learner.
ii. The subject matter, that is, the nature of what is being learned.
iii. The significance placed by the learner on what is being learnt.
iv. The method used for learning
v. The environment around which learning is taking place.
vi. Clear objectives, as to what is to be learned stated in behavioral terms.
vii. Readiness for learning in terms of intellectual, physical, emotional and social
maturation.
viii. Careful guidance through the learning experience
ix. Preliminary recall of all previously acquired knowledge relevant to the new
materials to be learned
x. Learner paying full attention on what is being learnt and the mantaince of
concentration through the learning process
xi. Strong motivation to learn.
xii. Active involvement by the learner in the learning process
xiii. Feedback to the learner which indicates the progress being made in the learning
process.
Robert M. Gagne gives different categories of learning outcomes. He does not propagate broad
areas of learning such as domains, instead he describes the types of capabilities a learner will
acquire after undergoing learning.
i. Verbal information
ii. Intellectual skills
iii. Cognitive strategies
iv. Attitudes
v. Motor skills.
EDUCATION
Introduction
Education is a complex concept that has developed over time and cannot be reduced to one
single / meaning.
Paulo Freire (1970) defines it as inter- subjective process of becoming critically aware of ones
reality in a manner that leads to effective action upon it.
Njoroge and Bennaars (1980) define it as the inter-subjective process of learning to be a self-
reliant person in society.
Langereld (1975.35) describes it as a form social intercourse or association between adults and
children, aiming at influencing the child to come of age.
Oxford – Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (8th Edition)-2010
Education is the process of teaching, training and learning especially in schools or colleges to
improve knowledge and develop skills.
Bennaars (19980 agrees with Langeveld and argues that education has a universal validity
because of its concern with condition of educating which he identifies as: -
i. Pedagogical understanding, where education is seen as a social concern where the
adults care for the children until they are of age. Pedagogical -concerning teaching
methods.

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 ii. Pedagogical intention. Education must aim at the learner coming of age / becoming an
adult / a fully grown /fully developed person in society who is dependent, self-
determined, self-reliant within a given social context.
iii. Pedagogical atmosphere: The educator must keep in mind the future of the learner
which is defined in terms of adulthood autonomy and self-reliance. The education
transmitted must be guided by norms and values which point to the future.
iv. Pedagogical relation: Although the learner is educated under constant guidance and
care of the adult, the relation between learners and adults must remain evident.
Functions of Education in society
Function – a special activity or purpose of a purpose or thing.
i. Bringing up individual development. This includes catering for the fullest development
of personality, training in independent, logical ang imaginative thinking, self-discipline
establishment of literacy and manipulative skills and lastly provision of social
experience that enables the child to live and work easily with others.
ii. Conservative function of education- preserves the society ‘s dominant culture and
passes it from generation to generation and from existing population to people who are
newly incorporated into the society such as immigrants (Datta, A. 1984.34).
iii. The innovative function of education. In most modern societies, the school is expected
to be a major source of new ideas and knowledge. The modern-style school set up by
the colonial authorities was a powerful instrument for weakening the stability of the
old society and for ushering in a process of change.
However, education must obtain a delicate balance between the experiences of the past
and the needs of the future.

A modern society must change if it wishes to survive. The educational system is

expected to supply the innovators and ensure that change takes place smoothly.

Recent researchers in psychology of learning and creativity suggest that because of the
heavy stress laid on conformity in the primary and secondary schools, potentially
creative learners are turned into adults who toe the expected Line of thought. Even
universities emphasize values such as industry, honesty, obedience and thriftiness,
while qualities of leadership, initiative and critical faculty are ignored.

iv. Catering for specific needs of the people. It has to address what individuals need in the
society and go ahead to meet the need.
v. The political function of education.
Education contributes to the political socialization of the child. Political socialization
refers to the transmission of values, beliefs, ideas and patterns of behaviors pertaining
to the generation, distribution and exercise of power.
- Respect and attitude to authority begins at classroom level, the supervisor at place of
work and eventually the bigger government.
- Education through a common language (English and Kiswahili) in schools and colleges
provides young people with channels of interaction which is a necessary condition for
national integration.
- Use of prefects trained in leadership.

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 - Use of teachers as authority.
- Boarding schools, colleges and universities attract students from various corners of the
nation. This promotes national unity. Teaching of civics, history, political sciences and
government encourages the political function of education

vi. The economic function of education. Education and affluence are usually associated.
Rich countries boast of advanced educational systems while poor nations are
educationally backward.
Literacy in many nations is a means of economic development. The argument that
education leads to economic development rests on two assumptions.
Education changes behavior.
That such behavioral changes result in the production of more goods and services.

In conclusion greater amount of education leads to higher personal incomes. In fact,

the manpower function of education means the education system is expected o supply
adequate manpower to different sectors of the economy.
vii. The selective function of education.
Apart from providing educational training to future entrants into the employment
market, the education system of modern society act as a filtering agency a sieve of
selecting and directing people to different areas of specialization and levels of
operation.

When the education system performs this function satisfactorily, the society is able to
make full use of the so called “pool of capability,” that is, the sum total of the
intellectual qualities, talents and other abilities of the people.
Viii. The critical function of education. Makes one to reflect, think, criticize etc.

In conclusion these functions point to education contributing to the development of an

individual and the society in which one operates. According to Julius Nyerere (1985)
a self -reliant person in a society must be presently be the overall goal of education.

Forms of education
Education takes place formally, informally and non- formally. The three form of a
continuum, each merging into the next, with no clear line of distinction between them.

Formal education
This refers to an organized educational facility within the established education system.
Bennaars (1998), equates it with schooling.

The learners are organized in especially built institutions such schools, colleges,
universities and the like. In these institutions they are grouped in classrooms for regular
lessons.

23
These lessons are systematically arranged with definite objectives to be achieved.
There is a laid down syllabus and time table to be followed.

An external administrative body carefully supervises the teaching and assessment. It

starts from the nursery to the university.

There are situations when formal systems of education can exist out of the established
school system. A good example is traditional African Society where some rites of
passage were accompanied by rigid and well- organized education, which could take
days or weeks to be completed.

Here young people were instructed in groups on community rules behavior during the
initiation rites (Otiende 1990). This was an aspect of formal learning.

Sifuna (1996) explains that African Indigenous education was transmitted mainly
through in formal and formal methods of instructions.

Formal methods involve theoretical and practical inculcation of skills such as learning
through apprenticeship. Formal instructions were also given in the constant corrections
and warning to children in aspects of domestic work, herding cattle, cultivation, fishing
etc.

Informal Education
This entails all the unorganized learning that human beings do or undergo during their
lifetime either consciously or unconsciously.

Characteristics of Informal Traditional Education: -

I. Rigid and narrow curriculum with the responsibility of instruction monopolized
by conservative elders.
II. Lack of an element of literacy.
III. Heterogeneity- different values were tested by different groups.
IV. Content was based on groups environment.

Within the school system, informal education takes place when learners are engaged in
undirected activities. They include conscious or unconscious absorption of teachers and
peer groups habits and interests, family members and mass media.

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None- formal Education
This is any organized educational activity outside the established formal education
system.

Bishop (1985) defines as being: -

o In the form of adult education.
o Continuing education
o On-job training
o Accelerated training
o Extension services and
o Some form of education which provides chance to lost leaders of tomorrow to
discover themselves.

In Kenya formal education is largely geared to the unfinished business of primary

schools, that is, educating those who do not continue to secondary schools.

These learners are trained in various basic skills to help them find work in rural areas.
Juma (1988) identified two common forms of non-formal education
i. Education provided to the youths and adults outside the formal system which
provides them with functional knowledge and skills for productive work but no
paper qualifications are given.
ii. Alternative education provided to the youth and adults leading to paper
qualifications.
iii. A deliberate provision of education for both the youth and adults within the
formal system to
Enhance their education attainment. Activities learners engage
in under this education include:
Agricultural-extension skill training, health and family
planning, education work among the youth and women.

In Kenya there are a number of bodies concerned with non-formal education. They
include: youth clubs and canters for re-settlement and training of youth run by local
government and voluntary bodies, youth polytechnics run by government,
correspondence courses organized by external and local institutions.

Non-formal education can also take place within the established school system. In
schools it includes: -games, choirs, debating, scouting, gardening, Christian union,
wildlife activities, YCS, SDA etc.

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Relationship between teaching, training and education

Teaching

Training

Education

Source: Ayot and Patels (1992)

26
TOPIC: MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE OF A SCHOOL

School: A place where children/students go to be educated.

Management: Refers to getting things done through other people in order to achieve
the objectives of the institution. This is done through: planning, organizing, directing,
selecting, communicating, coordinating and budgeting.
Structure: The way in which the parts of something are connected together, arranged
or organized.
The management of the school is a well-structured system with the Board of
Management (BOM) at the policy level while the teaching and non-teaching staff as
well as students are at the operational and implementation level.

The school organogram

BOM

Principal

Deputy
Principal
HODs Bursar

Head Student
Accounts Clerk
Secretary
HOS Assistant Head
Student
Lab Assistant
Class Cateress/Nurse /Matron
Teachers D/Hall/Games/Environment
House Prefects
Grounds men /Security
Subject Cooks
Teachers Class prefects

Students

THE ROLE OF THE PRINCIPAL

o The material components of a school are the pupils, teachers, books, equipment
and the buildings. As a system they must harmonize.

27
 o The task of co-coordinating the above components is the responsibility of the
head teacher and it requires much skill if he / she has to do the job well.
o As a community of living and active people a school requires good organization.
Successful organization requires good leadership and efficient management.
o A good head teacher must possess high qualities of leadership because like a
general he / she cannot win the battle alone but by inspiring those with whom he
/ she serves.
o Leadership comes with knowledge and experience and an understanding of
people and human relationships.
o The test of a head teacher’s leadership is to be found in the quality of the
personal relationships in the school and the extent to which he/she has forged
the staff into a united team.
o The head must supervise the work of his teachers, but he / she must avoid over-
supervising. Good supervision is neither too much nor too little, too strict nor too
slack and varies according to the need for help and guidance.
o The head must constantly study/analyze the results of the teaching in his /
her school. However this does not mean only the examination results. He / she
can assess how nearly the school is providing sound education.
o Assessment of the school requires accurate information that cannot be gained
by remaining remote and aloof. It needs a person who knows the staff the learners
and the job intimately by being in touch with them all the time.
o A head has responsibilities beyond the confines of his school, for he is
responsible not only to his employer but to the public and in particular, to
the community that will make his school wanted.
o If good tone or school spirit is to exist in a school, there must be a corporate
spirit amongst the members. The head teacher, staff and students must talk of
“we” because they feel they belong together. They must hold together as a family
/ team.

Ingredients of school spirit / team spirit in school

a)Mutual respect:-
Respect cannot be demanded; it can only be given, earned. It grows as one person sees
in another qualities he admires. Respect between the staff and learners must be mutual.

b)Shared ideals:-
Group feeling is most easily developed amongst people who hold the same views and
have the same ideals. This is difficult in a school which draws its staff and pupils from
different backgrounds. This can be achieved through an acceptable code of behavior /
rules and acceptable standards of behavior. It should be noted that it is the head teacher
who sets these standards in a school. Only when he / she has a high regard for moral
virtue, beauty, goodness and hard work can he / she be expect his / her staff and pupils
to do so too.

c)Shared activities:-

28
The principal needs to break down the barriers that separate classes so that there are
occasions when the school is like a family. This can be done through morning
assemblies, concerts, exhibitions, school matches, clubs and societies etc where
children can share their real interests regardless of class or age.

d)Management Models/ Structures:-

These are a number of different methods of school management, each
recognizable by the particular way in decision – making.

i)The Hierarchical Model

In this system there is a clearly defined structure of authority. The head
teacher wields complete authority over all that goes on in school. The lines
of a authority move downwards.

Head teacher

Senior teachers
teachers

Junior teachers

Pupils

Figure 1: Hierarchical Type

ii)Departmental Model
In this system, the head delegates’ authority to senior members of staff-
HODs and lines of authority move outwards rather than downwards.

Normally the head makes clear what he would like to see happening in the
departments and will do this through discussion with his heads of department.

However, because each department has a certain degree of autonomy, in

practice it will be the Heads of Department who work out in detail the
activities of their departments.

Students Students

29
 Assistant teachers Assistant teachers

HOD HOD

Head teacher

HOD HOD

Assistant teachers Assistant Teachers

Students
Students

Figure 2: The Departmental Type

iii)The Democratic Model

In this system there are no lines of authority operating as in the other models.
Instead, the school is operated through a school council on which are
representatives of all interest groups.

Policy making decisions are taken by this council with the head in the role of
chairman or coordinator of representatives from the teaching units.

This system tries to ensure that interests are fully represented in the
organization of the school.

30
 Teachin
g unit

Teachi
ng unit Teachi
School Council ng unit
composed of
Head teacher
and
Teachi representatives
of teaching units
ng unit
Teachin
g unit

Teachi
ng unit

Figure 3: The Democratic Type

e)Allocation of Resources:-
The aim of school management is to make the most efficient use of the available
resources such as teachers, buildings and equipment in order to achieve pre-
determined educational aims relating to the pupils, the community served by the
school and the national system of education.

Efficient management of resources means the head must do the following:-

- Co-ordinate efficiently the work of the members of the teaching and
supporting staff.
- Co-ordinate effectively the funds, facilities and equipment possessed by the
school.
- Co-ordinate effectively the resources offered by the community.

f)Internal and External Communication

Schools like organisms are dependent upon an efficient network of
communication between the administration and people who make up the school
community if they are to operate as intended.

The main areas of communication that need to be considered are those carried
on between:-
- The Ministry, the school and the community.
- The head teacher, the staff and students.

31
 For this reasons the head needs to examine between these various bodies. The
head can use Parents Associations to communicate to parents.

Features of a Good School

(a) Curriculum
- The school has clear curriculum objectives.
- The opinions are wide.
- There are appropriate courses for the gifted and the less able as well as the
talented.
- Teaching is individualized so as to permit learner to progress at their own
pace.
- Departments and individual teachers are encouraged to co-operate as fully
as possible with one another.

b) Counseling and Organization

- In large schools, smaller and more intimate units are established.
- Divisions between staff and learners are avoided.
- Individual matter.
- Disrupters are treated with the object of correcting their misbehavior rather
than merely punishing it.
- A sense of identification with the school is fostered so as to discourage
mindless vandalism.
- All teachers share in the pastoral activities of the school.

c)Community relations
- Communication with the community is open and access is made easy for
any representative of the community.
- Parents are encouraged to take an interest in the school as well as their own
children and to become involved in the activities of the school.

d) Good Management
- Smelling out problems before they get too big to handle.
- Delegating responsibility.
- Diagnosing the cause of poor performance.
- Encouraging co-operation and effort by staff and pupils.
- Getting tasks and problems into correct perspective.
- Helping others to solve their problems.
- Listening to what others have to say.

Summary of School Organization and Administration

The heads office is the nerve Centre of the school. It has to have good filing system
and a good safe for valuables. The heads office does the following:-
- Planning (new sessions, sports calendar, special occasions, first day of the
term, last day of the term etc.).
- Decision making (Routine matters and crisis decisions).
- Communication

32
 - Coordinating the staff. How?
o Plan program of future events.
o Give teachers routine notices which they ought to know from school
authorities or MOE.
o Discuss changes or improvements in school organization, discipline
etc.
o Encourage friendship among staff, staff meeting should be regular
and minutes should be kept.
- Budgeting.

TOPIC FIVE: CURRICULUM CONTEXT

Introduction
• The world is becoming a global village. We are interacting more than before.
• Globalization is the village world to us. It is so near yet so far.
• Globalization has been described as the widening, deepening and speeding up of the
world interconnectedness in all aspects of contemporary social life.
• The world is becoming a “shared social space” by technological forces.
• We are interacting more than before. The digital era / the internet / mobile phones /
computers have made communication so easy.
• Many people can access education through e-learning. Quite common in colleges and
universities. Learners do not have to depend so much on books. There is an explosion
in knowledge.
This space/environment affects the curriculum.

Definition
o Curriculum context is the environment in which curriculum process takes place. This
context does affect curriculum either positively or negatively.
o Environment of the curriculum includes the political environment, human beings,
social context and spiritual context.
o Saber tooth satire tells us that curriculum environment keeps on changing. When the
animals disappeared, they (people) had to resort to fishing. This means that
curriculum can change / can be controlled by circumstances.
o Curriculum must have relevance. What is learnt must be relevant to the needs of the
society.

Education Context of Curriculum

The major context of curriculum itself is the education system itself because it takes place in
it.
- The nature of education will determine the type of curriculum to put in place.
- The type of values will determine the kind of curriculum.
- The structure of education system and school system will influence / affect
curriculum.
- Who is an educated man / woman? What is education? Formal / informal / non-
formal.
33
 - An educated person must understand himself in order to understand his / her
environment and interact positively and progressively with that environment. The
environment is broad i.e. spiritual, social, political, physical.
- The school is an innovation. Education has always been there since creation.
- School is a technology in education.
- Schooling is not getting educated.
- An educated person is supposed to serve and not to be served.

Functions of Education
Education
Can be defined as, the inter-subjective process of learning to be a self-reliant person in
society (Njoroge and Benaars – 1980).

A form of social intercourse or association between adults and children aiming at influencing
the child to come of age (Longereld 1979.35)

1. Bringing up individual development, that is, catering for the fullest development of
personality, training in independent, logical and imaginative thinking, self-discipline,
literacy, manipulative skills, social experience.
2. Conservative function of education - preserves the society’s dominant culture and
passes it on to the next generation form the existing population.
3. Innovative function of education - the school should be a source of change, new ideas
and knowledge. A society must be willing to change in order to survive in future.
4. Catering for specific needs of the people. What do people want?
5. The political function. Political socialization refers to transmission of values, beliefs,
ideas and patterns of behavior pertaining to the generation distribution and exercise of
power, student leadership, teaching of civics, history, political science.
6. Economic function of education - economic development rests on high levels of
education and behavioral change that result in the production of more goods and
services.
7. The selective function of education – It is a filtering agency, gets us a pool of
capability i.e those with talents, abilities and intellectual qualities.

The school context of the Curriculum

School has the following functions:-

Academic function: It has to do with content / knowledge.

Vocational functions : It deals with Jobs such as engineering, carpentry, policing, teaching
etc.
Social functions: Interaction, integrating children into society
Civil function: Teach political system, leadership, laws and governance.
Personal functions: Individual development, status and the like.

Curriculum is the vehicle for education. The formal context, in which education has to
operate, is the school.

An effective school has:-

- Leadership / governance (head teacher has to lead the school well).
- Clear vision, mission.

34
 - Provide a safe and orderly climate. All must feel safe (learners, workers, teachers etc.)
- Quality monitoring and assurance system.
- An atmosphere of expectations e.g. high achievement (learners, teachers – head
teacher).

✓ Structure of the school i.e. hierarchy / chain of command.

✓ The facilities e.g. classrooms (condition?) toilets, accessibility, power and general
infrastructure.
✓ Culture of the school takes time to develop. Kakamega School and Maseno School
have football / rugby culture.
✓ Values of the school Bunyore Girls, Alliance Boys.
✓ Socio-economic background. Schools in Sugar belt zones, tea zones, coffee zones, in
the lake region etc.

Structure Culture
Community Leadership / government structure Values will dictate type of
curriculum
Nation Centralized system has an impact on National philosophies African
curriculum socialism, harambeeism,
Nyayo
Global Impact of AU, UNO, EAC, cold war, UN Charter International /
North rich and poor South on curriculum global citizen

Physical Environment as a Context

- Natural environment, vegetation, topography, climate will determine location of the
school and this will have an impact on curriculum. In Kisii most schools are located
on hill tops because of scarcity of land – problems of lightening.
- Why overemphasize lake Victoria to learners from Wajir and Mandera who know
more about pastoralism.
- In hot areas you cannot teach in the afternoon.

Social Environment as a Context

- What are the values in that society?
- Is the teacher respected?
- How large / small are the classes / schools.
- What rituals and rules affect the school e.g FGM, early marriages.
- Mixed schools? Boarding schools? Day schools?
- Religious fundamentals? What about radicalization?
- Teachers unions and their effect on curriculum.
- Religious organizations and their effects on curriculum.
- General culture of the people around the school. Does it affect curriculum e.g
circumcision, FGM, elaborate burial rites.
- Haves and have notes.

Diseases / health in society as a context

Ebola, Aids & HIV, malaria and effect on curriculum.

Disasters / Catastrophes
- 2007 / 2008 Election violence and effects on curriculum.

35
 - Elnino rains and the destruction that followed, flooding in Tana River Flood Plain,
Nyando River, Nzoia River, flash floods.
- The effects of drought on Kenya can be devastating

Ethics
Morals and curriculum: Think of children between 9 – 16 years in bars with condoms, bang
and alcohol.

Economic Activities as a Context

- What is the job market like?
- Underemployed graduates and unemployed graduates.
- What skill does a graduate teacher, doctor, motivational speaker, carpenter and the
like require to effectively do their work?
- What is the economic potential of the Country?
- How many professionals do we need in a given area / field? Can we pay them?
- What is the economic status of parents? County? Nation? Teachers?. Many
professionals are involved in other businesses to supplement what they earn.
- How do we finance education? Are areas in opposition adequately catered for?
- How do we control our economic resources such as land, minerals, water?
- How industrialized is the Sub-County, County, Country?

Political Environment as a Context

- Leadership at school, community and nation. How does it affect curriculum?
- Manifestos of parties on education.
- How strong / weak is the judiciary.
- What are the rights of learners, parents and teachers?
- What are the by-laws and laws of the country and how do they influence curriculum
content?
- What is the international relationship between Kenya and other countries like?
UNESCO, Scholarships etc.

Technological Environment as a Context

- What does it mean for education?
- E-learning and computer, How does it affect curriculum?
- What is the quality of education without a teacher?
- Has virtual learning succeeded? Is it making students introverts? How do whatsapp,
instagram and twitter affect curriculum.

Spiritual Environment as a Context

- How does religious affiliation affect curriculum?
- Concept of God?
- On religious panels in KICD there are religious representative.
- Radicalization and its effects on curriculum.

Philosophy as a Context
Metaphysics: Deals with the world beyond the physical world.
Epistemology: Theories of instruction, learning, human and social
theories.
Logic: Reasoning – Why this curriculum and not the other?

36
Ethics : Deals with morality – how does it affect curriculum. Think of a male teacher who
impregnates school girls. Of parents / teachers who come to school drunk.
Aesthetics: It deals with beauty / fine art / what is good and relevant curriculum?

Emerging Problems in Curriculum

- Shrinking resources and implication on curriculum.
- High demand for education overstretched resources.
- Land policies in Kenya / grabbing school land.
- Can we localize education to county level?
- Unemployment among graduates.
- ICT and its effects on curriculum.
- Radicalization and its effects on curriculum.
- Knowledge explosion because of the computer / internet etc.

Curriculum Design / Actual Design

Curriculum design is about the structure, pattern of organization of the curriculum. It refers to
the way in which the component parts or elements of the curriculum have been arranged in
order to facilitate instruction (Chiundu & Omulando, 1992).

Such components include aims, goals and objectives, subject matter / content, learning
experiences and evaluation approaches.

Tyler (1949) has a linear curriculum design. It has elements, objectives, learning activities,
content organization and evaluation. This is an example of curriculum design based on the
content.

Wheeler Model
The model is cyclic and has fire stages.

Aims, goals and objectives

Evaluation

Selection of learning
experiences
Organization and
integration of learning
experiences

Selection of content

It should be remembered that curriculum design is not centred on content but it draws its
organizing principles form the felt needs and interests of the learners.

37
An effective curriculum design makes clear the criteria for selection of aims, objectives and
content plus learning experiences.

It takes into consideration the scope (the depth, breath or width of the content).
Has a sequence / the order of content i.e from simple (known) to complex (unknown). The
ordering of content and the ordering of the learners, skills and competencies is important.
Has to demonstrate integration; the relationship among the learning of various areas of
curriculum which take place at the same time.

Curriculum design according to (Olouch, 1982)

Objectives

Learning activities
Student Assessment

Dimensions
Informal / formal and
non-formal

Olouch’s design has two issues: Elements and dimensions

Elements - (objectives, students, learning activities, content, students assessment / evaluation).

Dimensions of Curriculum
Formal - Schooling / seated in class/use of timetables.
Non-formal - Extra-curricular / games/ not done in class.
Informal - Habits picked by students from teachers, peers, parents.

Situational analysis refers to information gathering to reveal needs situation analysis involves
finding out the context in which curriculum process (school) is to take place and about the
feasibility of it being successful. Situational; analysis involves collecting basic information
about:-
(i) Existing education system e.g. primary cycle, buildings, teachers etc.
(ii) The learners – what are their interests
(iii) The teachers – are they enough? Trained? In serviced?

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A need is present where there is a discrepancy or gap between the way things “might be”
and the way they “are”.

(a) Needs assessment is a systematic process for determining goals, identifying

discrepancies between goals and the status quo and establishing priorities for action.

Educational needs draws heavily on the concept of social need.

Types of need according to Bradshaw
(i) Normative need
A normative need is present when an individual or group has less than some
established standard. One whose income is low when compared to the federal
governments poverty level income standard, has a normative need.

(ii) Felt need

Felt need is synonymous with a want. A need is usually identified by simply asking
people what they need. However what people say they want is affected by their
perceptions of what is possible and socially acceptable as well as what they think is
available.

(iii) Expressed need or demand

If people need something they’ll create a demand. An expressed need exists when
a person puts his or her money on the line for a product. If there is a long waiting
list for public housing, then there is need for more public housing etc.

(iv) Comparative need

A comparative need exists when the characteristics of a population that does not
receive a service are similar to the characteristics of a population that does receive
it.

(v) Anticipated / Future needs

Projected demands of the future when a city plans new roads to be built over a
number of years, the people doing the planning must take into consideration where
growth will probably occur.

(b) Formulation of the objectives

These are justifications for the need of providing education or various aspects of the
school curriculum or various aspects of the school curriculum and indeed support for
education.

• It means that you can use the objectives to solicit for funds to implement the
program.
• Objectives attempt to improve the practice of curriculum by first obtaining clarity
about educational needs.
• They provide (objectives) a precise basis for selecting and organizing content.
• They provide basis for evaluation, determining the extent to which the educational
or instructional program is useful.

(c) Program Building

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 • This involves designing teaching / learning materials, learning activities, content
and curriculum, structure and method and their scope and sequence.
• Involves means (methods) textbook materials, resource units etc.
• Designing appropriate institutional settings e.g laboratories in schools, making
plans of field work and construction of workshops.
• Provision of personnel and designing their role definitions in curriculum change in
a society that is rapidly changing the school time-tables and other provisions.

(d) Interpretation and implementation

This involves problems of installing curriculum. Teachers need to keep a breast with
the latest changes in curriculum. Teachers must be persuaded. Persuade people to
understand the new curriculum.

(e) Monitoring, feedback, assessment and reconstruction:-

- Quality Assurance and Standards Officer visit schools and give reports / feedback.
- Assess the facilities available e.g. computers, workshops. If they are missing
reconstruction takes place.
- Designing a monitoring and a communications system.
- Preparation of assessment schedules in schools i.e. CATs which are acceptable at the
school level but not KCPE / KCSE level. Because teachers are not reliable and have
lots of biasness.
- Reconstruction – ensuring continuity in the process of curriculum in schools.
- Summative and formative evaluations.

TOPIC SIX: FIELD SCHOOL

Introduction
This topic exposes students to the following areas;
-Structure of the school (is it vertical or horizontal?)
-Culture of the school (e.g. key statements, core values, philosophy etc.)
-General operations of the school and
-Working relations between the school and university/community
The student should find out how the following operate:
Board of Management (BOM)
The Education Act-RoK (2013) states that there shall a BOM for every pre-
primary institution, primary school, secondary school, adult and continuing
education centre, multi-purpose development training institute, or middle level
basic education.
Composition of BOM
-One person representing teachers in the school
-One person nominated by County Education Board
-Six persons elected by parents
-Three persons representing the sponsor
-One person representing special interest groups

40
-One person representing persons with special needs
Functions of BOM
-Promote the basic interests of the institution and ensure its development
-Promote equality for all students as per the law
-Ensure and assure the provision of proper and adequate physical facilities for institution
-Manage the institution affairs in accordance with the rules and regulations governing the
occupational health and safety
-Advice the County Education Board on staffing needs of the institution
-Determine students discipline issues and make reports to CEB
-Prepare a comprehensive termly report on all areas of its mandate and submit the report to the
CEB
-Facilitate and ensure the provision of guidance and counseling to all learners
-Provide for the welfare and observe the human rights and ensure safety of learners, teachers
and non-teaching staff at the institution
-Promote the spirit if cohesion, integration, peace, tolerance, inclusion, elimination of hate
speech and elimination of tribalism at the institution
-Encourage culture of dialogue and participatory democratic governance at the institution
-Encourage learners, teachers, non-teaching staff, parents and the community to render
voluntary service to the institution
-Allow reasonable use of the facilities of the institution for community, social and other lawful
purposes, subject to such reasonable and equitable conditions as it may determine the charging
of a fee
Administer and manage the resources of the institution
-Receive, collect and account for any funds accruing to the institution
-Recruit employ and remunerate such number of non-teaching staff as may be required by the
institution in accordance the Act
-Perform any other function to facilitate the implementation of its functions under this Act or
any other law.
The sponsor
Introduction
This entity/institution makes a significant contribution and impact on the academic,
financial, infrastructural and spiritual development of an institution of basic education.
-Most of the school sponsors in Kenya are religious organizations. Three major
religious organizations in Kenya are Christianity, Islam and Hindu.
Role of the sponsor
-To participate and make recommendations of review of syllabus, curriculum, books
and other teaching aids
-Representation in the school management committees and BOM.
-To provide supervisory and advisory services in matters regarding the denomination
or religious adherence of others as well as offering financial and infrastructural
support.
-They provide moral and spiritual nourishment in their institutions.
Parents Teachers Association
There shall be PTA for every public or private secondary school, consisting of every
parent with a student in the school and a representative of teachers in the school.
Functions of PTA
-Promote quality care, nutritional and health status of the learners
-Maintain good working relationship between parents and teachers

41
-Discuss, explore and advice the parents on ways to raise funds for the physical
development and maintenance of school facilities
-Explore ways to motivate the teachers and learners to improve their performance in
academic and co-curricular activities
-Discuss and recommend charges to be levied on learners or parents
-Undertake and oversee development projects on behalf of PTA
-Assist the school management in monitoring school progress
-Guide, counsel and discipline learners
-Discuss and recommend for the welfare of staff and students
Principal
As per the TSC code of regulations for teachers revised edition (2014) the role of the
heads of institutions incudes:
-Responsible for education policy and professional practice at the institutional level
-Management and implementation of the institutional curriculum
-Assignment of teaching and non-teaching duties to teachers
-Undertake a reasonable teaching load
-Performance and the roles of the secretary to the BOM
-Management and control of finances and all institutional assets entrusted to his/her
office to ensure strict adherence to the public finance and management guidelines
-Procurement of goods and services within in the public procurement guidelines for
institutional use
-Provide direction for effective teaching and conducive learning environment
Appraise the government and other stakeholders on institutional performance
-Develop the institutional strategic plan and ensure that institutional targets and
objectives are met
-Custodian of the records of the institution
-Ensure proper arrangement and maintenance of the financial human and physical
resources of the institution
-Offer technical advice to the BOM and other stakeholders within the institution to
enable institution meets its needs
-Ensure maintenance of teaching standards and professional records maintained by a
teacher including scheme of work, lesson plan notes, records of work and students
exercise books
-Pay regular visits to classrooms to evaluate delivery of curriculum
-Inspect the institutions classroom, laboratories, work-shops, dormitories, dining hall,
playgrounds, ablution blocks and other areas within the institution to ensure safety and
security of learners and other occupants
-Perform such other roles as may be assigned by TSC
Deputy Principal
The Deputy Principal has the following roles:
-In charge of curriculum
-Is in charge of discipline of students
-Staff minutes recorder
-Deputizes the principal
- Concerned with welfare issues of teaching and non-teaching staff

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N/B Apart from the above people the student teacher should find out the roles/duties
of the following:
- HoDS
- Ordinary teachers
- Non-teaching staff
- School environment
-
TOPIC SEVEN: SCHOOL TYPOLOGY
It refers to the type/grade/status of the school. In Kenya we have the following types
of schools; national schools, extra-county schools, county schools, sub-county schools
and private schools. The above listed schools are boarding, day, mixed, girls or boys
schools.
The student should investigate land acreage, resources, staffing, performance,
enrollment, culture, equipment and facilities.
County and extra-county boarding schools charge around Kshs 40,000/ while national
schools that have boarding facilities charge around kshs 53,000/
The capitation per student in secondary school is slightly above Kshs 22,000/. Day
schools charge between kshs 6,000/ and 10,000/ for lunch and uniform.
Challenges faced by National Schools in Kenya
-Issues to do with religion
-Day stream and its challenges
-Keeping high standards and expectations yet fees has been reduced
-Reduction of fees by GOK
-Covid 19
-High number of students in classes because of 100% transition policy
Implication of the challenges faced by national schools
-Students are fed on low quality food
-Schools have to do with fewer BOM teachers hence increased workload for
the regular teachers
-Teachers are no longer motivated as before since schools cannot charge extra
levies for trips, awards, bonding sessions and the like
-Students cannot compete in many co-curricular activities because of limited
funding. Their talents are not fully harnessed in the long run
-Unlike before, students have to clean their classes, dormitories and school
compounds. This is because of reduced working force.
-Poor maintenance of school infrastructure
-Limited revision materials for candidates
-Reduced use of ICT because of reduced funding
-Unrest in schools because of poor diet, fewer trips and dilapidated facilities
-Status/class issues begin to emerge i.e. the “haves and have notes”
-Students from rich backgrounds are transferred to private schools which have
enough facilities and are not congested
Questions to be posed by the student teacher
-Is ranking of schools ethical when results are released?

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 -Why does the government encourage talent centers/centers of excellence?
-Why do we have gender based schools in Kenya?
-What is the right age of enrolment at secondary school?
-What are the merits of day schools, boarding schools and mixed schools?
-Who is the owner of schools?
-Which schools perform better?
-How is the day stream going to affect boarding schools in towns?
-What are the basic elements of a good school for it to achieve its objectives?
-How does the surrounding environment affect the delivery of the curriculum?
N/B
Cascade the above discussion to extra-county, county and sub-county public
secondary schools.

TOPIC SEVEN: CURRENT ISSUES AND THEIR EFFECTS ON

CURRICULUM
Introduction
The school is a creation of the society. It is surrounded by systems and supra-
systems. What happens in the society affects the operations of a school.
Politics;
So long as governments continue to control ad finance education, politics will
remain a major factor in curriculum development, change or innovation. A
good relationship must exist between the curriculum specialists and the
contemporary government because the government can either promote or
block any curriculum project which is not in tandem with her policies and
which does not fit in its framework of political ideology.
Lack of good communication with political leaders can be a serious problem
to curriculum development.
Frequent changes make it difficult to maintain a consistent policy and follow-
up plans.
Economic issues
The national economy has direct influence on the curriculum. Many
innovations in the school curriculum have come about due to certain economic
problems such as employment. The 8-4-4 system in Kenya was designed to
solve unemployment issues.
A curriculum which may be seen to contradict the official economic policies
is unlikely to succeed od fail depending on the availability of funds.
As a matter of fact a new curriculum will require more trained teachers,
retraining of teachers, more facilities in schools, material production,
textbooks, workshops, seminars, experiments research and the like.
The implication is that the government increases its regular education budget.
Additionally proper allocation of funds will considerably contribute to success
of curriculum development.

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Social and demographic issues
People react differently to change, but usually the reactions are negative.
People resist change because it threatens their cherished traditions and
institutions.
People may resist new curriculum because they do not approve of the source
of the new idea or they may anticipate adverse effects on the society.
Curriculum specialists must therefore understand reasons for resistances.
Knowledge explosion
Knowledge is the main source of curriculum content (Shiundu and Omulando,
1992). Any changes in knowledge as a result of research findings and other
forms of knowledge generation will affect curriculum decisions such as
content selection, organization and delivery methods.
Currently there is so much knowledge coming into being that curriculum
development and review are taking place at a faster pace than before.
For instance competencies to be achieved by the learner in the basic education
under the the proposed 2-6-6-3 system of education include; creativity,
imagination, social equality, citizenship, digital literacy, learning to learn
communication etc.
Culture
In Kenya learners from different cultural backgrounds are brought together to
learn a common curriculum. Their cultural underpinnings come to bear on the
learning they undertake at the school.
It would be useful that positive aspects of the various cultures are incorporated
in the curriculum as this enhances curriculum relevance in the face of cultural
diversity.
Interest groups
They include religious bodies, donor agencies, youth organizations,
professional associations, teachers unions and other community organizations
These groups have interests that they would wish to champion through school
programs. As a result they influence the general and sometimes the specific
outfit of the curricula offered at various phases and levels of education.
Technological advancement
Development of technology affects school curricula in a number of ways. One
is the introduction of instructional programs such as computer studies in
schools.
The use of tools such as, overhead projectors, LCD projectors, calculators,
laptops, tablets etc. are examples of how technology affects curriculum.
In developing curricula, an awareness of the presence and utilization of such
technology influences the general and specific curricula outfits.
Ethical issues likely to arise from use of ICT in teaching and learning include:
pornography, impediment of privacy, theft f information and plagiarism,
environmental hazards when disposing obsolete computers and junk
information.

45
Wastage and attrition
This comes about through natural causes such as death and retirement.
Planners also find it difficult to predict wastage caused by resignations,
teachers moving to lucrative careers etc.
Feminization of training
Teaching as a profession is increasingly becoming a preserve foe women
especially in primary and secondary school levels. In towns there are more
female teachers than male teachers.

Teacher mobility
It makes it hard for educational planners to systematically organize for the
profession and equitably staff school system.. Teachers move because of
transfers, promotions insecurity among other reasons.
Problem of posting and transfer of teachers
New teachers are posted to remote rural areas without water, electricity,
communication etc. Moreover, they go for months on end without salary. This
causes discontentment and despair.
Academic content
It is argued that the academic content of those training as teachers is not strong
enough especially when education courses are combined with teaching
academic subjects.
Centralized curriculum by KCID
It has the following demerits:
.Individual differences are not catered for because it assumes that al,
children have the same mental and physical levels.
. It has no room for slow learners.
. Geographical and climatic differences are not considered.
.It is quite expensive especially when you involve QASOs.
.It does not consider economic and local variations fully.
.It is not easy to change/ rigid as decisions have to come from above.
.It weakens parental control of the curriculum.
Emerging issues
New challenges and issues that have arisen nationally and internationally
affect school curriculum. They include:
-Incurable diseases such as Ebola, Covid 19, various cancers etc.
-Land and ethnic clashes, national boundary conflicts etc.
-Terrorism
-Environmental degradation
-Global warming
-Radicalization/religious fundamentalism etc.

46
TOPIC EIGHT: RESEARCH PROPOSAL AND RESEARCH WRITING
GUIDELINE

Introduction
One of the objectives of any institution of higher learning is to conduct research (Mugenda
and Mugenda 1999). Research generates new knowledge and information. It extends the
frontiers of understanding as we gain new insights into phenomena.
There can be no improvement of higher education industrialization or development without
sound research. The Kenya government has encouraged and supported research institutes
in several disciplines. This is a clear demonstration to the important role research plays in
national development of any country.

RESEARCH PROJECT/REPORT
This is an undertaking whose outcome will be data which can be used as a basis of
proposing a project or data which will contribute to knowledge and forms the
recommendations and action.

MEANING OF RESEARCH
It is a systematic investigation of a problem using acceptable scientific procedure, with an
intention of either generating knowledge about the problem and alleviating / solving.
To research is to carry out a diligent inquiry of a critical examination of a given
phenomenon. It implies exhaustive study, investigation of experimentation following some
logical sequence.
Research also involves a critical analysis of existing conclusions of theories with regard to
newly discovered facts. This is very necessary in an ever changing world with advances in
technology continually creating new possibilities.
KEY WORDS IN RESEARCH
A problem is an interrogative statement that a researcher is looking answers for. A problem
is a question whose answers / solutions a researcher is looking for.
Scientific procedures There are steps which must be followed to generate knowledge and
to solve a problem.

47
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
a) New knowledge: As a researcher you have to come out with something new in terms of
content, presentation, method etc. If not it would be a repetition of what is already there
(content). We cannot have old wine in new wine skins.
b) Expert: As a researcher you need to be systematic and accurate. An expert knows that
what he/she is doing up to the highest level possible. Systematic means it is conducted
in an orderly manner. However this does not mean systems approach. Accuracy means
you do not distort the figures. Let the data be normal then interpret it. Avoid sweeping
statements e.g. 60% of Kakamega’s town population is mainly male.
c) It must be logical. Logical is quite different from chronological it must be objective
(free from subjectivity, no bias about the data, no liking, of disliking should be
projected). Verify the data collected through tests.
d) Eliminate personal feelings, likings or dislikings. Resist the temptation to seek data that
supports your hypothesis of claim.
e) Organize data in quantitative terms. (Quantity goes .with number as opposed to quality
which goes with character) suspend judgment so that the data can reach a sound
conclusion.
f) The data should be carefully recorded. Every term should be carefully defined e.g. adult,
adult education

Factors that have hampered development of educational research in eastern and

southern Africa region
- Underfunding of research activities
- Absence of enabling environment
- The relatively poor quality of research products
- Dominance of traditional research paradigms
- Limited appreciation of the role of research in development by non-practitioners
- The domination of the research environment by a small number of established
researchers/ scholars among others.

48
CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH (Evaluation Research, Basic Research, Applied
Research and Action Research)
Evaluation research
Defined as the systematic process of collecting and analysing data in order to make
decisions. Evaluation is therefore a process of determining whether the intended results
were realized.
Evaluation research should satisfy four important criteria as outlined by Borg and Gall:
a) Utility – An evaluation has utility if it is informative, timely and useful.
b) Feasibility – An evaluation is feasible if it is appropriate to the setting in which the
study will be conducted. An evaluation design is also feasible if it is cost-effective,
that is, if the study is worth the cost
c) Property – An evaluation has property if the rights of persons affected by the
evaluation are protected
d) Accuracy – This refers to the extent to which an evaluation study produces valid,
reliable and comprehensive information about the phenomenon being evaluated

Purposes of Research
1. The main purpose of research is to discover new knowledge. This involves the
discovery of new facts, their correct interpretation and practical application. Though
there are other sources of knowledge, research remains the most efficient and reliable
source of knowledge because it seeks to demonstrate the truth and it is also the most
accurate system of securing useful knowledge.
2. The second purpose of research is to describe a phenomenon. Accurate identification
of any event involves thorough description for example of size, shape, age, weight,
colour, height, and change over time.
3. Research is to enable prediction – Prediction is the ability to estimate phenomenon
4. A further purpose of research is to enable control – In scientific research; control is
concerned with ability to regulate the phenomenon under study. Usually one
phenomenon is manipulated in order to control over another. For example in a
laboratory experiment, a drug that suppressed body growth is administered to group of
rats to investigate its effect on weight gain in rats.

49
5. The fifth purpose of research is to enable explanation of phenomena. Explanation
involves accurate observation and measurement of a given phenomenon.
6. The sixth purpose of research is to enable theory development. Theory development
involves formulating concepts, laws and generalizations about a given phenomenon.
Research is also conducted in an attempt to confirm or validate existing theories. This
is sometimes referred to as ‘falsification of theory’.

Sources of knowledge
a) Research- because it is objective and involves systematic procedures.
b) Experience – as human beings we go through various experiences e.g. the experiences
of a farmer.
c) Tradition is another source of knowledge – All human beings inherit a culture. Culture
is a reflection of an adopted system of rules, norms, standards and values transmitters
of cultural knowledge in the society include; parents, peers, adults, teachers and the
clergy.
Unfortunately most of us accept the social truth without testing it. This is a major
weakness of tradition as a source of knowledge.
d) Authority is yet another, source of knowledge. This takes the form of an expert in a
specialized area, giving his opinion on a given issue. The acceptance of such an opinion
by others depends on the status of the person giving the opinion. However not all
experts are always right. Think of a popular athlete who states that a certain brand of
soap makes your skin soft and smooth in a television commercial.
e) Intuition – Intuition is the perception or explanation or insights into phenomena by
instinct. The ability to gain new knowledge without conscious reasoning or rational
process. It has remained a mystery.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH

Research

Purpose of research Method of conducting

research

Basic Action Applied Evaluation Non-experimental Experimental

Research research research research

True Quasi
experimental Experimenta
l

Case Historica Survey Ethnograph Correlatio Ex-post

study l n facto

51
Research can be classified (broadly) using two criteria;
i) The purpose of research
ii) The method of conducting research
Under the purpose of research we have: Basic research, applied research, action research
and evaluation research.

Basic research
Basic research is the type of research undertaken mainly for intention of generation and
extension of knowledge about the problem. The primary concern of basic research is
therefore to add to the universe of scientific knowledge. A basic researcher is normally
motivated by intellectual curiosity and need to come up with a particular solution (Mugenda
and Mugenda, 1999).
When new knowledge is generated we are able to refine or expand existing theories. Basic
research is usually but not always conducted in controlled laboratory situations and often
uses animals as subjects.
In the field of education, basic research is concerned with theory development and
refinement and in understanding the underlying processes involved in learning, schooling
and other educational phenomena.
Basic research includes; projects, thesis, dissertation, conference paper, journal paper, term
papers etc. All the above listed are academic papers.

Applied research
Applied research is conducted for the purpose of applying or testing theory and evaluating
its usefulness in solving problems. It is undertaken for the purpose of both the generation
of knowledge and the alleviation / solution of the problem.
Examples of Applied research include; commissioned reports (Ominde commission of
Education, (1964). It was investigative in nature. Mackay commission and the second
university, Kamunge Education Report (1988) and the Koech Report (1999) fall under this
category. The Koech report for instance was interventional in nature – to alleviate the 8-4-
4 system of Education. Basic Research could as well bring and intervention.
Action research

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Action research is conducted with the primary intention of solving a specific immediate
and concrete problem in a local setting. For instance a researcher could investigate ways of
overcoming water shortage in a given geographical area.
Although action research is limited in its contribution to theory but it is useful because it
provides answers to problems that cannot wait for theoretical solutions.

Method of conducting research

It is dichotomized into non-experimental and experimental.

Experimental
True experimental researches have to be done randomly. Has two main criterion. There
must be two groups e.g. control and experimental. How you assign members to the two
groups goes as follows;-
i) se of random method. Why? So that you create equivalence. Equivalence means
the members were at the same level / equivalent. But later the randoming brings
out the difference. Consider their strengths and weaknesses. Must be
heterogeneous.
ii) In a quasi-situation the randomness is ignored. You have not considered whether
stream A and B are the same. You assume that form 3 in school A and B are
same, so you use methodology.

Non-experimental
Case study (QR)
In the concept of education a case study is a thorough investigation of a particular
educational issue or phenomenon with an aim of understanding that phenomenon more
wholistically.
A case can be a person with an education interest. It could be a community. The case can
also be an episode e.g. arson case in a school (burning of an institution, rape, school strike)
can we use these cases to arrest a similar situation?
Some specific types of case studies
i) Clinical case study

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Has a diagnostic implication. As a teacher you must diagnose an educational malpractice.
You can identify a gifted child through diagnose. You will find this child with some unique
characteristics. After you’ve diagnosed it, you must follow up the sae of that gifted child.
Find out the major areas of strengths and weaknesses and see how you can improve on that.

ii)Institutional case study

You identify a particular case in a particular situation. The researcher would like to
understand the case in the case of various key informants. Take the Kyanguli case – Otieno
was the key suspect. He was in a particular situation. The researcher has to look for a variety
of key informants such as Otieno’s peers, classmates, dorm-mates etc. what was his
movement, mood etc. Was he behaving normal or crazy.
From peers, you move to Otieno’s teachers. How did they understand him? Was he
stressed? Bright? Full? Introvert? The teachers on duty should give their version about
Otieno. Find more about his village, parents who will be defensive.

ii)Institutional case study

Your key interest will be a particular institution, say the youth polytechnique. How did it
start? Curriculum offered? Finances? Weaknesses? What are the contributions of these
polytechniques to national development.

Sources of data for case studies

-Government archives
-Hansard ( Where parliamentary proceedings are recorded)
-Personal documents especially when you want to profile somebody’s lifestyle (you
could use his letters, diary, personal attires and other belongings).
-Self-report sources (interviews)
Summary
You do not always need to study problems. You could also study a case or problem of
excellence. Why is the institution excelling? (Starehe Boys Centre, Alliance Boys e.t.c.)
Could study a profile of Griffins Festus Olang, Moi, Carey Francis e.t.c.. Find out more
about a school that shots up in performance.

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Historical research (QR)
This is a systematic investigation of education issues from a historical or past perspective
with an intention of understanding the issues of the present. An old adage says that those
who are not aware of the mistakes of history are doomed because they will repeat the same
mistakes.
Most of the educational issues or developments or reforms have a historical touch. At
independence our education was at three tier i.e. Europeans (Asians & Arabs, Europeans
and Africans). Africans had KAPE examinations etc. However when we got independence,
we had to change through Ominde Commission report of education among other reports.
Do we plan anything from the past when we make todays plans?
Areas to look at in historical research include interschool conflicts, adult education in
Kenya between 1964 and 1978 and now etc.

Sources of data for historical studies

Documents
It is any written or printed matter on an educational issue. One could also read books,
reports etc.
Quantitative records
This is a special type of document which deals mainly with statistics data. At an adult
education centre / school we have class attendance registers. Mark sheets can also help a
researcher profile the learner. Adult learners comes to class one eager to learn, could have
been, say 40 in number year two the number goes down to 30, year three 20, year four 7
etc.
Documents such as visitor’s book, black book, log book, registers, and mark books will tell
a researcher more about a school.

Relics

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Are any objects whose physical or visual properties can tell or give some information about
the past. Fort Jesus will tell you more about Portuguese architecture. Gede ruins will tell
you more about ancient life of Arabs and Persians.

Oral records
Come in so many forms e.g. songs, tells, legends, myths, dirges, parables etc. All these will
tell you about the past. Why do Pokomo and Giriama like singing and dancing? West
African communities have a lot to do with chieftainship. The Ashanti of Ghana have
Asantehehe. Why?

SURVEY RESEARCH (QR)

It is a very old research technique. In Old Testament ancient Egyptians and Romans
conducted surveys in form of censuses for the purpose of administering their domains.
Today, survey research is perhaps the most frequently used mode of observation in the
social, sciences. In survey research, the investigator is interested in the incidence,
distribution and interrelationships between various educational variables. For instance you
may find the adequacy of facilities. Here you identify various students get their views about
the facilities i.e. whether they are enough or not. Survey research could be descriptive,
exploratory or involving statistical analysis.

Instruments / tools / elements used in survey research

i) Questionnaires
Advantages
Observations
ii) Interviews
Advantages
iii) Observations guidelines
Advantages
Steps involved in survey research
.Problem statement
.Defining objectives
.Selecting a sample

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 .Preparing the instruments
.Data analysis

Questionnaires, interviews and observations can be collapsed into one thing

Instrument population Questionnaire Interview Observation
Whole population PQ1 PI2 PO3
Sample SQ4 SI5 SO6

KEY
SQ Sample Questionnaire
SI Sample Interview
SO Sample Observation

N/B
- Cell one (I) is not possible. Only works in population census
- Cell two (2) is not practical only works during population census
- Cell three (3) is more preferred in census
For practical purposes we centre on 4, 5 & 6

Consideration for using 4, 5 and 6

Cell 4 – Implies you are dealing with a literate population. People who can fill the
questionnaire.
Cell 5 – Implies you are dealing with people such as parents. Some parents may be illiterate.
You must choose a language where the correspondents are comfortable. Sometimes you
may need an interpreter. Some words may however not be interpreted well.
Cell 6 – At this level, you are assuming that a community will allow you to observe them.
And that you will have a rapport with them. Human nature is that people will react
according to how you want them to behave.

Sources of data for survey

i) Secondary data

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Secondary data has a lot of do with data directly from documents available. These
documents may include; books, development plans for districts and the nation, economic
reviews, statistical abstracts, research papers classified into journals, discussion papers,
policy etc.
ii) Primary data
This is the information generated from the field – respondents. This is first-hand
information through interviews, observations etc.

Limitations of survey research

- Surveys are dependent on the cooperation of respondents.
- Information unknown to the respondents cannot be tapped in a survey e.g. amount saved
per year etc.
- Requesting information which is considered secret and personal encourages incorrect
answers.
- Surveys cannot be aimed at obtaining forecasts of things to come.

ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH (QR)

Ethnographic research is the type of research that makes a thorough description of a natural
cultural of educational setting. Involves very intensive data collection. Why ethnographic
research? The rational is that behaviour is greatly influenced environment in which it
occurs.
How are the people / students living there?
Educationally you would look at how learners are interacting.
A research tries to understand a given group from a natural setting. You describe the group
in a natural form. There is no stated Hypothesis however it may come in the course of doing
research.
The collection technique is by observation. A researcher needs to stay with people and
participate in their activities as he/she observes them. You have to be in harmony with the
system.
As an ethnographic researcher you have to capture every detail sometimes at the interval
of 5 to 10mins. Lengthily hand written notes are usually made.

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Caution
It is time consuming because you do not direct. You cannot hurry those you are researching
on. Time wasting in schools could be a good area of research / study. One may need a
whole term or year to carry out an ethnographic research. Reports must be written on a
daily basis.
Occasionally a research may need videotaping to remind you of unique scenario aspects.
This is to emphasize the aspect of a picture.

Advantages of Ethnographic research

- Provides a very complete picture of the environment being studied (Mugenda and
Mugenda, 1999).
- The hypothesis or theories developed are grounded solidly in observational data
gathered in naturalistic setting.

Disadvantages
i) A very alert and sophisticated observer who can write clearly and rapidly is needed.
ii) Observers must be trained in observational techniques to make the results valid.
iii) A lot of time is needed to understand the environment being studied. This makes
observational research costly.
iv) Observational records are usually very long and very difficult to quantify and
interpret.
v) The results can seriously be distorted by observer bias or pre-concerned ideas.
vi) It is impossible to observe and write down everything that occurs in the
observational session. A lot of information is left out.
vii) The observer often becomes an active participant in the environment under study.
This can lead to role conflicts and emotional involvement which can reduce the
validity of the data being collected.

CORRELATION RESEARCH
Correlation research attempts to establish relationships or inter-relationships between two
or more educational variables.
You can look at a variable like achievement of learners in a class

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Maths
Physics Is there any relationship?
English Group A and Group B
History

What the teaching methods? Theoretical or practical can improvise to get good results.

Under correlation research we have ex post facto – variables are not changed. The
investigator does not manipulate the independent variable because it has already occurred
(e.g. KCSE grade) – cannot be manipulated. In gender studies the variables are fixed
organimistic variables like gender (male & female) age, height etc. cannot be changed.

Independent variable
Is the variable which is manipulated by the researcher to see its effects on the dependent
variable. Teaching method can be changed. Also called predictor or explanatory variables.
These are the factors the researcher things explain variation in the dependent variable.
These are the causes.

Dependent variable / the outcome variable / effect

It is contextualized as the result. You manipulate the independent variable to see the
dependent outcome / result.
Variable: Derived from variations. This refers to differences. Variables are attributes or
qualities of the cases we measure or record. For example in the case of persons, the
variables could be sex, age, height, weight, ability etc. They are referred to as variable
because it is assumed that the cases are referred to as variables because it is assumed that
the cases will vary in their scores on these attributes. For example, if the variable is age, we
obviously recognize that people can be of different ages.

Topic selection
The term ‘topic’ refers to the subject, issue or area under discussion. The topic / subject
one selects to research is essential in the success of the research project. In fact ones interest
in the topic will sustain the research. If a researcher is interested in a particular area, he/she

60
will enjoy reading materials related to that subject and will put time and effort into the
work. The researcher will be keen on collecting the required data, analysing it and finding
out the results.

Steps to be taken in topic selection

a) Identify what interests or puzzles one in an area of study. Some of these issues may be
social, economic, health, political or cultural issues.
• Why did Kimani Maruge go to standard one and not an adult education class?
• Why do people still consume illicit brews despite the dangers experienced and the
warnings?
• Why are there so many adults who are illiterate in Britain?
• Why do people become so religious in old age?

b) Identify key words for the topic

These keywords can include words representing the issue that has puzzled the researcher.
For instance if the researcher is puzzled about illicit brews, the keywords may “be increase
in illicit brews”

c) Define the topic

After identifying the keywords the researcher wants to concentrate on, he/she has to define
the topic. Defining the topic involves analysing selected keywords keenly. Out of these
keywords there are a number of topics which can be studied.

d) Formulate the topic

After identifying and defining the topic, the researcher should formulate it. For example
the prevalence of illicit, brews in Kenya / the prevalence of adult illiteracy in rural areas
etc.

Qualities of an effective research topic

- It is researchable e.g. research instrument can be easily formulated and the study
population sampled, objectives can be formulated based on the topic and are
measurable.

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- It captivates the interest of the researcher.
- It makes a contribution to knowledge – can the findings contribute to knowledge?
- It is provocative – open to varied views and interpretations
- It is clear and focused i.e. not vague or alien to the researcher

Challenges encountered in topic selection

- Choosing a topic that is too wide (effects of poverty, effects of drought, truancy in
schools / causes, effects) etc.
- Choosing a topic that is too complex
Mushrooming of churches in Kenya / TTC in Kenya
- Poor timing – most research works a limited time, span for which data should be
collected and presented. Failure to adhere to this may lead to disqualification or
penalties. Avoid topics that take too long a time.
- Limited accessibility to materials and respondents e.g. Ndungu Report, devil worship
report, tribal clashes report of 1992. Patients may feel it is an invasion of their privacy
e.g. AIDS patients, prostitutes – they may refuse to respond.

Title selection
Title selection or ‘title’ refers to heading, label or tag. The title of the proposal of research,
project describes what the study is about. The title is a mini abstract. It portrays a quick
summary of the key idea(s) in a proposal of research project.

Steps in title selection

- Identify keywords for the title
- Reflect on the key issues – brainstorm the key issues identified – find out independent
and dependent variables
- Formulate the title
- Evaluation (researcher must make sure that it is clear and specific)
Qualities of an effective title
- It should be brief and specific. This makes the title more clear and focused.
- It should be in line with the set objectives – title should portray the aims and objectives
of the study.

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- It should be clear and unambiguous – should not lead to various interpretations of the
study.
- It should reflect a relationship between the independent and dependent variables e.g.
the effect of adult education on management of resources.
- The title should portray an issue that is researchable. The aspects in question should be
measurable.

Challenges encountered in title selection

- Choosing a title that is not specific – a title that is open to varied interpretations e.g.
crime in Kenya.
- Writing a title that is too wordy. A brief title is more effective than a long one. Remove
unnecessary words from the title. When all else fails, a two part title can be used with
the parts separated by a colon.
- Poorly formulated titles that are too difficult to comprehend – understanding drug abuse
in Kenya understanding literacy in Kenya e.t.c
- Lack of consistency. Some study titles neither tally with the research objectives nor
with the problem statement or methodology applied.

Summary of title selection / area

- The words should be less than 20 words
- The words must carry the problem, level, message
- Must be in capital letters
- Use A4 white paper

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION (Must be in capital)

1.1 Oerview
Introduce the contents of chapter one (Background, statement of the problem, purpose,
objectives, research questions e.t.c.)

1.2Background to the study

Calls for drum beating for support. The issues / concerns should be addressed from an
international continental to the national and finally local levels.

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Cast, the problem internationally, continent, nationally and locally. Locally refers to the
place when the study is carried.
You can combine historical and regional analysis approached. However the whole thing
must be logical and sequential. The background normally leads to the statement of the
problem.

Role of background to the study

- It helps clarify what has brought about the need for the study.
- Points out the challenges faced due to the identified issue.
- It indicates the opportunities for improvement.
- It demonstrates the researcher’s view of the research problem.
- It helps to convince the readers that the problem of opportunity exists and that it should
be addressed.
- It shows the reader that the researcher knows the study area as he/she is familiar with
what has preceded.

Qualities of an effective background to the study

- Should be brief and specific – porous heavily from the literature review / a summary of
literature review.
- It engages the interest of the reader – should get the reader concerned about the problem.
- It gives the reader a glimpse of the research problem.
- Gives the reader an idea of how the proposal is structured.
- Language used is simple and straight forward.
- It is informative and persuasive since it attempts to enlighten the reader about the
research problem and the urgency of addressing the problem.

Reflection / brain storming, material compilation

Are vital steps in writing an effective background to the study.
Challenges faced in writing an effective background
- Lack of differentiation between the background to the study and the literature review.
- Lack of clarity due to poor language use. This involves the use of jargons, slang, trendy
words, abbreviations, redundant phrases and confusing language.

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- Quoting studies but not explaining how they fit in the background section.
- Some researchers use the background content to justify the need for the study.

Ways of identifying a specific research problem from a broad area

i) Existing theories – A theory contains generalizations and hypothesized principles
which can be scientifically tested
ii) Existing literature – A systematic reading, programme in the general area of interest
is perhaps the best way of locating specific research problem
iii) Discussions with experts on general topics either in class or seminars are a source
of current problems that could be studied.
iv) Previous research studies in the field of interest usually indicate areas of further
research.
v) Replication means carrying out a research project that has been done previously
done to find out whether findings held over time and across region.
vi) The media – issues which are frequently reported in the media can also form the
basis of a research problem.
vii) Personal experiences e.g. first hand observations and reflection on intriguing
experiences could be sources of research problems. Personal experiences lead to
vivid images and intuition on the part of a serious researcher.

1.3 Statement of the problem

A research problem refers to an issue or concern that puzzles the researcher. This may be
due to its effect or consistence despite measures taken. For example a researcher may be
puzzled at why bear consumption is still, high despite the increase in price. Puzzled by high
illiteracy rates among children / adults yet education is free.

Qualities of an effective research problem

- The research problem is clearly stated. It is concise the reader is made aware that there
is a definite issue that needs to be solved.
- The research problem has an impact on the whole topic being investigated.

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- The research problem clearly indicates the urgency of the research and shows that the
research is definitely needed.
- The importance of the study in adding new knowledge is stated clearly.
- The problem is researchable i.e. a problem that can be investigated through the
collection and analysis of data.
- The problem has supported statements
- Language used is simple and objective
- No poetic, comical o emotional language is used
- The scene of the specific research problem is indicated.
- The problem statement must give the purpose of the research.

Steps that should be taken in order to write an effective research problem

- Reflection – starts with an idea that the researcher might have as to what kind of a
problem / she want to solve or questions a researcher wants answered.
- Identify key variables and uncertainties
- Formulation – explain why this is a problem and how it affects people or institutions.
- Justification – explain briefly the repercussions likely to follow in the long run if the
problem is not addressed. Show that the research is needed.

Challenges faced in articulating the research problem

- Defining the research problem – i.e. lack of clarity. The issue being addressed is hardly
noticeable in the research problem.
- Lack of unity between the research problem, objectives and literature review. No
relationship at all.
- Lack of urgency for the study i.e. lacks supportive evidence that if not tackled, the
repercussions could be serious.
- Emotional language – some research statements lack objectivity and only reinforce the
researcher’s emotional views over the selected topic.
1.4 Purpose of the study
You should first state the long term goal of the study. In other words, you should first state
the purpose which is a broad statement indicating what you intend to do about the problem.
This should represent in precise terms the final goal of the research.

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Purpose should be broad enough to lead to specific issues, be pragmatic, provide direction
and be clearly stated.

Purpose has to meet the following criteria:-

- Must be indicated clearly and in a declarative manner.
- Should indicate the concepts or variables in the study.
- The purpose should state the target population.
The purpose of this study is to examine the influence of high school curriculum on the
career choices of women in public and private universities in Kenya.

1.5 Objectives
Objectives are purposes or intentions stated in specific measurable term. They provide
opportunities for evaluating results. Objectives are operational i.e. state specific tasks that
will be carried out by the researcher to accomplish aims of the study.

Importance of objectives
- Determine the kind of questions to be asked i.e. the questions asked should address the
objectives stated.
- Objectives determine the data collection and analysis procedure to be used hence must
be clear and brief (Orodho, 2004).
- Objectives determine the nature or form of the proposed study.
- Guide decisions in the selection of respondents research instruments and the study area.
- Objectives serve to clarify the variables of the study.

Qualities of effective objectives

- They are specific – state clearly what the researcher will do in order to fulfil the
purposes of the study.
- They are measurable – thus can be evaluated. They are focused – narrow the study to
essentials.

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- They are operational – clearly phrased in operational terms, specifying exactly what the
researcher will do.
- They are realistic – therefore achievable.

Challenges faced in specific objective formulation

- Lack of clarity, overambitious objectives unrelated objectives and not specific.

N/B:
Use neutral words in stating objectives
To determine
To compare
To investigate
To differentiate
To explore
To find out
To examine
To inquire
To establish
To test
Avoid biased words such as to show, to prove, to confirm, to verify, to check, to
demonstrate, to indicate, to validate, to explain, to illustrate.
1.6 Research hypothesis
A hypothesis is a guess or an assumption. It is a tentative explanation for certain behaviour
patterns, phenomena or events that have occurred or will occur (Gay 1996). For instance,
price increase influences commodity consumption. This is only a guess. It therefore has to
be verified. In research, a hypothesis is a statement that describes an unknown but
tentatively reasonable outcome for the existing phenomenon.

Ways of stating the hypothesis

There are two forms of stating the hypothesis; the null and alternative forms.

The null hypothesis

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The null hypothesis states that there is no difference between the variables studied. The null
hypothesis refers to the guess the researcher tests and hopes to prove wrong, reject or
nullify. The null hypothesis states that no relationship exists between the variables studied.
For example, there is no significant difference in the academic performance of students
who attend private schools and those who attend public schools in national examinations.

HO2: There is no significant difference between an individual’s success in life and his/her
academic certificates.

HO3: There is no significant difference between the behaviour of a literate adult and an
illiterate adult.

The alternative hypothesis

This hypothesis states a value or relationship and it is different from null. It asserts that the
value of relationship in the null is not true. In research, the null hypothesis is tested and if
rejected, the alternative hypothesis is accepted. It is symbolized by H1 etc.

H1: There is a significant difference between the perception and attitude of entrepreneurs.
H2: There is a significant difference between success in business and determination.
H3: Teachers determine the success or failure of their students in life.

Purpose of hypotheses
i) Hypotheses provide direction to the solution. They bridge the gap between the
problem and the evidence needed for its solution.
ii) Hypothesis ensures collection of the evidence necessary to answer the question
posed in the statement of the problem.
iii) Hypothesis refines the research problem.
iv) By defining the variables in the study, the hypothesis enables the researcher to
collect data that either supports the hypothesis or rejects it.
v) Hypothesis enables the investigator to assess the information her or she has
collected from the start point of both relevance and organization.

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Characteristics of good hypothesis
- Must state clearly and briefly the expected relationship between variables.
- They must be testable. Data can be collected to support or fail to support hypothesis.
- It gives logical arguments to justify the hypothesis.
- It is consistent with the existing body of knowledge.
- It defines the selected variables in operational and measurable terms.
- The wordings are clear and precise.

Challenges faced in formulating the hypothesis

- Lack of clarity. The hypothesis does not clearly state the relationship between two or
more variables.
- At times the variables stated in the hypothesis are too many and cannot be achieved
within the time frame stated.
- Some of the formulated hypothesis is not testable or verifiable.
- Some hypothesis does not address all aspects of the research problem.

1.7 Research questions

There are issues that the researcher seeks to answer. They are related to the research
objectives.
These questions guide the research process by addressing the variables of the study.
In writing questions observe the following;-
- Avoid beginning research questions with words that elicit ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answers for
example ‘can we?’ ‘Is?’ ‘Are?’ Instead use words such as what? How? These will imply
investigation on the part of the researcher.

1.8 Assumption
Outlining the facts presumed to be true but have not been verified. You try to give a level
playing field. Assumptions help to justify the study. Examples

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- All schools have same curriculum
- That all the schools have the same sponsor
- All teachers are qualified
- All schools have enough text books / resources
- Every school has a guidance and counseling department

1.9 Significance of the study

This section outlines the significance or importance of the issue at hand. If for example the
researcher is investigating poor prices, then significance would be related to improvement
of prices. It could also involve creation of awareness of the market forces.
- How important is your study?
- What will it contribute to? e.g. can inform policy makers and researchers on importance
of attitude, resources, time management etc.
- The current study will find out the following:
- Generally in this section the researcher provides a clear rationale or justification for the
importance of the study e.g. it is hoped that the findings of the study will provide more
light on the concept of efficiency of education.
- The findings of the study will help schools to find new ways of improving their
performance.

1.10 Limitations of the study

This section indicates challenges anticipated or faced by the researcher. This includes time
and financial limitations that influenced the scope of the study, data inaccessibility and
unanticipated occurrences. However the researcher should make an attempt to state how
these challenges were overcome.
Indicate the choices of the schools i.e. those close to the road, schools whose performance
is poor. You could face limitations in terms of terrain – very rugged. This will have an
effect on sample.

1.11 Delimitation / scope

A situation where you limit yourself to a given area but selected schools e.g. P.A.G,ACK
schools. You make finer boundaries, exceptions, reservations and qualifications inherent in

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the study. The researcher gives suggestion on how the study will be narrowed in scope
concerning
a) Time span to be recovered
b) People involved
c) Sources to be investigated
d) Population to which generalizations may be made e.g. this study will confine itself to
interviewing and observing a sample of 20 adults. School teachers in the central
business district of Nairobi city etc
The current study will confine itself to students and teachers in public secondary schools
in Kakamega central. Teachers and students will be those in session.

1.12 Conceptual framework

A concept is any abstract or general idea inferred or derived from specific instances. A
concept is a word or phrase that symbolizes several interrelated ideas.
A conceptual framework is a concept or mental picture that a researcher develops to show
a relationship among constructs, concepts and variables for a particular study. It is also
usually presented graphically to show the interrelationships between concepts, constructs
and variables and their presumed relationships shown by arrows in the diagram.
Conceptual framework may be derived from existing theories or may be drawn from
common sense by the researcher.

Personality factors

Saps Students behavior Academic

programmes

Social factors

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 Input Process Output

Socio-economic
Type of school
background

Teacher Teacher
characteristics characteristics

Systems approach to teaching

Achievement

Teache
r

Objectives Method
s

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Learner Content
s
 - Student
characteristics
- Entry behavior
background
- School type
facilities
- Sponsor

- Teacher
Achievement
characteristics
- Motivations / status
- Training levels
- In-service
- Marital status

Visualize relationships between variables. Explain concept well

Usefulness of conceptual frameworks

According to Goetz and Lecompte (1984) and Bliss, Monk and Ugborn (1983) a conceptual
framework increasingly strengthens and keeps the research on track by;
- Providing clear links from the literature onto the research goals and questions.
- Contributing to the formulation of the research design.
- Providing reference points for discussion of literature, methodology and analysis of
data.
- Contributing to the trustworthiness of the study.
- Giving a broad scope to thinking about research.
- Conceptualizing the problem and providing a means to link ideas and data so that deeper
connections can be revealed.

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Strategies in designing an effective conceptual framework
- Reflection – assessing a situation from social, economic and philosophical perspectives
(questions, variables etc).
- Defining the key issue (problem).
- Identifying key uncertainties (gaps in understanding / knowledge).
- Identifying and assessing different possibilities for action.

Qualities of an effective conceptual framework

- Should be clear and concise.
- Language used should be simple and straight forward.
- The conceptual framework should be self-explanatory.
- Should have supportive evidence of ideas used.
- Should be logical and address the title, research objectives and statement of the
problem.
- Should be consistent with the literature review.
- It should also show a link between the literature review and the study problem.
- It should develop a set of guiding principles against judgments and prediction might be
made.
- Serve / act as a reference point from which to locate the research questions within
contemporary theorizing.
- Should provide a structure within which to organize the content of research and to frame
conclusions within the context.

Challenges faced in designing an effective conceptual framework

- Choosing the language for descriptions needs careful consideration.
- Disunity in themes is a major weakness in conceptual frameworks.
- Some researchers write ideas that are isolated, yet in conceptual framework elements
of each theme overlap.
- Planner may not be conversant with the research objectives.
- Copying conceptual frameworks of other researchers without a keen study to find out
if the framework fits in the current study.

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1.4 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
A theoretical framework is a collection of interrelated ideas based on theories. A theoretical
framework accounts for/ explains phenomena. It attempts to clarify why things are the way
they are based on theories. A theoretical framework is a general set of assumptions about
the nature of phenomena. A theory guides the study.
Whatever the intent, the theory must be well described and should show how the particular
study fits into that theory must be clearly explained. An example of a common theory used
across disciplines is a systems theory.
The argument behind the systems theory is that a system consists of various components
of sub-systems which must function together for the system to work. If a sub-system fails,
the whole system is put in jeopardy.

Examples of Theoretical frameworks

- Structural functionalism theory (Emile Durkheim 1858 – 1917)
- Symbolic interaction theory (Max Weber 1864 – 1920)
- The conflict theory (Karl Max 1818 – 1883)
- Basic needs theory (Abraham Maslow, 1943)

Qualities of an effective theoretical framework

- Account for and explains a phenomenon.
- Be specific and well-articulated.
- Reflects the research problem being addressed.
- Be measured in a practical situation.
- Provides tentative answers to questions, issues and problems addressed in the research
problem.
- Should systematically address the various aspects of the problem, particularly the key
factors that are assumed to influence or cause the problem.

Guidelines in formulating a theoretical framework

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In formulating an effective theoretical framework, the researcher should adhere to the
following;-
a) Reflect on the existing theories for the purpose of identifying a fitting content.
b) Analyze the research title to identify the independent and dependent variables. The
researcher should then reflect on the relationship between the variables.
c) Find out which theories best explain the relationship between the variables. This can be
achieved by using the library and reading books and articles related to the topic selected.
d) Formulation – The researcher should then write down the theories applicable, link the
ideas and identify the relationship. After this the researcher should formulate the
theoretical framework.
e) Evaluation – After formulating the theoretical framework, the researcher should
evaluate to find out if it addresses all sections of the research problem.

Challenges faced in formulation of theoretical frameworks

- Lack of differentiation between a theory and a theoretical framework. While a theory
simply states what proponents have discovered in relation to a certain issue a theoretical
framework uses this theory to account for and clarify why things and the way they are.
The researchers should therefore avoid simply stating the theories applicable to the
study.
- Moreover, some researchers quote theories that do not explain the phenomenon under
study.

1.16 DEFINITION OF CENTRAL TERMS

In research, you seek to communicate to others, including your project supervisor, the
findings discovered. It is therefore important that you define key terms as used in the study.
While the dictionary will define these words / terms literally, you are required to define the
words terms operationally.
It would also mean a special meaning attached to a word, concept, object expressing exactly
what you actually mean and the way the term is used in the study e.g. performance of
students in Physics means the ability to find fault, repair some domestic appliances e.t.c.
However in a study on performance, you may just be interested in the KCSE mean score in
physics as a mean measure of student’s performance in the subject (Orodho, 2003).

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This is important because different researchers define several educational and social
science terms differently.

CHAPTER TWO
The review of literature
The review of literature involves the systematic identification, location and analysis of
documents containing information related to the research problem being investigated
(Mugenda and Mugenda 1999). Literature review should be extensive and thorough
because it is aimed at obtaining knowledge of the topic being studied.

The scope of literature

- How wide or narrow should the literature review be? What kind of literature is related
to my topic?

Answers:
- If the area of study has been studied for a long time and therefore is a huge body of
literature, one can read only those studies that are reasonably close to one’s research
topic.
- In new or little researched areas, where little depth is available, a researcher would
require to review any relevant material in order to develop a logical framework for the
study.
- The researcher should avoid the temptation to include all available material.

Steps in carrying out literature review

- Be very familiar with the library before beginning the literature review.
- Make a list of key words or phrases to guide your literature search e.t. Topic:- family
conflict, look for words or phrases such as ‘family violence’ or ‘abuse’ or family
dissolution, wife battery.

Major purposes of literature review in a research project

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- Literature review is to determine what has been done already related to the research
problem being studied. A detailed knowledge of what has been done helps the
researcher to avoid unnecessary and unintentional duplication, form the framework
within the research findings are to be interpreted and demonstrate his or her familiarity
with the existing body of knowledge.
- A review of the literature will reveal what strategies, procedures and measuring
instruments have been found useful in investigating the problem in question.
- Literature review puts together, integrates and summarizes what is known in an area. A
review analyses and synthesizes different results revealing gaps in information and
areas where major questions still remain.
- Another purpose of literature is to make the researcher familiar with previous studies
and thus facilitate interpretation of results of the study. For example results can be
discussed in terms of whether they support or contrast precious findings. If there is a
contradiction, the literature review might provide rationale for the discrepancy.
- In some cases, a researcher may not have narrowed down to a topic at the start of a
literature review. In such cases, the literature review helps, the researcher to limit the
research problem and to define it better.
- Literature review helps determine new approaches and stimulates new ideas. The
researcher may also be alerted to research possibilities which have been overlooked in
the past.
- Approaches that have proved to be futile will be revealed through literature review.
- In most cases, authors of research articles do include specific suggestions and
recommendations for those planning for further research.

Qualities of an effective literature review

- It is critical, organized and analytical in orientation.
- It justifies the need for the study.
- It highlights the relationship between the past and the current study.
- It puts the research problem into perspective, that is, by quoting and analyzing various
studies related to the selected topic, the literature review helps define the research
problem.
- It also acts as a guideline in assessment of the research questions.

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Secondary sources of literature
- Scholarly journals found in libraries.
- Theses and dissertations for all graduate students who wish to receive a master’s degree
or Doctor of Philosophy (PhD).
- Government documents such as: policy papers, research reports etc.
- Papers presented at conferences and are published in referred journals.
- Books available in libraries and other places
- Abstracts, periodicals, the Africana section of the library
- References quoted in books.
- Grey literature - anything written but not published e.g. notes from lecturers, papers
presented in seminars and at conferences.
- Computer research
- Microfilm that is old information that is stored on microfilm and retrieved only when
needed. Journals and magazines are stored on microfilms to reduce the storage space.
- The internet.
- With the key words and phrases related to the study, one should go to the source of
literature.
- Summarize the reference on cards for easy organization of the literature.
- Once collected the literature should be analyzed, organized and reported in an orderly
manner.
- Make an outline of the main topics in order of presentation. Decide on the number of
headlines and sub-headlines required depending on how detailed the review is.
- More general literature should be covered first before the researcher narrows down to
that which is more specific to the research problem.
- Some researchers prefer to have a brief summary of the literature and implications.

Sources of literature
Primary sources
A primary source is a direct description of any occurrence by an individual who actually
observed or witnessed the occurrence. In research this is the description of a research by a
person who actually carried the research. The review of literature should be based on

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primary sources as much as possible because information from secondary sources may be
altered by the writer.

Secondary sources
Publication written by an author who was not a direct observer or participant in the events
described.
Quotations: Why use them?
- When no change is made to the text for the sake of accuracy.
- When a statement is very clear exact wording may be the most effective way to present
a significant thought.
- Adds strength to ones work especially when the quotation is from a recognized
authority.
-
N/B:
Whenever a direct quotation is used, it must be reproduced exactly from the original
publication and no correction should be made. If a part of the original quotation is omitted,
the break should be indicated by the ellipsis.
- If anything is added to a direct quotation, this should be placed in brackets or to be
rendered in italics.
- Indicate author, year of publication and page number.
- Identify gaps in knowledge and create the entry point for your study.

Cited reference and bibliography

Cited references refer to a list of references which the researcher actually read and cited in
the text. Bibliography refers to the list of materials that were read whether they are cited or
not.

Challenges faced in the formulation of a literature review

- Failure to connect the reviewed studies with the current study.
- Poor presentation e.g. too many paragraphs addressing similar point. Done always start
with name of the researcher / author.
- Large quantities of studies to review – all materials related to the topic – not possible

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- Lack of documentation (not noting down important points in the course of reading)
- Lack of referencing – will force you to spend a lot of time in the library tracking down
all the references to all the sources that they quoted.
- Lack of critique – blindly accepting research findings and interpretation without
critically examining all aspects of research design and analysis.
- Failure to review current studies – do not base reviews on works carried 20 years ago
e.g. 5 years ago and related to study is okay.
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
It is a key chapter in research. It has the following aspects:
- Introduction
- Research design
- Location of the study
- Population of the study
- Sampling techniques and sample size
- Instruments for data collection e.g. questionnaire, interview schedule etc.
- Reliability and validity of research instruments
- Procedure for data collection
- Data analysis
- Ethical considerations
- References
- Appendices
N/B Mind your tense when handling a proposal.
N/B. Research report is normally captured in chapter four
- Selection of a problem
- Carry out an investigation whose findings will be analyzed/ reported in
chapter four

CHAPTER FOUR
FINDINGS, PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, DISCUSSION
What did you find out?
Presentation of data tells about the information you find, try and quantify the
information e.g. how much, numbers etc.
Tabular presentation of data is key here e.g. presentation of data in table of those who
access secondary school education from public and private schools to national and
provincial schools.
TYPE OF SCHOOL YEAR
2003 2004 2005 2006
PUBLIC 2000 4000 5000 10000
PRIVATE 2100 3000 2000 1000

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You should also use graphical data. Supervisor prefer information presented in bar
graphs and pie charts

What does this diagram say?

Use percentages to describe e.g. in 2005 there were more students in public schools than
private schools
Could use descriptive statistics or inferential or both
Could use mean square
Discuss
What does it mean? What are the implications of your work?
What are the findings of other people?
How do your findings relate with other students? Why are the results so low?
Your questions must address your objectives
Test your work becomes useless
Chapter 4 must also address the listed objectives in chapter one.
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objective 1 can also have 4.2.1 & 4.2.2
4.3 Objective 2
4.4 Objective 3
4.5 Objective 4
4.6 Summary of chapter 4
Approach I present and analysis data then discuss at the end of the chapter
Approach II present and analyze each objective then have a general summary

Summary

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Data analysis refers to examining what has been collected in a survey or experiment
and making deductions and inferences. It involves uncovering underlying structures,
extracting important variables, detecting any anomalies and testing and underlying
assumptions.

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter summarizes the whole research process. First it prefers a brief summary of
the whole study with particular reference to research problem, research methodology,
results the main contributions of the research and recommendations for future world. It
provides a summary of the main findings of the study, conclusions and
recommendations.
The readers would want to know whether the objectives of the study were achieved and
whether the work has contributed to knowledge. Therefore, when compiling this chapter
a researcher should focus on answering these questions.
Any conclusions drawn should be those resulting from the study. A researcher should
make relevant references and may also refer to the work of others for comparison.

Summary of the main findings

In summarizing, a researcher should identify the findings of the study and discuss them
briefly. In addition, the methodological problems encountered should be outlined so
that future/ other researchers may take the relevant precautions.
The researcher should clearly pinpoint if the study objectives were achieved or not. An
effective summary has the following qualities.
• It bases on results from the study
• It is brief, all statements are concise and pinpoint to the contributions that the
researchers has made.
• All statements are factual
One way to present the summary is to use one paragraph for each idea.
Alternatively the researcher can use a point – by – point format

Conclusion
The conclusion section should be very brief half a page. It should indicate what the
study results reaffirm. It should also briefly discuss some of the strategies highlighted
by the respondents. In this section, the researcher should state clearly how the study has
contributed to knowledge.

Recommendations
This sections often exposes further problems and introduces more questions
As a researcher, there is a time limit to the research project so it is unlikely that the
study would have solved all the problems associated with the area of study.
The researcher is therefore expected to make suggestions about how his/her work can
be improved and also based on the study findings, point out whether there are areas that
deserve further investigation. This section will indicate whether a researcher has a firm

84
appreciation of his/her work and whether he/she has given sufficient thought to its
implications, not only within the narrow confines of the research topic but to relate
fields. This section reflects the researcher’s foresightedness and creativity.
Suggestions for further research

END PARTS/BACK MATTER

References/Bibliography
References are all citations of quoted work in chapter 1, 2&3. It is a subset of
bibliography. Bibliography includes all books used.
- Know the sir name of author, the title of the book, the publisher, year and town of
publisher.
- When using a computer you bold or italicize
- Newspaper cuttings, theses, projects are all called (unpublished)
Do not highlight the title of that project/ thesis/ newspapers/ journal
- Arrange references/ bibliography alphabetically Ali to Zainabu
- The same author may have more than one publication in the same year. Check the
citations if they have dates e.g.2004 July & 2004 January. The January 2004 comes
first but you write (2004 a) it means ‘a’ is the earlier ne
(2004 b) and ‘b’ is the most recent
Orodho A.J & Amugune A.A (2005)
Orodho A.J, Abaji J.J & Manaar (2005)
Newspaper quaotation
Quote the paper itself e.g. Daily Nation (2009)
Article Kibaki presides over third graduation at MMUST
Publisher - The Daily Nation
Friday1.2004
Col. One
Mayoyo P. (2009)
The Daily Nation, Wednesday 5th 2009
Col 1
News bulletin

Ktn news bulletin 900 oclock

Furious go missing

Muli lilian – Kenya Television News

9 O’clock News Bulletin
Friday November 2009

Appendices/Annex
Must be numbered and titled
E.g. Annex I
Student’s questionnaire

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Annex II
Teacher’s questionnaire
Other appendixes
o Questionnaires
o A letter of authorization
o Budget
o Time frame/Time schedule
Abstract /taste
Should not be bumby list it betrays
1st paragraph – Statement of the problem, purpose, and objective – put them in prose
summarized one.
2nd paragraph – Methodology, Explain the design, target population sampling
techniques, tools up to sample size
3rd paragraph – Analysis finding and recommendations

❖ Cover page (Not numbered

❖ Topic
❖ Name
❖ Title
❖ University
❖ Month
❖ Year
❖ Page II Declaration
❖ Candidate – signature and date
❖ Supervisors
❖ Year NOV, 2009
❖ Copyright,
❖ Page III – Dedication
❖ Page IV – Acknowledgement
❖ Page V – Abstract – One Page – 400 words
❖ Page VI – Table of contents
❖ Page – list of figures
❖ Page – list of tables
❖ Page – abbreviations and acronyms
❖ Chapter 1, 2, 3, 4&5
❖ Bibliography
❖ Annextures e.g. 1, 2, 3, 4

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❖ Table complex ones
❖ Map of the place

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TIME SCHEDULE
A time schedule refers to how long the researcher will take to finish the research.
In most cases the funders have a deadline to stop funding a study and such as deadline
must be, adhered to.
Graduate students also have a deadline to finish their work and this will guide them in
formulating a time schedule. Very rarely will a researcher have as long as necessary to
conduct a study because of money and time constraints and hence the importance of
time schedule.
A time schedule includes listing of major activities (listed on the left side of the page)
and the corresponding anticipated time period it will take to accomplish that activity
(listed across the top of the page). Time period is usually given in months
An important consideration to bear in mind is that most activities can overlap so that
one does not have to finish one activity completely before starting the next one. For
example, one can start writing the report while still analyzing data.
Activities should not be squeezed into very little time. Allowances should be made for
unforeseen delays. It is wiser to allow more time and finish before schedule than go
beyond the time schedule than go beyond the time schedule & since this may affect the
budget

Importance of a time budget

1. It enables the researcher to assess the feasibility of conducting a study within
existing time limits.
2. It helps the researcher to stay on schedule as the research progresses

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 TIME SCHEDULE (2011)
No. Activity Time (Months)
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JULY AUG SEP OCT
1. Formulating research problem, design and survey of literature
review, typing, printing
2. Presentation and submission of proposal
3. Piloting of instruments / correcting them
4. Administration of questionnaires
5. Processing and analysis of data
6. Preparing first draft
7. Editing first draft
8. Defense/presentation of draft before a panel
9. Correction of the project
10. Reproduction and submission of the project

HIGHER LEVEL WORKPLAN

NO. ACTIVITY TIME RESPONSIBLE TIME EXPECTED OUTCOME CRITICAL ASSUMPTION

1. Pre-testing instrument By 20th FEB Researcher Pre-tested outcome Training of numerators conductor
Researcher & Research
2. Collect data in the field By 30th may Raw data Absence of major constraints …..
assistants
Submit final report in hard
3. By 30th july Researcher Final research report Review workshops and …
copies

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BUDGET
A budget is a list of items that will be required to carry out the research and their
approximate cost. The budget should be well thought out to avoid asking too little or
too much. The prices of items should be well researched to avoid over-pricing or
under-pricing them.
If the research is to be submitted for funding, it is advisable to include all the
requirements. As long as the requirements are reasonable and genuine and the cost
are not exaggerated, funders will normally provide the funds subject to their
regulations and guidelines.
The budget should be detailed enough and precise on items needed, prices per unit
and total cost.
If the amount of money available is known the budget should be worked out so that
it is within the available funds.

Items to include in the Budget

- The cost of hiring or employing personnel and clerical assistants
- The cost of equipment e.g. computers, overhead projectors, laptops, cameras, flash
disks etc.
- The cost of computer time
- The cost of stationery e.g. papers, pens, files etc.
- Travel expenses e.g. hiring of cars , petrol expenses,
- Subsistence allowances e.g. for lunches, accommodation costs etc.
- Any unforeseen costs like price of petrol being raised or price raised or price of
equipment breaking down.
- Per diem for researchers – this is a kind of compensation or “salary” for the job to
be done. Per diem is a latin word which means for each day.
- A researcher should first find out the budget limits of the particular donor where
the proposal will be submitted. This avoids over budgeting or asking for too little,
to the detriment of the study.

Disseminating research findings /forums to use

Seminars
- Use of public gatherings
- Put your work on the internet
- Publish your work in the print media, journals etc.

Justify the inclusion of research work in the achievement of vision 2030 in Kenya

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