Networks

This chapter provides an overview of network principles, standards, and purposes.

Different types of network topologies, protocols, logical models, and the hardware needed to
create a network will be discussed in this chapter. In addition, network component upgrades,
email server installations and configuration, troubleshooting, and preventive maintenance will
be covered. You will also learn about network software, communication methods, and
hardware relationships.

To meet the expectations and needs of your customers and network users, you must be familiar
with networking technologies. You will learn the basics of network design and how some
components affect the flow of data on a network. This knowledge will help you successfully
troubleshoot network problems.

Networks are systems that are formed by links. For example, roads that connect groups of
people together create a physical network. Connections with your friends create your personal
network. Websites that allow individuals to link to each other’s pages are called social
networking sites.

People use the following networks every day:

Mail delivery system

Telephone system

Public transportation system

Corporate computer network

The Internet

Networks share information and use various methods to direct the manner in which
information flows. The information on the network goes from one place to another, sometimes
via different paths, to arrive at the appropriate destination. For example, the public
transportation system is a network similar to a computer network. The cars, trucks, and other
vehicles are like the messages that travel within the network. Each driver defines a starting
point (source computer) and an ending point (destination computer). Within this system, there
are rules such as stop signs and traffic lights that control the flow from the source to the
destination. A computer network also uses rules to control the flow of data between hosts on a
network.
A host is any device that sends and receives information on the network. Some devices can
serve either as hosts or peripherals. For example, a printer connected to your laptop that is on
a network is acting as a peripheral. If the printer is connected directly to a network, it is acting
as a host.

Many different types of devices can connect to a network:

Desktop computers

Laptop computers

Tablet computers

Smartphone’s

Printers

File and print servers

Game consoles

Home appliance

Computer networks are used globally in businesses, homes, schools, and government agencies.
Many of the networks are connected to each other through the Internet. A network can share
many different types of resources and data:

Services, such as printing or scanning

Storage space on removable devices, such as hard drives or optical drives

Applications, such as databases

Information, stored on other computers

Documents

Calendars, synchronizing between a computer and a Smartphone

Network devices link together using a variety of connections:

1 Copper cabling - Uses electrical signals to transmit data between devices

2 Fiber-optic cabling - Uses glass or plastic fiber to carry information as light pulses
3 Wireless connection - Uses radio signals, infrared technology, or satellite transmissions

Benefits of networking

The benefits of networking computers and other devices include lowered costs and increased
productivity. In a network, resources can be shared to reduce data duplication and data
corruption.

Require Fewer Peripherals

The figure shows that many devices can be connected on a network. Each computer on the
network does not need to have its own printer or backup device. Multiple printers can be set
up in a central location and shared among the network users. All network users send print jobs
to a central print server that manages the print requests. The print server can distribute print
jobs over multiple printers or queue jobs that require a specific printer.

Increase Communication Capabilities

Networks provide several different collaboration tools that can be used to communicate
between network users. Online collaboration tools include email, forums and chats, voice and
video and instant messaging. With these tools, users can communicate with friends, family, and
colleagues.

Avoid File Duplication and Corruption

A server manages network resources. Servers store data and share it with users on a network.
Confidential or sensitive data can be protected and shared with the users who have permission
to access that data. Document tracking software can be used to prevent users from overwriting
files or changing files that others are accessing at the same time.

Lower Cost Licensing

Application licensing can be expensive for individual computers. Many software vendors offer
site licenses for networks, which can dramatically reduce the cost of software. The site license
allows a group of people or an entire organization to use the application for a single fee.

Centralize Administration

Centralized administration reduces the number of people needed to manage the devices and
data on the network, reducing time and cost to the company. Individual network users do not
need to manage their own data and devices. One administrator can control the data, devices,
and permissions of users on the network. Backing up data is easier because the data is stored in
a central location.

Conserve Resources

Data processing can be distributed across many computers to prevent one computer from
becoming overloaded with processing tasks.

Types of Networks

Data networks continue to evolve in complexity, use, and design. A computer network is
identified by the following specific characteristics:

The area it serves

How data is stored

How resources are managed

How the network is organized

Type of networking devices used

Type of media used to connect the devices

LAN

Different types of networks are given different descriptive names. An individual network usually
spans a single geographical area, providing services and applications to people within a
common organizational structure. This type of network is called a Local Area Network (LAN). A
LAN can be made up of multiple local networks.

All of the local networks within a LAN are under one administrative control group. This group
enforces the security and access control policies of the network. In this context, the word Local
refers to local consistent control rather than being physically close to each other. Devices in a
LAN might be physically close, but this is not a requirement.

A LAN can be as small as a single local network installed in a home or small office. Over time,
the definition of a LAN has evolved to include interconnected local networks consisting of many
hundreds of devices that are installed in multiple buildings and locations.
WLAN

A Wireless LAN (WLAN) is a LAN that uses radio waves to transmit data between wireless
devices. In a traditional LAN, devices are connected together using copper cabling. In some
environments, installing copper cabling might not be practical, desirable, or even possible. In
these situations, wireless devices are used to transmit and receive data using radio waves. As
with LANs, on a WLAN you can share resources, such as files and printers, and access the
Internet.

In a WLAN, wireless devices connect to access points within a specified area. Access points are
typically connected to the network using copper cabling. Instead of providing copper cabling to
every network host, only the wireless access point is connected to the network with copper
cabling. The range (radius of coverage) for typical WLAN systems varies from under 98.4 ft (30
m) indoors to much greater distances outdoors, depending on the technology used.
PAN

A personal area network (PAN) is a network that connects devices, such as mice, keyboards,
printers, smartphone, and tablets within the range of an individual person. All of these devices
are dedicated to a single host and are most often connected with Bluetooth technology.

Bluetooth is a wireless technology that enables devices to communicate over short distances. A
Bluetooth device can connect up to seven other Bluetooth devices. This technical specification
is described by the IEEE 802.15.1 standard. Bluetooth devices are capable of handling voice and
data. Bluetooth devices operate in the 2.4 to 2.485 GHz radio frequency range, which is in the
Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) band. The Bluetooth standard incorporates Adaptive
Frequency Hopping (AFH). AFH allows signals to "hop" around using different frequencies
within the Bluetooth range, thereby reducing the chance of interference when multiple
Bluetooth devices are present.
MAN

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network that spans across a large campus or a city. The
network consists of various buildings interconnected through wireless or fiber optic backbones.
The communications links and equipment are generally owned by either a consortium of users
or by a network service provider who sells the service to the users. A MAN can act as a high-
speed network to allow sharing of regional resources.
WAN

A wide area network (WAN) connects multiple smaller networks such as LANs that are in
geographically separated locations. The most common example of a WAN is the Internet. The
Internet is a large WAN that is composed of millions of interconnected LANs. WAN technology
is also used to connect corporate or research networks. Telecommunications service providers
are used to interconnect these LANs at different locations.

In a peer-to-peer network, there is no hierarchy among the computers, nor are there any
dedicated servers. Each device, also called a client, has equivalent capabilities and
responsibilities. Individual users are responsible for their own resources and can decide which
data and devices to share or install. Because individual users are responsible for the resources
on their own computers, the network has no central point of control or administration.
Types of Networks

Peer to Peer Network

Client Server Network

Peer-to-peer networks work best in environments with ten or fewer computers. Peer-to-peer
networks can also exist inside larger networks. Even on a large client network, users can still
share resources directly with other users without using a network server. In your home, if you
have more than one computer, you can set up a peer-to-peer network. You can share files with
other computers, send messages between computers, and print documents to a shared printer.

Peer-to-peer networks have several disadvantages:

There is no centralized network administration, which makes it difficult to determine who

Servers have software installed that enables them to provide services, such as email or web
pages, to clients. Each service requires separate server software. For example, a server requires
web server software to provide web services to the network.

In a client/server network, the client requests information or services from the server. The
server provides the requested information or service to the client. Servers on a client/server
network commonly perform some of the processing work for client machines, for example,
sorting through a database before delivering only the records requested by the client. This
provides for centralized network administration, which makes it easy to determine who
controls resources on the network. Resources are controlled by a centralized network
administration.

A computer with server software can provide services simultaneously to one or many clients.
Additionally, a single computer can run multiple types of server software. In a home or small
business, it may be necessary for one computer to act as a file server, a web server, and an
email server. In a corporate environment employees may access a single computer in the
company which acts as an email server. This email server is used only to send, receive, and
store email. The email client on an employee computer issues a request to the email server for
any unread email. The server responds by sending the requested email to the client.

A single computer can also run multiple types of client software. There must be client software
for every service required. With multiple client software installed, a client can connect to
multiple servers at the same time. For example, a user can check email and view a web page
while instant messaging and listening to Internet radio.

A client/server model makes it easy to determine who controls resources on the network by
providing central network administration. The network administrator implements data backups
and security measures. The network administrator also controls user access to the network
resources. All of the data on the network is stored on a centralized file server. A centralized
print server manages shared printers on the network. Each user must provide an authorized
username and password to gain access to network resources that each person is permitted to
use.

When data is sent over a computer network, it is broken up into small chunks called packets.
Each packet contains source and destination address information. The packet, along with the
address information, is called a frame. It also contains information that describes how to put all
of the packets back together again at the destination. The bandwidth determines the number
of packets that can be transmitted within a fixed period of time.

Bandwidth is measured in bits per second and is usually denoted by any of the following units
of measure:
B/s - bits per second

Kb/s - kilobits per second

Mb/s - megabits per second

Gb/s - gigabits per second

NOTE: 1 byte is equal to 8 bits, and is abbreviated with a capital letter B. 1 MB/s is
approximately 8 Mb/s.

The figure shows how bandwidth on a network can be compared to a highway. In the highway
example, the cars and trucks represent the data. The number of lanes on the highway
represents the amount of cars that could travel on the highway at the same time. An eight-lane
highway can handle four times the number of cars that a two-lane highway can hold.
The amount of time it takes data to travel from source to destination is called latency. Like a car
traveling across town that encounters stop lights or detours, data is delayed by network devices
and cable length. Network devices add latency when processing and forwarding data. When
surfing the Web or downloading a file, latency does not normally cause problems. Time critical
applications, such as Internet telephone calls, video, and gaming, can be significantly affected
by latency.

DATA FLOW

The data that is transmitted over the network can flow using one of three modes: simplex,
half-duplex, or full-duplex.

Simplex

Simplex, also called unidirectional, is a single, one-way transmission. An example of simplex

Half-Duplex

When data flows in one direction at a time it is known as half-duplex, as shown in the figure.
With half-duplex, the channel of communications allows alternating transmission in two
directions, but not in both directions simultaneously. Two-way radios, such as police or
emergency communications mobile radios, work with half-duplex transmissions. When you
press the button on the microphone to transmit, you cannot hear the person on the other end.
If people at both ends try to talk at the same time, neither transmission gets through.

Full-Duplex

When data flows in both directions at the same time it is known as full-duplex, as shown in the
figure. Although the data flows in both directions, the bandwidth is measured in only one
direction. A network cable with 100 Mb/s in full-duplex mode has a bandwidth of 100 Mb/s.

A telephone conversation is an example of full-duplex communication. Both people can talk and
be heard at the same time.

Full-duplex networking technology increases network performance because data can be sent
and received at the same time. Broadband technologies, such as digital subscriber line (DSL)
and cable operate in full-duplex mode. Broadband technology allows multiple signals to travel
on the same wire simultaneously. With a DSL connection, for example, users can download
data to the computer and talk on the telephone at the same time.
There is no centralized security. Each computer must use separate security measures for data
protection.

The network becomes more complex and difficult to manage as the number of computers on
the network increases.

There might not be any centralized data storage. Separate data backups must be maintained.
This responsibility falls on the individual users.