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Upon completion of this article, you should be able to:

 describe briefly who is Socrates
 explain Socrates‘ views on education
 briefly describe who is Plato
 evaluate Plato‘s views on education
ll  explain Aristotle‘s position on the goals of education
 evaluate Aristotle‘s views on curriculum and pedagogical strategies

Chapter 1:
Introduction
Chapter Overview
Chapter 2:
o Who is Socrates? Early Perspectives on Curriculum
o Goals of education
Chapter 3:
o Curriculum Confucius & Mencius
o Teaching and learning
o Who is Plato? Chapter 4:
o His works Al-Farabi & Ibnu Sina
o The Academy
o Goals of education Chapter 5:
o Curriculum Socrates & Plato
o Who is Aristotle?
o His view on the goals of education Chapter 6:
Jean Rousseau, John Locke & Frederick Froebel

Chapter 7:
References Paulo Freire & Ivan Illich

Chapter 8:
Rabindranath Tagore & Vivekananda

Chapter 9:
21st Century Skills

In this Chapter, we will examine the views of three ancient Greek philosopher on the
aims and goals of educations. Socrates, though he did not put into writing his thoughts,
contributed much to views on education. He placed ethical behaviour as the main aim of
education and proposed a curriculum in which students studied many different subjects
using the Socratic method. Plato, a student of Socrates documented his views and also
proposed his conception of education and the curriculum.
 2

WHO IS SOCRATES?

Socrates was born in Athens, Greece, in 470 BC.

His father was a stonemason and his mother was a mid-
wife. He was taught by his father how to make stone
sculptures. At a very young age Socrates was always
asking questions and that was what that made him
famous. He also studied drama, science, astronomy, and
geometry and he continued to ask "why" throughout his
studies. He especially enjoyed being able to debate with
his teachers and always asked questions about how to
determine what was right and what was wrong.
When his father died, he inherited the family
property and place in the government. Being a man of
property, he was also obligated to serve in the Athenian
army and fought in many wars, although he did not like
Socrates
the fighting. When he returned from the wars, he was able
(470 – 399 B.C.)
to do what he really enjoyed — teaching. He would
wander the streets of Athens, asking questions, debating
issues, and seeking answers. Most of the other teachers charged for their knowledge,
but his lessons were free. All he wanted was to inspire others to think and reason.
Sometimes students would get frustrated with him because he would not simply give
lectures or answers. Instead, he insisted that they learn by asking questions, debating
issues, and finding a logical conclusion. Unfortunately, his teaching methods and his
desire to share knowledge turned out to be my downfall.
When he was 70 years old, he was brought to trial for worshipping strange
gods. His accusers said that he taught young men to think dangerous thoughts. He was
found guilty of these "crimes" and sentenced to death. Although his friends had a plan
to help him escape from prison, he refused. After spending his life searching for the
meaning of right and wrong, he felt it was wrong to run away from the government's
verdict. He told his friends, "No greater good can happen to a man than to discuss
virtue every day, and an unexamined life is not worth living."
So, in February, 399 BC, he chose to end his life quickly by drinking a potion
of poisoned Hemlock. His last words were, "The hour of departure has arrived.
We go our separate way – I to die and you to live. Which is better is known to
God alone." One of his most famous students, Plato wrote many stories about his
life. Shortly after his death, Plato writing about Socrates said;

"A man, I think, who was, of all men of his time, the wisest
at best and most just."

LEARNING ACTIVITY
a) What do you think Socrates meant by the phrase ―an
unexamined life is not worth living‖?
b) Socrates was prosecuted because ―he taught young
men to think dangerous thoughts‖. Explain.
 3

GOAL OF EDUCATION ACCORDING TO SOCRATES

Socrates did not commit to writing his ideas and thoughts on education. Fortunately,
his devoted student, Plato wrote extensively about Socrates in the Dialogues. Works
by other students such as Xenophon, Aristotle and Aristophanes also provided
insights into the thoughts of Socrates.

CURRICULUM

A) MUSIC EDUCATION
 Socrates allowed only moderate and austere or solemn melodies. Melodies
imitating the sounds and accents of courageous men facing danger should be
allowed. Melodies about sadness and celebrations or revelry are forbidden.
 Only simple instruments such as the lyre are permitted (399d). Most
importantly, Socrates insists that rhythm must follow speech, not the other
way around.

B) GYMNASTIC EDUCATION
 Socrates advocated a gymnastic regimen because he believed that a healthy
intellect should be accompanied by a healthy body. Therefore, by eating and
drinking moderately and undertaking a simple physical exercise plan from
youth, the body will be as fit as is needed.
 Gymnastics is mainly responsible for preventing illness and the need for
medicine.
 Medicine should be used for curing easily-fixed illnesses and should never be
used to keep those unable to work alive.
 Movement, sport and game teach a child how to coordinate the body with
harmony and grace. This is essential not only in itself but also to later learning
how to coordinate the desires of the soul with harmony and grace.
 Children in the act of organized physical play learn moderation and grow in
self-knowledge. They learn when to push themselves and when to rest. Such
skills will serve them well as they learn how to moderate themselves in all
areas of life.

C) BALANCE BETWEEN GYMNASTIC EDUCATION AND MUSIC

EDUCATION
Education in music and gymnastics will be compulsory for youths, and their
progress and adaptability will be watched and tested throughout their development.
However, there should be a balance between music and gymnasium education to
produce moral persons. Overemphasis on gymnastic education causes savagery and
overemphasis on music education causes softness, the two must be balanced.

D) MATHEMATICS
 As a child grows older, or she should begin to learn mathematics, first
counting, then arithmetic, then plane geometry and finally solid geometry.
Mathematical skill is essential, says Socrates.
 4

 A person can hardly run a business or a country if one cannot tell the
difference between a large number of people, money or resources and a small
number. Furthermore a strong leader must be able to plan the dimensions of a
battlefield, and organise an army.

E) SCIENCE
 Socrates explains that science, like mathematics, is necessary for the everyday
tasks of running a country. Being able to navigate ships or predict the weather
has practical applications, as does the practical sciences of engineering and
medicine.
 But more importantly, science teaches children about the beauty of the world.
Socrates suggests that as the astronomy student witnesses the beauty of the
stars obeying their orbits, he learns much about how human action is beautiful
when in accord with true justice.

D) POETRY
Socrates was serious when he said that poetry has the power to touch the soul. But,
poetry must only imitate what is good, going beyond the petty troubles of men to the
eternal pursuit of justice and philosophy. For example, he used the poetic images of
the sun and the cave to educate his pupils. Socrates considered the poems by Hesiod
and Homer as containing not only falsehoods, but falsehoods held up as models of
good behaviour. The young cannot judge well what is true and false; since a view of
things taken on at early age is very hard to eradicate or change, it is necessary to
ensure that they hear only myths that encourage true virtue (378d6-e3).

LEARNING ACTIVITY
a) What is Socrates‘ conception of education as illustrated
by the analogy of the cave?
b) What should be considered when introducing music and
gymnastic education to children?
c) Why did Socrates regard mathematics and science as
Important?
d) Why should one be cautious when introducing poetry
to children?
 5

TEACHING AND LEARNING

A) STORY TELLING
Socrates was a great advocate of telling
stories to children. He was critical of the content of
stories or tales told. He felt that the stories should
not show the Gods as being unjust for fear the
children will think it is acceptable and honourable to
do injustice. For example, stories should not show
the Gods fighting among themselves so that youths
will learn the importance of unity and will be less
inclined to fight amongst themselves when they are
adults. Also the stories told to children should state
that all that is good and just comes from the Gods
and bad things do not come from the Gods.
The stories told should glorify justice and
moderation. For example, with regards to justice,
children should grow up fearing slavery more than
death. With regards to moderation excessive
displays of grief and happiness or laughter in the
stories told to children was considered undesirable.
The stories should display obedience to superiors and restraint in drinking, eating,
sex, love of money and possessions. Tales must also show bravery in the face of
danger.
Most existing stories, Socrates claims, send inappropriate messages and must
be outlawed. They show unjust men as happy, just men as unhappy, injustice as
profitable, and justice as being someone else's good and one's own loss. If children are
surrounded by tales of goodness and never exposed to bad tales, they will learn to
love what they know (goodness and justice) and hate what they do not know
(injustice).

B) SOCRATIC QUESTIONING
Story:
Socrates was late in arriving at a meeting. This occasionally happened because he
would stop along the way, to reflect on his own thoughts. When he arrived, his host
Agathon invites Socrates to sit next to them because he wanted to share a thought that
came to him when Socrates entered the room. At which point Socrates replied‖

‗I only wish that wisdom were the kind of

thing one could share by sitting next to
someone – if it flowed, for instance, from
the one that was full to the one that was
empty, like the water in two cups finding
its level through a piece of worsted‘
(Symposium, 175d).
 6

The Socratic method is to be distinguished therefore from the traditional

method of teaching, in which teachers seek to transmit their knowledge to their pupils,
who are expected to assimilate it on the whole passively. The Socratic method is an
interactive method in which teacher and pupil co-operate in the pursuit of knowledge
through dialogue. The Socratic method of teaching has often been characterised as a
‗maieutic‘ method, or one in which the teacher assumes the role of a midwife.
Socrates argues that ‗there is no such thing as teaching, only recollection‘ (Meno, 82a)
and maintains that teachers should play the role of midwife in order to deliver their
pupils of the knowledge they unconsciously possess.
By subtly directing the discussion through questions, learners unchain
themselves and see the truth. He does not try to tell his students what to think, as
though he were putting "sight into blind eyes," but instead helps them turn around and
focus on what is important and true. He leads them toward the light by means of
questions until they are able to make an account of their knowledge for themselves
(511c-d). By presenting them with numerous different points of view, he teaches them
to look beyond convention and their long-held convictions, and be open to new,
foreign ideas. Never telling them what to think, Socrates helps them realise their own,
natural potential.
To illustrate his method of questioning, Socrates conducts an educational
experiment: by questioning a young slave, he leads him to self-discovery of the
solution to a relatively complicated problem in geometry (Meno, 82b–85b). From this
experiment Socrates concludes as follows:

So a man who does not know has in himself true opinions on a

subject without having knowledge. This knowledge will not come
from teaching but from questioning. He will recover it for himself.
And the spontaneous recovery of knowledge that is in him is
recollection. If then there are going to exist in him, both while he is
and while he is not a man, true opinions which can be aroused by
questioning and turned into knowledge, may we say that his soul has
been forever in a state of knowledge? Clearly he always either is or
is not a man (Meno, 85c-d; 86a).

C) PLAY
Besides story telling and questioning, Socrates states that the best education should be
more like play than work. The play which he advocates, however, is not without
responsibility. Play must have serious intentions. Socrates says, "Don't use force in
training the children in the studies, but rather play‖ (537a).

LEARNING ACTIVITY
a) What are the merits of story telling according to Socrates?
Do you agree?
b) Describe the Socratic questioning method? To what
extent would you be able to adopt the method in your
teaching and learning?
c) Why did Socrates advocate play?
 7

WHO IS PLATO?

Plato was born in 428 B.C. in Athens, Greece

and came from an aristocratic family whose father
was a descendent from the last king of Athens,
Codrus. He had two uncles who held important
positions in the government as law-maker and
statesman. Despite, having an ancestry, Plato did not
get into politics but instead wrote extensively on
politics and founded a science of politics.
As a child, Plato attended private school in
Athens and studied reading, writing and arithmetic.
He also memorised the works of Homer and other
Greek poets and learned to play the lyre. Later, Plato
wrote in Protagoras (326b), that playing the lyre and
Plato (482 – 348 B.C.) memorising poetry as two skills to ―familiarise the
minds of children with the rhythms and melodies by
which they become more civilised, more balanced and better adjusted‖. He also
attended the gymnasium for physical training, which he wrote later that it was
important a person has a good mind and a good body to serve it (Protagoras 326b).
At the young age of 20, Plato became a disciple of Socrates and stood by his
master until his death in 399 B.C. Plato was traumatised by the death of Socrates;
after which he left Athens and travelled widely as far as Egypt, Libya and southern
Italy. After years of travel and study, Plato founded the Academy in his native Athens
in 387 B.C (see Figure 3.2). It became a famous hotbed of philosophical and scientific
discussion, and is regarded by many as the first known university in the world

PLATO’S WORKS

Plato expressed his views in the form of 28 Dialogues and 13 Letters. Dialogue cover
a range of subject such as duty, courage, virtue, justice, beauty, science, nature of
humankind, kingship, rhetoric, legislation an so forth (see Figure 3.3). Plato identified
himself so closely with Socrates and wrote a great deal about the ideas of his master.
Oftentimes, it is difficult to make a distinction between the ideas of Socrates and
those of Plato. Plato‘s writings have had a significant influence on all aspects of
Western philosophy and many aspects of its culture. Plato's text The Republic, in
which he lays out his ideas on the perfect state, remains a staple of college reading
lists around the world (see Figure 5.1).
 8

Figure 5.1 Plato’s famous works

THE ACADEMY

When Plato founded the Academy around 385 B.C. he was just over 40 years
old. He set up his establishment not far from Athens. The Academy is often described
as the first university in history which may not be exactly true (see Figure 5.2). It
resembled the medieval universitas more than the modern university. It was a centre
of study and research, but nothing is known of the details of its organisation. It was
more of a scientific community than a school.

Plato at the Academy founded Ruins of the Academy

founded in 387 BC

Figure 5.2 The Academy

 9

Teachers and pupils lived

there in a community atmosphere
that was enhanced by a dialectical
method of teaching, in which
doctrinal presentations are followed
by discussion. Plato remained head
of the Academy for the rest of his
life. This meant that for some 40
years he was the driving force and
principal teacher of this intellectual
centre of Ancient Greece. The
Academy remained open until A.D.
529, that is, for almost 900 years
after Plato‘s death.
Politics, the main subject of the Academy, was studied and taught on a regular
basis. The Academy owned a collection of the written constitutions of a large number
of states. Politicians, statesmen and specialists in constitutional law were educated at
the Academy; and the long list of its disciples who were called upon to act as political
and legal consultants in the Greek states is a good indicator of the extent of its
influence.

POLICY AND GOALS OF EDUCATION

THE CAVE ALLEGORY

Figure 5.3 The Story of the Cave

 10

The story is about a group of prisoners chained together in a cave from birth
facing a wall (see Figure 5.3). In front of the prisoners is a wall and behind them is a
fire which puppet-masters create shapes and figures which cast shadows onto the wall
in front of the prisoners. Because they know nothing else, the prisoners assume the
shadows to be the extent of reality not knowing that what they see and hear is actually
only a small segment of the real world.
One day a prisoner breaks the chains and escapes and gets out of the cave. He
returns to tell the other prisoners but they shunned him when he told them what he
saw outside. They did not believe him because all they had ever known is the cave
and the shadows cast on the wall. They refused to accept what he said and continued
to live in the cave. The story was originally written by Plato to demonstrate what had
happened to his teacher, Socrates. It is a metaphor for the ignorance of the people to
kill someone who ‗thinks outside the cave‘.

Using the cave analogy, Plato suggests that:

 Education should people from their false opinions and convictions, as opposed
to chaining them within the cave as did their earlier education.
 The sun is seen as the truth which should be sought, possessed and understood
by humans. Education should seek to free the prisoners from their false
opinions and convictions.
 Students should come to the truth on their own rather than by force.
 All humans have within them the ability to know, but it should be focused on
knowing the truth.
 Education should seek to teach children how to distinguish right from wrong
by showing the whole truth.
 What one is born with is not as important but rather how a person is educated
to be somebody with the right training.
 One should not selfishly stay outside of the cave; instead, the educated must
return to the cave to enlighten others.
 Socrates still prefers that his students do not simply accept the truth, but come
to it on their own.

EDUCATION POLICY

Plato developed his concept of educational policy in his two largest works, the
Republic and the Laws. In the Republic Plato developed his concept of the ideal state,
which embodied justice. It was a sort of Utopia in which its inhabitants were divided
into four distinct classes:
o Philosopher-King – head of the state
o Guardian – responsible for the security and administration of
the state
o Craftsmen and Merchants
o Slaves

 The aim of education is not personal growth but service of the state, which is
the guarantor of the happiness of its citizens for as long as they allow it to be
the embodiment of justice.
 11

 One of the tasks of education in the Platonic state is to preserve the status quo.
All innovation is taboo. Contrary to most modern educational principles,
education must stand guard against all change and all forms of subversion.

 The guardians must devote themselves entirely to the service of the state. They
may not possess material riches (which give rise to jealousy and conflict); they
may not indulge in frivolities (which could compromise their integrity); nor
may they entertain private ambitions.

 Despite his extreme conservatism, however, Plato had some highly innovative
ideas. For example, he espoused equality of the sexes at a time when women,
were confined to the household. In the Platonic state girls, like boys, do their
gymnastics in the nude and are expected to go to war clad in the same armour
as the men. They share the boys‘ education, with no discrimination between
them.

 Plato prescribes compulsory education for all in the guardian class.

Compulsory schooling goes far beyond an elementary education; yet Plato has
very little to say about the education of craftsworkers and merchants, which
consists of no more than a simple apprenticeship, and slaves received no
mention at all.

 Plato, indeed, was the first to formulate a complete education system, covering
every aspect from its administration to a detailed curriculum. In the Laws
Plato describes how education should be organized and administered.

 The whole education system should be headed by a ‗Supervisor of Education‘,

who would supervise all aspects of education for children of both sexes. He
should be a man of not less than 50 years, and the father of a legitimate family,
preferably of both sexes.

 The Superintendent will have working under him superintendents of

gymnasiums and schools in charge of their attendances and accommodation
for children of both sexes, together with judges of performers contending in
both musical and athletic competitions‘ (Laws, 764c-d).

LEARNING ACTIVITY
a) What is Plato‘s conception of education as illustrated
in his books?
b) What is The Academy?
e) Describe the education system proposed by Plato.
 12

CURRICULUM

Plato proposed the following for the curriculum:

MUSIC AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Since the health and beauty of both body and mind are essential goals of Platonic
education, in keeping with Greek custom, is divided into two parts: gymnastics and
music (i.e. culture). Physical education begins before birth. Pregnant women are
advised to walk around and move about as much as possible, for every sort of
movement is important to the unborn infant.

MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY

Special stress is next placed on the study of the four disciplines that prepare the
student for philosophy: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and harmony.
 Mathematics—arithmetic and geometry—liberate the mind from sensation,
familiarize it with the world of pure thought and turn the soul towards the
heights of the world of ideas.
 Astronomy initiates the soul to the order and immutable harmony of the
cosmos.

PRE-SCHOOL
Pre-school education is the responsibility of parents who are to treat children with
careful discipline, because ‗spoiling of children makes their tempers fretful, peevish
and easily upset by mere trifles‘. On the contrary treating children with severe
discipline makes them ‗spiritless, servile, and sullen, renders them unfit for domestic
and civic life‘ (Laws, 791c).

CULTURE
The teaching of culture begins very early on, through the stories parents tell their
children. Plato attaches the greatest importance to the content of these stories, for first
impressions shape the still malleable minds of children and determine their character.
Consequently, such stories must pass the censors‘ scrutiny. Plato places a strong and
oft repeated stress on censorship, not sparing even Homer.

GAMES
Next to stories, games should contribute to the education of children. ‗He who is to be
good at anything as a man must practise that thing from early childhood, in play as
well as in earnest [...] Thus, if a boy is to be a good [...] builder, he should play [...] at
building toy houses ...‘ (Laws, 643b)

SCHOOL SYSTEM
 From the ages of 3 to 6 children should play together under the supervision of
women assigned to that task.

 Children enter school at the age of 6. They first learn to read, write and count.
‗For reading and writing three years or so, from the age of 10, are a fair
 13

allowance of a boy‘s time, and if the handling of the lyre is begun at 13, the
three following years are long enough to spend on it.

 At the age of 18, at the end of this basic education period during which they
will have undergone many contests and examinations of all sorts, young
people—both boys and girls—are required to devote themselves exclusively
for a period of two to three years to physical and military training.

 At the age of 21 pupils selected on the basis of their past performance go on to

higher studies. It is this level of studies, which leads to philosophy.

 At the age of 30, and not before, Plato‘s students finally begin to study
philosophy or dialectics. After pursuing this course for five years they must
return and serve for 15 years in the army and the civil service, where they are
constantly put to the test.

 At the age of 50 those they will then devote the rest of their lives alternately to
philosophy and public life.

 When they retire, these state officials will have the leisure time to devote
themselves entirely to the delights of philosophy—this being their sole reward.

LEARNING ACTIVITY

a) What subjects should student learn?

b) Describe Plato‘s school system.
c) How should young children be educated?

ROLE OF THE TEACHER

 Teacher should free society from

ignorance (see Figure 5.4).
Students should be taught to
differentiate good from bad.

 All human being possess the

capability and desire to learn and
the role of the teacher is to bring
students to learn the truth.
 14

 What is important is not the

natural characteritics of students Rajah 5.4. Guru berperanan
but how they can be educated to membebaskan manusia daripada
become educated persons. kejahilan

 Teachers should be careful when disciplining children. If children are too

strictly disciplined it is likely that will be weak, easily give up and unable to
adapt to society when they are adults (Laws, 791c). On the other hand if they
are too spoilt, they will easily get angry and not respect teachers.

 Teachers should not discriminate between boys and girls. If needed, girls can
be directed to join the military and go to war.

 Plato suggested that stories and poetry taught to students should be censored
so that they do not spoil the minds of students.

 Teachers should encourage students to be involved in music and physical

education. Music and physical education will strengthen their minds and body.

LEARNING ACTIVITY
a) Apakah maksud Plato bahawa ‗guru berperanan
membebaskan manusia daripada kejahilan‘?
b) Terangkan peranan guru menurut Plato.
c) Sejauh manakah pendapat Plato relevan hari ini?

KEY TERMS
Conservative Socratic Questioning Method Justice
Gimnastics Truth School sysem
Mathematics Analogy of the cave The Academy
Story telling Ignorance Republic
Games Philosopher-King
 15

SUMMARY

 Socrates told his friends, "No greater good can happen to a man than to
discuss virtue every day, and an unexamined life is not worth living."

 Socrates allowed only moderate and austere or solemn melodies.

 Gymnastics is mainly responsible for preventing illness and the need for
medicine.

 Plato expressed his views in the form of 28 Dialogues and 13 Letters.

 Plato set up The Academy which is often described as the first university in
history which may not be exactly true.

 Education should people from their false opinions and convictions, as opposed
to chaining them within the cave as did their earlier education.

 All humans have within them the ability to know, but it should be focused on
knowing the truth.

 Education should seek to teach children how to distinguish right from wrong
by showing the whole truth.

 Pre-school education is the responsibility of parents who are to treat children

with careful discipline.

 The teaching of culture begins very early on, through the stories parents tell
their children.

 Teachers should not discriminate between boys and girls. If needed, girls can
be directed to join the military and go to war.

REFERENCES

Benson, Hugh C., 2000 Socratic Wisdom. New York: Oxford University Press

Dillon, A. (2004). Education in Plato's Republic. Paper presented at the Santa Clara
University Student Ethics Research Conference May 26, 2004
 16

Hummel, C. (1994). Plato. PROSPECTS: the quarterly review of education (Paris,

UNESCO: International Bureau of Education), vol. 24, no. 1/2, 1994, p. 329–42.

Hummel, C. (1993). PROSPECTS: the quarterly review of comparative education.

(Paris, UNESCO: International Bureau of Education), vol. 23, no. 1/2, 1993, p. 39-51.

Grube, G. M. A. Plato‘s Republic. Indianapolis, Hackett, 1986.

Ross, W. (1954). the Nichomachean Ethics are from the translation by Sir in `The
World Classics‘ series, London, Oxford University Press.

Warrington. J. (1959). Politics are taken from the translation by for Everyman‘s
Library, London, Dent & Sons,