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Water Reclamation Technologies for
Safe Managed Aquifer Recharge
Water Reclamation Technologies for
Safe Managed Aquifer Recharge
Christian Kazner, Thomas Wintgens and Peter Dillon

Published by IWA Publishing
Alliance House
12 Caxton Street
London SW1H 0QS, UK
Telephone: +44 (0)20 7654 5500
Fax: +44 (0)20 7654 5555
Email: publications@iwap.co.uk
Web: www.iwapublishing.com
First published 2012

© 2012 IWA Publishing
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the UK Copyright, Designs
and Patents Act (1998), no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior
permission in writing of the publisher, or, in the case of photographic reproduction, in accordance with the terms of licenses issued by the
Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of licenses issued by the appropriate reproduction rights
organization outside the UK. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to IWA Publishing at the
address printed above.
The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot
accept any legal responsibility or liability for errors or omissions that may be made.
Disclaimer
The information provided and the opinions given in this publication are not necessarily those of IWA and should not be acted upon without
independent consideration and professional advice. IWA and the Author will not accept responsibility for any loss or damage suffered by any
person acting or refraining from acting upon any material contained in this publication.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
ISBN 9781843393443 (Paperback)

ISBN 9781780400648 (eBook)
Contents
List of contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix
Foreword by Panagiotis Balabanis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi
Foreword by Valentina Lazarova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii
Chapter 1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Christian Kazner, Thomas Wintgens, Thomas Melin and Peter Dillon
1.1 The Importance of Managed Aquifer Recharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Research in Managed Aquifer Recharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Objectives of this Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Chapter Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Part A: International MAR Case Studies

Chapter 2
Water reclamation for aquifer recharge at the eight case study sites: a cross
case analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Kristell Le Corre, Avi Aharoni, Johan Cauwenberghs, Alma Chavez, Haim Cikurel, Maria Neus
Ayuso Gabella, Bettina Genthe, Richard Gibson, Bruce Jefferson, Paul Jeffrey, Blanca Jimenez,
Christian Kazner, Costantino Masciopinto, Declan Page, Rudi Regel, Stephanie Rinck-Pfeiffer,
Miquel Salgot, Maronel Steyn, Emmanuel van Houtte, Gideon Tredoux, Thomas Wintgens,
Cheng Xuzhou, Liang Yu and Xuan Zhao
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3.1 Basic wastewater parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3.2 Microbiological parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3.3 Trace elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3.4 Salinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
vi Water Reclamation Technologies for Safe Managed Aquifer Recharge
2.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Chapter 3
Indirect potable reuse via managed aquifer recharge in the Torreele/St-André project . . . 33
Emmanuel van Houtte, Johan Cauwenberghs, Marjoleine Weemaes and Chris Thoeye
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.1.1 Water management situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.1.2 History of implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.1.3 Treatment and implementation concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.1.4 Authorisation procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2 Description of the Test Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.2.1 Waste water treatment plant Wulpen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.2.2 Advanced water treatment plant Torreele . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2.3 Groundwater infiltration at St. André . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2.4 Groundwater extraction and treatment facility at St. André . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.2.5 Hydrogeology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.3 Treatment Targets and Regulatory Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.3.1 Regulated substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.3.2 Unregulated substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.4 Water Quality Monitoring and Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.4.1 Regular Monitoring Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.4.2 Measuring program of RECLAIM WATER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.4.3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.4.4 Technology performance and contaminant monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.4.5 Concentrate disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Chapter 4
Managed aquifer recharge of a karstic aquifer in Nardó, Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Costantino Masciopinto, Rosanna La Mantia, Alfieri Pollice and Giuseppe Laera
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.1.1 Historical background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.1.2 Motivations for recharge and use of abstracted water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.2.1 Study area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.2.2 Hydrogeology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.2.3 Process design and operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.2.4 Clogging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.3 Technology Performance and Contaminant Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.3.1 Wastewater chemical-physical parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.3.3 Salinity related parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.3.4 Water quality changes during MAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.4 Operational Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Chapter 5
Managed aquifer recharge via river bed in Sabadell, Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
M. Neus Ayuso-Gabella and Miguel Salgot
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Contents vii

5.2.1 Study area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.2.2 Ripoll River WWTP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.2.3 Ripoll River recharge and reuse scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.2.4 Hydrogeology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.2.5 Process design and operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.3.1 Basic wastewater parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.3.2 Nutrients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.3.4 Salinity related parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.3.5 Trace elements analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.3.6 Redox conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.4 Operational Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Chapter 6
Managed aquifer recharge for agricultural reuse in Shafdan, Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Haim Cikurel, Joseph Guttman and Avi Aharoni
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.1.1 Water management situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.2.1 Existing full-scale system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.2.2 Pilot-scale UF short SAT system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6.3.1 Nutrients and bulk organics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
6.3.2 Dissolved oxygen, iron and manganese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.3.3 Microbiological contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.3.4 Summary removal capacity UF-short SAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.3.5 Summary removal capacity conventional SAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.4.1 Operational results from short SAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.4.2 Removal capacity of short SAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.4.3 Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Chapter 7
The aquifer storage, transfer and recovery project in Salisbury, South Australia . . . . . . . 103
Declan Page, Karen Barry, Rudi Regel, Sarah Kremer, Paul Pavelic, Joanne Vanderzalm,
Peter Dillon, Stephanie Rinck-Pfeiffer and Colin Pitman
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
7.1.1 Historical background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
7.1.2 Motivations for recharge and use of abstracted water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
7.1.3 Authorisation procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
7.2 Description of the Test Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
7.2.1 Study area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
7.2.2 Hydrogeology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7.2.3 Process design and operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
7.3 Technology Performance and Contaminant Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7.3.1 Rainfall, stormwater capture and reuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
viii Water Reclamation Technologies for Safe Managed Aquifer Recharge
7.3.2 ASTR well-field aquifer conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

7.3.3 ASTR well field, first injection phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
7.3.4 Water quality assessment based on protocol 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
7.4 Operational Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
7.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Chapter 8
Managed aquifer recharge for potable reuse in Atlantis, South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Gideon Tredoux, Bettina Genthe, Maronel Steyn and Jason Germanis
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
8.1.1 Historical background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
8.1.2 Motivations for recharge and use of abstracted water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
8.1.3 Authorisation procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
8.2 Description of the Test Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
8.2.1 Study area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
8.2.2 Hydrogeology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
8.2.3 Process design and operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
8.3.1 Dissolved organic carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
8.3.2 Electrical conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
8.3.3 Sulphate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
8.3.4 Potassium and calcium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
8.3.5 Boron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
8.3.6 Redox conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
8.3.7 Microbiological parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
8.3.8 Organic micropollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
8.3.9 Summary of water quality monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
8.3.10 Operational feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
8.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Chapter 9
Unplanned aquifer recharge in El Mezquital/Tula Valley, Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Blanca Jiménez, Alma Chávez, Richard Gibson and Catalina Maya
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.1.1 Water management situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.1.2 History of the development of the site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.1.3 Technical set-up and operational experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.1.4 Analytical methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
9.2 Water Quality Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
9.2.1 Irrigation water in the Tula Valley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
9.2.2 Supply water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
9.2.3 Soil and soil column analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
9.3 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Chapter 10
Managed aquifer recharge by enhanced direct injection-well recharge in
Gaobeidian/Beijing, China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Cheng Xu Zhou and Xuan Zhao
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
10.1.1 Historical background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
10.1.2 Motivations for recharge and use of abstracted water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
10.1.3 Legal framework and authorisation procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Contents ix
10.2 Description of the Test Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

10.2.1 Study area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
10.2.2 Process design and operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
10.3.1 Water quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
10.3.2 Operational feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
10.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Part B: Water Quality Analysis in MAR – Methods and Results

Chapter 11
Water quality analysis – microbiological hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Valter Tandoi, Caterina Levantesi, Simon Toze, Uta Böckelmann, Maurizio Divizia,
Neus Ayuso-Gabella, Miquel Salgot, Rosanna La Mantia and Elisabeth Grohmann
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
11.1.1 Overview on selected water quality parameters, relevance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
11.1.2 Detection and quantification methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
11.2 Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
11.2.1 Belgium (Wulpen/Torreele) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
11.2.2 Italy (Nardò) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
11.2.3 Spain (Sabadell) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
11.2.4 Coherence of pathogen and indicator presence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
11.2.5 Results of pathogen decay studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
11.3 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
11.3.1 Pathogen contamination numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
11.3.2 Treatment performances of MAR processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
11.3.3 Pathogens and indicators relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
11.3.4 ARG in reclaim water sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
11.3.5 In situ pathogen decay rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Chapter 12
Water quality analysis: Detection, fate, and behaviour, of selected trace organic
pollutants at managed aquifer recharge sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Mathias Ernst, Arne Hein, Josef Asmin, Martin Krauss, Guido Fink, Juliane Hollender,
Thomas Ternes, Claus Jørgensen, Martin Jekel and Christa S. McArdell
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
12.2 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
12.2.1 Sampling, storage and processing at the demonstration sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
12.2.2 Method 1: antibiotics, neutral drugs, and other micropollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
12.2.3 Method 2: acidic drugs and ICM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
12.2.4 Method 3: estrogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
12.2.5 Method 4: nitrosamines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
12.2.6 Method 5: AOI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
12.2.7 Quality assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
12.3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
12.3.1 Nardo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
12.3.2 Sabadell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
12.3.3 Shafdan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
12.3.4 Gaobeidian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
12.3.5 Wulpen/Torrele . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
12.4 Cross Site Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
12.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
x Water Reclamation Technologies for Safe Managed Aquifer Recharge
Chapter 13
Water quality analysis – bulk organic compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Saroj K. Sharma, Mathias Ernst, Martin Jekel and Gary Amy
13.1 Overview of Selected Water Quality Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
13.2 Sampling, Storage and Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
13.3 Analytical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
13.4 Selected Results from Laboratory and Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
13.4.1 Laboratory studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
13.4.2 Case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
13.5 Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Part C: Water Reclamation Technologies in MAR

Chapter 14
Treatment trains utilising natural and hybrid processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Saroj K. Sharma, Mathias Ernst, Arne Hein, Martin Jekel, Bruce Jefferson and Gary Amy
14.1 Natural Systems for Water Reclamation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
14.2 Overview and Methods of Natural Treatment Systems Related Studies Under Reclaim Water . . . . 240
14.3 Performance of Treatment Trains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
14.3.1 Bulk organics removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
14.3.2 Nutrient removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
14.3.3 Organic micropollutant removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
14.3.4 Pathogen removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
14.3.5 Soil clogging potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
14.4 Operational Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
14.4.1 Soil aquifer treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
14.4.2 Constructed wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
14.5 Economic Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
14.5.1 Soil aquifer treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
14.5.2 Constructed wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
14.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Chapter 15
Membrane based treatment trains for managed aquifer recharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Christian Kazner, Adriano Joss, Thomas Ternes,
Emmanuel van Houtte and Thomas Wintgens
15.1 Membranes in Water Reclamation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
15.2 Overview and Methods of Membrane Treatment Related Studies under Reclaim Water . . . . . . . . . 260
15.2.1 Emerging membrane based treatment trains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
15.2.2 Membrane studies under Reclaim Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
15.3 Performance of Treatment Trains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
15.3.1 Dual membrane treatment by UF/RO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
15.3.2 Direct NF treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
15.3.3 PAC/NF treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
15.3.4 GAC/NF treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
15.3.5 NF/GAC treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
15.3.6 MBR/NF treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
15.4 Operational Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
15.4.1 Dual membrane treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
15.4.2 PAC/NF treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
15.4.3 Direct NF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
15.4.4 NF/GAC treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Contents xi
15.4.5 GAC/NF treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

15.4.6 MBR/NF treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
15.5 Economic Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
15.5.1 Dual membrane treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
15.5.2 NF-AC hybrid systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
15.5.3 MBR/NF treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
15.6 Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
15.6.1 Removal rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
15.6.2 Comparison with other alternative processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
15.6.3 Treatment of NF concentrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
15.6.4 Operational aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
15.6.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Chapter 16
Treatment of reject streams from dense membrane processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
How Yong Ng, Winson Lay, Lai Yoke Lee, Guihe Tao, Harry Seah, Jessica Benner,
Thomas Ternes and Chris Thoeye
16.1 Treatment of RO Concentrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
16.2 Capacitive Deionisation (CDI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
16.2.1 Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
16.2.2 Plant set-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
16.2.3 Analytical methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
16.2.4 Water quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
16.2.5 Operational issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
16.2.6 Cost estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
16.2.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
16.3 Ozonation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
16.3.1 Removal of emerging pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
16.3.2 Increase of biodegradability by ozonation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
16.3.3 Bromate formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
16.3.4 Toxicity of RO concentrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
16.3.5 Oxidation product formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
16.4 Granular Activated Carbon with Microfiltration (BIO MAC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
16.4.1 Plant set-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
16.4.2 Removal capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
16.4.3 Operational regime and conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
16.5 Subsurface Flow Reed Bed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
16.5.1 Plant set-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
16.5.2 Removal capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
16.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Part D: Design and Management of MAR Systems

Chapter 17
General design considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Peter J. Dillon
17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
17.2 Identifying Project Objectives – What Are the Options? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
17.2.1 Options for storage increase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
17.2.2 Options for water quality improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
17.2.3 Options for sustaining groundwater levels and dependent ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
17.2.4 Whole catchment and groundwater system context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
17.3 Steps in Establishing a MAR Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
xii Water Reclamation Technologies for Safe Managed Aquifer Recharge
17.3.1 Viability assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302

17.3.2 Degree of difficulty assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
17.3.3 Investigations and risk assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
17.4 Site Selection and Aquifer Characterisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
17.5 Operation and Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
17.6 Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
17.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Chapter 18
Use of groundwater models for prediction and optimisation of the behaviour
of MAR sites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Wolfram Kloppmann, Avi Aharoni, Haim Chikurel, Peter Dillon, Irina Gaus,
Joseph Guttman, Tom Kraitzer, Sarah Kremer, Costantino Masciopinto, Konrad Miotlinski,
Paul Pavelic, Marie Pettenati and Géraldine Picot-Colbeaux
18.1 Groundwater Modelling and Artificial Recharge: What Model for What Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
18.1.1 Models as tool to design and operate a MAR system in a given legal context . . . . . . . . . . . 311
18.1.2 Model data requirements and hydrogeological characterisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
18.1.3 Groundwater modelling and artificial recharge: Model selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
18.2 Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
18.2.1 Case study 1: Shafdan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
18.2.2 Case study 2: Adelaide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
18.2.3 Case study 3: Nardò . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
18.2.4 Case study 4: Wulpen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
18.3 Modelling of MAR System: Learning from the Reclaim Water Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Chapter 19
Risk assessment and risk management in Managed Aquifer Recharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Declan Page, Maria Neus Ayuso-Gabella, Irena Kopač, Davide Bixio, Peter Dillon,
Miquel Salgot de Marçay and Bettine Genthe
19.1 Methodologies for Risk Assessment and Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
19.1.1 European Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
19.1.2 Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
19.2 Chemical Risk Assessment Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
19.3 Chemical Risk Assessment of the Case Study Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
19.3.1 Source waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
19.3.2 Recovered waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
19.4 Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
19.5 QMRA of the Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
19.5.1 Aquifer barrier treatment characterisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
19.5.2 Case study sites human health risk assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
19.5.3 Valuing the aquifer barrier in MAR schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
19.5.4 Integrating aquifer treatment with engineered treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
19.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Chapter 20
Risk perception and communication for managed aquifer recharge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Kristell Le Corre, Susan Baggett, Melanie Muro and Paul Jeffrey
20.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
20.2 Reasons for and Objectives of Risk Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
20.3 Principles of Risk Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Contents xiii
20.3.1 Building and keeping trust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377

20.3.2 Framing and managing communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
20.3.3 Some comments on bias and transparency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
20.4 Communicating Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
20.5 Reconciling Conflicting Views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
20.5.1 Objections over hazard risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
20.5.2 Objections over outrage factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
20.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Chapter 21
Decision support for MAR planning in the context of Integrated Water Resources
Management: The Gabardine DSS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Bernd Rusteberg, Mohammad Azizur Rahman, Jacob Bear, Jacob Bensabat, Radu
Constantin Gogu, Serge Brouyère, Piotr Wojda, Muath Abu Sadah, João Paulo Lobo-Ferreira
and Martin Sauter
21.1 MAR and Integrated Water Resources Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
21.2 Decision Support for MAR Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
21.3 The Gabardine Decision Support System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
21.3.1 MAR planning process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
21.3.2 DSS structure and GUI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
21.3.3 Spatial database and GIS platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
21.3.4 The G-DSS planning module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
21.4 G-DSS Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
21.4.1 The Querença-Silves case study, Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
21.4.2 The Gaza-Strip case study, Palestine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
21.5 Summary and Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Part E: Promoting MAR Systems for Water Recycling

Chapter 22
Managed Aquifer Recharge as a component of sustainable water strategies –
a brief guidance for EU policies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Thomas Wintgens, Rita Hochstrat, Christian Kazner, Paul Jeffrey, Bruce Jefferson and
Thomas Melin
22.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
22.1.1 Water reuse as a water stress mitigation option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
22.1.2 Managed aquifer recharge (MAR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
22.2 Legal Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
22.2.1 European legislation relevant to Managed Aquifer Recharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
22.2.2 Aquifer recharge specific regulations and guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
22.3 Risk Assessment and Management Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
22.3.1 Microbial risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
22.3.2 Chemical risks – new substances of concern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
22.4 Technology Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
22.5 Recommendations on Scheme Authorisation and Future Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
22.5.1 Which investigations shall be carried out during MAR planning? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
22.5.2 What can be controlled and how? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
22.5.3 What role will MAR with reclaimed water play in the future? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
22.5.4 What should be done to promote the strategic adoption of MAR with reclaimed
water as a water stress mitigation option? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
List of contributors
Christian ABEGGLEN, EAWAG Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse
133 – PO Box 611, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
Avi AHARONI, Mekorot Water Company Ltd., 9 Lincoln Street, P.O. Box 2012, Tel Aviv 61201, Israel
Gary AMY, Unesco IHE Institute for Water Education, Department of Urban Water and Sanitation, Westvest 7, 2611 AX
Delft, The Netherlands
King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, KAUST, Water Desalination and Reuse Center, Al-Jazri Bldg
Office 4231, Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
Josef ASMIN, EAWAG Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 133 –
PO Box 611, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
M. Neus AYUSO-GABELLA, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Av. Joan XXIII, s/n, 08028 Barcelona,
Spain
Susan BAGGETT, Cranfield Water Science Institute, Cranfield University, Cranfield, Beds MK43 0AL, United Kingdom
Jacob BEAR, Faculty of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa
32000, Israel
Jessica BENNER, Federal Institute of Hydrology BFG, Am Mainzer Tor 1, D-56068 Koblenz, Germany
Jacob BENSABAT, Environmental & Water Resources Engineering Ltd., P.O. Box 6770, 31067 Haifa, Israel
Axelle BESANCON, Cranfield Water Science Institute, Cranfield University, Cranfield, Beds MK43 0AL,
United Kingdom
Davide BIXIO, European Commission, DG ELARG
Uta BÖCKELMANN, Technische Universität Berlin, Strasse des 17. Juni 135, 10623 Berlin, Germany
Marc BÖHLER, EAWAG Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 133 – PO
Box 611, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
Serge BROUYÈRE, Université de Liège, Chemin des Chevreuils 1, B-4000 Liège 1, Belgium
Johan CAUWENBERGHS, Aquafin NV, Dijkstraat 8, B-2630 Aartselaar, Belgium
Elise CARTMELL, Cranfield Water Science Institute, Cranfield University, Cranfield, Beds MK43 0AL, United Kingdom
Alma CHÁVEZ MEJÍA, Institute of Engineering, UNAM, Ciudad Universitaria, Coyoacan, México D.F., C.P. 04510,
D.F.Mexico
xvi Water Reclamation Technologies for Safe Managed Aquifer Recharge
Haim CHIKUREL, Mekorot Water Company Ltd., 9 Lincoln Street, P.O. Box 2012, Tel Aviv 61201, Israel
Bart DE HEYDER, Aquafin NV, Dijkstraat 8, B-2630 Aartselaar, Belgium
Wouter DE WILDE, Aquafin NV, Dijkstraat 8, B-2630 Aartselaar, Belgium
Peter DILLON, CSIRO Land and Water - Waite Campus, Waite Road - Gate 4, Glen Osmond SA 5064, Australia
Mathias ERNST, Centre for Water in Urban Areas, Technische Universität Berlin, Strasse des 17. Juni 135, 10623 Berlin,
Germany
Guido FINK, Federal Institute of Hydrology BFG, Am Mainzer Tor 1, D-56068 Koblenz, Germany
Irina GAUS, Unité Traceurs Isotopiques et Datations, BRGM Service MMA, Bureau de Recherches Geologiques et
Minieres, 3 av. C. Guillemin B.P. 36009, F-45060 Orléans cedex 2, France
Bettina GENTHE, CSIR Natural Resources and the Environment, P O Box 320, ZA 7599 Stellenbosch, South Africa
Richard GIBSON, Institute of Engineering, UNAM, Ciudad Universitaria, Coyoacan, México D.F., C.P. 04510,
D.F. Mexico
Radu Constantin GOGU, GHG GeoHidroConsult S.R.L., Bd. 1 Decembrie 1918 nr 47, Sector 3, Bucuresti, Romania
Elisabeth GROHMANN, Technische Universität Berlin, Strasse des 17. Juni 135, 10623 Berlin, Germany
Yossi GUTMANN, Mekorot Water Company Ltd., 9 Lincoln Street, P.O. Box 2012, Tel Aviv 61201, Israel
Arne HEIN, Chair of Water Quality Control, Technische Universität Berlin, Strasse des 17. Juni 135, 10623 Berlin,
Germany
Rita HOCHSTRAT, RWTH Aachen University, Department of Chemical Engineering, Turmstrasse 46, 52056 Aachen,
Germany
Juliane HOLLENDER, EAWAG Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse
Bruce JEFFERSON, Cranfield Water Science Institute, Cranfield University, Cranfield, Beds MK43 0AL, United
Kingdom
Paul JEFFREY, Cranfield Water Science Institute, Cranfield University, Cranfield, Beds MK43 0AL, United Kingdom
Martin JEKEL, Chair of Water Quality Control, Technische Universität Berlin, Strasse des 17. Juni 135, 10623 Berlin,
Germany
Blanca JIMÉNEZ CISNEROS, Institute of Engineering, UNAM, Ciudad Universitaria, Coyoacan, México D.F., C.P.
04510, D.F.Mexico
Adriano JOSS, EAWAG Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 133 – PO
Claus JØRGENSEN, DHI, Department of Environmental Riskassessment, Agern Allé 5, 2970 Hørsholm, Denmark
Christian KAZNER, Centre for Technology in Water and Wastewater, University of Technology Sydney (UTS), PO Box
123, Broadway, NSW 2007, Australia (former affiliation: RWTH Aachen University)
Wolfram KLOPPMANN, Unité Traceurs Isotopiques et Datations, BRGM Service MMA, Bureau de Recherches
Geologiques et Minieres, 3 av. C. Guillemin B.P. 36009, F-45060 Orléans cedex 2, France
Irena KOPAC, Institute for Ecological Engineering IEI, Ljubljanska ulica 9, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia
Martin KRAUSS, EAWAG Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 133 – PO
Sarah KREMER, CSIRO Land and Water - Waite Campus, Waite Road - Gate 4, Glen Osmond SA 5064, Australia
Guiseppe LAERA, CNR (National Research Council), Istituto di Ricerca Sulle Acque - Sezione di Bari, Via F. De Blasio,
5, 70123 Bari, Italy
Winson LAY, PUB - Public Utilities Board, 40 Scotts Road, Environment Building, Singapore 228231
Kristell LECORRE, Advanced Water Management Centre, University of Queensland, Research Road, Brisbane QLD
4072 (former affiliation: Cranfield University)
List of Contributors xvii
Lai Yoke LEE, Environmental Science & Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, National University of Singapore, 1
Engineering Drive 2, E1A-02-19, Singapore 117576
Caterina LEVANTESI, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Ricerca Sulle Acque, CNR - Water Research
Institute, Area della Ricerca Roma 1, Montelibretti, 00015 Monterotondo (RM), Italy
João Paulo LOBO-FERREIRA, Laboratório Nacional de Engenharia Civil, Hydraulics and Environment Department,
Groundwater Division, Av. do Brasil 101, PT-1700-066 Lisboa, Portugal
Catalina MAYA, Institute of Engineering, UNAM, Ciudad Universitaria, Coyoacan, México D.F., C.P. 04510,
D.F. Mexico
Costantino MASCIOPINTO, CNR (National Research Council), Istituto di Ricerca Sulle Acque - Sezione di Bari, Via
F. De Blasio, 5, 70123 Bari, Italy
Christa MCARDELL, EAWAG Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse
Thomas MELIN, RWTH Aachen University, Department of Chemical Engineering, Turmstrasse 46, 52056 Aachen,
Germany
Konrad MIOTLINSKI, CSIRO Land and Water - Waite Campus, Waite Road - Gate 4, Glen Osmond SA 5064, Australia
Melanie MURO, Cranfield Water Science Institute, Cranfield University, Cranfield, Beds MK43 0AL, United Kingdom
How Yong NG, Environmental Science & Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, National University of Singapore, 1
Engineering Drive 2, E1A-02-19
Declan PAGE, CSIRO Land and Water - Waite Campus, Waite Road - Gate 4, Glen Osmond SA 5064, Australia
Paul PAVELIC, International Water Management Institute, Regional Office for South Asia Hyderabad Office,
c/o International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), 401/5, Patancheru 502324, Andhra
Pradesh, India
Marie PETTENATI, Unité Traceurs Isotopiques et Datations, BRGM Service MMA, Bureau de Recherches Geologiques
et Minieres, 3 av. C. Guillemin B.P. 36009, F-45060 Orléans cedex 2, France
Géraldine PICOT-COLBEAUX, Unité Traceurs Isotopiques et Datations, BRGM Service MMA, Bureau de Recherches
Geologiques et Minieres, 3 av. C. Guillemin B.P. 36009, F-45060 Orléans cedex 2, France
Alfieri POLLICE, CNR (National Research Council), Istituto di Ricerca Sulle Acque - Sezione di Bari, Via F. De Blasio,
5, 70123 Bari, Italy
Mohammed Aziz RAHMAN, Geoscience Centre of the University of Göttingen, Dept. Applied Geology, Goldschmidtstr.
3, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
Rudi REGEL, United Water, 180 Greenhill Rd, Parkside, SA, 5063, Australia
Georg REIFFERSCHEID, Federal Institute of Hydrology BFG, Am Mainzer Tor 1, D-56068 Koblenz, Germany
Thorsten REEMTSMA, Chair of Water Quality Control, Technische Universität Berlin, Strasse des 17. Juni 135, 10623
Berlin, Germany
Stephanie RINCK-PFEIFFER, United Water, 180 Greenhill Rd, Parkside, SA, 5063, Australia
Bernd RUSTEBERG, Geoscience Centre of the University of Göttingen, Dept. Applied Geology, Goldschmidtstr. 3,
37077 Göttingen, Germany
Muath Abu SADAH, Palestinian Hydrology Group, PO Box 565, Al-Nahdah Bld., Emile Habibi St, Al-Masyoun,
Ramallah
Miquel SALGOT, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Av. Joan XXIII, s/n, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
Martin SAUTER, Geoscience Centre of the University of Göttingen, Dept. Applied Geology, Goldschmidtstr. 3, 37077
Göttingen, Germany
Michael SCHLÜSENER, Federal Institute of Hydrology BFG, Am Mainzer Tor 1, D-56068 Koblenz, Germany
Saroj K. SHARMA, UNESCO IHE Institute for Water Education, Department of Urban Water and Sanitation, Westvest 7,
2611 AX Delft, The Netherlands
xviii Water Reclamation Technologies for Safe Managed Aquifer Recharge
Harry SEAH, PUB - Public Utilities Board, 40 Scotts Road, Environment Building, Singapore 228231
Hansruedi SIEGRIST, EAWAG Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 133
– PO Box 611, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
Valter TANDOI, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Ricerca Sulle Acque, CNR - Water Research Institute,
Area della Ricerca Roma 1, Montelibretti, 00015 Monterotondo (RM), Italy
Guihe TAO, PUB - Public Utilities Board, 40 Scotts Road, Environment Building, Singapore 228231
Thomas TERNES, Federal Institute of Hydrology BFG, Am Mainzer Tor 1, D-56068 Koblenz, Germany
Chris THOEYE, Aquafin NV, Dijkstraat 8, B-2630 Aartselaar, Belgium
Simon TOZE, CSIRO EcoSciences Precinct - Dutton Park, 41 Boggo Road, Dutton Park QLD 4102, Australia
Gideon TREDOUX, CSIR Natural Resources and the Environment, P O Box 320, ZA 7599 Stellenbosch, South Africa
Urs VAN GUNTEN, EAWAG Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 133 –
PO Box 611, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
Emmanuel VAN HOUTTE, I.W.V.A., Doornpannestraat 1, B-8670 Koksijde, Belgium
Marjoleine WEEMAES, Aquafin NV, Dijkstraat 8, B-2630 Aartselaar, Belgium
Thomas WINTGENS, Institute for Ecopreneurship, School of Life Sciences, University of Applied Sciences and Arts
Northwestern Switzerland, Gründenstrasse 40, CH-4132 Muttenz, Switzerland
RWTH Aachen University, Department of Chemical Engineering, Turmstrasse 46, 52056 Aachen, Germany
Piotr WOJDA, Université de Liège, Chemin des Chevreuils 1, B-4000 Liège 1, Belgium
Liang YU, RWTH Aachen University, Department of Chemical Engineering, Turmstrasse 46, 52056 Aachen, Germany
Xuan ZHAO, Division of Environmental Technology, INET Institute of Nuclear and New Energy Technology, Tsinghua
University, Beijing 100084, China
Cheng Xu ZHOU, Division of Environmental Technology, INET Institute of Nuclear and New Energy Technology,
Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
Acknowledgements
This book is based on European research activities in the field of Managed Aquifer Recharge funded by the European
Commission during the 6th framework programme. It presents most of the project outcomes of the EU project
RECLAIM WATER (www.reclaim-water.org, Contract-No. 018309) and selected highlights of the work from the EU
project GABARDINE (www.gabardine-fp6.org). The projects were Specific Targeted Research Projects supported by
the European Commission under the Thematic Priority ‘Global Change and Ecosystems’ of the 6th Framework
Programme. The RECLAIM WATER project started in October 2005 and ran till December 2008.
Partners of the RECLAIM WATER project:

RWTH Aachen University – Department of Chemical Engineering, Germany, Christian Kazner, Diana Marquardt,
Thomas Wintgens, Liang Yu, Rita Hochstrat, Gerhard Spalding, Thomas Melin
Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche - Istituto di Ricerca Sulle Acque, Italy, Guiseppe Laera, Rosanna La Mantia,
Caterina Levantesi, Costantino Masciopinto, Alfieri Pollice, Valter Tandoi, Antonio Lopez
Technische Universität Berlin, Germany, Uta Böckelmann, Mathias Ernst, Elisabeth Grohmann, Arne Hein, Thorsten
Reemtsma, Ulrich Szewzyk, Martin Jekel
Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science and Technology EAWAG, Switzerland, Josef Asmin, Christian
Abegglen, Marc Böhler, Urs van Gunten, Adriano Joss, Martin Krauss, Christa McArdell, Juliane Hollender,
Hansruedi Siegrist
Cranfield University – School of Water Science, United Kingdom, Axelle Besancon, Elise Cartmell, Kristell LeCorre,
Susan Baggett, Melanie Muro, Bruce Jefferson, Paul Jeffrey
University of Barcelona, Spain, M. Neus Ayuso-Gabella, Miquel Salgot
DHI Water & Environment, Denmark, Bjørn Kaare Jensen, Claus Jørgensen
Institute for Ecological Engineering IEI, Slovenia, Irena Kopac
Ribo Technologies BV, The Netherlands, Michel van der Rest
Mekorot Water Company, Israel, Avi Aharoni, Haim Chikurel, Tom Kraitzer, Yossi Gutmann
UNESCO IHE, The Netherlands, Saroj K. Sharma, Gary Amy
Federal Institute of Hydrology BFG, Germany, Jessica Benner, Guido Fink, Georg Reifferscheid, Michael Schlüsener,
Thomas Ternes
Tsinghua University INET, China, Cheng Xuzhou, Wang Jianlong, Zhao Xuan
Bureau de Recherches Geologiques et Minieres, France, Irina Gaus, Marie Pettenati, Géraldine Picot-Colbeaux,
Wolfram Kloppmann
Aquafin NV, Belgium, Davide Bixio, Johan Cauwenberghs, Bart De heyder, Marjoleine Weemaes, Wouter de Wilde,
Chris Thoeye
United Water, Australia, Rudi Regel, Stephanie Rinck-Pfeiffer
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation - CSIRO Land and Water, Australia, Sarah
Kremer, Konrad Miotlinski, Declan Page, Paul Pavelic, Simon Toze, Peter Dillon
xx Water Reclamation Technologies for Safe Managed Aquifer Recharge
National Autonomous University of Mexico UNAM – Institute of Engineering, Mexico, Richard Gibson, Catalina
Maya, Alma Chávez Mejía, José Antonio Barrios Pérez, Blanca Jiménez Cisneros
CSIR – The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, South Africa, Bettina Genthe, Gideon Tredoux
PUB – Public Utilities Board, Singapore, Kiran Kekre, Winson Lay, Puah Aik Num, Guihe Tao, Balakrishnan
Viswanath, Harry Seah
National University of Singapore - Centre for Water Research, Singapore, Jiang Yong Hu, Lai Yoke Lee, Say Leong
Ong, How Yong Ng
The support of the project through the utilities of the case study sites is gratefully acknowledged. Emmanuel van Houtte
(IWVA/Belgium) is acknowledged for the very fruitful collaboration. The project partners are particularly thankful to the
European Commission DG RTD project officers Avelino Gonzalez-Gonzalez and Panagiotis Balabanis for guidance and
support throughout the project.
Foreword
Dr. Panagiotis Balabanis
Promoting research on innovative water technologies and developing affordable solutions for protecting our water
resources and reverse the trend of their deterioration in Europe and worldwide is necessary for providing safe drinking
water to the people, for sustaining our environment and for achieving Europe’s sustainable growth and competiveness.
The complexity of current water resources problems, the need to help people affected by water shortages and lack access
to safe drinking water, the need to cope with the deterioration of current water assets in urban areas, the design of
appropriate waste water treatment systems, water reclamation and reuse schemes, the improvement of water efficiency
in the industrial and agricultural sectors and the need to cope with mitigation and adaptation of climate change, are
some examples, where technological research is needed, together with appropriate strategies and policies for sustainable
water resources management and environmental protection.
Investing in technology and innovative solutions and strengthening public-private research funding in water would be
essential for the development and competiveness of the European water sector, which is a major economic player.
Research on water technologies has been supported since the beginning of the European Union’s environmental research
programmes. However, this area of research has progressively gained further importance since the late 90ies and has been
strengthened at the end of 6th EU Framework Programme for Research and Technological Development, with the
launching of the European Environment Technology Action Plan (ETAP) and the establishment of the Water Supply
and Sanitation Technology Platform (WssTP). With the emphasis on research, innovation and knowledge society for
achieving a more dynamic, innovative and attractive Europe given in FP7, water technology research becomes a
priority of the Environment Theme of the FP7 Cooperation programme. Activities in the field of water technology are
relevant to the Water Framework Directive (WFD) and other water related policies (e.g. Nitrates Directive, Drinking
Water Directive, Urban Waste Water Directives, Groundwater Directive, Flood Directive, EU action plan on Water
Scarcity and Drought, etc). They also support other EU policies, for example, integrated pollution prevention and
control (IPPC Directive), EU action plan on sustainable consumption and production and on sustainable industrial
policy, as well as on policies related to climate change mitigation and adaptation. They also help to boost innovation in
the water sector and overcome the various barriers that hinder their development and use of water technologies, thus
contributing to the implementation of the Environmental Technologies Action Plan. With the additional importance
given recently in the Europe 2020 strategy for the development of European Innovation Partnerships, it is evident that
research on water technologies will have additional policy relevance in the near future.
I am very pleased to introduce this book which provides a synthesis of the main results of the RECLAIM WATER EU
funded research project for many reasons. RECLAIM WATER addressed an important research concept, that is, managed
aquifer recharge, which attracts more and more interest, not only from water resources managers but also from
policy-makers who are seeking for a more knowledge based, effective and efficient implementation and further
development of water policies. It gathered together key leading European universities and research centers working in
water resources research and key scientists who paid equal attention not only to the scientific and technical aspects of
their work, but made also a particular effort in highlighting the policy implication of their results, thus contributing in
strengthening the link between, science, research and policy. In fact, from the results of the projects, it becomes evident
that solutions to water stress problems are available, sustainable, economical and safe. Finally, RECLAIM WATER,
xxii Water Reclamation Technologies for Safe Managed Aquifer Recharge
helped to strengthen the international dimension of EU research by bringing together case studies and researchers between
Europe and international cooperation partner countries.
Dr. Panagiotis Balabanis

Deputy Head of Unit
Directorate General for Research and Innovation
European Commission
Foreword
Dr. Valentina Lazarova
Water is often viewed as the symbol of life and was essential for the development of the great civilisations such as Crete,
Egypt, Greece, Rome, and Angkor. As in the past, during the last three centuries, water had a crucial role for the
industrialisation and the advance in science. Despite the progress in science and engineering, water plays and will play
an even more important role for the human development in this millennium.
Water not only allows life to exist, helping people to produce food, goods and communicate, but also is very important
for human wellbeing as part of our culture, art, music and architectural design. Probably the most fascinating interpretation
of the variety and beauty of water is provided by Claude Monet in his painting, in particular the variations of light and
colours on the water-lily pond in Giverny. Other artists were more fascinated by the destructive capacity of water with
great storms, terrifying swirling waters and impressive waves. One of the most famous of them, Leonardo da Vinci,
devoted also great efforts on innovative engineering solutions to control water.
Aquifer recharge is one of the most promising engineering solutions, enabling both to control the destructive capacity of
water and preserve its benefits. Artificial recharge of aquifers is a quite recent technique, developed between 1950 and 1960
in Europe and the USA, which importance is expected to increase with climate change. It is important to stress that the most
important impacts of climate change are on water, in terms of extreme events of floods and droughts, which will
dramatically affect the population, environment and economic development.
During the last decade, aquifer recharge with recycled water is becoming one of the most rapidly growing water reuse
applications due to the unique features of polishing, storage and transportation, as well as the lost of the “waste” identity of
water. Various other fields of application are also developed, such as riverbank filtration, surface water storage, storage and
polishing of storm water, control of saltwater intrusion into coastal aquifers. Despite the growing interest, aquifer recharge
is not yet a common practice and remains a complex solution because the strong influence of local conditions, potential
health risks and lack of regulations.
This book is the result of the tremendous effort of a large multi-disciplinary team to analyse the lessons learned from the
existing would experience and latest advance in science and practice on managed aquifer recharge (MAR). A
comprehensive analysis and guidance are provided, including:
• Recommendations for design and operation of treatment trains and aquifer systems,
• Assessment of methods and tools for water quality analysis, decision support tools and risk assessment and
management,
• Examples of best practices.
In few words, this handbook demonstrates how a well designed and operated MAR project can be used as a water stress
mitigation option regardless of the context. This outstanding contribution was made possible thanks to the holistic research
approach and the substantial collaborative effort. A standard analysis protocol was used and applied for various recharge
systems, including direct injection or infiltration using different alternative water sources and a number of pre-treatment
options. It was demonstrated that in-depth knowledge of hydrogeological characteristics and the specific site conditions
are essential for the success of a planned recharge scheme, while demonstration studies and water quality control
strategy play an important role for health safety and public acceptance.
xxiv Water Reclamation Technologies for Safe Managed Aquifer Recharge
Even though this ambitious research program was funded by the European Commission, the research consortium
included several research teams and field studies outside Europe, from Australia, Asia, Africa and America. The
scientific relevance of the recommendations was ensured by the significant research efforts from several leading
universities and technology institutes, while the design, economic viability and operating parameters of various options
of MAR were warranted by experienced technology providers and enterprises.
This book summarises condensed years of research and practical experience of a broad multi-disciplinary international
coalition. Despite the strong professionalism and sound scientific evidence, the broad implementation of water reuse
practices, such as managed aquifer recharge, needs motivation, patience and perseverance. You can read, share and
implement the provided recommendations, taking in view that each project is case specific and calls for prudent
decisions regarding public health, environmental impacts, economic and financial concerns, as well as social and legal
aspects.
Dr. Valentina Lazarova

Chair of the IWA Specialist Group on Water Reuse
Chapter 1
Introduction
Christian Kazner, Thomas Wintgens, Thomas Melin and Peter Dillon
1.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF MANAGED AQUIFER RECHARGE

Groundwater represents over 97% of all freshwaters available on earth and supplies water for about 75% of the EU citizens
(European Communities, 2008). Furthermore groundwater is a main water source for agricultural irrigation and industry.
Due to growing water consumption and unsustainable water management many countries and regions of the world are
facing deterioration of groundwater quality and decreasing groundwater quantities. Integrated water cycle management
and augmentation of available freshwater resources through alternative sources are one response to these challenges.
Desalination of seawater and brackish water as well as water reclamation and reuse are technical water stress mitigation
options applied up to now (Bixio et al. 2006; Fritzmann et al. 2007). This practice is particularly encouraged for many
Mediterranean countries as outlined by the European Commission in their publications on the management of water
scarcity and drought (European Commission, 2007). The already severe water stress conditions in the Mediterranean
region are expected to aggravate as a probable consequence of climate change impacts (EEA, 2007).
In course of the implementation of the Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) the status of water resources has been
analysed and evaluated with regard to achieving a “good ecological status” by 2015. European Union Member States had to
assess the quality of the water bodies according to Article 5 of the Water Framework Directive (WFD). The investigation in
the Member States has revealed that quite a number of water bodies in the European Union are at risk of failing to meet the
quality objectives by 2015, as set in the WFD (Hochstrat et al. 2010). Between 30% and 75% of the groundwater bodies in
UK, France, Spain, Malta and Cyprus are categorised “at risk”, and an additional 15% to 50% were evaluated as being
“probably at risk” (Figure 1.1).
100
90
% of groundwater bodies
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
CY MT BE* FR ES UK LV LT PL PO IE DE
at risk proabbly at risk not at risk
Figure 1.1 Status of groundwater in selected European countries (National reports on Art. 5 WFD accessed via CIRCA)
2 Water Reclamation Technologies for Safe Managed Aquifer Recharge
The types of pressures exerting a significant impact on water resources are either qualitative (e.g. diffuse or point
pollution with nitrates and pesticides or seawater intrusion into coastal aquifers) or quantitative (e.g. over-abstraction of
groundwater). In the scope of River Basin Management plans the water authorities will have to address the identified
pressures and set up a programme of measures. The utilisation of alternative water resources or options such as aquifer
recharge can be part of these programs. In the European policy water saving, e.g. supported and enforced by
economical measures, has a priority. While water reuse is regarded as a possible water conservation measure, seawater
desalination is regarded as a last resort option (European Commission, 2007).
Among the various beneficial uses of reclaimed wastewater, managed aquifer recharge (MAR) receives growing
attention because it features advantages such as additional natural treatment, storage capacity to buffer seasonal
variations of supply and demand as well as mixing of reclaimed water with natural water bodies which promotes the
acceptance of further uses, particularly indirect potable use. Major concerns about the safety of this exploitation route of
an alternative water source are connected to microbial and chemical contaminants occurring in wastewater, among
which are emerging trace organics like endocrine disrupters and pharmaceuticals.
The concept of managed aquifer recharge offers potential for various subsequent uses like irrigation, industrial process
water and augmentation of public water supplies. The latter, indirect potable use, is certainly one of the most challenging
water reclamation and reuse applications with a high demand in terms of safety because of the potential use as drinking
water and the general level of protection required for groundwater resources as laid down for example in the European
directive on the protection of groundwater against pollution and deterioration (2006/118/EC). Even if drinking water
supplementation is not explicitly foreseen in an aquifer recharge project, the provision of drinking water quality in
the recovered product is a common bottom line in many applications, for example in Israel where the Dan Region
Reclamation and Soil Aquifer Treatment scheme operated by the national water company Mekorot provides “accidental
drinking water quality” on a large scale.
1.2 RESEARCH IN MANAGED AQUIFER RECHARGE

Managed aquifer recharge is not a new water management tool but it is one that is increasingly being applied in water
recycling due to the storage, treatment and distribution functions it can fill as well as ‘naturalising’ water from a
public perception perspective. It requires a sound understanding of the science of recharging, storing and recovering
surface reclaimed waters in aquifers to make it safe for human health and the environment, and easier and more
reliable to design, operate and regulate. That understanding has grown in recent years by an upsurge in the
measurement capability of chemical, biological and physical processes occurring in water treatment trains, and
especially including the aquifer. It has been assisted by a growing number of managed aquifer recharge projects that
allow observations to be made under a very wide range of water types, treatment methods, aquifer types and end
uses of the recovered water. Recycling via aquifers was identified as an important opportunity for the growth of
water recycling in a preceding project, AQUAREC (Bixio and Wintgens, 2006) of the European Commission’s 5th
Framework Programme.
Important to the increasing knowledge is the ability to synthesise results across a variety of sites and the use of laboratory
experiments to fill in gaps that are difficult to address under field conditions. Preceding multi-site studies managed aquifer
recharge studies include Stuyfzand (1998), Dillon and Toze (2005), Clinton et al. (2007), Vanderzalm et al. (2009) and
Sauter (2009). In addition there are a number of operational sites using reclaimed water that have been the focus of
attention for numerous published research papers, generally involving a number of disciplines. These include
groundwater replenishment via wells and basins at Orange County, California, soil aquifer treatment in Arizona, bank
filtration and basins in Berlin, dune filtration at Amsterdam, and recycled stormwater and effluent recharge via wells
in Adelaide.
The RECLAIM WATER project, which forms the main basis of this book, is different to the syntheses that have
preceded it as its focus has been on reclaiming waters via aquifers by all methods (Figure 1.2). However the range
of source waters and end uses has been very broad and it covers all aspects of projects from hydraulic design to
water treatment process validation. Cases span from initially unintentional opportunistic reuse of water in Mexico,
Italy and Spain for irrigation supplies, to intensively planned projects, where the aquifer is the recipient of highly
treated water reclaimed from sewage effluent to produce drinking water supplies, for example in Belgium. RECLAIM
WATER also includes a number of intermediate cases where there is planned partial dependence on the treatment
processes that aquifers provide, including cases in Israel, South Africa and Australia. Significant work on the
coupling of engineered and natural treatment processes has required studies of pathogens, trace organics and nutrient
removals in engineered treatments, including activated carbon and membrane processes. Laboratory studies have
enabled better interpretation of field measurements or substitution where these were not possible. Modelling of
hydraulic, chemical and biological processes at the different sites have been undertaken using a variety of models to
address specific local needs.
Introduction 3
Figure 1.2 Concept of managed aquifer recharge and points of consideration in RECLAIM WATER
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THIS BOOK

This book presents the results of European research activities in the field of managed aquifer recharge funded by the
European Commission during the 6th Framework Programme for Research and Technological Development (FP6). It
incorporates most of the project outcomes of the EU project RECLAIM WATER and selected highlights of the work
from the EU project GABARDINE.
RECLAIM WATER was a Specific Targeted Research Project supported by the European Commission under the
Thematic Priority ‘Global Change and Ecosystems’ of the 6th Framework Programme (Contract-No. 018309). The
project started in October 2005 and ran till December 2008. The project consortium consisted of universities, research
and technology institutes, as well as technology providers and small and medium size enterprises, with a total number
of 20 partners from 16 countries coming from European Union Member States and Australia, China, Israel, Mexico,
Singapore, South Africa, and Switzerland.
The strategic objective of RECLAIM WATER was to develop hazard mitigation technologies for water reclamation
providing safe and cost effective routes for managed aquifer recharge. It assessed different treatment applications in
terms of behaviour of key microbial and chemical contaminants such as organic micropollutans. The knowledge
generated in the project and the technologies developed are also suited to the needs of developing countries, which
have a growing need of supplementation of freshwater resources. The participation of partners from China, Australia,
Singapore, South Africa and Mexico demonstrates the anticipation of the global dimension of the water reclamation and
aquifer recharge issue.
The project embarked on these findings and focused its research objectives on the investigation of water reclamation
technologies and their impact on key contaminants. The project aimed to provide new combinations of technologies
to treat wastewater to appropriate water quality levels for sustainable groundwater recharge. RECLAIM WATER in its
scope concentrates upon different issues indicated in Figure 1.2 following the water cycle in a water reclamation and
aquifer recharge process:
(1) Improvement of municipal wastewater treatment processes as an important prerequisite for water reclamation;
(2) Optimised water reclamation technologies to produce feed water for aquifer recharge and other water reuse
applications;
(3) Design and operation of actual recharge systems (e.g. infiltration-percolation systems, constructed wetlands,
lagoons, well injection);
(4) The investigation of processes in the unsaturated soil zone and their dependence on the pre-treatment (steps 2
and 3);
(5) The investigation and modelling of the introduction of a reclaimed water phase in a natural aquifer using tracer
compounds (like Boron);
(6) Anticipating the needs of various uses of recovered water (e.g. indirect potable use and non-potable uses) in terms
of water quality requirements and definition of relevant target contaminants;
(7) Developing (if necessary) and applying the necessary analytical tools to monitor the relevant contaminants
(microbial and chemical) including the investigation of contaminant fate in the processes;
(8) Collecting existing data on the behaviour of the target compounds and the impact of treatment options in case
studies to provide a sound basis for human health and environmental risk assessment.
1.4 CHAPTER CONTENTS

The book is divided into five parts. Part A includes the description of the investigated eight international MAR case studies
and the analytical results based on the selected standard parameters. Part B presents the analytical methods for the
measurement of organic micropollutants, bulk organics and microbial contaminants as well as the results of the
measurements. Part C looks into selected natural and engineered pre-treatment technologies for MAR. Part D contains
key aspects for the design and management of MAR systems such as modelling tools, risk assessment and risk
management as well as decision support for MAR planning. Part E provides the legal framework and a brief guidance
for EU policies.
Part A: International MAR case studies

The project depicted water cycle schemes utilizing different alternative water sources and a range of pre-treatment options
prior to infiltration or injection for aquifer recharge. Various recharge systems including direct infiltration through dug
wells, infiltration basins and different geological settings (sandy to carstic aquifers) were investigated.
The majority of the data was generated in a set of globally distributed case studies. These also served as a basis to validate
technical and managerial concepts, prove their practicability and effectiveness, take into account regional and use type
variety as well as to assess a number of selected treatment processes. Table 1.1 gives an overview on the treatment
technologies, recharge systems and end-uses relevant to the different case studies.
Table 1.1 Water reclamation schemes investigated in RECLAIM WATER.
Site location Scheme description

Europe Sabadell (near Secondary treated wastewater effluent discharged into a river bed where it
Barcelona), Spain infiltrates and is recovered. The water is then disinfected (UV) and
distributed for parks irrigation.
Nardò, Salento Region, Secondary treated municipal effluent is transported to aquifer injection.
South of Bari, Italy Recharge acts as a salt intrusion barrier and resource is also used as
drinking water source.
Torreele (Wulpen), Tertiary treated municipal effluent is upgraded by ultrafiltration and reverse
Belgium osmosis, and then infiltrated via infiltration ponds to prevent salt intrusion
and to recharge an aquifer used for drinking water production.
Asia Shafdan, Tel Aviv Secondary wastewater from the Tel-Aviv area is recharged to an aquifer
Region, Israel via a soil aquifer treatment (SAT) system. Recovered water is primarily
used for irrigation but has accidental drinking water quality.
Gaobeidian, Tertiary effluent is used for aquifer recharge. Treatment is provided by
Beijing, China coagulation, filtration and ozonation (in test) prior to infiltration and
recharge. Water is used for irrigation.
Australia Salisbury, Adelaide Wetland treated urban stormwater injected into a brackish aquifer. Water
Region, South Australia recovered via separate recovery wells. Recovered water is intended for
drinking supplies and until proven will be used for irrigation.
Africa Atlantis (near Cape Urban stormwater run-off is collected via a series of detention basins,
Town), South Africa blended with secondary treated domestic wastewater and recharged
up-gradient of a production well field for augmenting the water supply.
The blend of natural groundwater and recharged water abstracted from
the well field is used as potable water supply for the city of Atlantis.
America Mezquital Valley, The raw wastewater from Mexico City mixed with stormwater and surface
State of Mexico, Mexico water is discharged to an irrigated area of more than 76,000 ha. About 40%
of the irrigation water infiltrates into the aquifer. The water is recovered
via separate wells and springs. 206 well systems, 31 springs, and 63
waterwheels are in operation. Recovered water is chlorinated and locally
distributed for drinking water supply, industrial use, irrigation and other
purposes (bathing, swimming, washing).
Introduction 5
Part B: Water quality analysis in MAR – Methods and results

Microbial contaminants. Besides the standard indicator parameters for microbiological water quality such as Total
bacteria counts, Total coliforms, E. Coli, Enteroccoci and Clostridium spores, an enhanced spectrum of parameters was
considered including parasites, protozoea, pathogenic bacteria and viruses as well as antibiotic resistance genes. It could
be confirmed that advanced treatment schemes, for example those utilising membrane filtration, could readily remove
those compounds and that sub-surface processes can significantly attenuate those (Böckelmann et al. 2009; La Mantia
et al. 2008).
Chemical contaminants. Particular attention has been paid to organic chemicals in the different stages of the investigated
aquifer recharge schemes. Both bulk organic characterisation as well as analysis of trace organics has been carried out. The
parameters included pharmaceutically active compounds and disinfection by-products as well as estrogenic activity.
Analytical methods have been developed and adopted to the different matrices encountered in the sites (Fink and
Ternes 2006; Krauss et al. 2008). Those methods have been used to elucidate the fate of the target compounds in
different treatment processes (Schulz et al. 2008; Yu et al. 2008).
Part C: Water reclamation technologies in MAR

The effectiveness of both natural and intensive water reclamation technology options which can be applied prior to aquifer
recharge options has been assessed. The investigations included constructed wetlands, slow sand filters, advanced primary
treatment for a developing country context as well as advanced options such as membrane bioreactors (Abegglen et al.
2009), dense membrane processes (Joss et al. 2011), ozonation (Benner et al. 2008) and process combinations also for
brine treatment, for example utilizing activated carbon adsorption plus membrane filtration as well as capacitive
deionisation (Ng et al. 2008). A particular hybrid process investigated in the project included powdered activated
carbon adsorption and nanofiltration (Kazner et al. 2007 and 2008). Joss et al. (2008) and Wintgens et al. (2008) have
reviewed water reclamation technology options particularly with regard to micropollutants removal and suitability for
indirect potable use.
Part D: Design and management of MAR systems

Sophisticated characterisation tools such as boron and lithium isotope monitoring has been utilised to characterise the
hydrology and hydrogeochemistry of full scale aquifer recharge sites. Native and influenced groundwater could be
clearly distinguished and input to flow modelling could be provided (Kloppmann et al. 2008; Kloppmann et al. 2009).
Conceptual and numerical models have been set up to better describe and characterise hydrology and hydrogeochemistry
in the investigated aquifer recharge sites.
State-of-the-art concepts for risk assessment such as Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (QMRA) and risk
management (e.g. Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) and Water Safety Plan) have been used to
integrate the water quality and treatment efficiency data and to put the results into a perspective which is relevant for
end-users and public perception. Comprehensive risk assessment approaches have been developed for selected full scale
schemes involved in the project and the contribution of subsurface processes to risk control has been assessed (Dillon
et al. 2008; Page et al. 2010a, 2010b; Ayuso-Gabella et al. 2011).
Part E: Promoting MAR systems for water recycling

The project outcomes have been summarised in a policy brief document directed to the European Commission and other
decision makers in the water sector (Hochstrat et al. 2010). RECLAIM WATER has provided a comprehensive assessment
of different water reclamation and managed aquifer recharge methods and technologies covering a broad range of water
quality parameters (including pathogens, antibiotic resistance genes and emerging contaminants), different pre-treatment
and infiltration options, different end-uses (potable and non-potable), raw water sources for replenishment (from
untreated wastewater to highly treated tertiary effluent and purified stormwater). The investigations covered schemes on
all continents and used a coordinated methodology for assessment. The project results underline that managed aquifer
recharge can be a save and reliable climate change adaptation method. Technologies and methods can be tailored to the
different socio-economic contexts. In developing countries’ context extensive natural systems, in particular MAR, can
also provide a decent water quality at very low cost.
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Introduction 7
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Part A
International MAR Case Studies
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
They are living in a new hotel and are most comfortably lodged. They
pay a rouble a day for a room. Their rooms are far more comfortable
and much cleaner than mine. We had beer, vodka, cucumbers,
sardines and cold sausage, and we discussed very many subjects.
During the afternoon many other members dropped in, and among
them a member of the “Council of Empire.” These peasants, who
come from an exceedingly distant government, belong to the more
educated category. I believe the education in their particular
government is good owing to the energy the Zemstva have displayed
there. There are three of these peasants: one of them is a sensible
man who does not know much about things outside Russia; but one
of the others is quite well acquainted with the main features of
European politics and talks of Jaurés, Chamberlain, and Lord
Rosebery. “Who would have thought two years ago,” said one of
them, “that we should see an Englishman here in the flesh?”
July 8th.
This evening I went to see an electro-technician, whom I know. We

went for a walk on the islands. The technician’s brother, who had
been a sailor, was with us. The electro-technician had been in
Belgium and London. Then we went to the “Norodniu Dom,” the
“People’s Palace,” a place where there is a popular theatre, a garden,
and a restaurant. Before we went in here, the technician’s brother
said he must have some vodka. So we went into a wine shop and he
drank a large tumbler of vodka straight off. “This is the eighth glass I
have had to-day,” he said. “It is only habit. I don’t feel any effects
from it; but if I were to drink a glass of wine now I should be drunk.”
We went into the “People’s Palace” and sat in the garden. Some other
friends joined us. We ordered beer, and the technician’s brother was
unwise enough to drink some. The technician described life in Paris
and London. Paris he detested. He spoke French rather well. He said
it was a boring city. I said, “Don’t you like the French theatres? You
must admit they act well.” He said: “Their plays are so totally
different from ours that I cannot bear them. They are always
artificial and never the least like life. Our plays are like life.” Talking
of London, he said when he arrived there he realised that the
Continent was one thing and England a totally different thing. He
said he could not understand thousands of poor people paying a
shilling to see a football match. He had lived in an English family. He
admired the neatness and the cleanliness of everything. He thought
the hospitality of the English was great. He said the point of view of
moral superiority was extraordinary. The way an Englishwoman he
had known had spoken of Indians and Chinese as something so
infinitely inferior, too, had surprised and amused him. The sailor
brother put in a few remarks and was contradicted. The glass of beer
which had followed the eighth tumbler of vodka now took its effect,
and he said that a man present had morally spat three times in his
face, and that he was not going to stand it any longer. His brother
said that if he was not quiet he would go. He refused to be quieted,
and so the company broke up.
July 9th.
To-day I went to the Duma with a translation of Herbert Spencer

for Nazarenko. I also took him a translation of Shelley’s poems and a
translation of “Œdipus Rex.” “There,” I said, “are the poems of a man
called Shelley.” “You mean,” he answered, “the man who was
drowned.” He took up the “Œdipus Rex,” and read three verses out of
it. “Modern poetry depends for its beauty on its outward form,” he
said. “It is all words; but if you read two lines of ancient poetry like
this you see that it contains a whole philosophy.”
July 11th.
I went to see Nazarenko in his house. He was not at home, but a

friend of his was there. He told me to wait. He was a peasant thirty-
nine years old, rather bald, with a nice intelligent face. At first he
took no notice of me, and read aloud to himself out of a book. Then
he suddenly turned to me and asked me who I was. I said I was an
English correspondent. He got up, shut the door, and begged me to
stay. “Do the English know the condition of the Russian peasantry?”
he asked. “They think we are wolves and bears. Do I look like a wolf?
Please say I am not a wolf.” Then he ordered some tea and got a
bottle of beer. He asked me to tell him how labourers lived in
England, what their houses were made of, what the floors and walls
were made of, how much wages a labourer received, what was the
price of meat, whether they ate meat? Then he suddenly, to my
intense astonishment, put the following question to me: “In England
do they think that Jesus Christ was a God or only a great man?” I
asked him what he thought. He said he thought He was a great man.
He said that the Russian people were very religious and
superstitious; they were deceived by the priests, who threatened
them with damnation. He asked me if I could lend him an English
bible. He wanted to see if it was the same as a Russian bible. I said it
was exactly the same. He was immensely astonished. “Do you mean
to say,” he asked, “that there are all those stories about Jonah and
the whale and Joshua and the moon?” I said “Yes.” “I thought,” he
said, “those had been put in for us.” I tried to explain to him that we
were taught almost exactly the same doctrines, the differences
between the Anglican and the Orthodox Church on points of dogma
being infinitesimal. We then talked of ghosts. He asked me if I
believed in ghosts. I said I did; he asked why. I gave various reasons.
He said he could believe in a kind of telepathy, a kind of moral
wireless telegraphy; but ghosts were the invention of old women. He
suddenly asked me whether the earth was four thousand years old.
“Of course it’s older,” he said. “But that’s what we are taught. We are
taught nothing about geography and geology. It is, of course, a fact
that there is no such thing as God,” he said; “because, if there is a
God He must be a just God; and as there is so much injustice in the
world it is plain that a just God does not exist.” I said I could
conceive there being an unjust God. Such an idea was inconceivable,
he said. “But you,” he went on, “an Englishman who has never been
deceived by officials, do you believe that God exists?” (He thought
that all ideas of religion and God as taught to the Russian people
were part of a great official lie.) “I do,” I said. “Why?” he asked. I
asked him if he had read the book of Job. He said he had. I said that
when Job has everything taken away from him, although he has done
no wrong, suddenly in the very depth of his misery he recognises the
existence of God in the immensity of nature, and feels that his own
soul is a part of a plan too vast for him to conceive or to comprehend;
in feeling that he is a part of the scheme he acknowledges the
existence of God, and that is enough; he is able to consent, and to
console himself, although in dust and ashes. That was, I said, what I
thought one could feel. He admitted the point of view, but he did not
share it. After we had had tea we went for a walk in some gardens not
far off, where there were various theatrical performances going on.
The audience amused me, it applauded so rapturously and insisted
on an encore, whatever was played, and however it was played, with
such thunderous insistence. “Priests,” said my friend, “base
everything on the devil. There is no devil. There was no fall of man.
There are no ghosts, no spirits, but there are millions and millions of
other inhabited worlds.”
I left him late, when the performance was over. This man, who was
a member of the Duma for the government of Jula, was called
Petruckin. I looked up his name in the list of members and found he
had been educated in the local church school of the village of
Kologrivo; that he had spent the whole of his life in this village and
had been engaged in agriculture. That among the peasants he
enjoyed great popularity as being a clever and hard-working man. He
belonged to no party. He was not in the least like the men of peasant
origin who had assimilated European culture. He was naturally
sensible and alert of mind.
July 12th.
The Bill which the Duma passed last week abolishing capital
punishment was discussed in the Upper House the day before
yesterday and referred to a Committee. As the treatment of this
matter has excited no little bewilderment abroad, it will, perhaps, not
be useless to go further into the history of capital punishment in
Russia, which I have mentioned in a previous letter. Capital
punishment was abolished in Russia by the Empress Elizabeth, the
daughter of Peter the Great, in 1753. But as long as the knout was in
use it was rather the name of the thing than the thing itself which
was abolished, because a hundred lashes of the knout meant death.
During the last years in which the knout was employed the number
of lashes was limited to thirty-five. Its use was abolished by the
Emperor Nicholas in the first year of his reign (1825). Beating with a
birch was abolished by the Emperor Alexander II. in 1863, except for
peasants; the beating of peasants was abolished in 1904. “Depuis
lors,” writes M. Leroy-Beaulieu in his standard book on Russia, “la
législation Russe est probablement la plus douce de l’Europe.... La
peine capitale a depuis lors été réellement supprimée; à l’inverse de
ce qui se voit en beaucoup d’autres pays, elle n’existe plus que pour
les crimes politiques, pour les attentats contre la vie du Souverain ou
É
la sûreté de l’État.” During almost the whole reign of Alexander II,
from 1855 to 1876, only one man was executed on the scaffold,
namely Karakosof, the perpetrator of the first attempt made on the
Emperor’s life. From 1866 to 1903 only 114 men suffered the penalty
of death throughout the whole of the Russian Empire.
Commenting on these statistics in the Council of Empire, M.
Tagantzef pointed out that, in contradistinction to this, during 1906
up to the month of June, that is, during five months, 108 people have
been condemned to death under martial law, and ninety have been
executed, not counting people who have been killed without a trial.
The cause, therefore, of the present agitation is the fact that capital
punishment exists in Russia for political crimes only by virtue of
martial law. M. Leroy-Beaulieu, in commenting on the first instances
of this turn of affairs, which occurred in 1878, when a political
agitator was executed in Odessa, remarks that a modern State which
abolishes capital punishment should abolish it altogether, “pour ne
point se donner le démenti d’une contradiction rendue parfois
d’autant plus choquante pour la conscience publique qu’il lui
répugne de voir, comme en Russie, le régicide ou le simple
conspirateur politique traité plus sévèrement que le parricide.”
For and against the entire abolition of capital punishment the chief
arguments of each side are at present these: Those who wish capital
punishment to be retained point to the number of political murders
which have occurred during the last year, and especially to the long
list of innocent policemen who have been murdered, and maintain
that if capital punishment is abolished these crimes will increase.
Those who wish it to be abolished say that the existence of capital
punishment, so far from exercising a restraining influence on
political criminals, excites people to murder and makes martyrs of
them. Moreover, they point out that when people expatiate on the
terrible list of political assassinations they altogether overlook their
cause. They are not in all cases the result of irresponsible hysteria.
The defenders of the Government say: “You make martyrs of people
who are merely common murderers;” the opponents answer: “The
Government shuts its eyes to the lawless and criminal acts of its
officials, and the people are obliged to take the law into their own
hands.” This is the present state of the question, and I have
endeavoured to present both sides of it. Quite apart from the political
murders of the last two years, it is interesting to note that, as far as
we can tell, the abolition of capital punishment in Russia has not had
the effect of increasing crime. In 1890 the proportion of homicides
was seven to the million in Russia (7·4), almost exactly the same as
the proportion in the British Isles during that year, which was (7·5).
July 12th (continued).
This morning I went to see Nazarenko, who had made an

appointment with me. My friend Petruckin was there also. We
discussed the question of the Inter-Parliamentary Conference. He
said he meant to go to London. “They are so absorbed here in party
politics,” he said, “that they forget that these things are larger and
more important, because they concern Russia as a great power. The
members of the Duma do not want to go with the members of the
Council of Empire. But I tell them it is like this. If I see a wounded
man on the ground and go to help him, and a man whom I dislike
comes to help him also, I don’t stop helping the wounded man
because the man I dislike is helping; that would be absurd.”
He said he had read some of the Shelley I had given him. Shelley
was a real poet. Russian poets wrote about nothing except love; but
in Shelley there was a different spirit. “I have read Byron, too, a long
time ago; but he is too pessimistic, and is always harping on one
theme—himself.” I asked him if he had ever read “Paradise Lost.”
“Yes,” he answered, “I read it when I was thirteen; it was one of the
first books I ever read. There is glorious fantasy!”
To-day was a holiday and, talking of this, Nazarenko said that the
quantity of holidays in Russia proved that the Russians were an
inferior race. “My holidays are those days when there is no work for
me to do, just as my fast days are those on which I am not hungry.”
Nazarenko, in the course of conversation, said something about
religion, and Petruckin broke in, and said: “Take care! Mavriki
Edouardovitch (that was I) is a full believer.”
July 13th.
To-day there are rumours of a new Ministry to be formed from the

majority of the Duma.
July 16th.
I went to see Petruckin this evening. We had a long conversation

about the land question. He explained to me that the Labour Party’s
views as to the land question were silly. He said that he inclined
towards the views of the Cadets.
July 18th.
Things are going badly in the Duma, and there is likely to be a split
among the Cadets on the subject of a proposed Manifesto to the
people, a counterblast to the Ministerial Declaration.
July 19th.
During the last week not only were rumours circulating to the
effect that the resignation of the Ministry had been accepted, but
certain members of the Right positively affirmed that a new Cabinet
taken from the Duma had been formed. It is said now that this task
was offered to M. Shipov, who is the most important representative
of the Moderate parties outside the Duma, and that he refused it.
Now, since yesterday fresh rumours, which have had a bad effect on
the Bourse, are afloat to the effect that all idea of forming a Ministry
from the Duma itself has been abandoned, and that the Government
is contemplating the dissolution of the Duma and the appointment of
a military dictatorship. Whether there is serious foundation for these
rumours I do not know, but it is obvious that there are only four
courses open to the Government:
1. To form a Coalition Ministry under some Liberal leader outside
the Duma.
2. To form a Ministry from the majority of the Duma.
3. To dissolve the Duma.
4. To do nothing.
The Government is said to have tried the first course and to have
failed. The second course it appears to regard as being out of the
question. The third course is said to be under consideration now. The
fourth course answers to the Government’s policy up to the present.
I have talked with several Conservatives lately—not Moderate
Liberals, but Conservatives of the old régime—and their indignation
against the Government was extreme. One of them said that the
formation of a Ministry from the majority of the Duma, namely, the
Cadets, with whom he had no sympathy, was the only chance of
saving the situation; that he could understand the policy of
dissolution; but the Government did neither the one nor the other,
and the people who were paying for this mistake were the landlords
with the destruction and devastation of their property. Another said
to me that there were at present two great dangerous elements in
Russia—the revolutionaries and the Government—and that of the
two the Government was the more dangerous. A third, a large landed
proprietor, said that he preferred to be despoiled by expropriation
rather than to have all his estates devastated and his houses burnt. A
Government taken from the majority of the Duma, he added, was the
only solution, but it should have been done two months ago; now it
was too late. I mentioned the dissolution of the Duma and the
possibility of a dictatorship. “You would want five hundred dictators,
not one,” he answered, “and what is the use of a dictatorship when
the whole country is on fire? The action of the Government has been
like this: it is as if some people had set a town on fire, locked up the
fire engines, and then talked of putting a dictator at the head of the
fire brigade.”
In opposition to this I have heard views expressed which perhaps
reflect those of the Government. One man said to me that it was now
obvious that the Duma, instead of having a pacifying influence, was
merely a cause of disorder; that when it was originally convened he
had believed in its pacifying capacities; but now he was convinced of
the contrary, and the sooner it was dissolved the better. It may be
objected that, though it is after all true that the convening of the
Duma did not pacify the country, it is necessary to reflect under what
conditions it was convened: its hands were tied; the fundamental
laws were altered for this purpose; the Government not only went on
governing as before, but actually took active measures to discredit its
new Parliament at home and abroad. When a Duma was asked for,
the thing meant was Responsible Government. It is over this
question of responsibility that the whole struggle is being carried on.
I have also heard the following argument, which is advanced by the
newspaper Rossia, a semi-official organ, this morning: “What do we
lose by deciding on repressive measures? Even if we fail by giving in
now we should be failing; therefore we are exchanging certain failure
for problematic failure; it is better to give in after a fight than to
surrender without a struggle, and our chances, now that we are
certain of at least one part of the Army, are better than they will be a
year hence, when we shall be certain of nothing. We are told that we
cannot dissolve the Duma without provoking a revolution, but, from
our point of view, to give in to the Duma now is equivalent to
sanctioning a revolution. Let us try and prove that we can dissolve
the Duma, and that they are merely trying to bluff with their threats
of revolution.” The logical result of this policy should be civil war.[3]
3. And it has proved to be civil war; but civil war waged in everyday life and
unaccompanied by an armed rising.
All the revolutionary elements in the country would be
strengthened by a dissolution, and one can safely predict that the
general disorder would be increased. For even now the sporadic
anarchy is increasing daily. Will the dissolution of the Duma relieve
this tension? I think not. The question then suggests itself: Is there
no hope of a peaceful issue?
A Ministry formed from the majority of the Duma is the only hope;
but whether it would manage to calm matters is another question. It
is true that there is a moderate element, especially among the
peasants, who wish to meet the landlords halfway, who consider the
demands of the Extreme Left, and especially their agrarian
programme, to be absurd. These men would support a Ministry
taken from the Duma, but they continually assert that the
Government will not meet them half way, and that, on the other
hand, they consider the schemes which the Government have put
forward to be fundamentally insufficient. Whether a Ministry
composed of members taken from the majority of the Duma would
succeed in calming the country depends on the nature and intensity
of the opposition they would have to encounter, which it is
impossible to gauge at present. One thing is certain, that in the event
of such a Ministry being given a free hand sympathy would cease to
be extended to the throwers of bombs, whose task is now greatly
facilitated by the simple fact that popular opinion is with them.
When people, on the other hand, say that the Cadets have no men
with whom to form a Ministry—and, to be fair, I have only heard this
argument advanced either in England or by some Russian officials
here—I have heard it contradicted by intelligent Russian officials—
they are talking egregious nonsense. People like Professor Miliukov,
MM. Nabokor, Kokoskin, Muromtzeff, and Petradjinski have shown
themselves not only to be men with brains but to possess political
capacity and tactical ability of no mean order. Even if they were
twenty times less capable than they are they would be more capable
of governing the country than the present Ministry. But
unfortunately it does not seem probable that they will ever win the
confidence of the Crown, since most of them in the past have
suffered for their political principles, and some of them have been in
prison. Therefore, whereas if they had been born in France or
England they would by now be occupying exalted positions, they are
now looked upon from above as men of the same category as
Anarchists and throwers of vitriol. If Mr. Balfour had been born in
Russia he would certainly have been requested to confine his
energies to golf and metaphysics, but if Mr. Haldane had been born
here he would have probably been sent to think about the path to
reality in the paths of Transbaikalia. Therefore at the root of the
whole matter there is a great misunderstanding between the Crown
and the Duma. It is based on the supposition that the Duma is not
representative, and that the revolution is an artificial thing.
July 20th.
To-day there are ominous rumours of dissolution in the air.

Nazarenko is not going to London. He said he thought Professor
Kovolievski was not going, so he had withdrawn his candidature.
Now it turned out that Professor Kovolievski was going he was sorry.
He said he respected Maxime Maximovitch Kovolievski to such an
extent that if he were to tell him to hang himself on a tree he would
do so.
July 21st.
Every one is talking of the rumours of dissolution.

July 22nd.
I went to see some of the peasant members in their hotel. They

expect that the Duma will be dissolved.
July 23rd.
In this morning’s Retch there was a short paragraph stating that

late in the night a rumour had reached them concerning the
dissolution of the Duma; but it was not true. It was, however, or
rather it is. The dissolution is a fact. I have just seen the official
announcement in a special edition.
CHAPTER XXIV
THE DISSOLUTION OF THE DUMA
St. Petersburg, July 25th.
The dissolution of the Duma, although it had been predicted during

the course of last week, and although the arrival of a large number of
troops in St. Petersburg was known, came as a surprise. During the
whole of yesterday the town was abnormally quiet. I went to the
various clubs: the Labour Party Club, the Cadet Club, the Socialist
Club. They were all deserted. Some of the members had left for
Finland; others were holding meetings in various parts of the town.
In the club of the Labour Party, which is in the Nevsky Prospect,
nothing was left except the cold remains of a supper, a large portrait
of the Emperor, a picture of the Dowager Empress, and a pastel of
Spiridonovna. At the Cadet Club I saw the peasant Nazarenko; he
was just starting for Finland. “Things are bad,” I said. “The life of a
State is like the life of a man,” he replied, philosophically. “If there
were no bad there would be no good, either.” Other visitors arrived
and gathered together in knots, speaking with bated breath, as if they
were under the cloud of some huge calamity. “Does it mean the end
of the Monarchy?” I asked one man. “It means the end of the
dynasty, in any case,” he answered.
In the evening I saw some Octobrists and Conservatives, and asked
them their opinion. “The Government may be right in having
dissolved the Duma,” one of them said, “but what is criminal on their
part is the way in which they treated the Duma from the first, trying
to discredit it in every possible way, and doing everything they could
to provoke it to rebellion. Russia is an odd country, and everything is
possible; it is possible that the country may quiet down if liberal
reforms are at once put into practice; but I confess I have little faith
in this, and if the country does not quiet down this Ministry will be
directly responsible for any disasters which may happen.”
Some one else, more Liberal, said to me: “If I lose everything I
possess, if my land is devastated and my house is burnt, I shall never
blame the Cadets; I shall never cease to believe they might have
managed things if they had been empowered to do so early enough—
that is to say, last October.”
A third person, a landlord, said to me yesterday that the step was
inevitable, because no Ministry, even were it composed of geniuses,
and no Duma, even were it composed of angels, would be of the
slightest avail until it was settled whether or no there is to be a new
régime in Russia. You cannot, he argued, have the new wine in the
old skins. It was no use having a Duma supposed to be working
together with a power directly opposed to it and working in a
diametrically opposite direction. As matters were, a law, if it passed
through the Duma and the Council of Empire, had to be sanctioned
by the x quantity who had the power in his hands at Court. And if it is
said that it is not constitutional to inquire into the advisers of the
Crown, it must be remembered that whenever in other countries
advisers have been all-powerful, and have acted against the will of
the people, the advisers have been forced to go, failing which the
Monarch has been deposed. Now the question will be settled. Either
the Government will prove it can govern the country and quiet it
down—that is to say, it will prove itself to be strong—or it will prove
its weakness and ultimately come to grief.
All these are opinions I have heard expressed by Russians during
the last two days. I have also heard it said that the dissolution of the
Duma is an excellent step, that the Duma did no good and some
harm. I have also heard all the disaster attributed to the Cadets,
some people saying they were too constitutional, and that it is
impossible to be constitutional during a revolution, others that they
did not succeed in dominating the Left parties, but allowed
themselves to be overridden by them.
In the meantime the new Prime Minister has announced his
intention of carrying out a great Liberal programme of far-reaching
reforms on a large scale, and of maintaining the strictest order
throughout the country, so that the reforms may be realised. This
sounds charming. “At first, of course, you think it’s charming, but
very soon it gets alarming.” The first step taken in the new direction
has been to suppress all the Moderate Liberal newspapers and to
introduce a system of censorship more severe than that which
prevailed during the worst times of Plehve, and to arrest a man who
took off his hat to the members of the Duma at the railway station.
To-day, however, the Cadet newspaper, the Retch, has once more
made its appearance. The Government are looking forward to the
new elections, which they hope will return a Conservative majority
truly representative of the people.
Among other constitutional matters there is one lesson which they
have not learnt, and probably never will learn, and that is that if you
have a Parliamentary system you must put up with the fact that it
will often return a majority which is distasteful to you. If the
elections are carried out fairly it can safely be predicted that the
majority returned will be ultra-Radical. But I suppose this time those
steps will be taken which the present Ministry so bitterly accuse
Count Witte of having omitted to take, the steps to “arrange” the
elections, which, we are told (several officials told me personally),
the Government always take in England. That is to say, Mr. Balfour
and Lord Lansdowne, it is thought, take the necessary steps to
prevent the election of Mr. Keir Hardie and his supporters. It is
strange that so far this plan should have proved unsuccessful. It
would be, perhaps, simpler here to pass an electoral law in virtue of
which only policemen could be elected members of Parliament. This
would prove a constitutional measure which the present Ministry
would thoroughly understand.
One sometimes hears it said that the Duma was in too great a
hurry, and that it should have waited patiently and obtained
everything by constitutional means. This was the course the majority
were doing their best to pursue. They had to reckon with a
Government which was opposing them by unconstitutional means. It
is certainly not constitutional for a Government to distribute among
the troops proclamations (I have seen them) inciting the Army
against the Parliament, and attacking members of Parliament with
every kind of gross insult and calumny. Nor is it constitutional for a
Minister to request the correspondent of a large foreign newspaper
to state that the Parliament is not a thing to be reckoned with, but
merely a revolutionary body. The answer people made to these
objections is that there is not, and there never has been, a
constitution in Russia, and they are perfectly right.
But, apart from this, I agree with the Russian landlord I have
quoted above, who said that the main question must be decided
before one can talk of a Parliament here. The abscess must be
pierced to the core, he said. It was a pleasing illusion to think the
Cadets would obtain a change of régime by constitutional means.
“You must wait, little pigeon, you must wait,” says a character in a
novel by a famous Russian satirist. “I have done nothing else during
my whole life,” is the reply. And if the Parliament had waited until
the Government became constitutional it could have waited until
Doomsday, because, as another Russian said to me not long ago, “it
has less idea of what constitutional means than the Turks, only the
Turks are more competent and are better governed.”
Of course, if the new Prime Minister succeeds in quieting the
country and carrying out Liberal reforms on a large scale every one
will admit that the Government was right from the first, and that the
Duma was wrong. “But what use are reforms,” said some one to-day,
“when the Government has decided not to give the initial reform
which should be the cause of all the others: namely, a change of
régime, a constitution and a system of responsible government?”
Besides, in order to quiet the country the Government must first
succeed in recovering the confidence of the people. At present it has
not got the confidence of any party, any group, or any section of the
population.
St. Petersburg is full of troops. A cabman said to me yesterday that
these were not Russian troops, but Austrians in disguise. This is a
curious reflection of the remarks on foreign intervention which were
published on the first page of the semi-official newspaper here last
week, without, of course, the knowledge of the Ministers. I asked the
same man what he expected would happen. “There will be a big
skandal,” he answered. “It is impossible that it should be otherwise.
They say: ‘Let us have a Duma,’ and then they say, ‘Let us send it
away’; there can only be disorders after that. We, the cabmen, have
never yet struck, but we shall this time when the moment comes.” (I
think he thought that would make all the difference.) “What about
the soldiers?” I asked. “The soldiers oughtn’t to rebel,” he answered,
“but they ought to refuse to fire on the people. They would not be
breaking their oath. Their oath obliges them to fight the enemy, but
not their brothers. That is wrong.” Another cabman said a curious
thing to me, as we were driving along the Quays. “We of ourselves
can do nothing,” he said; “but those are the people who will do it for
us,” and he pointed to a student who was passing by.
The hall porter at the house where I lived told me he had known it
all along. “It is bad,” he said; “very bad.” I think that is really all there
is to be said about the matter. It is bad; very bad—that is to say, if
one looks back and then forward.
Later.
News has come of the appeal the ex-members of the Duma have
made to the country, urging citizens not to pay taxes and to refuse to
serve in the Army. Everybody is agreed that their action is a fatal
mistake, since they have no means of having any such measures
carried out.
CHAPTER XXV
IN THE COUNTRY AFTER THE
DISSOLUTION
Near Moscow, August 1st.
I have been staying for the last three days in the country quite close
to Moscow. I thought I should get away for a time from politics, from
talk of new Cabinets, new eras, liberal autocracy, strong-handed
reform, and other such pleasing illusions. I was mistaken. Politics
filter through everywhere now; in a third-class railway carriage, at
the station buffets, in the public parks, in the villages.
As regards the various opinions I heard expressed the prevailing
one is this: that the new Prime Minister’s programme of strong-
handed Liberal reform is a repetition of the programme of the last
five Ministers of the Interior.
M. Stolypin says these last five Premiers were all mistaken in their
policy; in the meantime (people say) it is difficult to see in what
respects his programme is to differ from theirs. And we have no
evidence as yet that M. Stolypin is an infinitely more capable man
than Count Witte. Some people, referring to the official denial of the
article that appeared in the semi-official newspaper Rossia, with
regard to foreign intervention, say: “If M. Stolypin cannot control the
first page of his official newspaper, how can he expect to control
Russia?” Others commenting on his intention to initiate social
reform and put a stop to the political movement, say that this effort
is the very root and kernel of the whole trouble in Russia; that the
mistake of would-be reformers has always consisted in their not
understanding that social reforms are impossible unless they are
preceded by political reforms. (M. Leroy-Beaulieu, in his splendid
book on Russia, writes in a most illuminating fashion on this very
point.)
As regards what is actually happening in Moscow, the town is
empty and quiet; public meetings are forbidden, small political
gatherings in private houses are held only under surveillance of the
police; gatherings of the “Black Gang” are said to be allowed; the
Press is certainly subjected to a rigid censorship; the Morning Post
arrived blacked out yesterday for the first time for two years; the
manifesto of the ex-members is being spread, likewise the manifesto
of the Social Democrats. I have not seen anybody who thinks that an
era of peace and resigned content has begun.
Near the house where I am living there is a village; as this village is
so close to the town of Moscow I thought that its inhabitants would
be suburban, and therefore not representative of peasant life. This is
not so. The nearness to Moscow seems to make no difference at all. I
was walking through the village on Saturday morning when a
peasant who was sitting on his doorstep called me and asked me if I
would like to eat an apple. I accepted his invitation. He said he
presumed I was living with X., as other Englishmen had lived there
before. Then he asked abruptly, “Is Marie Alexandrovna in your
place?” I said my hostess’s name was Marie Karlovna. “Of course,” he
said, “I don’t mean here, but in your place, in your country.” I didn’t
understand. Then he said it again very loud, and asked if I was deaf. I
said I wasn’t deaf and that I understood what he said, but I did not
know to whom he was alluding. “Talking to you,” he said, “is like
talking to a Tartar. You look at one and don’t understand what one
says.” Then it suddenly flashed on me that he was alluding to the
Queen of England. “You mean Queen Alexandra,” I said, “the sister
of the Empress Marie Feodorovna.” “That’s what I mean,” he said. It
afterwards appeared that he considered that England had been semi-
Russianised owing to this relationship; he thought of course that
both the Queen and the Empress were Russians.
Two more peasants joined us, and one of them brought a small
bottle (the size of a sample) of vodka and a plate of cherries. “We will
go and drink this in the orchard,” they said. So we went to the
orchard. “You have come here to learn,” said the first peasant, a
bearded man, whose name was Feodor. “Many Englishmen have
been here to learn. I taught one all the words that we use.” I said I
was a correspondent; that I had just arrived from St. Petersburg,
where I had attended the sittings of the Duma. “What about the
Duma?” asked the other peasant. “They’ve sent it away. Will there be
another one?” I said a manifesto spoke of a new one. “Yes,” said
Feodor, “there is a manifesto abolishing punishments.” I said I
hadn’t observed that clause. “Will they give us back our land?” asked
Feodor. “All the land here belongs to us really.” Then followed a long
explanation as to why the land belonged to them. It is the property,
as a matter of fact, of the Crown. I said I did not know. “If they don’t
give it back to us we shall take it,” he said simply. Then one of the
other peasants added, “Those manifestoes are not written by the
Emperor but by the ‘authorities.’” (The same thing was said to me by
a cabman at St. Petersburg, his reason being that the Emperor would
say “I,” whereas the manifesto said “We.”) Then they asked me why
they had not won the war; and whether it was true that the war had
been badly managed. “We know nothing,” he said. “What newspaper
tells the truth? Where can we find the real truth? Is it to be found in
the Russkoe Slovo?” (a big Moscow newspaper). They asked me
about the Baltic Fleet and why Admiral Nebogatoff had hoisted a
signal which meant “Beat us.”
Then I went away, and as I was going Feodor asked me if I would
like to go and see the haymaking the next day. If so I had better be at
his house at three o’clock in the afternoon. The next day, Sunday, I
kept my appointment, but found nobody at home in the house of
Feodor except a small child. “Is Feodor at home?” I asked. Then a
man appeared from a neighbouring cottage and said: “Feodor is in
the inn—drunk.” “Is he going to the haymaking?” I asked. “Of course
he’s going.” “Is he very drunk?” I asked. “No, not very; I will tell him
you are here.” And the man went to fetch him. Then a third person
arrived, a young peasant in his Sunday clothes, and asked me where I
was going. I said I was going to make hay. “Do you know how to?” he
asked. I said I didn’t. “I see,” he said, “you are just going to amuse
yourself. I advise you not to go. They will be drunk, and there might
be unpleasantness.”
Then Feodor arrived, apparently perfectly sober except that he was
rather red in the face. He harnessed his horse to a cart. “Would I
mind not wearing my hat but one of his?” he asked. I said I didn’t
mind, and he lent me a dark blue yachting cap, which is what the
peasants wear all over Russia. My shirt was all right. I had got on a
loose Russian shirt without a collar. He explained that it would look
odd to be seen with some one wearing such a hat as I had. It was a
felt hat. The little boy who was running about the house was Feodor’s
son. He was barefooted, and one of his feet was bound up. I asked
what was the matter with it. The bandage was at once taken off and I
was shown the remains of a large blister and gathering. “It’s been
cured now,” Feodor said. “It was a huge blister. It was cured by
witchcraft. I took him to the Wise Woman and she put something on
it and said a few words and the pain stopped, and it got quite well.
Doctors are no good; they only cut one about. I was kicked by a horse
and the pain was terrible. I drank a lot of vodka and it did no good;
then I went to the Wise Woman and she put ointment on the place
and she spoke away the pain. We think it’s best to be cured like this—
village fashion.” I knew this practice existed, but it was curious to
find it so near Moscow. It was like finding witchcraft at Surbiton.
Then we started for the hay meadows, which were about ten miles
distant. On the road we met other peasants in carts bound for the
same destination. They all gravely took off their hats to each other.
After an hour and a half’s drive we arrived at the Moscow River, on
the bank of which there is a tea-shop. Tea-shops exist all over Russia.
The feature of them is that you cannot buy spirits there. We stopped
and had tea. Everybody was brought a small teapot for tea and a
huge teapot of boiling water, and very small cups, and everybody
drank about four or five cups out of the saucer. They eat the sugar
separately, and do not put it into the cup.
Then we crossed the river on a floating bridge, and driving past a
large white Byzantine monastery arrived at the green hay meadows
on the farther river bank towards sunset. Then the haymaking began.
The first step which was taken was for vodka bottles to be produced
and for everybody to drink vodka out of a cup. Then there was a great
deal of shouting and an immense amount of abuse. “It doesn’t mean
anything,” Feodor said. “We curse each other and make it up
afterwards.” Then they drew lots for the particular strip they should
mow; each man carrying his scythe high over his shoulder. (“Don’t
come too near,” said Feodor; “when men have taken drink they are
careless with scythes.”)

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Christian Kazner, Thomas Wintgens and Peter Dillon

First published 2012

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

ISBN 9781843393443 (Paperback)

Part A: International MAR Case Studies

5.1.1 Historical background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

7.3.2 ASTR well-field aquifer conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

10.2 Description of the Test Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

Part B: Water Quality Analysis in MAR – Methods and Results

Part C: Water Reclamation Technologies in MAR

15.4.5 GAC/NF treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

Part D: Design and Management of MAR Systems

17.3.1 Viability assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302

20.3.1 Building and keeping trust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377

Part E: Promoting MAR Systems for Water Recycling

Partners of the RECLAIM WATER project:

Dr. Panagiotis Balabanis

Dr. Valentina Lazarova

1.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF MANAGED AQUIFER RECHARGE

at risk proabbly at risk not at risk

1.2 RESEARCH IN MANAGED AQUIFER RECHARGE

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THIS BOOK

1.4 CHAPTER CONTENTS

Part A: International MAR case studies

Table 1.1 Water reclamation schemes investigated in RECLAIM WATER.

Site location Scheme description

Part B: Water quality analysis in MAR – Methods and results

Part C: Water reclamation technologies in MAR

Part D: Design and management of MAR systems

Part E: Promoting MAR systems for water recycling

This evening I went to see an electro-technician, whom I know. We

To-day I went to the Duma with a translation of Herbert Spencer

I went to see Nazarenko in his house. He was not at home, but a

July 12th (continued).

This morning I went to see Nazarenko, who had made an

To-day there are rumours of a new Ministry to be formed from the

I went to see Petruckin this evening. We had a long conversation

To-day there are ominous rumours of dissolution in the air.

Every one is talking of the rumours of dissolution.

I went to see some of the peasant members in their hotel. They

In this morning’s Retch there was a short paragraph stating that

St. Petersburg, July 25th.

The dissolution of the Duma, although it had been predicted during

Near Moscow, August 1st.

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