Hence, tan θ = 8

1.3

bc

ab = = 6.1538

from which, θ = tan–1(6.1538) = 80.77º

(b) Pythagoras’ theorem

Pythagoras’ theorem states that:

(hypotenuse)2 = (adjacent side)2 + (opposite side)2

i.e. in the triangle of Figure 1.5,

ac2 = ab2 + bc2

Figure 1.5

Problem 7. In Figure 1.5, if ab = 5.1 m and

bc = 6.7 m, determine the length of the

hypotenuse, ac.

From Pythagoras, ac2 = ab2 + bc2

= 5.12 + 6.72 = 26.01 + 44.89

= 70.90

from which, ac = 70.90 = 8.42 m

Now try the following Practise Exercise

Practise Exercise 3â•…_Sines, cosines and

tangents and

Pythagoras’ theorem

In problems 1 to 5, refer to Figure 1.5.

1. If ab = 2.1 m and bc = 1.5 m, determine

angle θ. [35.54°]

2. If ab = 2.3 m and ac = 5.0 m, determine

angle θ. [62.61°]

3. If bc = 3.1 m and ac = 6.4 m, determine

angle θ. [28.97°]
4. If ab = 5.7 cm and bc = 4.2 cm, determine

the length ac [7.08 cm]

5. If ab = 4.1 m and ac = 6.2 m, determine

length bc. [4.65 m]

(c) The sine and cosine rules

For the triangle ABC shown in Figure 1.6,

Figure 1.6

the sine rule states: sin sin sin

abc

A=B=C

and the cosine rule states: a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A

Problem 8. In Figure 1.6, if a = 3 m, A = 20° and

B = 120°, determine lengths b, c and angle C.

Using the sine rule, sin sin

ab

A=B

i.e.

sin 20 sin120

b°=°

from which, b = 3sin120 3 0.8660

sin 20 0.3420

°×

°=

= 7.596 m

Angle, C = 180° – 20° – 120° = 40°

Using the sine rule again gives: sin sin

ca

C=A
i.e. c =

sin 3 sin 40

sin sin 20

aC

×°

=°

= 5.638 m

Problem 9. In Figure 1.6, if b = 8.2 cm. c = 5.1 cm

and A = 70°, determine the length a and angles B

and C.

From the cosine rule,

a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A

= 8.22 + 5.12 − 2 × 8.2 × 5.1 × cos 70°

= 67.24 + 26.01 – 2(8.2)(5.1)cos70°

= 64.643

Hence, length, a = 64.643 = 8.04 cm

Using the sine rule: sin sin

ab

A=B

Revisionary mathematicsâ•… 7

Part One

i.e. 8.04 8.2

sin 70° = sin B

from which, 8.04 sin B = 8.2 sin 70°

and sin B = 8.2sin 70

8.04

= 0.95839
and B = sin−1(0.95839) = 73.41°

Since A + B + C = 180°, then

C = 180° – A – B = 180° – 70° – 73.41° = 36.59°

Now try the following Practise Exercise

Practise Exercise 4â•… Sine and cosine rules

In problems 1 to 4, refer to Figure 1.6.

1. If b = 6 m, c = 4 m and B = 100°, determine

angles A and C and length a.

[A = 38.96°, C = 41.04°, a = 3.83 m]

2. If a = 15 m, c = 23 m and B = 67°, determine

length b and angles A and C.

[b = 22.01 m, A = 38.86°, C = 74.14°]

3. If a = 4 m, b = 8 m and c = 6 m, determine

angle A. [28.96°]

4. If a = 10.0 cm, b = 8.0 cm and c = 7.0 cm,

determine angles A, B and C.

[A = 83.33°, B = 52.62°, C = 44.05°]

5. In Figure 1.7, PR represents the inclined jib

of a crane and is 10.0 m long. PQ is 4.0 m

long. Determine the inclination of the jib to

the vertical (i.e. angle P) and the length of

tie QR.

Figure 1.7

[P = 39.73°, QR = 7.38 m]

1.5â•… Brackets

The use of brackets, which are used in many engineering

equations, is explained through the following

worked problems.

Problem 10. Expand the bracket to determine A,

Multiplying each term in the bracket by ‘a’ gives:

A = a(b + c + d) = ab + ac + ad

Problem 11. Expand the brackets to determine A,

given A = a[b(c + d) – e(f – g)]

When there is more than one set of brackets the

innermost brackets are multiplied out first. Hence,

A = a[b(c + d) – e(f – g)] = a[bc + bd – ef + eg]

Note that –e × –g = +eg

Now multiplying each term in the square brackets by

‘a’ gives:

A = abc + abd – aef + aeg

Problem 12. Expand the brackets to determine A,

given A = a[b(c + d – e) – f(g – h{j – k})]

The inner brackets are determined first, hence

A = a[b(c + d – e) – f (g – h{j – k})]

= a[b(c + d – e) – f (g – hj + hk)]

= a[bc + bd – be – fg + fhj – fhk]

i.e. A = abc + abd – abe – afg + afhj – afhk

Problem 13. Evaluate A, given

A = 2[3(6 – 1) – 4(7{2 + 5} – 6)]

A = 2[3(6 – 1) – 4(7{2 + 5} – 6)]

= 2[3(6 – 1) – 4(7 × 7 – 6)]

= 2[3 × 5 – 4 × 43]

= 2[15 – 172] = 2[– 157] = – 314

Now try the following Practise Exercise

Practise Exercise 5â•… Brackets

In problems 1 to 2, evaluate A

1. A = 3( 2 + 1 + 4) [21]
2. A = 4[5(2 + 1) – 3(6 – 7)] [72]

8â•… Mechanical Engineering Principles

Part One

Expand the brackets in problems 3 to 7.

3. 2(x – 2y + 3) [2x – 4y + 6]

4. (3x – 4y) + 3(y – z) – (z – 4x)

[7x – y – 4z]

5. 2x + [y – (2x + y)] [0]

6. 24a – [2{3(5a – b) – 2(a + 2b)} + 3b]

[11b – 2a]

7. ab[c + d – e(f – g + h{i + j})]

[abc + abd – abef + abeg – abehi – abehj]

1.6â•… Fractions

An example of a fraction is

23

where the top line, i.e.

the 2, is referred to as the numerator and the bottom

line, i.e. the 3, is referred to as the denominator.

A proper fraction is one where the numerator

is smaller than the denominator, examples being

2 , 1 , 3 , 5 3 2 8 16, and so on.

An improper fraction is one where the denominator

is smaller than the numerator, examples being

3 , 2 , 8 , 16 2 1 3 5 , and so on.

Addition of fractions is demonstrated in the following

worked problems.

Problem 14. Evaluate A, given A = 1 1

2+3

The lowest common denominator of the two denominators

2 and 3 will divide into.

Then 1 3

2 = 6 and 1 2

3 = 6 i.e. both 1

2 and 1

3 have the

common denominator, namely 6.

The two fractions can therefore be added as:

A=+

11

23

3232

666

=+==

56

Problem 15. Evaluate A, given A =

23

3+4

A common denominator can be obtained by multiplying

the two denominators together, i.e. the common

denominator is 3 × 4 = 12.

The two fractions can now be made equivalent, i.e.

28

3 = 12 and 3 9

4 = 12

so that they can be easily added together, as follows:

A=23
3+4=8

12 +

12 =

8 9 17

12 12

i.e. A = +

23

34=5

112

Problem 16. Evaluate A, given A =

123

6+7+2

A suitable common denominator can be obtained by

multiplying 6 × 7 = 42, because all three denominators

divide exactly into 42.

Thus, 1 7

6 = 42 , 2 12

7 = 42 and

3 63

2 = 42

Hence, A =

123

6+7+2

= 7 12 63 7 12 63 82 41

42 42 42 42 42 21

++
++===

i.e. A = + +

123

672=

20

1 21

Problem 17. Determine A as a single fraction,

given A =

12

x+y

A common denominator can be obtained by multiplying

the two denominators together, i.e. xy

Thus, 1 y

x = xy and

2 2x

y = xy

Hence, A =

12

x+y=y

xy + 2x

xy

i.e. A =

yx

xy

+2

Note that addition, subtraction, multiplication and division

of fractions may be determined using a calculator

(for example, the CASIO fx-83ES or fx-991ES).

Locate the 
 and   functions on your calculator

(the latter function is a shift function found above

the 

 function) and then check the following worked

problems.

Revisionary mathematicsâ•… 9

Part One

Problem 18. Evaluate 1 2

4+3

(i) Press 

function

(ii) Type in 1

(iii) Press ↓ on the cursor key and type in 4

(iv) 1

4 appears on the screen

(v) Press → on the cursor key and type in +

(vi) Press 

function

(vii) Type in 2

(viii) Press ↓ on the cursor key and type in 3

(ix) Press → on the cursor key

(x) Press = and the answer 11

12 appears

(xi) Press S ⇔ D function and the fraction changes

to a decimal 0.9166666....

Thus, + = 1 2 11

4 3 12 = 0.9167 as a decimal, correct to

It is also possible to deal with mixed numbers on the

calculator.

Press Shift then the 

function and  

appears

Problem 19. Evaluate 5 15 − 3 43

(i) Press Shift then the 

function and  

appears on the screen

(ii) Type in 5 then → on the cursor key

(iii) Type in 1 and ↓ on the cursor key

(iv) Type in 5 and 5 15 appears on the screen

(v) Press → on the cursor key

(vi) Type in - and then press Shift then the 

function and 5 15 –  

appears on the screen

(vii) Type in 3 then → on the cursor key

(viii) Type in 3 and ↓ on the cursor key

(ix) Type in 4 and 5 1 3 3 5 − 4 appears on the screen

(x) Press = and the answer 29

20 appears

(xi) Press S ⇔ D function and the fraction changes

to a decimal 1.45

Thus, − = = 1 3 29 9

5 5 3 4 20 1 20 = 1.45 as a decimal.
Now try the f