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Juergen Geiser

Multicomponent
and Multiscale
Systems
Theory, Methods, and Applications in
Engineering
Multicomponent and Multiscale Systems
Juergen Geiser

Multicomponent
and Multiscale Systems
Theory, Methods, and Applications
in Engineering

123
Juergen Geiser
Department of Electrical Engineering
Ruhr University of Bochum
Bochum
Germany

ISBN 978-3-319-15116-8 ISBN 978-3-319-15117-5 (eBook)


DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-15117-5

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015947793

Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London


© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or
for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland is part of Springer Science+Business Media


(www.springer.com)
First, I am grateful to my colleagues
at the Ernst-Moritz Arndt University
of Greifswald, Germany,
and Ruhr-University of Bochum, Germany,
for their support and ideas on modelling
and computational sciences. Next,
I have to thank my supporters
and mentors in all modelling problems
and splitting ideas. They helped me
to be open and to be sensitive
to rigorous analysis of the numerical
methods, modelling of engineering
problems and their applications.

My special thanks go to my wife


Andrea and my daughter Lilli
who have always supported
and encouraged me.
Preface

I am glad to introduce Multicomponent and Multiscale Systems: Theory, Methods


and Applications in Engineering.
When I started this book project, I proposed to write a book about my recent
advances in mathematical modelling problems to multicomponent and multiscale
systems. I considered the upcoming areas in material modelling, which include
transport and reaction flow simulations and also electronic applications with elec-
tromagnetic fields.
I organized this book in combining theoretical and also application to practical
problems. While multicomponent and multiscale systems are very new problems,
the early stage of such a field needs such a book to explain in a theoretical and also
a practical manner the tools and methods to solve such problems.
I have tried to fill the gap between numerical methods and the applications to
real problems. I present rigorously the fundamental aspects of the numerical
methods with their underlying analysis and applying such schemes to real-life.
This monograph is in the field of technical and physical simulation problems in
engineering and sciences. Based on the theoretical framework in methods and
structures of applied mathematics, it concludes with numerical approximations of
multi-component and multi-scale problem. A main motivation of the book came
from students and researchers in different lectures and research projects.
In this monograph, we describe the theoretical and practical aspects of solving
complicated and multi-component and multi-scale systems, which are applied in
engineering models and problems.
In the book, we are motivated to describe numerical receipts, based on different
multi-scale and multi-component methods, that allow to apply truly working
multi-scale and multi-component approaches. Nowadays, one of the main problems
in multi-scale and multi-component systems is the gap between several models
based on different time- and spatial-scales. Often the drawback of applying standard
numerical methods, e.g. explicit time-discretization schemes, instead of working
multi-scale approaches, e.g. multi-scale expansion methods, is, that we have a
dramatic limiting factor, e.g. very small time- or spatial steps (due to resolving the

vii
viii Preface

finest scale). Such limiting factors did not allow to solve engineering complexity
and industrial advancement is impossible to obtain. Here, we fill the gap between
numerical methods and their applications to engineering complexities of real-life
problems.
Such engineering complexities are delicate and need extraordinary treatment
with special solver and tools to overcome the difficulties and restrictions of time-
and spatial steps.
Therefore, we discuss the ideas of solving such multi-component and multi-scale
systems with the help of non-iterative and iterative methods. Often such methods
can be related to splitting multi-scale methods to be taken into account to
decompose such problems to simpler ones. Such decomposition allows to treat the
complex systems in simpler ones and skip the restriction of the finest scale to the
solver methods, while we can apply individual scale to the decomposed system.
We discuss analytical and numerical methods in time and space for evolution
equations and also nonlinear evolution equations with respect to their linearization
and relaxation schemes.
All problems are related to engineering problems and their applications. I have
started from reactive flow and transport models, which are related to bioremedia-
tion, combustion and various CFD applications, to delicate electronic models,
which are related to plasma transport and flow processes in technical apparatus.
The main motivation is to embed novel multiscale approaches to complex
engineering problems such that it is possible to apply a model-reduction. Thus, it is
possible that parts of the model can be reduced or for those based on multiscale or
multicomponent approaches, the data-transfer between fine and coarse grid is done,
in a way that each scale is considered.
The outline of the monograph is given as:
1. Introduction (outline of the book)
2. General principles for multi-component and multiscale systems
a. Multi-component Analysis (separating of components)
b. Multiscale analysis (separating of scales)
c. Mathematical methods
3. Theoretical part: functional splitting:
a. Decomposition of a global multi-component problem
b. Decomposition of a global multiscale problem
4. Algorithmic part
a. Iterative methods
b. Additive methods
c. Parallelization
Preface ix

5. Models and applications


a. Multicomponent applications
i. Application of multicomponent fluids
ii. Application of multicomponent kinetics
iii. Analytical methods for a multicomponent transport model
b. Multiscale applications
i. Additive splitting method for Maxwell-equations
ii. Nonuniform grids for particle in cell methods
6. Engineering applications (real-life models)
a. Multicomponent applications
i. Application of a multicomponent model in a plasma-mixture problem
ii. Application of a multicomponent model in a biological problem
(glycolysis)
b. Multiscale applications
i. Application of a multiscale model in a stochastic problem
ii. Application of a multiscale model in a code-coupling problem
iii. Application of a multiscale model in a dynamical problem
iv. Application of a multiscale model in a particle transport problem
v. Application of a multiscale model in plasma applications
vi. Application of a multiscale model in complex fluids
7. Conclusion (fields of application and future ideas)
Based on the outline of the book, we hope that we could increase the attention of
both industry and scientists; theoretical and practical aspects are illustrated and
considered in an equal way.

Dallgow-Doeberitz Juergen Geiser


June 2015
Acknowledgments

I would like to thank Th. Zacher for programming MULTI-OPERA software and
his help in the numerical experiments. I would also like to acknowledge my col-
leagues and students who helped me to write such a book and gave me hints with
numerical and experimental results.

xi
Contents

1 General Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Multicomponent Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Multicomponent Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Multicomponent Transport. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 Application of Operator Splitting Methods
to Multicomponent Flow and Transport Problems. . . . . . 3
1.2 Multiscale Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.1 Multiscale Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2 Multiscale Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.3 Application of Different Multiscale Methods
to Multiscale Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Multicomponent Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.1 Additive and Multiplicative Splitting Methods . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.2 Iterative Splitting Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.3 Application of the Operator Splitting Methods
to Multiscale Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 Multiscale Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4.1 Analytical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4.2 Multiscale Averaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4.3 Perturbation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4.4 Computational Singular Perturbation Method . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4.5 Alternative Modern Systematic Model Reduction
Methods of Multiscale Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 21
1.4.6 Multiscale Expansion (Embedding of the Fast Scales). .. 24
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 28

xiii
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xiv Contents

2 Theoretical Part: Functional Splitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 33


2.1 Ideas of the Functional Splitting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 33
2.1.1 Flow Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 33
2.1.2 Decomposition of Convection-Diffusion-Reaction
Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 37
2.1.3 Functional Splitting with Respect
to the Multiscale Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 39
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 42

3 Algorithmic Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2 Iterative Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.2.1 Iterative Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.2.2 Reformulation to Waveform Relaxation Scheme. . . . . . . 47
3.3 Additive Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.3.1 Additive Splitting Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.3.2 Higher Order Additive Splitting Method . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.3.3 Iterative Splitting Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.4 Parallelization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.4.1 Time Parallelization: Parareal Algorithm
as an Iterative Solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.4.2 Operator Parallelization: Operator Splitting Method . . . . 58
3.4.3 Sequential Operator Splitting Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.4.4 Parallel Operator Splitting Method: Version 1 . . . . . . . . 60
3.4.5 Parallel Operator-Splitting Method: Version 2 . . . . . . . . 60
3.4.6 Iterative Splitting Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.4.7 Spatial Parallelization Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

4 Models and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71


4.1 Multicomponent Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.1.1 Multicomponent Transport Model for Atmospheric
Plasma: Modelling, Simulation and Application . . . . . . . 72
4.1.2 Multicomponent Fluid Transport Model
for Groundwater Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.1.3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.2 Multicomponent Kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.2.1 Multicomponent Langevin-Like Equations. . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.2.2 Introduction to the Model Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.2.3 Analytical Methods for Mixed Deterministic–Stochastic
Ordinary Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.2.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.3 Additive Operator Splitting with Finite-Difference Time-Domain
Method: Multiscale Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Contents xv

4.3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.3.2 Introduction FDTD Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.3.3 Additive Operator Splitting Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.3.4 Application to the Maxwell Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.3.5 Practical Formulation of the 3D-FDTD Method . . . . . . . 103
4.3.6 Explicit Discretization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.3.7 Combination: Discretization and Splitting . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.3.8 Practical Formulation of the 3D-AOS-FDTD Method . . . 107
4.3.9 Discretization of the Equations with the AOS . . . . . . . . 108
4.3.10 Transport Equation Coupled with an Electro-magnetic
Field Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.4 Extensions of Particle in Cell Methods for Nonuniform Grids:
Multiscale Ideas and Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.4.1 Introduction of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.4.2 Introduction of the Extended Particle in Cell Method . . . 117
4.4.3 Mathematical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.4.4 Discretization of the Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.4.5 2D Adaptive PIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.4.6 Application: Multidimensional Finite
Difference Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.4.7 Application: Shape Functions for the Multidimensional
Finite Difference Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4.4.8 Simple Test Example: Plume Computation of Ion
Thruster with 1D PIC Code. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.4.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

5 Engineering Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153


5.1 Multiscale Methods for Langevin-Like Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.1.1 Introduction of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.1.2 Introduction of the 1D Model Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.1.3 Analytical Methods for Mixed
Deterministic–Stochastic Ordinary
Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.1.4 A–B Splitting with Analytical Methods for Mixed
Deterministic–Stochastic Ordinary
Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.1.5 Improved A–B Splitting Scheme: Predictor–Correction
Idea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
5.1.6 Improved Explicit Scheme Based
on the Predictor–Correction Idea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.1.7 CFL Condition for the Explicit Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5.1.8 Numerical Examples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.1.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
xvi Contents

5.2 Multiscale Problem in Code Coupling: Coupling Methods


for the Aura Fluid Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.2.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.2.2 Mathematical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
5.2.3 Splitting Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
5.2.4 Modified A–B Splitting Method: Only One
Exchange to Operator B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
5.2.5 Coupling of Initial Dates and Multiscale Approach. . . . . 181
5.2.6 Error Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
5.2.7 A Priori Error Estimates for the Splitting Scheme. . . . . . 182
5.2.8 A Posteriori Error Estimates for the Splitting Scheme . . . 183
5.2.9 Optimization for the Heat- and Radiation Equation:
Newton’s Method for Solving the Fixpoint Problem . . .. 184
5.2.10 The Modified Jacobian Newton Methods
and Fixpoint Iteration Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
5.2.11 Parallelization: Parareal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
5.2.12 Test Example: Simple Car Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
5.2.13 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
5.3 Multiscale Methods for Levitron Problem: Iterative Implicit
Euler Methods as Multiscale Solvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
5.3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
5.3.2 Unconstraint Hamiltonian of the Levitron Problem . . . . . 195
5.3.3 Integrator for Unconstraint Hamiltonian . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
5.3.4 Integrator with Lagrangian Multiplier
(Constraint Hamiltonian) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 199
5.3.5 Numerical Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 200
5.3.6 Conclusions and Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 201
5.4 Particle Method as Multiscale Problem: Adaptive Particle
in Cell with Numerical and Physical Error Estimates . . . . . . . . . 202
5.4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
5.4.2 Mathematical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
5.4.3 Numerical Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
5.4.4 Absolute Error Based on the Initialization
and Right-Hand Side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 217
5.4.5 Error Reduction with Respect to SPDE
(Stochastic Partial Differential Equations) . . . . . . . . . .. 219
5.4.6 Algorithmic Ideas to Overcome
the Self-Force Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
5.4.7 Absolute and Statistical Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
5.4.8 Scaling of the Error and Analytical Error . . . . . . . . . . . 226
5.4.9 Numerical Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
5.4.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Contents xvii

5.5 A Multicomponent Transport Model for Plasma


and Particle Transport: Multicomponent Mixture . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
5.5.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
5.5.2 Mathematical Model for Plasma Mixture Problem . . . . . 231
5.5.3 Numerical Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
5.5.4 Iterative Scheme in Time (Global Linearization,
Matrix Method) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 237
5.5.5 Conclusions and Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 243
5.6 Multicomponent Model of a Full-Scale Model of Glycolysis
in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: Theory and Splitting Schemes . . .. 243
5.6.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 244
5.6.2 Introduction to the Pathway Model for the Glycolysis
in Saccharomyces cerevisiae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 245
5.6.3 Model for Hynne Glycolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 246
5.6.4 Splitting Schemes for Partitioned
Multicomponent Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 250
5.6.5 Splitting Errors and Time Step Control . . . . . . . . . . . .. 251
5.6.6 Splitting Based on Separation of Eigenvectors
(Assumption: Linearized Jacobian Matrix) . . . . . . . . . .. 253
5.6.7 Splitting Based on Fast and Slow Dynamics
Based on the Idea of the CSP
(Computational Singular Perturbation)
(Assumption: Linear Jacobian) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
5.6.8 Strategies for the Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
5.6.9 Numerical Examples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
5.6.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
5.7 Splitting Approach for a Plasma Resonance Spectroscopy . . . . . . 263
5.7.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
5.7.2 Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
5.7.3 Splitting Schemes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
5.7.4 Ideas of Numerical Examples of the Splitting
Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 269
5.7.5 Conclusions and Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 270
5.8 Multiscale Approach with Adaptive and Equation-Free
Methods for Transport Problems with Electric Fields . . . . . . . . . 270
5.8.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
5.8.2 Numerical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
5.8.3 Full Explicit Scheme: With One Timescale Δt. . . . . . . . 273
5.8.4 Adaptive Explicit Scheme:
With Two Timescales δt; Δt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 274
5.8.5 Equation-Free Explicit Scheme:
With Two Timescale δt; Δt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 277
5.8.6 Conclusions and Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 278
xviii Contents

5.9 Multiscale Approach for Complex Fluids: Applications


in Non-Newtonian Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
5.9.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
5.9.2 Non-Newtonian Fluid: Influence of the Microscopic
Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
5.9.3 Non-Newtonian Fluid: Influence of the at the Boundary
Flow at the Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Acronyms

BCH Baker-Campbell-Hausdorff formula


BDF Backward differentiation formula
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics
CFL Courant-Friedrichs-Lewy condition
CIC Cloud-in-Cell function (see [1] and [2])
CVD Chemical vapor deposition
CSP Computational Singular Perturbation Method (see [3])
DD Domain decomposition methods
FDTD Finite Difference Finite Time method (see [4])
EFM Equation Free Method (see [5])
HIPIMS High Power Impulse Magnetron Sputtering
HMM Heterogeneous Multiscale Method (see [6])
HPM Homotopy Perturbation Method (see [7])
ICE-PIC Invariant Constrained-equilibrium Edge Pre-Image Curve
(see [8])
ILDM Intrinsic Low Dimensional Manifold approach (see [9])
IOS Iterative operator splitting methods
MAX-phase Special material with metallic and ceramic behavior; see [10]
MD Molecular dynamics
MIG Method of Invariant Grid (see [11])
MIM Method of Invariant Manifold
MISM Multiscale Iterative Splitting Method (see [12])
MQ Multiquadric bases functions (see [13])

xix
xx Acronyms

MULTI-OPERA Software package based on MATLAB, which solves multiscale


problems with splitting methods
ODE Ordinary differential equation
OFELI Object finite element library
PDE Partial differential equation
PECVD Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition
PIC Particle in Cell (see [1])
PID Proportional integral derivative controller
PM Particle Method (see [1])
PVD Physical vapor deposition
RBF Radial basis function
REDIMs Reaction–Diffusion Manifolds approach (see [14])
RRM Relaxation Redistribution Method (see [15])
R3T Radioactive-reaction-retardation-transport software toolbox,
done with the software package UG (unstructured grids)
SiC Silicon carbide
Ti3 SiC2 Special material used for thin-layer deposition; see [10]
SIM Slow Invariant Manifold
SDE Stochastic Differential Equation
SODE Stochastic Ordinary Differential Equation
SPDE Stochastic Partial differential equation
UG Unstructured grid (software package; see [16])

Symbols

λ Eigenvalue
A In the following A is a matrix in Rm  Rm , m 2 Nþ is the
rank
λi i-th eigenvalue of A
ρðAÞ Spectral radius of A
ei i-th eigenvector of matrix A
σðAÞ Spectrum of A
Reðλi Þ i-th real eigenvalue of λ
ut ¼ ou
ot
First-order partial time derivative of c
utt ¼ oot2u
2
Second-order partial time derivative of c
uttt ¼ oot3u
3
Third-order partial time derivative of u
utttt ¼ oot4u
4
Fourth-order partial time derivative of u
u0 ¼ dudt
First-order time derivative of u
u00 ¼ ddt2u
2
Second-order time derivative of u
τ ¼ τn ¼ tnþ1  tn Time step
Acronyms xxi

un Approximated solution of u at time tn



t u¼
unþ1 un Forward finite difference of u in time
τn
o
t u¼
u n
un1 Backward finite difference of u in time
τn
o0t u ¼ unþ1 un1 Central finite difference of u in time
2τ n
o2t u ¼ oþ 
t ot u
Second-order finite difference of u in time
ru Gradient of u
Δuðx; tÞ Laplace operator of u
ru Divergence of u (where u is a vector function)
nm Outer normal vector to Ωm
oþx u
Forward finite difference of u in space dimension x
ox u Backward finite difference of u in space dimension x
o0x u Central finite difference of u in space dimension x
o2x u Second-order finite difference of u in space dimension x
oþy u
Forward finite difference of u in space dimension y
oy u Backward finite difference of u in space dimension y
o0y u Central finite difference of u in space dimension y
o2y u Second-order finite difference of u in space dimension y
ei ðtÞ :¼ uðtÞ  ui ðtÞ Local error function with approximated solution ui ðtÞ
errlocal Local error
errglobal Global error
½A; B ¼ AB  BA Commutator of operators A and B

References

1. R. Hockney, J. Eastwood, Computer Simulation Using Particles (CRC Press, Boca Raton,
1985)
2. M.E. Innocenti, G. Lapenta, S. Markidis, A. Beck, A. Vapirev, A multi level multi domain
method for particle in cell plasma simulations. J. Comput. Phys. 238, 115–140 (2013)
3. S.H. Lam, D.A. Goussis, The CSP method for simplifying kinetics. Int. J. Chem. Kinet. 26,
461–486 (1994)
4. A. Taflove, Computational Electrodynamics: The Finite Difference Time Domain Method
(Artech House Inc., Boston, 1995)
5. I.G. Kevrekidis, G. Samaey, Equation-free multiscale computation: algorithms and applica-
tions. Annu. Rev. Phys. Chem. 60, 321–344 (2009)
6. E. Weiman Principle of Multiscale Modelling (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
2010)
7. S.J. Liao, On the homotopy analysis method for nonlinear problems. Appl. Math. Comput.
147, 499–513 (2004)
8. Z. Ren, St. B. Pope, A. Vladimirsky, J.M. Guckenheimer, Application of the ICE-PIC method
for the dimension reduction of chemical kinetics coupled with transport. Proc. Combust. Inst.
31, 473–481 (2007)
xxii Acronyms

9. U. Maas, S.B. Pope, Simplifying chemical kinetics: intrinsic low-dimensional manifolds in


composition space. Combust. Flame 88, 239–264 (1992)
10. M.W. Barsoum, T. El-Raghy, Synthesis and characterization of a remarkable ceramic:
Ti3SiC2. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 79(1), 1953–1956 (1996)
11. E. Chiavazzo, I.V. Karlin, K. Boulouchos, Method of invariant grid for model reduction of
hydrogen combustion. Proc. Combust. Inst. 32(1), 519–526 (2009)
12. J. Geiser, Recent advances in splitting methods for multiphysics and multiscale: theory and
applications. J. Algorithms Comput. Technol., Multi-Sci., Brentwood, Essex, UK, accepted
August 2014 (to be published second issue 2015)
13. R.L. Hardy, Multiquadric equations of topography and other irregular surfaces. J. Geophys.
Res. 76(8), 1905–1915 (1971)
14. V. Bykov, U. Maas, Problem adapted reduced models based on reaction diffusion manifolds
(REDIMs). Institut für Technische Thermodynamik, Karlsruhe University, Kaiserstraßse 12,
D-76128 Karlsruhe, Germany, Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 01/2009 (2009)
15. E. Chiavazzo, I. Karlin, Adaptive simplification of complex multiscale systems. Phys. Rev.
E 83, 036706 (2011)
16. P. Bastian, K. Birken, K. Eckstein, K. Johannsen, S. Lang, N. Neuss, H. Rentz-Reichert, UG—
a flexible software toolbox for solving partial differential equations. Comput. Vis. Sci. 1(1),
27–40 (1997)
Introduction

While engineering applications are becoming increasingly complicate, the under-


lying modelling problems are becoming more related with multi-modelling aspects.
Such complexities arise due to multiscale and multicomponent approaches in the
modelling-equations, which need rigorous numerical analysis for the underlying
schemes. The main problems are the disparate time- and spatial scales, which have
to be included into the models and their underlying numerical approaches.
In the next chapters, we like to solve such delicate problems with numerical
schemes, which are improved multi-scale and multi-component methods.
We discuss the following items:
• General principles for multi-component and multiscale systems,
• Multi-component analysis (separating of components),
• Multiscale analysis (separating of scales),
• Mathematical and numerical methods.
While we start with classical multicomponent and multiscale methods, e.g.
homogenization and asymptotic matching, we discuss their limits and application
background. Such limits allow us to take into account the design of structure and
algorithmical methods, which overcome the restriction of disparate scales and
modify such methods to apply engineering problems with delicate complexities.
Here the main topic is related to splitting methods, which are nowadays applied
to multi-scale and multi-component problems, while they are flexible in coupling
different spatial and time scales.
We discuss additive and iterative methods, which can be embedded to standard
discretization and solver schemes, such that the multiscales are respected in their
modelling structures. Practical and theoretical tools are extended with scientific
simulations of their underlying models, which allows revealing the deeper struc-
tures, for example multi-component and multi-scale structures, which are coupled
in different time and spatial scales.

xxiii
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xxiv Introduction

Based on the upcoming areas of multi-scale approaches for material modelling,


see the framework of Horizon 2020,1 it is important to link different models, e.g.,
• Multi-scaling: Different time- or spatial scales of the phenomena are modelled in
different entities (e.g., micro- or macro model) and their results are transferred
from one model to another.
• Multi-Modelling: Different physics and chemistry are coupled at the same scale,
which means the models are applied to the same time- and spatial scale.
Such new modelling areas are nowadays important and we take into account the
modification of our proposed multi-scale and multi-component methods to cus-
tomize for practical engineering problems. One of the key motivation is to bridge
the gap between the engineering application and the development of multi-scale
methods for theoretical test applications, such that it is possible to adapt the the-
oretical tested schemes to real problems.
Here in our book, we concentrate on multi-scaling, which means, we can apply
our models and methods to such problems, that different models (microscopic
model or macroscopic model) are coupled via a method and therefore, we transfer
the results from one to the other model.
We consider the following multi-scaling:
• Multi-scaling: Different time- or spatial scales of the phenomena are modelled in
different entities (e.g., micro- or macro model) and their results are transferred
from one model to another.
• Multi-Modelling: Different physics and chemistry is coupled at the same scale,
which means the models are applied to the same time- and spatial scale.
Based on the first interpretation, we have in the book the following examples:
• Langevin-like equations (micro- and macro-time scale), see Sect. 5.1,
• Levitron Problem (micro- and macro-spatial scale), see Sect. 5.3,
• Glycolysis Problem (micro- and macro-time scale), see Sect. 5.6.
In Fig. 1, we present the first interpretation (same physics model to different
spatial and time scales).
In Fig. 2, we present the second interpretation (linking models with different
physics). Based on the second interpretation, we have in the book the following
examples:
• Code-coupling (fluid dynamical and heat-transfer model), see Sect. 5.2,
• Adaptive Particle in Cell (molecular dynamical model and continuum model),
see Sect. 5.4,
• Multicomponent Plasma (kinetic model and continuum model), see Sect. 5.5.

1
European Commission, Research & Innovation-Key Enabling Technologies, Modelling Material,
http://ec.europa.eu/research/industrial_technologies/modelling-materials_en.html.
Introduction xxv

Fig. 1 First interpretation of multi-scaling (often in classical material engineering applied)

Fig. 2 Second interpretation of multi-scaling (in modern material engineering applied)


xxvi Introduction

In the book, we try to close the gap between several available models, e.g. in
material modelling, due to disparate time and spatial scales, and the possibility to
apply multi-scale and multi-component methods to couple such scales.
The use of such truly working multi-scale approaches is important in the case of
engineering complexity; in the book, we present such approaches. Nowadays, if
such methods are not considered or well-studied in the applications, it is a dramatic
limiting factor for today’s industrial advancement, see [1].

Reference

1. L. Rosso, A.F. de Baas, Review of Materials Modelling: What makes a material function? Let
me compute the ways … European Commission, General for Research and Innovation
Directorate, Industrial Technologies, Unit G3 Materials (2014). http://ec.europa.eu/research/
industrial_technologies/modelling-materials_en.html
Chapter 1
General Principles

Abstract In the general principle, we give an overview of the recently used methods
and schemes to solve multicomponent and multiscale systems. While multicompo-
nent systems are evolution equations based on each single species, which are coupled
with the other species, e.g. with reaction-, diffusion-processes, multiscale systems
are evolution equations based on different scales for each species, e.g. macroscopic-
or microscopic scale. We give the general criteria for practically performing the
different splitting and multiscale methods, such that a modification to practical ap-
plications of the splitting schemes to a real-life problem can be done.

1.1 Multicomponent Systems

In the following, we deal with multicomponent systems. Multicomponent systems


concentrate on disparate components in the underlying multiscale models, while
they can be coupled by linear or nonlinear functions or differential systems, e.g.
reactions or transport phenomena. Often, also different scales are important to resolve
to understand the interactions of the different components. Here, we have to apply
multicomponent schemes that are also related to disparate spatial and timescales to
resolve such complexities, see algorithmic ideas of multicomponent problems in [1].
In the following sections, we concentrate on modelling or algorithmical aspects
of multicomponent systems for the following applications:
• Multicomponent flows, see [2, 3].
• Multicomponent transport, see [1, 4].
We simulate the flow and transport systems based on their interactions with the
different components. Hence, we allow to study weakly or strongly coupled compo-
nents in the underlying modelling equation systems.

1.1.1 Multicomponent Flows

The class of multicomponent flows can be defined as a mixture of different chemical


species on a molecular level, which are flown with the same velocity and temperature,
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 1
J. Geiser, Multicomponent and Multiscale Systems,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-15117-5_1
2 1 General Principles

see [5]. The chemical species are interacting by chemical reactions and such a result
is a multicomponent reactive flow.
The modelling of such behaviours is important in engineering, e.g. reactor de-
sign (Chemical vapour deposition reactors, see [6]) in chemical engineering. Such
processes are very complex, while different physical processes occur, e.g. injection,
heating, mixturing, homogeneous and heterogeneous chemistry and further, see [7].
In the following, we present some typical problems in multicomponent flow prob-
lems:

• Ionized Species, e.g. plasma problems, see [4].


• Combustion of oil, coal or natural gas, see [8].
• Chemical reaction processes in chemical engineering, see [6, 9, 10].
• Atmospheric pollution, see [11].

Remark 1.1 In the different applications, the term multiphase flow is often used.
Here, we define multiphase flows where the phases are immiscible and not chemi-
cally related, see [2, 12]. So each phase has a separately defined volume fraction and
velocity field. Therefore, also the conservation equations for the flow of each species
and their interchange between the phases are different from the multicomponent flow.
Here, one is taken into account to define a common pressure field, while each phase
is related to the gradient of this field and its volume fraction, see [13]. The applica-
tions are two-phase flow problems, Buckley Leverett problems and multiphase heat
transfer, see [2].

1.1.2 Multicomponent Transport

We define the multicomponent transport in the direction of a computational aspect.


If we deal in our description with multicomponent flow model, e.g. multicomponent
plasma, multicomponent fluid, the interest is related in this item to the transport
properties, e.g. of the chemical mixture.
The algorithmical aspect is important to deal with multicomponent systems; here
often the idea of splitting into simpler and faster equation parts is important, e.g.:
• Multicomponent splitting of multicomponent flow problem, e.g. ocean modelling
[14].
• Multicomponent transport algorithms, e.g. fluid modelling [4].
• Multicomponent transport modelling, e.g. plasma modelling [15].
All ideas are related to decompose the multicomponent model into simpler single-
component models and solve them separately.
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his mother Mariah had gone to be included in the census which
Augustus had ordered. This God was born in a stable, between an
ox and an ass.[51] The angels came down from heaven and informed
the peasants of his birth; a new star appeared in the heavens, and
led to him three kings or wise men from the east, who brought him
a tribute of incense, myrrh, and gold; but in spite of this gold he was
poor throughout life. Herod, who was then dying, and whom you
had made king, having learned that the new-born child was king of
the Jews, had fourteen thousand new-born infants of the district put
to death, to make sure that the king was included (Matthew ii., 16).
However, one of our writers inspired by God says that the God-king
child fled to Egypt; and another writer, equally inspired by God, says
that the child remained at Bethlehem (Luke ii., 39). One of these
sacred and infallible writers draws up a royal genealogy for him;
another composes for him an entirely different royal genealogy.
Jesus preaches to the peasants, and turns water into wine for them
at a marriage feast. Jesus is taken by the devil up into a mountain.
He drives out devils, and sends them into the body of two thousand
pigs in Galilee, where there never were any pigs. He greatly insulted
the magistrates, and the prætor Pontius had him executed. When he
had been executed, he manifested his divinity. The earth trembled;
the dead left their graves, and walked about in the city before the
eyes of Pontius. There was an eclipse of the sun at midday, at a time
of full moon, although that is impossible. He rose again secretly,
went up to heaven, and sent down another god, who fell on the
heads of his disciples in tongues of fire. May these same tongues fall
on your heads, conscript fathers; become Christians.”
If the lowest official in the Senate had condescended to answer
this discourse, he would have said: “You are weak-minded rogues,
and ought to be put in the asylum for the insane. You lie when you
say that your God was born in the year of Rome 752, under the
governorship of Cyrenius, the proconsul of Syria. Cyrenius did not
govern Syria until more than ten years afterwards, as our registers
prove. Quintilius Varus was at that time proconsul of Syria.
“You lie when you say that Augustus ordered a census of ‘all the
world.’ You must be very ignorant not to know that Augustus was
master only of one tenth of the world. If by ‘all the world’ you mean
the Roman Empire, know that neither Augustus nor anybody else
ever undertook such a census. Know that there was but one single
enumeration of the citizens of Rome and its territory under
Augustus, and that the number amounted to four million citizens;
and unless your carpenter Joseph and his wife Mariah brought forth
your God in a suburb of Rome, and this Jewish carpenter was a
Roman citizen, he cannot possibly have been included.
“You are telling a ridiculous untruth with your three kings and new
star, and the little massacred children, and the dead rising again and
walking in the streets under the eyes of Pontius Pilate, who never
wrote us a word about it, etc., etc.
“You are lying when you speak of an eclipse of the sun at a time
of full moon. Our prætor Pontius Pilate would have written to us
about it, and we, together with all the nations of the earth, would
have witnessed this eclipse. Return to your work, you fanatical
peasants, and thank the Senate that it has too much disdain to
punish you.”

article vi.

It is clear that the first half-Jewish Christians took care not to


address themselves to the Roman Senators, nor to any man of
position or any one above the lowest level of the people. It is well
known that they appealed only to the lowest class. To these they
boasted of healing nervous diseases, epilepsy, and uterine
convulsions, which ignorant folk, among the Romans as well as
among the Jews, Egyptians, Greeks, and Syrians, regarded as the
work of charms or diabolical possession. There must assuredly have
been some cases of healing. Some were cured in the name of
Esculapius, and we have since discovered at Rome a monument of a
miracle of Esculapius, with the names of the witnesses. Others were
healed in the name of Isis, or of the Syrian goddess; others in the
name of Jesus, etc. The common people healed in one of these
names believed in those who propagated it.

article vii.

Thus the Christians made progress among the people by a device


that invariably seduces ignorant folk. But they had a still more
powerful means. They declaimed against the rich. They preached
community of goods; in their secret meetings they enjoined their
neophytes to give them the little money they had earned; and they
quoted the alleged instance of Sapphira and Ananias (Acts v., 1-11),
whom Simon Barjona, called Cephas, which means Peter, caused to
die suddenly because they had kept a crown to themselves—the first
and most detestable example of priestly covetousness.
But they would not have succeeded in extorting the money of
their neophytes if they had not preached the doctrine of the cynic
philosophers—the idea of voluntary poverty. Even this, however, was
not enough to form a new flock. The end of the world had been long
announced. You will find it in Epicurus and Lucretius, his chief
disciple. Ovid had said, in the days of Augustus:

Esse quoque in fatis meminisceret adfore tempus,


Quo mare, quo tellus, correptaque regio coeli
Ardeat, et mundi moles operosa laboret.[52]

According to others, the world had been made by a fortuitous


concourse of atoms, and would be destroyed by another fortuitous
concourse, as we find in the poems of Lucretius.
This idea came originally from the Brahmans of India. Many Jews
had adopted it by the time of Herod. It is formally stated in the
gospel of Luke, as you have seen; it is in Paul’s epistles; and it is in
all those who are known as fathers of the Church. The world was
about to be destroyed, it was thought; and the Christians announced
a new Jerusalem, which was seen in the air by night.[53] The Jews
talked of nothing but a new kingdom of heaven; it was the system of
John the Baptist, who had introduced on the Jordan the ancient
Hindoo practice of baptism in the Ganges. Baptism was practised by
the Egyptians, and adopted by the Jews. This new kingdom of
heaven, to which the poor alone would be admitted, was preached
by Jesus and his followers. They threatened with eternal torment
those who would not believe in the new heaven. This hell, invented
by the first Zoroaster, became one of the chief points of Egyptian
theology.[54] From the latter came the barque of Charon, Cerberus,
the river Lethe, Tartarus, and the Furies. From Egypt the idea passed
to Greece, and from there to the Romans; the Jews were
unacquainted with it until the time when the Pharisees preached it,
shortly before the reign of Herod. It was one of their contradictions
to admit both hell and metempsychosis (transmigration of souls);
but who would look for reasoning among the Jews? Their powers in
that direction are confined to money matters. The Sadducees and
Samaritans rejected the immortality of the soul, because it is not
found anywhere in the Mosaic law.
This was the great spring which the early Christians, all half-
Jewish, relied upon to put the new machinery in action: community
of goods, secret meals, hidden mysteries, gospels read to the
initiated only, paradise for the poor, hell for the rich, and exorcisms
by charlatans. Here, in strict truth, we have the first foundations of
the Christian sect. If I deceive you—or, rather, if I deliberately
deceive you—I pray the God of the universe, the God of all men, to
wither the hand that writes this, to shatter with his lightning a head
that is convinced of the existence of a good and just God, and to
tear out from me a heart that worships him.

article viii.

Let us now, Romans, consider the artifices, roguery, and forgery to


which the Christians themselves have given the name of “pious
frauds”; frauds that have cost you your liberty and your goods, and
have brought down the conquerors of Europe to a most lamentable
slavery. I again take God to witness that I will say no word that is
not amply proved. If I wished to use all the arms of reason against
fanaticism, all the piercing darts of truth against error, I should
speak to you first of that prodigious number of contradictory gospels
which your popes themselves now recognise to be false. They show,
at least, that there were forgers among the first Christians. This,
however, is very well known. I have to tell you of impostures that
are not generally known, and are a thousand times more pernicious.

First Imposture

It is a very ancient superstition that the last words of the dying


are prophetic, or are, at least, sacred maxims and venerable
precepts. It was believed that the soul, about to dissolve the union
with the body and already half united to the Deity, had a cloudless
vision of the future and of truth. Following this prejudice, the
Judæo-Christians forge, in the first century of the Church, the
Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, written in Greek, to serve as a
prediction or a preparation for the new kingdom of Jesus. In the
testament of Reuben we find these words: “Adore his seed, for he
will die for you, in wars visible and invisible, and he will be your king
for ever.” This prophecy is applied to Jesus, in the usual way of those
who wrote fifty-four gospels in various places, and who nearly all
endeavoured to find in Jewish writers, especially those who were
called prophets, passages that could be twisted in favour of Jesus.
They even added some that are clearly recognised as false. The
author of the Testament of the Patriarchs is one of the most
impudent and clumsy forgers that ever spoiled good parchment. His
book was written in Alexandria, in the school of a certain Mark.

Second Chief Imposture

They forged letters from the king of Edessa to Jesus, and from
Jesus to this supposed prince. There was no king at Edessa, which
was a town under the Syrian governor; the petty prince of Edessa
never had the title of king. Moreover, it is not said in any of the
gospels that Jesus could write; and if he could, he would have left
some proof of it to his disciples. Hence these letters are now
declared by all scholars to be forgeries.

Third Chief Imposture


(which contains several)
They forged Acts of Pilate, letters of Pilate, and even a history of
Pilate’s wife. The letters of Pilate are especially interesting. Here is a
fragment of one:
“It happened a short time ago, and I have verified it, that the
Jews in their envy drew on themselves a cruel condemnation. Their
God having promised that he would send his holy one to them from
heaven to be their legitimate king, and that he should be born of a
virgin, did indeed send him when I was procurator in Judæa. The
leaders of the Jews denounced him to me as a magician. I believed
it, and had him scourged, and handed him over to them; and they
crucified him. They put guards about his tomb, but he rose again the
third day.”
To this forgery I may add that of the rescript of Tiberius to the
Senate, to raise Jesus to the rank of the imperial gods, and the
ridiculous letters of the philosopher Seneca to Paul, and of Paul to
Seneca, written in barbaric Latin; also the letters of the Virgin Mary
to St. Ignatius, and many other clumsy fictions of the same nature. I
will not draw out this list of impostures. It would amaze you if I
enumerated them one by one.

Fourth Imposture

The boldest, perhaps, and clumsiest of these forgeries is that of


the prophecies attributed to the Sibyls, foretelling the incarnation,
miracles, and death of Jesus, in acrostic verse. This piece of folly,
unknown to the Romans, fed the belief of the catechumens. It
circulated among us for eight centuries, and we still sing in one of
our hymns[55] “teste David cum Sibylla” [witness David and the
Sibyl].
You are astonished, no doubt, that this despicable comedy was
maintained so long, and that men could be led with such a bridle as
that. But as the Christians were plunged in the most stupid
barbarism for fifteen hundred years, as books were very rare and
theologians very astute, one could say anything at all to poor
wretches who would believe anything at all.

Fifth Imposture

Illustrious and unfortunate Romans, before we come to the


pernicious untruths which have cost you your liberty, your property,
and your glory, and put you under the yoke of a priest; before I
speak to you of the alleged pontificate of Simon Barjona, who is said
to have been bishop of Rome for twenty-five years, you must be
informed of the “Apostolic Constitutions,” the first foundation of the
hierarchy that crushes you to-day.
At the beginning of the second century there was no such thing as
an episcopos (“overseer”) or bishop, clothed with real dignity for life,
unalterably attached to a certain see, and distinguished from other
men by his clothes; bishops, in fact, dressed like ordinary laymen
until the middle of the fifth century. The meeting was held in a
chamber of some retired house. The minister was chosen by the
initiated, and continued his work as long as they were satisfied.
There were no altars, candles, or incense; the earliest fathers of the
Church speak of altars and temples with a shudder.[56] They were
content to make a collection and sup together. When the Christian
society had grown, however, ambition set up an hierarchy. How did
they go about it? The rogues who led the enthusiasts made them
believe that they had discovered the apostolic constitutions written
by St. John and St. Matthew: “quæ ego Matthæus et Joannes vobis
tradidimus [which I, Matthew, and John have given you].”[57] In
these Matthew is supposed to say (II., xxxvi.): “Be ye careful not to
judge your bishop, for it is given to the priests alone to judge.”
Matthew and John say (II., xxxiv.): “As much as the soul is above the
body, so much higher is the priesthood than royalty; consider your
bishop as a king, an absolute master (dominum); give him your
fruits, your works, your firstlings, your tithes, your savings, the first
and tenth part of your wine, oil, and corn, etc.” Again (II., xxx.): “Let
the bishop be a god to you, and the deacon a prophet”; and (II.,
xxxviii.): “In the festivals let the deacon have a double portion, and
the priest double that of the deacon; and if they be not at table,
send the portions to them.”
You see, Romans, the origin of your custom of spreading your
tables to give indigestion to your pontiffs. Would to God they had
confined themselves to the sin of gluttony.
You will further observe with care, in regard to this imposture of
the constitutions of the apostles, that it is an authentic monument of
the dogmas of the second century, and that forgery at least does
homage to truth in maintaining a complete silence about innovations
that could not be foreseen—innovations with which you have been
deluged century after century. You will find, in this second-century
document, neither trinity, nor consubstantiality, nor
transubstantiation, nor auricular confession. You will not find in it
that the mother of Jesus was the mother of God, that Jesus had two
natures and two wills, or that the Holy Ghost proceeds from the
father and the son. All these singular ornaments of imagination,
unknown to the religion of the gospels, have been added since to
the crude structure which fanaticism and ignorance raised up in the
first centuries.
You will assuredly find in it three persons, but not three persons in
one God. Read with all the acuteness of your mind, the only treasure
that your tyrants have left you, the common prayer which the
Christians, by the mouth of their bishop, offered in their meetings in
the second century:
“O all-powerful, unengendered, inaccessible God, the one true
God, father of Christ thy only son, God of the paraclete, God of all,
thou hast made the disciples of Christ doctors, etc.”[58]
Here, clearly, is one sole God who commands Christ and the
paraclete [Holy Ghost]. Judge for yourselves if that has any
resemblance to the trinity and consubstantiality which were
afterwards declared at Nicæa, in spite of the strong protest of
eighteen bishops and two thousand priests.[59]
In another place (III., xvi.) the author of the Apostolic
Constitutions, who is probably a bishop of the Christians at Rome,
says expressly that the father is God above all.
That is the doctrine of Paul, finding expression so frequently in his
epistles. “We have peace in God through Our Lord Jesus Christ”
(Romans v., 1). “If through the offence of one many be dead, much
more the grace of God, and the gift by grace, which is by one man,
Jesus Christ, hath abounded unto many” (Romans v., 15). “We are
heirs of God, and joint-heirs with Christ” (Romans viii., 17). “Receive
ye one another, as Christ also received us to the glory of God”
(Romans xv., 7). “To God only wise, be glory through Jesus Christ for
ever” (Romans xvi., 27). “That the God of Our Lord Jesus Christ, the
father of glory, may give unto you the spirit of wisdom” (Ephesians
i., 17).
Thus does the Jew-Christian Saul Paul always express himself, and
thus is Jesus himself made to speak in the gospels. “My Father is
greater than I” (John xiv., 28); that is to say, God can do what men
cannot do. All the Jews said “my father” when they spoke of God.
The Lord’s Prayer begins with the words “Our Father.” Jesus said:
“Of that day and hour knoweth no man, no, not the angels of
heaven, but my Father only” (Matthew xxiv., 36); and “That is not
mine to give, but for whom it is prepared by my Father” (Matthew
xx., 23). It is also very remarkable that when Jesus awaited arrest,
and sweated blood and water, he cried out: “Father, remove this cup
from me” (Luke xxii., 42). No gospel has put into his mouth the
blasphemy that he was God, or consubstantial with God.
You will ask me, Romans, why and how he was made into a God
in the course of time? I will ask you in turn why and how Bacchus,
Perseus, Hercules, and Romulus were made gods? In their case,
moreover, the sacrilege did not go so far as to give them the title of
supreme god and creator. This blasphemy was reserved for the
Christian outgrowth of the Jewish sect.

Sixth Chief Imposture

I pass over the countless impostures of “The Travels of Simon


Barjona,” the “Gospel of Simon Barjona,” his “Apocalypse,” the
“Apocalypse” of Cerinthus (ridiculously attributed to John), the
epistles of Barnaby, the “Gospel of the Twelve Apostles,” their
liturgies, the “Canons of the Council of the Apostles,” the “Apostles’
Creed,” the “Travels of Matthew,” the “Travels of Thomas,” and so
many other vagaries that are now recognised to be the work of
forgers, who passed them off under venerated Christian names.
I will not insist much on the romance of the alleged Pope St.
Clement, who calls himself the first successor of St. Peter. I will note
only that Simon Barjona and he met an old man, who complained of
the unfaithfulness of his wife, who had lain with his servant. Clement
asks how he learned it. “By my wife’s horoscope,” said the good
man, “and from my brother, with whom she wished to lie, but he
would not.” From these words Clement recognised his father in the
old man.[60] From Peter Clement learned that he was of the blood of
the Cæsars. On such romances, Romans, was the papal power set
up!

Seventh Chief Imposture


On the Supposed Pontificate of Simon Barjona, Called Peter
Who was the first to say that Simon, the poor fisherman, came
from Galilee to Rome, spoke Latin there (though he could not
possibly know more than his native dialect), and in the end was
pope of Rome for twenty-five years? It was a Syrian named Abdias,
who lived about the end of the first century, and is said to have been
bishop of Babylon (a good bishopric). He wrote in Syriac, and we
have his work in a Latin translation by Julius the African. Listen well
to what this intelligent writer says. He was an eye-witness, and his
testimony is irrefragable.
Simon Barjona Peter, having, he says, raised to life Tabitha, or
Dorcas, the sempstress of the apostles, and having been put in
prison by the orders of King Herod (though there was no King Herod
at the time); and an angel having opened the doors of the prison for
him (after the custom of angels), met, in Cæsarea, the other Simon,
of Samaria, known as the Magician (Magus), who also performed
miracles. They began to defy each other. Simon the Samaritan went
off to the Emperor Nero at Rome. Simon Barjona followed him, and
the emperor received them excellently. A cousin of the emperor had
died, and it was a question which of them could restore him to life.
The Samaritan has the honour of opening the ceremony. He calls
upon God, and the dead man gives signs of life and shakes his head.
Simon Peter calls on Jesus Christ, and tells the dead man to rise;
forthwith he does rise, and embraces Peter. Then follows the well-
known story of the two dogs. Then Abdias tells how Simon flew in
the air, and his rival Simon Peter brought him down. Simon the
Magician broke his legs, and Nero had Simon Peter crucified, head
downwards, for breaking the legs of the other Simon.
This harlequinade was described, not only by Abdias, but by some
one named Marcellus, and by a certain Hegesippus, whom Eusebius
often quotes in his history. Pray notice, judicious Romans, how this
Simon Peter may have reigned spiritually in your city for twenty-five
years. He came to it under Nero, according to the earliest writers of
the Church; he died under Nero; and Nero reigned only thirteen
years.
Read the Acts of the Apostles. Is there any question therein of
Peter going to Rome? Not the least mention. Do you not see that,
when the fiction began that Peter was the first of the apostles, it
was thought that the imperial city alone was worthy of him? See
how clumsily you have been deluded in everything. Is it possible that
the son of God, nay God himself, should have made use of a play on
words, a ridiculous pun, to make Simon Barjona the head of his
Church: “Thou art Peter, and upon this rock [petra] I will build my
Church.” Had Barjona been called Pumpkin, Jesus might have said to
him: “Thou art Pumpkin, and Pumpkin shall henceforward be the
king of the fruits in my garden.”[61]
For more than three hundred years the alleged successor of a
Galilean peasant was unknown to Rome. Let us now see how the
popes became your masters.

Eighth Imposture

No one who is acquainted with the history of the Greek and Latin
Churches can be unaware that the metropolitan sees established
their chief rights at the Council of Chalcedon, convoked in the year
451 by the order of the Emperor Marcian and of Pulcheria [his wife],
and composed of six hundred and thirty bishops. The senators who
presided in the emperor’s name had on their right the patriarchs of
Alexandria and Jerusalem, on their left the patriarch of
Constantinople and the deputies of the patriarch of Rome. It was in
virtue of the canons of this Council that the episcopal sees shared
the dignities of the cities in which they were situated. The bishops of
the two imperial cities, Rome and Constantinople, were declared to
be the first bishops, with equal prerogatives, by the celebrated
twenty-eighth canon:
“The fathers have justly granted prerogatives to the see of ancient
Rome, as to a reigning city, and the 150 bishops of the first Council
of Constantinople, very dear to God, have for the same reason given
the same privileges to the new Rome; they have rightly thought that
this city, in which the Emperor and Senate reside, should be equal to
it in all ecclesiastical matters.”
The popes have always contested the authenticity of this canon;
they have twisted and perverted its whole meaning. What did they
do at length to evade this equality and gradually to destroy all the
titles of subjection which placed them under the emperors like all
other men? They forged the famous donation of Constantine, which
has been for many centuries so strictly regarded as genuine that it
was a mortal and unpardonable sin to doubt it, and whoever did so
incurred the greater excommunication by the very fact of doubting.
A very pretty thing was this donation of Constantine to Bishop
Sylvester.
“We,” says the Emperor, “with all our satraps and the whole
Roman people, have thought it good to give to the successors of St.
Peter a greater power than that of our serene majesty.” Do you not
think, Romans, that the word “satrap” comes in very well there?
With equal authenticity, Constantine goes on, in this noble
diploma, to say that he has put the Apostles Peter and Paul in large
amber caskets; that he has built the churches of St. Peter and St.
Paul; that he has given them vast domains in Judæa, Greece,
Thrace, Asia, etc. (to maintain the luminary); that he has given to
the pope his Lateran palace, with chamberlains and guards; and
that, lastly, he gives him, as a pure donation for himself and his
successors, the city of Rome, Italy, and all the western provinces;
and all this is given to thank the Pope Sylvester for having cured him
of leprosy, and having baptised him—though, in point of fact, he was
baptised only on his death-bed, by Eusebius, bishop of Nicomedia.
Never was there a document more ridiculous from one end to the
other, yet more accredited in the ignorant ages in which Europe was
so long detained after the fall of your empire.

Ninth Imposture

I pass over the thousand and one little daily impostures to come
at once to the great fraud of the Decretals.
These false Decretals were spread everywhere in the time of
Charlemagne. In these, Romans, the better to rob you of your
liberty, the bishops are deprived of theirs; it is decreed that the
bishop of Rome shall be their only judge. Certainly, if he is the
sovereign of the bishops, he should soon be yours; and that is what
happened. These false Decretals abolished the Councils, and even
abolished your Senate, which became merely a court of justice,
subject to the will of a priest. Here is the real source of the
humiliation you have suffered. Your rights and privileges, so long
maintained by your wisdom, could be wrested from you only by
untruth. Only by lying to God and men did they succeed in making
slaves of you; but they have never extinguished the love of liberty in
your hearts. The greater the tyranny, the greater is that love. The
sacred name of liberty is still heard in your conversations and
gatherings, and in the very antechamber of the pope.

article ix.

Cæsar was but your dictator; Augustus was content to be your


general, consul, and tribune; Tiberius, Caligula, and Nero left you
your elections, your prerogatives, and your dignities; even the
barbarians respected them. You maintained your municipal
government. Not by the authority of your bishop, Gregory III., but of
your own decision, you offered the dignity of patrician to the great
Charles Martel, master of his king, conqueror of the Saracens in the
year 741 of our faulty vulgar era.
Believe not that it was the Bishop Leo III. who made Charlemagne
emperor; it is an absurd romance of the secretary Eginhard, a vile
flatterer of the popes, who had won him. By what right and in what
way could a subject bishop make an emperor? Emperors were
created only by the people, or by the armies that took the place of
the people.
It was you, people of Rome, who used your rights; you who would
no longer depend on a Greek emperor, who gave you no aid; you
who appointed Charlemagne, or he would have been a usurper. The
annalists of the time agree that all was arranged by Carolo and your
leading officers, as is, indeed, most probable. Your bishop’s only
share in it was to conduct an empty ceremony and receive rich
presents. The only authority he had in your city was that of the
prestige attaching to his mitre, his clergy, and his ability.
But while you gave yourselves to Charlemagne, you retained the
election of your officers. The police was in your hands; you kept
possession of the mole of Adrian, so absurdly called in later times
the Castello Sant’ Angelo; and you were not wholly enslaved until
your bishops seized that fortress.
They made their way step by step to that supreme greatness, so
expressly forbidden them by him whom they call their God, and of
whom they dare to call themselves the vicars. They had never any
jurisdiction in Rome under the Othos. Excommunication and intrigue
were their sole arms; and even when, in an age of anarchy, they
became the real sovereigns, they never dared to assume the title. I
defy the astutest of those fabricators of titles who abound in your
court to find a single one in which the pope is described as prince by
the grace of God. A strange princedom, when one fears to avow it!
The imperial cities of Germany, which have bishops, are free; and
you, Romans, are not. The archbishop of Cologne has not even the
right to sleep in that city; and your pope will hardly allow you to
sleep in your own. The sultan of the Turks is far less despotic at
Constantinople than the pope has become at Rome.
You perish miserably in the shade of superb colonnades. Your
noble and faded paintings, and your dozen gems of ancient
sculpture, bring you neither a good dinner nor a good bed. The
opulence is for your masters: the indigence is for you. The lot of a
slave among the ancient Romans was a hundred times better than
yours. He might acquire a large fortune; you are born serfs, you die
serfs, and the only oil you have is that of the Last Anointing. Slaves
in body and in soul, your tyrants do not even allow you to read, in
your own tongue, the book on which they say your religion is
founded.
Awake, Romans, at the call of liberty, truth, and nature. The cry
rings over Europe. You must hear it. Break the chains that bind your
generous hands—the chains forged by tyranny in the den of
imposture.
THE SERMON OF THE FIFTY

Fifty cultivated, pious, and reasonable persons have, for a year


past, met every Sunday in a large commercial town. They have
prayers, and then a member of the society gives a discourse. They
afterwards dine, and a collection for the poor is made after dinner.
Each presides in turn, and it is the duty of the president to offer the
prayer and give the sermon. Here are one of the prayers and one of
the sermons.
If the seed of these words fall on good soil, it will assuredly bear
fruit.

p r ay e r

God of all the globes and stars, the one prayer that it is meet to
offer to you is submission. How can we ask anything of him who
arranged and enchained all things from the beginning? Yet if it is
permitted to expose our needs to a father, preserve in our hearts
this feeling of submission and a pure religion. Keep from us all
superstition. Since there are those who insult you with unworthy
sacrifices, abolish those infamous mysteries. Since there are those
who dishonour the divinity with absurd fables, may those fables
perish for ever. If the days of the prince and the magistrate were not
numbered from all eternity, give them length of days. Preserve the
purity of our ways, the friendship of our brethren for each other,
their goodwill towards all men, their obedience to the laws, and their
wisdom in private life. Let them live and die in the worship of one
God, the rewarder of good, the punisher of evil; a God that could
not be born or die, nor have associates, but who has too many
rebellious children in this world.
sermon

My brethren, religion is the secret voice of God speaking to men.


It ought to unite men, not divide them; hence every religion that
belongs to one people only is false. Ours is, in principle, that of the
whole universe; for we worship a supreme being as all nations do,
we practise the justice which all nations teach, and we reject all the
untruths with which the nations reproach each other. At one with
them in the principle which unites them, we differ from them in the
things about which they are in conflict.
The point on which all men of all times agree must be the centre
of truth, and the points on which they all differ must be standards of
falsehood. Religion must conform to morality, and, like it, be
universal; hence every religion whose dogmas offend against
morality is certainly false. It is under this twofold aspect of perversity
and falseness that we will, in this discourse, examine the books of
the Hebrews and of those who have succeeded them. Let us first
see if these books conform to morality; we shall then see if they
have any shade of probability. The first two points will deal with the
Old Testament; the third will discuss the New.

First Point

You know, my brethren, what horror fell on us when we read


together the writings of the Hebrews, confining our attention to
those features which offend against purity, charity, good faith,
justice, and reason—features which one not only finds in every
chapter, but, unhappily, one finds consecrated in them.
First, to say nothing of the extravagant injustice which they
venture to ascribe to the supreme being, in endowing a serpent with
speech in order to seduce a woman and her innocent posterity, let
us run over in succession all the historical horrors which outrage
nature and good sense. One of the patriarchs, Lot, the nephew of
Abraham, receives in his house two angels disguised as pilgrims; the
inhabitants of Sodom entertain impure desires of these angels; Lot,
who had two daughters promised in marriage, offers to abandon
them to the people instead of the two strangers. These young
women must have been strangely familiar with evil ways, since the
first thing they do after the destruction of their town by a rain of
fire, and after their mother has been changed into a pillar of salt, is
to intoxicate their father on two consecutive nights, in order to sleep
with him in succession. It is an imitation of the ancient Arabic legend
of Cyniras and Myrrha. But in this more decent legend Myrrha is
punished for her crime, while the daughters of Lot are rewarded
with what is, in Jewish eyes, the greatest and dearest blessing: they
become the mothers of a numerous posterity.
We will not insist on the falsehood of Isaac, the father of the just,
who says that his wife is his sister; whether he was merely repeating
the falsehood of Abraham, or Abraham was really guilty of taking his
sister to wife. But let us dwell for a moment on the patriarch Jacob,
who is offered to us as a model man. He compels his brother, who is
dying of hunger, to give up his birthright for a dish of lentils. He
afterwards deceives his aged father on his death-bed. After
deceiving his father, he deceives and robs his father-in-law Laban.
Not content with wedding two sisters, he lies with all his servants;
and God blesses this licentiousness and trickery. Who are the
children of such a father? His daughter Dinah pleases a prince of
Sichem, and it is probable that she loves the prince, since she lies
with him. The prince asks her in marriage, and she is promised on
condition that he and all his people are circumcised. The prince
accepts the condition; but as soon as he and his people undergo this
painful operation—which, nevertheless, leaves them strong enough
to defend themselves—Jacob’s family murder all the men of Sichem
and enslave their women and children.
We have in our infancy heard the story of Pelopæus. This
incestuous abomination is repeated in Judah, the patriarch and
father of the first tribe. He lies with his daughter-in-law, and then
wishes to have her killed. The book declares that then Joseph, a
child of this vagabond family, is sold into Egypt, and that, foreigner
as he is, he is made first minister as a reward for explaining a
dream. What a first minister he was, compelling a whole nation to
enslave itself, during a time of famine, to obtain food! What
magistrate among us would, in time of famine, dare to propose so
abominable a bargain, and what nation would accept it? Let us not
stay to examine how seventy members of the family of Joseph, who
settled in Egypt, could in two hundred and fifteen years increase to
six hundred thousand fighting men, without counting the women,
old men, and children, which would make a total of more than two
millions. Let us not discuss how it is that the text has four hundred
and thirty years, when the same text has given two hundred and
fifteen. The infinite number of contradictions, which are the seal of
imposture, is not the point which we are considering. Let us likewise
pass over the ridiculous prodigies of Moses and of Pharaoh’s
magicians, and all the miracles wrought to give the Jewish people a
wretched bit of poor country, which they afterwards purchase by
blood and crime, instead of giving them the fertile soil of Egypt,
where they were. Let us confine ourselves to the frightful iniquity of
their ways.
Their God had made a thief of Jacob, and he now makes thieves
of the entire people. He orders his people to steal and take away
with them all the gold and silver vessels and utensils of the
Egyptians. Behold these wretches, to the number of six hundred
thousand fighting men, instead of taking up arms like men of spirit,
flying like brigands led by their God. If their God had wished to give
them a good country, he might have given them Egypt. He does not,
however; he leads them into a desert. They might have fled by the
shortest route, yet they go far out of their way to cross the Red Sea
dry-foot. After this fine miracle Moses’ own brother makes them
another god, and this god is a calf. To punish his brother Moses
commands certain priests to kill their sons, brothers, and fathers;
and they kill twenty-three thousand Jews, who let themselves be
slain like cattle.
After this butchery it is not surprising to hear that this abominable
people sacrifices human victims to its god, whom it calls Adonai,
borrowing the name of Adonis from the Phœnicians. The twenty-
ninth verse of chapter xxvii. of Leviticus expressly forbids the
redemption of those who are destined for sacrifice, and it is in virtue
of this cannibalistic law that Jephthah, some time afterwards, offers
up his own daughter.
It was not enough to slay twenty-three thousand men for a calf;
we have again twenty-four thousand sacrificed for having
intercourse with idolatrous women. It is, my brethren, a worthy
prelude and example of persecution on the ground of religion.
This people advances in the deserts and rocks of Palestine. Here is
your splendid country, God says to them. Slay all the inhabitants, kill
all the male infants, make an end of their married women, keep the
young girls for yourselves. All this is carried out to the letter,
according to the Hebrew books; and we should shudder at the
account, if the text did not add that the Jews found in the camp of
the Midianites 675,000 sheep, 62,000 cattle, 61,000 asses, and
32,000 girls. Happily, the absurdity undoes the barbarism. Once
more, however, I am not concerned here with what is ridiculous and
impossible; I select only what is execrable. Having passed the
Jordan dry-shod, as they crossed the sea, we find our people in the
promised land.
The first person to let in this holy people, by an act of treachery, is
Rahab, a strange character for God to associate with himself. He
levels the walls of Jericho at the sound of the trumpet; the holy
people enters the town—to which it had no right, on its own
confession—and slays the men, women, and children. Let us pass
over the other carnages, the crucifixion of kings, the supposed wars
against the giants of Gaza and Ascalon, and the murder of those
who could not pronounce the word “Shibboleth.”
Listen to this fine story.
A Levite, with his wife, arrives on his ass at Gibeah, in the tribe of
Benjamin. Some of the Benjamites, who are bent on committing the
sin of sodomy with the Levite, turn their brutality upon the woman,
who dies of the violence. Were the culprits punished? Not at all. The
eleven tribes slaughtered the whole tribe of Benjamin; only six
hundred men escaped. But the eleven tribes are afterwards sorry to
see a tribe perish, and, to restore it, they exterminate the
inhabitants of one of their own towns in order to take from it six
hundred girls, whom they give to the six hundred Benjamites who
survive to perpetuate this splendid race.
How many crimes committed in the name of the Lord! We will give
only that of the man of God (Ehud). The Jews, having come so far to
conquer, are subject to the Philistines. In spite of the Lord, they have
sworn obedience to King Eglon. A holy Jew, named Ehud, asks
permission to speak in private with the king on the part of God. The
king does not fail to grant the audience. Ehud assassinates him, and
his example has been used many times by Christians to betray,
destroy, or massacre so many sovereigns.
At length this chosen nation, which had thus been directed by God
himself, desires to have a king; which greatly displeases the priest
Samuel. The first Jewish king renews the custom of immolating men.
Saul prudently enjoined that his soldiers should not eat on the day
they fought the Philistines, to give them more vigour; he swore to
the Lord that he would immolate to him any man who ate. Happily,
the people were wiser than he; they would not suffer the king’s son
to be sacrificed for eating a little honey. But listen, my brethren, to
this most detestable, yet most consecrated, act. It is said that Saul
takes prisoner a king of the country, named Agag. He did not kill his
prisoner; he acted as is usual in humane and civilised nations. What
happened? The Lord is angry, and Samuel, priest of the Lord, says to
Saul: “You are reprobate for having spared a king who surrendered
to you.” And the priestly butcher at once cuts Agag into pieces. What
would you say, my brethren, if, when the Emperor Charles V. had a
French king in his hands, his chaplain came and said to him: “You
are damned for not killing Francis I.,” and proceeded to cut the
French king to pieces before the eyes of the emperor?
What will you say of the holy King David, the king who found
favour in the eyes of the God of the Jews, and merited to be an
ancestor of the Messiah? This good king is at first a brigand,
capturing and pillaging all he finds. Among others, he despoils a rich
man named Nabal, marries his wife, and flies to King Achish. During
the night he descends upon the villages of King Achish, his
benefactor, with fire and sword. He slaughters men, women, and
children, says the sacred text, lest there be any one left to take the
news. When he is made king he ravishes the wife of Uriah, and has
the husband put to death; and it is from this adulterous homicide
that the Messiah—God himself—descends. What blasphemy! This
David, who thus becomes an ancestor of God as a reward of his
horrible crime, is punished for the one good and wise action which
he did. There is no good and prudent prince who ought not to know
the number of his people, as the shepherd should know the number
of his flock. David has them enumerated—though we are not told
what the number was—and for making this wise and useful
enumeration a prophet comes from God to give him the choice of
war, pestilence, or famine.
Let us not linger, my dear brethren, over the numberless
barbarities of the kings of Judah and Israel—their murders and
outrages, mixed up always with ridiculous stories; though even the
ridiculous in them is always bloody, and not even the prophet Elisha
is free from barbarism. This worthy devotee has forty children
devoured by bears because the innocent youngsters had called him
“bald.” Let us leave this atrocious nation in the Babylonian captivity
and in its bondage to the Romans, with all the fine promises of their
god Adonis or Adonai, who had so often promised the Jews the
sovereignty of the earth. In fine, under the wise government of the
Romans, a king is born to the Hebrews. You know, my brethren, who
this king, shilo, or Messiah is; it is he who, after being at first
numbered among the prophets without a mission, who, though not
priests, made a profession of inspiration, was, after some centuries,
regarded as a god. We need go no farther; let us see on what
pretexts, what facts, what miracles, what prophecies—in a word, on
what foundation, this disgusting and abominable history is based.
Second Point

O God, if thou thyself didst descend upon the earth, and didst
command me to believe this tissue of murders, thefts,
assassinations, and incests committed by thy order and in thy name,
I should say to thee: No; thy sanctity cannot ask me to acquiesce in
these horrible things that outrage thee. Thou seekest, no doubt, to
try me.
How, then, my virtuous and enlightened hearers, could we accept
this frightful story on the wretched evidence which is offered in
support of it?
Run briefly over the books that have been falsely attributed to
Moses. I say falsely, since it is not possible for Moses to have written
about things that happened long after his time. None of us would
believe that the memoirs of William, Prince of Orange, were written
with his own hand if there were allusions in these memoirs to things
that happened after his death. Let us see what is narrated in the
name of Moses. First, God created the light, which he calls “day”;
then the darkness, which he calls “night,” and it was the first day.
Thus there were days before the sun was made.
On the sixth day God makes man and woman; but the author,
forgetting that woman has been made already, afterwards derives
her from one of Adam’s ribs. Adam and Eve are put in a garden from
which four rivers issue; and of these rivers there are two, the
Euphrates and the Nile, which have their sources a thousand miles
from each other. The serpent then spoke like a man; it was the most
cunning of animals. It persuades the woman to eat an apple, and so
has her driven from paradise. The human race increases, and the
children of God fall in love with the daughters of men. There were
giants on the earth, and God was sorry that he had made man. He
determined to exterminate him by a flood; but wished to save Noah,
and ordered him to make a vessel of poplar wood, three hundred
cubits in length. Into this vessel were to be brought seven pairs of
all the clean animals, and two pairs of the unclean. It was necessary
to feed them during the ten months that the water covered the
earth. You can imagine what would be needed to feed fourteen
elephants, fourteen camels, fourteen buffaloes, and as many horses,
asses, deer, serpents, ostriches—in a word, more than two thousand
species.[62] You will ask me whence came the water to cover the
whole earth and rise fifteen cubits above the highest mountains?
The text replies that it came from the cataracts of heaven. Heaven
knows where these cataracts are. After the deluge God enters into
an alliance with Noah and with all the animals; and in confirmation
of this alliance he institutes the rainbow.
Those who wrote these things were not, as you perceive, great
physicists. However, here is Noah with a religion given to him by
God, and this religion is neither Jewish nor Christian. The posterity
of Noah seeks to build a tower that shall reach to heaven. A fine
enterprise! But God fears it, and causes the workers suddenly to
speak several different tongues, and they disperse. The whole is
written in this ancient oriental vein.
A rain of fire converts towns into a lake; Lot’s wife is changed into
a salt statue; Jacob fights all night with an angel, and is hurt in the
leg; Joseph, sold as a slave into Egypt, is made first minister
because he explains a dream. Seventy members of the family settle
in Egypt, and in two hundred and fifteen years, as we saw, multiply
into two millions. It is these two million Hebrews who fly from Egypt,
and go the longest way in order to have the pleasure of crossing the
sea dry-shod.
But there is nothing surprising about this miracle. Pharaoh’s
magicians performed some very fine miracles. Like Moses, they
changed a rod into a serpent, which is a very simple matter. When
Moses changed water into blood, they did the same. When he
brought frogs into existence, they imitated him. But they were
beaten when it came to the plague of lice; on that subject the Jews
knew more than other nations.
In the end Adonai causes the death of each first-born in Egypt in
order to allow his people to leave in peace. The sea divides to let
them pass; it was the least that could be done on such an occasion.
The remainer is on the same level. The people cry out in the desert.
Some of the husbands complain of their wives; at once a water is
found which causes any woman who has forfeited her honour to
swell and burst. They have neither bread nor paste; quails and
manna are rained on them. Their garments last forty years, and
grow with the children. Apparently clothes descend from heaven for
the new-born children.
A prophet of the district seeks to curse the people, but his ass
opposes the project, together with an angel, and the ass speaks
very reasonably and at great length to the prophet.
When they attack a town, the walls fall at the sound of trumpets;
just as Amphion built walls to the sound of the flute. But the finest
miracle is when five Amorite kings—that is to say, five village sheiks
—attempt to oppose the ravages of Joshua. They are not merely
vanquished and cut to pieces, but the Lord sends a great rain of
stones upon the fugitives. Even that is not enough. A few escape,
and, in order to give the Israelites time to pursue them, nature
suspends its eternal laws. The sun halts at Gibeon, and the moon at
Aijalon. We do not quite understand how the moon comes in, but
the books of Joshua leave no room for doubt as to the fact. Now let
us pass to other miracles, and go on to Samson, who is depicted as
a famous plunderer, a friend of God. Samson routs a thousand
Philistines with the jawbone of an ass, because he is not shaved,
and ties by the tails three hundred foxes which he found in a certain
place.
There is hardly a page that does not contain similar stories. In one
place it is the shade of Samuel appearing in response to the voice of
a witch; in another it is the shadow on a sun-dial (assuming that
these miserable folk had sun-dials) receding ten degrees at the
prayer of Hezekiah, who prudently asks for this sign. God gives him
the alternatives of advancing or retarding the hour, and Dr. Hezekiah
thinks that it is not difficult to put the shadow on, but very difficult
to put it back.
Elias rises to heaven in a fiery chariot; children sing in a fiery
furnace. I should never come to an end if I wished to enter into all
the details of the unheard-of extravagances that swarm in this book.
Never was common-sense assailed with such indecency and fury.
Such is, from one end to the other, the Old Testament, the father
of the New, a father who disavows his child and regards it as a
rebellious bastard; for the Jews, faithful to the law of Moses, regard
with detestation the Christianity that has been reared on the ruins of
their law. The Christians, however, have with great subtlety sought
to justify the New Testament by the Old. The two religions thus fight
each other with the same weapons; they invoke the same prophets
and appeal to the same predictions.
Will the ages to come, which will have seen the passing of these
follies, yet may, unhappily, witness the rise of others not less
unworthy of God and men, believe that Judaism and Christianity
based their claims on such foundations and such prophecies? What
prophecies! Listen. The prophet Isaiah is summoned by Ahaz, king
of Judah, to make certain predictions to him, in the vain and
superstitious manner of the East. These prophets were, as you
know, men who earned more or less of a living by divination; there
were many like them in Europe in the last century, especially among
the common people. King Ahaz, besieged in Jerusalem by
Shalmaneser, who had taken Samaria, demanded of the soothsayer
a prophecy and a sign. Isaiah said to him: This is the sign:
“A girl will conceive, and will bear a child who shall be called
Emmanuel. He shall eat butter and honey until the day when he
shall reject evil and choose good; and before this child is of age, the
land which thou detestest shall be forsaken by its two kings; and the
Lord shall hiss for the flies that are on the banks of the streams of
Egypt and Assyria; and the Lord will take a razor, and shave the King
of Assyria; he will shave his head and the hair of his feet.”
After this splendid prophecy, recorded in Isaiah, but of which there
is not a word in Kings, the prophet orders him first to write on a
large roll, which they hasten to seal. He urges the king to press to
the plunder of his enemies, and then ensures the birth of the
predicted child. Instead of calling it Emmanuel, however, he gives it
the name of Maher Salabas. This, my brethren, is the passage which
Christians have distorted in favour of their Christ; this is the
prophecy that set up Christianity. The girl to whom the prophet
ascribes a child is incontestably the Virgin Mary.[63] Maher Salabas is
Jesus Christ. As to the butter and honey, I am unaware what it
means. Each soothsayer promises the Jews deliverance when they
are captive; and this deliverance is, according to the Christians, the
heavenly Jerusalem, and the Church of our time. Prophecy is
everything with the Jews; with the Christians miracle is everything,
and all the prophecies are figures of Jesus Christ.
Here, my brethren, is one of these fine and striking prophecies.
The great prophet Ezekiel sees a wind from the north, and four
animals, and wheels of chrysolite full of eyes; and the Lord says to
him: “Rise, eat a book, and then depart.”
The Lord orders him to sleep three hundred and ninety days on
the left side, and then forty on the right side. The Lord binds him
with cords; he was certainly a man that needed binding. What
follows in Ezekiel is very distasteful.
But we need not waste our time in assailing all the disgusting and
abominable dreams which are the subject of controversy between
the Jews and Christians. We will be content to deplore the most
pitiful blindness that has ever darkened the mind of man. Let us
hope that this blindness will pass like so many others, and let us
proceed to the New Testament, a worthy sequel to what has gone
before.

Third Point

Vain was it that the Jews were a little more enlightened in the
time of Augustus than in the barbaric ages of which we have
spoken. Vainly did the Jews begin to recognise the immortality of the
soul, a dogma unknown to Moses, and the idea of God rewarding
the just after death and punishing the wicked, a dogma equally
unknown to Moses. Reason none the less penetrated this miserable
people, from whom issued the Christian religion, which has proved
the source of so many divisions, civil wars, and crimes; which has
caused so much blood to flow; and which is broken into so many
sects in the corner of the earth where it rules.
There were at all times among the Jews people of the lowest
order, who made prophecies in order to distinguish themselves from
the populace. We deal here with the one who has become best
known, and has been turned into a god; we give a brief account of
his career, as it is described in the books called the gospels. We need
not seek to determine when these books were written; it is evident
that they were written after the fall of Jerusalem. You know how
absurdly the four authors contradict each other. It is a demonstrative
proof that they are wrong. We do not, however, need many proofs to
demolish this miserable structure. We will be content with a short
and faithful account.
In the first place, Jesus is described as a descendant of Abraham
and David, and the writer Matthew counts forty-two generations in
two thousand years. In his list, however, we find only forty-one, and
in the genealogical tree which he borrows from Kings he blunders
clumsily in making Josiah the father of Jechoniah.
Luke also gives a genealogy, but he assigns forty-nine generations
after Abraham, and they are entirely different generations. To
complete the absurdity, these generations belong to Joseph, and the
evangelists assure us that Jesus was not the son of Joseph. Would
one be received in a German chapter on such proofs of nobility? Yet
there is question here of the son of God, and God himself is the
author of the book!
Matthew says that when Jesus, King of the Jews, was born in a
stable in the town of Bethlehem, three magi or kings saw his star in
the east, and followed it, until it halted over Bethlehem; and that
King Herod, hearing these things, caused all the children under two
years of age to be put to death. Could any horror be more
ridiculous? Matthew adds that the father and mother took the child
into Egypt, and remained there until the death of Herod. Luke says
precisely the contrary; he observes that Joseph and Mary remained
peacefully at Bethlehem for six weeks, then went to Jerusalem, and
from there to Nazareth; and that they went every year to Jerusalem.
The evangelists contradict each other in regard to the time of the
life of Jesus, his miracles, the night of the supper, and the day of his
death—in a word, in regard to nearly all the facts. There were forty-
nine gospels composed by the Christians of the first few centuries,
and these were still more flagrant in their contradictions. In the end,
the four which we have were selected. Even if they were in harmony,
what folly, what misery, what puerile and odious things they contain!
The first adventure of Jesus, son of God, is to be taken up by the
devil; the devil, who makes no appearance in the books of Moses,
plays a great part in the gospels. The devil, then, takes God up a
mountain in the desert. From there he shows him all the kingdoms
of the earth. Where is this mountain from which one can see so
many lands? We do not know.
John records that Jesus goes to a marriage-feast, and changes
water into wine; and that he drives from the precincts of the temple
those who were selling the animals of the sacrifices ordered in the
Jewish law.
All diseases were at that time regarded as possession by the devil,
and Jesus makes it the mission of his apostles to expel devils. As he
goes along, he delivers one who was possessed by a legion of devils,
and he makes these devils enter a herd of swine, which cast
themselves into the sea of Tiberias. We may suppose that the
owners of the swine, who were not Jews apparently, were not
pleased with this comedy. He heals a blind man, and the blind man
sees men as if they were trees. He wishes to eat figs in winter, and,
not finding any on a tree, he curses the tree and causes it to wither;
the text prudently adds: “For it was not the season of figs.”

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