NOTES ON GENERAL

BIOLOGY MODULE ONE

BY KENNETH AWAH. M

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THE CELL, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
THE CELL, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

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1. It is made up of lipids and proteins and is semi-permeable, allowing some substances to
pass through it and excluding others.
2. its permeability varies because it contains numerous regulated ion channels and other
trans-port proteins that can change the amounts of substances moving across it.
3. The plasma membrane contains phospholipids in its by layer(phosphatidylcholine and
phosphatidylethanolamine)

4. The plasma membrane is both hydrophilic and hydrophobic.(water soluble ;polar head
and fat soluble non-polar head).
5. The hydrophilic ends are exposed to the water-like cytoplasmic environment around the
cell and the hydrophobic ends are exposed to the water poor ends of the interior
membrane
6. FUNCTIONS OF CELLULAR ORGANELLES
The nucleus is centrally located and controls the metabolic activity of the cell as well as
structural characteristics. The chromosomes are responsible for this
The nucleolus is found in the centre of the nucleus; its main function is the production of
ribonucleic protein
SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Have no ribosomes; specialized in various lipid synthesis.
ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Studded with Ribosomes: synthesizes proteins
GOLGI APPARATUS
The Golgi apparatus contains smaller sacs and responsible for processing, packaging and
distribution of molecules
1. The vacuole and vesicle are made up of membranous sacs in which substances are stored.
2. Lysozome is a sac-like structure containing digestive enzymes responsible for cellular
digestion.
PEROXISOMES:are surrounded by amembrane, and contain enzymes that can either
produceH2O2(oxidases) or break it down (catalases). Proteins are directed to the peroxisome
with the help of peroxins
1. The mitochondrion takes care of cellular respiration.
2. Cilia and flagella facilitate cellular movement.

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3. Centriole forms basal bodies of the cell
4. The centrosomes are microtubule-organizing centers(MTOCs) .
5. When a cell divides, the centrosomes duplicate themselves, and the pairs move apart to
the poles of the mitotic spindle, where they monitor the steps in cell division.
MOLECULAR MOVEMENTACROSS THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
1. DIFFUSION: Diffusionis the random movement of molecules from the area of
higher concentration to the area of lower concentra-tion until they are equally
distributed.
2. Lipid soluble molecules such as alcohol and gases can diffuse through the plasma
membrane
3. Consider the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide across the membrane of the
alveoli as an example.
4. OSMOSIS: This is the diffusion of water across a plasma membrane. It occurs
whenever an unequal concentration of water exists on either side of a selectively
permeable membrane

1. Body fluids are isotonic to cells —that is, there is an equal concentration of
solutes(substances) and solvent (water) on both sides of the plasma membrane.
2. Tonicity is the degree to which a solution’s concentration of solute versus water causes
water to move into or out of cells.
3. Solutions (solute plus solvent) that cause cells to swell or even to burst due to an intake
of water are said to be hypo-tonic solutions. If red blood cells are placed in a hypotonic
solution, which has a higher concentration of water (lower concentration of solute) than
do the cells, water enters the cells and they swell to bursting .
4. Cell disruption is called lysis; red blood cell disruption therefore, is haemolysis

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5. Solutions that cause cells to shrink or to shrivel due to a loss of water are said to be
hypertonic solutions. If red blood cells are placed in a hypertonic solution, which has a
lower concentration of water (higher concentration of solute than do the cells), water
leaves the cells and they shrink .The term crenation refers to red blood cells in this
condition
6. These changes have occurred due to osmotic pressure. This is the force exerted on a
selectively permeable membrane because water has moved from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration( higher concentration of solute).
7. FILTRATION is the process of passive diffusion across a plasma membrane from an area
of higher concentration to that of lower concentration. During filtration, larger molecules
do not pass through the semi-permeable membrane but, smaller ones do.
8. When solutes are carried across a plasma membrane by a protein, this is referred to as
transport by carrier; or facilitated transport.
9. This movement is down the concentration gradient and requires no energy from the cell.
10. During active transportation, the movement is in the contrary direction; from area of
lower concentration to that of higher concentration.
11. Cells involved in active transport have a large number of mitochondria near the plasma
membrane for the break down of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) to release energy.
12. The Na+ pump moves sodium ions(Na+) potassium ions(K+) into and out of the cell
respectively.
13. Endocytosis and Exocytosis: absorption of substances from the outside of the cell into
the cytoplasmic melieu by formation of vessicles is called endocytosis.
14. a portion of the plasma membrane envaginates to envelope a substance. The membrane
breaks off to form an intracellular vessicle. Digestion may be required before vessicles
cross a membrane.This is also called phagocytosis
15. Exocytosis is the process in which the vessicle fuses with the plasma membrane as
secretion occurs (example: secretion of insulin)

Summary of molecular movements across the plasma membrane

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THE CELL CYCLE
1. The set of stages between cell division and the time the daughter cell divides is called
the cell cycle.
2. A cell cycle is controlled by a signal; this is a molecule that triggers or inhibits a
metabolic event In a cell. These signals control cellular events, the order, and the
completion of the cellular cycle. However, not all cells go through the cell cycle; muscle
and nerve cells are specialized cells ;they do not go through the cell cycle.

3. STAGES OF CELL CYCLE

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1. The cell cycle consists of interphase, during which cellular components duplicate, and a
mitotic stage, during which the cell divides. Interphase consists of two so-called
“growth”phases (G1and G2) and a DNA synthesis (S) phase. The mitotic stage consists of
the phases noted plus cytokinesis.
The stages are further described in detail
1. . During the interphase stage, the cell carries out regular activities ;it does not divides. If
the cell will divide, and completes the cycle, it gets ready to do so and if not, it becomes
a specialized cell. The interphase is sub-divided into the G1 phase, Sphase and G2 phase.
2. During the G1 phase, cell organelles such as the mitochondria and ribosomes and other
materials used in DNA synthesis are doubled
3. The S phase is comprised of DNA replication; this results in chromosome duplication.ie,
at the beginning of the S phase, each DNA consist of a double helix otherwise called
chromatid. At the end of this phase, each chromosome has two identical double helix
molecules – two sister chromatids.
4. In the G2 phase, protein synthesis as that found in microtubules, to assist cell division
occurs;
5. Chromatin(nuclear genetic material) condenses and chromosomes become visible.
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6. Following the interphase, the cell enters the M-stage or mitotic activity in which
daughter chromosomes distribute to two nuclei; cytoplasmic material divide in a
process call cytokinesis.
7. When cytokinesis is complete, two daughter cells are present.
KEY POINTS ABOUT INTRPHASE
1. Replication and protein synthesis occur during interphase.
2. Replication is the production of exact copy of DNA
3. Proteinsynthesisrequires transcription and translation.
4. Transcription is the joining of RNA neoclutide strand to DNA neoclutide strand by aid of
an emzyme called RNA polymerase, resulting to an mRNA molecule formation.
5. The formation of mRNA results in a DNA complemetarysequence,three of which are
called the condon,.
6. Translation requires many enzymes and two other types of RNA; tRNA and
rRNA(transfer RNA and ribosomal RNA).
7. tRNA brings amino-acids to the ribosomes.
8. The mitotic stage consist of mitosis and cytokinesis(cell division and cytoplasmic
division).
9. At the end of interphase, centrioles double and chromosomes become visible,
duplocates having two chromatids held together by a centromere.
10. Mitosis is divided into four phases namely;prophase,metaphase,anaphase and
telophase.
11. The prophase is the phase that indicates that the cell is about to divide: two pairs of
centrioles move away from each other outside the nucleus in opposite directions.
12. Spindle fibres appear between separating centrioles while the nuclear envelope starts
fragmenting while the nucleolus starts to disappear.
KEY POINTS ABOUT MITOSIS

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1. During metaphse,nuclearevenlope fragments.
Chromosomes move to equator each with sister chromatid

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SECTION 2: TISSUES
1. A tissue is a group of similar cells that work together to perform a specific structural or
physiological role in an organ.
2. There are four main types of tissue namely, epithelial, connective, nervous and muscular
tissues
3. Epithelial tissue is composed of closely spaced cells that cover surfaces, form glands and
serve for protection, secretion and absorption. Examples include : epidermis, inner
lining of the digestive tract, liver and other glands.
4. Connective tissue contains more matrix than cell volume often specialized to support,
bind together and protect other organs. For example, tendon, cartilage and bone and
blood.
5. Nervous tissue contain excitable cells specialized for rapid transmission of coded
information to other cells. Examplebrain,spinalcord and nerves.
6. Muscular tissue is made up of elongated excitable cells specialized in traction for
example: skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscles(walls of viscera)
EPITHELIAL TISSUE

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SIMPLE EPITHELIA
1. Three types of simple epithelia are named for the shapes of their cells: simple squamous
(thin scaly cells), simple cuboidal (square or round cells),and simple columnar.
2. thefourthtype,pseudo-stratified columnar,not all cells reach the free surface; the
shorter cells are covered over by the taller ones.

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Stratifiedsquamousepithelium
1. This type has two sub types of squamous tissue; cuboidal and columnal layers; these are
found in the deeper layers while shape. the outer layer is squamous in shape.
2. Keratin (a protein) strengthens the squamous layer of the skin.
stratified squamous epithelium is found lining the various orifices of the body.

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TransitionalEpithelium
1. This implies changeability, and this tissue changes in response to tension. It forms the
lining of the urinary bladder, the ureters, and part of the urethra—organs that may need
to stretch.
When the walls of the bladder are relaxed, the transitional epithelium consists of several layers
of cuboidal cells. When the bladder is distended with urine, the epithelium stretches, and the
outer cells take on a squamous appearance

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TransitionalEpithelium
1. This implies changeability, and this tissue changes in response to tension. It forms the
lining of the urinary bladder, the ureters, and part of the urethra—organs that may need
to stretch.
2. When the walls of the bladder are relaxed, the transitional epithelium consists of
several layers of cuboidal cells. When the bladder is distended with urine, the
epithelium stretches, and the outer cells take on a squamous appearance.

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Classification of connective tissue

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MUSCLE TISSUE
1. Muscle tissue is classified either as skeletal, cardiac or smooth.
2. Contractile tissue contains actin and myosin(protein filaments) whose interaction counts
for movement.
3. Skeletal muscles, also called voluntary muscles; its contraction result in movement of
body parts(arms,legs)
4. Voluntary muscle contraction is short but forceful
5. These are striated due to the placement of myosin and actin bands.
6. Smooth muscle tissue(visceral) is involuntary.
7. Its placement of actin and myosin does not result in cross- striation.
8. These are spindle-shaped cells with an irregular nucleic pattern.
9. They are found in the walls of hollow viscera(intestine, stomach,uterus, urinary bladder
and blood vessels)
10. Contractility is slow but last longer,isrythmic and wavelike(as in the stomach) and
controlled by the nervous system.
11. Contractility of smooth muscle of blood vessels result in vaso-constriction and
regulation of blood pressure.
Cardiac Muscle
1. Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart.
2. Its contraction accounts for the pumping action of the heart and heart beat. It has mixed
properties(like skeletal and smooth muscle): strong contractions, involuntary and
controlled by nervous system and rhythmic
3. Has striations and centrally placed single nucleus. Are bound by intercarlated disk for
easy transmission of contractile stimuli .
NERVOUS TISSUE
1. This is found in the brain and spinal chord. Its specialized cells are called neurons.
2. A neuron has three parts: dendrites,cell body and axon.
3. A dendrite collects signals that may result in a nerve impulse
4. the cell body contains the nucleus and most of the cytoplasm of the neuron;

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5. and the axon conducts nerve impulses from sense organs to the spinal cord and brain,
where the phenomenon called sensation occurs. They also conduct nerve impulses away
from the spinal cord and brain to the muscles, causing the muscles to contract.In
addition to neurons, nervous tissue contains neuroglia.
A neuron

NEUROGLIA
1. These cells occupy more than half of the brain`s volume.
2. The primary function is to support and nourish neurons. There are three types of
neuroglia found in the brain; microglia,astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes.
3. Microglia,in addition to supporting neurons, engulf bacterial and cellular debris.
4. Astrocytes provide nutrients to neurons and produce a hormone known as glia-derived
growth factor.
5. Oligodendrocytes form myelin, a protective layer of fatty insulation.
SCHWAN CELLS

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1. Schwann cells are the type of neuroglia that encircles all long nerve fibers located
outside the brain or spinal cord.
2. Each Schwann cell encircles only a small section of a nerve fiber. The gaps between
Schwann cells are called nodes of Ranvier.
3. Collectively, the Schwann cells provide nerve fibers with a myelin sheath interrupted by
the nodes.
4. The myelin sheath speeds conduction because the nerve impulse jumps from node to
node. Because the myelin sheath is white, all nerve fibers appear white.
MEMBRANES
1. Membranes line the internal spaces of organs and tubes open to the outside.
Theseinclude mucus membranes, serous membranes, synovial, meninges and cutanous
membranes

SECTION 3:GENETICS
1. The study of the transmission of biologic material from a generation to the other and its
consequences is referred to as genetics.
2. Hereditary is the transmission of genetic charateristics from parent to offspring.
3. Several traits and diseases are transmitted in like manner; for example,baldness,blood
types, color blindess, heamophilia, sickle cell anemia(anaemia) height etc.

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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF NORMAL HEREDITARY
1. KARYOTYPE: is a chart of the chromosomes isolated from a cell at metaphase, arranged
in order by size and structure. It reveals that most human cells, with the exception of
germ cells , contain 23pairs of similar-looking chromosomes (except for X and Y
chromosomes). Two chromosomes in each pair are called homologous
chromosomes(looking alike)
In the homologous pair, one chromosome is inherited from the mother and the other
from the father.
Two chromosomes, designated x and y are called sex chromosomes and the other 22
pairs are called autosomes.
A female has a homologous paair of X chromosomes where as the male has one X
chromosome and a much smaller y chromosome.
The sperm and egg cells prior to fertilization are called germ cells; each has 23 pairs of
homologous chromosomes.
The shape of the outer ear presents an example of dominant and recessive genetic
effects. When the ears are developing in a fetus, a “death signal” is often activated in
cells that attach the earlobe to the side of the head. These cells die, causing the earlobe
to separate from the head. A person will then have “detached earlobes
This occurs in people who have either one or two copies of a dominant allele which we
will denote D.
If both homologous chromosomes have the recessive version of this gene, d,the cell
suicide program is not activated, and the earlobes remain attached

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 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF NORMAL HEREDITARY
Multiple Alleles, Codominance, andIncomplete Dominance
1. Some genes exist in more than two allelic forms- multiple alleles.
2. There are 3 alleles for ABO blood types. Two of the ABO blood type alleles are dominant
and symbol-ized with a capital I (for Immunoglobulin) and a super-script IA and IB
3. There is one recessive allele, symbolized with a lowercase i. Which two alleles one
inherits determines the blood type, as follows:

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 Some alleles are equally dominant, or co- dominant. When both of them are present,
both are pheno typically expressed. For example, a person who inherits allele IA from
one parent and IB from the other has blood type AB
These alleles code for enzymes that produce the surface glycoproteins of red blood
cells. Type AB means that both A and B glycoproteins are present, and type O means
that neither of them is present.
PolygenicInheritance and Pleiotropy
1. This is a phenomenon in which genes at two or more loci or even different
chromosomes contribute to a single phentypoc trait. Human eye and skin color are
normal polygenic traits which result from a combined expression for all the traits.
2. Several diseases stem from some form of polygenic inheritance; these may include;
alcoholism, mental illness, can-cer, and heart disease.
3. Pleiotropy is a phenomenon in which one gene produces multiple pheno-typic effects.
Sickle-cell disease, for example, is caused by a recessive allele that changes one amino
acid in haemoglobin.

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 Polygenic Inheritance and Pleiotropy. (a)Inpolygenic inheritance, two or more genes
combine their effects to produce a single phenotypic trait, such as skin color. (b) In
pleiotropy, a single gene causes multiple phenotypic traits, as in sickle-cell disease
1. Sickle cell causes red blood cells (RBCs) to assume an abnormally elongated, pointed
shape when oxygen levels are low, and it makes them sticky and fragile. As RBCs
rupture, a person becomes anemic and the spleen becomes enlarged. Because of the
deficiency of RBCs, the blood carries insufficient oxygen to the tissues, resulting in
multiple, far-reaching effects on different parts of the body.
SEX LINKAGE
1. Sex-linked traits are carried on the X or Y chromosome and therefore tend to be
inherited by one sex more than the other. Men are more likely than women to have red-
green color blindness or hemophilia, for example, because the allele for each is
recessive and located on the X chromosome (X-linked) Women have two X
chromosomes.
2. If a woman inherits the recessive hemophilia allele(h)on one of her X chromosomes,
there is still a good chance that her other X chromosome will carry a dominant allele (H).
H codes for normal blood-clotting proteins, so her blood clots normally.

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3. Men, on the otherhand, have only one X chromosome and normally expressany
recessive allele found there (fig. 4.18). Ironically,even though this hemophilia is far more
common amongmen than women, a man can inherit it only from hismother.
4. ASSIGNMENT: WHY IS IT THAT MEN CANNOT INHERIT HAEMOPHILIA FROM THEIR
FATHERS?

Sex-linked Inheritance of Hemophilia.

Left:A female who inherits a recessive allele (h) for hemophilia from one parent may
not exhibit the trait, because she is likely to inherit the dominant allele (H) for a
normal blood-clotting protein from her other parent. Right:
A male who inherits h from his mother will exhibit hemophilia ,because the Y
chromosome inherited from his father does not have a gene locus for the clotting
protein, and therefore has no ability to mask the effect of h

Penetrance and EnvironmentalEffects

1. Penetrance is the percentage of a population with a given genotype that actually
exhibits the predicted phenotype.
2. However, people don not exhibit the phenotype that is predicted by their genotype. For
example, the occurrence of polydactyly (extra fingers or toes) is caused by a dominant
allele. This might be predicted from the dominance of this allele. However, not all who
have this allele present with the condition.
3. Environmental factors play an important role in the expression of all genes. All gene
expression depends on nutrition.
4. No gene can produce a phenotypic effect without nutritional and other environmental
input, and no nutrients can produce a body or specific phenotype without genetic
instructions that tell cells what to do with them.

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5. Children born with the hereditary disease phenylketonuria(PKU),for example, become
retarded if they eat a normal diet. How-ever, if PKU is detected early, a child can be
placed on a diet low in phenylalanine (an amino acid) and achieve normal mental
development.
Dominant and Recessive Alleles atthe Population Level
It is a misconception that dominant alleles are common and recessive alleles are rare;
the dominance or recessiveness of alleles have nothing to do with this. For example
blood type O is the most common type but it is caused by the allele I which is rare and
blood type AB is caused by two dominant ABO alleles AB but it is very rare
CONCLUSION
1. An understanding of cell biology and the functioning of each organelle is required to
understanding of genetics.
2. the different processes required in cell division and the roles played by DNA and the
various RNA will make genetics very interesting.
3. GO BACK AND REVIEW THE TOPIC ON CELLS BEFORE REVIEWING GENETICS

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