Chapt

erOne
Semi
conduct
orDev
ices
Abasicknowl
edgeoft
heatomictheoryandt
hestruct
ureofsemi
conduct
ormat
eri
alsi
s
neededtobeabl
etobet
terunder
standhowelect
ronswork.

TheAt
om
Anatom ist
hesmall
estpar
ti
cleofanelementthatr
etai
nsthecharact
eri
sti
csofthat
el
ement.Eachel
ementhasauniqueatomicstr
uctur
ewhi chconsi
stsofcent
ral
nucleus
sur
roundedbyor
bit
ingel
ectr
ons.

TheNucl
eus
Thenucleusconsistsofpositi
vel
ychargedpar t
iclescal
ledprotonsandunchar ged
part
icl
escalledneutr
ons.Orbiti
ngthenucleusar etheelectr
ons.El ect
ronsare
negati
velychargedpart
icl
es.Atomsofonet y
peofel ementhav et hesamenumberof
el
ectronsandpr ot
ons,butatomsofdiffer
entelementhav ediff
erentnumberof
el
ectronsandpr ot
ons.Anexampl eofthesimplestat omsist heHy drogenandHel
ium
atoms.

Val
enceEl
ect
rons
Electr
onsinorbitsf
urt
herawayf rom t
henucleusarelessli
ghtlyboundtotheat om than
thoseclosertothenucl
eus.Electr
onsintheoutermostshell
sofanat om havethe
highestenergyandarealsoknownasv al
enceelect
rons.Thesesvalenceel
ectrons
contri
butetothechemicalreacti
onsandbondingwi t
hinthestruct
ureofamat erial
.The
valenceofanat om i
sthenumberofel ectr
onsinitsouter
mostshel l
.

El
ect
ronShel
lsandOr
bit
s
Elect
ronsorbi
tthenucleusofanat om atcer
tai
ndiscret
edist
ancesfrom thenucleus.
Elect
ronsnearthenucl
eushav elessenergythanthoseinmoredist
antor bi
ts.Each
discr
etedi
stancefrom thenucl
euscorrespondstoacertai
nenergylevel.I
nanat om,
theorbi
tsaregroupedintoener
gybandsknownasshel l
s.Theshell
sar edesignatedK,
L,
M,Nandsoon.Ki
sthecl
osestshel
ltot
henucl
eus.Eachshel
lhasaf
ixednumberof
el
ect
rons.

ConceptofEl
ect
ronShel
lsandEner
gyLev
els

El
ectr
onscl
osetot
henucleushav
elowener
gyl
evel
s,wher
east
hosei
ndi
stantor
bit
s
havemoreener
gyl
evel
s.

I
oni
sat
ion
Atomsar eaffectedbymanyext ernalsourcesofener gysuchasheat ,l
ight,
el
ectromagnet i
cf i
eldsandchemi calr
eactions.Astheel ectronsi ntheatom absor b
energythei
renergyl evelsrise.Whenanel ectrongainsener gy ,i
tjumpsf rom it
sor i
ginal
oorbitt
ohigheror bi
t,furtherfrom thenucleus.Ifav alenceel ectronacquiressuffi
cient
energy,i
tcanbecompl etel
yr emov edfrom theoutershel ll
eav ingtheonceneut ralatom
withanetposi t
ivechar ge,thepr ocessoflosingav alenceel ectronsisknownas
i
onizati
onandt her esulti
ngposi tiveatom isknownasposi tivei onandtheescaped
el
ectronknownasf reeel ectron.Likewiseanat om canpi ckupast r
ayelectron,hence
i
ncreasingit
snegat ivechar ge,tobecomeanegat i
vei on.

Si
li
conandGer
mani
um At
oms

Thesetwot ypesofsemi conductormat er

ial
s,aresil
iconandger manium,havebeen
popular
lyusedforthemanuf actureofsemi conductordev i
cesli
ke;di
odes,tr
ansist
ors,
FETsetc.Boththesil
iconandt heger manium atomshav efourval
enceelect
rons.These
atomsdifferi
nthei
ratomi cstructure;si
li
conhas14pr otonsini
tsnucleusand
germanium has32wi threspecti
venumberofel ect
rons.Figurebel
owshowsa
repr
esentati
onoftheat omicstructureforbothelement s.
Si
li
conandGer
mani
um At
om St
ruct
ures

Thismeanst hattheger manium v

alenceelect
ronsareathigherenergylevelst
hanthose
i
nsi l
i
conand, therefor
e,requir
easmal l
eramountofadditi
onalenergytoescapef r
om
theatom.Thispr opert
ymakesger manium mor eunst
ablethansil
iconathi gh
temperat
ures,whi chisthemai nr
easonsil
iconbyfaristhemostwi delyused
semiconductormat eri
al.

At
omi
cBondi
ng
Whencer tainatomscombi net oform asol idmat eri
al,theyar ranget hemsel vesi na
fi
xedpat t
er ncalledacr ystal
.Theat omswi t
hint hesi l
i
concr ystal structurear ehel d
togetherbycov al entbonds,whi char ecreatedbyt heshar i
ngoft hev al
enceel ectronsof
eachat om.Figur ebel owshowshoweachsi l
icon( Si)atom posi t
ionsi t
selfwi t
hf our
adjacentatomst of orm asil
iconcr ystal
.Asi l
iconat om wi thi t
sf ourv alenceel ectrons
sharesanel ectronwi t
heachofi t
sfournei ghbor s.Thisef fectivelycr eatesei ghtv alence
electr
onsf oreachat om andpr oducesast ateofchemi calstabili
ty .Also, thi
sshar ingof
valenceelectronspr oducest hecov alentbondst hathol dtheat omst oget her;each
sharedelectroni sat t
ractedequallybyt woadj acentat oms.

Coval
entBondsi
nSi
li
conAt
omsani
ntr
insi
ccr
yst
al(
onet
hathasnoi
mpur
it
ies)
.
Conduct
ionEl
ect
ronsandHol
es
Anenergybanddi agram isshowni nFigurebel owforasiliconcryst
alwit
hnoexcited
atoms(noexternalener gysuchasheat ).Thisconditi
onoccur sonlyatatemperatureof
absolut
e0Kelvin.Atr oom temperaturesil
iconhassuf fi
cientheat(t
hermal)ener
gy
forsomevalenceel ectr
onst oj
umpt hegapf rom t
hev al
encebandi ntotheconducti
on
band,becomingf reeel ect
rons.Thissituationisi l
l
ustratedint heenergydiagram of
below.

Anel ect
ronjumpst otheconduct
ionband,leavi
ngv acancyinthevalencebandwithi
n
thecryst
al.Thisvacancyiscall
edahole.Forever
yelectronrai
sedtotheconduct
ion
bandbyext ernalenergy,
therei
soneholelef
tinthevalenceband,cr
eatingwhati
s
caledanel
l ectr
on-holepair
.
Recombi nati
onoccur swhenaconduct i
on-
bandelectronlosesenergyandf al
lsback
i
ntoahol einthev al
enceband.

Ener
gybanddiagr
am forapuresil
iconcr
yst
alwi
thunexci
tedat
oms.Ther
ear
eno
el
ectr
onsi
ntheconduct
ionband.

Compar
isonofSemi
conduct
orst
oConduct
orsandI
nsul
ator
s
Inanintrinsicsemi conduct or,therearerel ativelyfewf reeelectr
ons,sosemi conductors
arenotv er yusefulintheirintri
nsicstates.Pur esemi conduct ormateri
alsareneither
i
nsulatorsnorconduct ors.
Acompar isonoft heener gybandsf orinsul ator s,
semi conductorsandconduct ors
showst heessent i
al di
fferencesamongt hem r egardi
ngconduct i
on.Theener gygapf or
aninsulatori ssowi det hathar dl
yanyel ect ronsacqui reenoughener gytojumpi nto
theconduct i
onband.Thev alencebandandt heconduct i
onbandi naconduct or(such
ascopper )overlapsot hatt herearealway smanyconduct ionelectr
ons,evenwi t
hout
theapplicat i
onofext ernal energy.Asemi conduct or,
hasanener gygapthatismuch
narr
owert hant hatinani nsulator.

Ener
gydi
agr
amsf
ort
het
hreet
ypesofmat
eri
als.

El
ect
ronandHol
eCur
rent
Whenav ol
tageisappliedacrossapieceofsil
i
con,asshowninFigurebel
ow,the
thermal
lygeneratedfreeelectr
onsintheconduct
ionband,
whi charefr
eetomov e
randomlyinthecrystalstr
ucture,
arenoweasil
yattract
edt
owar dtheposi
ti
veend.Thi
s
mov ementoffreeelectronsisonetypeofcurr
entinasemiconducti
vemateri
alandi
s
call
edelect
roncur r
ent.
Anot
hertypeofcur rentoccursatthevalencel evel
,wher etheholescr eatedbyt hef ree
el
ectr
onsexi st.El
ectronsremaini
nginthev alencebandar esti
llatt
achedt ot hei
rat oms
andarenotfr eetomov erandomlyinthecr ystalstr
uct ur
e.Howev er,av al
enceel ectron
canmov eintoanear byhole,wit
hli
tt
lechangei nit
sener gylevel,t
husl eavinganot her
hol
ewher eitcamef rom.Thehol ehasef f
ect i
vely,
althoughnotphy sically
,mov edf rom
oneplacetoanot herinthecryst
alst
ructure.Thiscur rentiscal
ledholecur rent.

N-
TypeandP-
TypeSemi
conduct
ors
Semiconductiv
emat eri
alsdonotconductcur r
entwel landareoflitt
leval
ueintheir
i
ntri
nsicstat
e.Thisisbecauseoft heli
mi t
ednumberoff r
eeelectr
onsintheconduct i
on
bandandhol esinthevalenceband.Intr
insi
csil
iconmustbemodi fiedbyincr
easingthe
fr
eeelectr
onsandhol est oincr
easeitsconduct
ivityandtobeabl etocontrol
theflowin
el
ectroni
cdev i
ces.Thi
sisdonebyaddi ngimpurit
iestotheintr
insicmateri
alasyouwi l
l
l
earninthissecti
on.

Dopi
ng
Theconduct i
vi
tiesofsi
li
concanbedr ast
ical
lyi
ncreasedandcontr
oll
edbyt he
additi
onofimpur i
ti
estothei
ntr
insi
csemi conduct
ormat er
ial
.Thi
sprocess,cal
led
doping,i
ncreasesthenumberofcurrentcarr
ier
s(elect
ronsorhol
es).Thetwo
categori
es
ofimpurit
iesaren-ty
peandp-ty
pe.
Si
l
iconandGer
mani
um ar
eTETRAVALENTel
ement
s(Gr
oupI
V)
TRI
VALENTelement
s(Gr
oupI
II
)
 Alumini
um,
 Boron,
 Indi
um
 Gall
ium ar
e

PENTAVALENTelement(
GroupV)
 Arseni
c,
 Phosphor
us,
  Anti
mony
 Phosphor
us

P-
Type
Whensil
iconi
sdopedwi
tht
ri
val
enti
mpur
it
yat
oms,
aP-
typesemi
conduct
ori
s
pr
oduced.

Accept
or
Thet
riv
alentat
om i
sknownasaccept
orat
om becausei
taccept
sbondi
ngwi
tht
he
el
ect
ron.
P-Ty
pe N-Type

N-
TypeSemi
conduct
or
Whensil
iconi
sdopedwi
thpent
aval
enti
mpur
it
yat
oms,
anN-
typesemi
conduct
ori
s
pr
oduced.
Donor
Thepentav
alentat
om i
sthedonorat
om si
ncedonat
esmanyel
ect
ronst
othedoped
mater
ial

Heav
yDopi
ng
Thenumberofconduct i
onelect
ronscanbei ncr
easedbythenumberofimpuri
tyatoms
addedtothesil
icon.
Sincemostofthecurrentcar
ri
ersareel
ectr
ons,sil
icondopedi
nthiswayisann-t
ype
semiconduct
or(thenstandsforthenegat
ivechargeonanelect
ron).

Maj
ori
tyCar
ri
ers
Theelect
ronsarecal
ledt
hemajor
it
ycarri
er nn-
si ty
pemater
ial
.Al
thoughthemajori
tyof
cur
rentcarr
ier
sinn-t
ypemat
eri
alareel
ectr
ons,t
herear
esomefewholes.Thesehol
es
 enotpr
ar oducedbyt
headdit
ionofthepent
aval
enti
mpur
it
yat
oms.Hol nann-
esi type
materi
alarecall
edminor
it
ycarr
ier
s.
P-
Ty peSemiconduct
or
Toincreaset henumberofhol esinint
ri
nsicsi
l
icon,t
ri
val
ent
impurityatomsar eadded.Theseareatomswiththr
eevalenceel
ect
rons,suchas
aluminum
(Al)
,boron( B),andgalli
um (Ga)andareknownasacceptoratomsbecauset heyl
eav
ea
holeint hesemi conductor
’scryst
alst
ruct
ure.

TheP-
NJunct
ion
Thenr egi
onhasmanyconductionelect
rons,
andt
hepr egi
onhasmanyhol
es.Wit
hno
exter
nalvol
tage,
theconduct
ionelect
ronsi hen-
nt regi
onarerandoml
ydr
if
ti
nginall
dir
ecti
ons.

Attheinstantofjunct
ionformati
on,someoft heelectronsnearthejunct
iondriftacross
i
ntot hepregionandrecombi newithhol
esnearthej uncti
on.Foreachelectronthat
crossesthejuncti
onandr ecombineswithahole,apent aval
entatom isl
eftwithanet
positi
vechargeinthenr egi
onneart hej
unct
ion,maki ngitapositi
veion.Also,whent he
el
ectronrecombineswi t
hahol einthepregi
on,at ri
valentat
om acquiresnetnegat i
ve
charge,makingitanegat i
veion.

Depl
eti
onRegi
on
Asar esultofthisrecombi nati
onprocess,al
argenumberofposi t
iveandnegati
vei
ons
buil
dsupneart hepnj unction.Asthi
sbuil
dupoccurs,t
heelect
ronsi nthenregi
onmust
overcomebot ht heattracti
onofthepositi
veionsandtherepul
sionofthenegati
veions
i
nor dertomi grateint
ot hepr egi
on.Thus,astheionl
ayer
sbuildup, t
heareaonboth
si
desoft hejunct i
onbecomesessent i
all
ydeplet
edofanyconduct i
onelect
ronsorholes
andisknownast hedepl et
ionregi
on.
Theexi st
enceoftheposit
iveandnegat i
veionsonopposi
tesi
desofthepnjunct
ion
createsabarri
erpotent
ial
acr ossthedeplet
ionr
egionwhi
chistheamountofvol
tage
requiredtomoveelectr
onsthr oughthedepl
eti
onregi
on.I
tisappr
oxi
matel
y0. 7Vfor
sil
iconand0.3Vf orgermanium.

Bi
asi
ngt
heDi
ode
For
war
dBi
as
Thi
sist
hecondi
ti
ont
hatper
mit
scur
rentt
ofl
owt
hroughadi
ode.

Rev
erseBi
as
Thi
sist
hecondi
ti
ont
hatpr
event
scur
rentt
ofl
owt
hroughadi
ode.

Thefi
gureshowsadcv olt
ageconnectedinadi
rect
iontofor
ward-
biasthepnjunct
ion.
Noti
cethatthenegat
iveter
mi nal
ofthesourcei
sconnectedt
othenr egi
on,andthe
posi
ti
veterminal
isconnectedtothepregi
on.

Testy
ourUnder
standi
ngoft
heChapt
erbydoi
ngt
heQui
zthatf
oll
ow:
QUI
Z
1.Anat
om i
sthesmal
l
estpar
ti
cleof………….t
hatr
etai
nst
hechar
act
eri
sti
csoft
hat
a)pr
oton
b)el
ect
ron
c)anel
ement
d)semi
conduct
or
2.Atat
om wi
th6pr
otonsand5el
ect
ronsor
bit
ingcar
iesa….
 a)neut
ral
char
ge
b)negat
ivechar
ge
c)posi
ti
vechar
ge
d)absol
utechar
ge
3.Val
enceel
ect
ronsar
e…
a)cont
ainedi
ntheout
ermostshel
l
b)ar
eamaxi
mum of2
c)or
bitt
heK-
shel
l
d)t
heyar
enoti
oni
zed
4.Themaxi
mum numberofel
ect
ronst
hatcanoccupyt
heM shel
lar
e:
a)8
b)16
c)18
d)32
5.Si
l
iconat
om hast
hesamenumberofv
alenceel
ect
ronswi
th…
a)car
bonat
oms
b)ger
mani
um at
oms
c)al
umi
nium
d)noneoft
heabov
e
6.Theener
gyi
nval
encebandofaconduct
ionandi
tsener
gyconduct
ionener
gy
band…
a)ar
ever
ywi
deapar
t
b)ov
erl
ap
c)l
owpower
d)hi
ghener
gy
7.Ap-
typeofsemi
conduct
ori
s
a)apower
ful
type
b)i
sposi
ti
ve
c)exi
sthol
es
d)i
tisi
ntr
insi
c
8.Mai
nreasonofdopi
ngi
sto
a)obt
aingoodmat
eri
al
b)i
ncr
easeconduct
ionofsemi
conduct
or
c)mi
xit
d)depl
etei
t
9.Ap-
njunct
ionhas:
a)depl
eti
onl
ayer
b)hol
es
c)el
ect
rons
d)v
olt
age
10.
Bar
ri
erpot
ent
ial
iscausedby
:
a)0.
7V
b)El
ect
rons
c)Dopi
ng
d)Depl
eti
onl
ayer
 CHAPTER TWO

DIODES

A diode is a semiconductor device which allows current to flow in the

forward direction. In the reverse direction no current flows. Current flow is a
result of forward bias applied to the pn junction.

Symbol

A real Diode
Anode Cathode
Anode Cathode
Ring Band

IV Characteristics of a Diode

The diode IV characteristic curve is a voltage vs current graph drawn both

in the reverse and forward bias of the diode.
IF
(mA)

Breakdown point
VR VF (V)
Leakage current 0.7

Current flow
like in a conductor
IR

Starting from zero voltage, the diode is not forward biased, so it does not
conduct. When the voltage is gradually increased to 0.7V the diode is seen
to conduct current. Any further slight increase in voltage will increase the
current dramatically.
In the reverse bias, the diode does not conduct, however negligible amount
of leakage current which have been thermally generated, may appear.

1
 When the reverse voltage is greatly increased the breakdown point (Br)
may be reached. At this point the intensive electric field damages the
atomic structure of the semiconductor material and electrons are freed. The
diode will be damaged and start to conduct in both directions.

Application of Diodes
Diodes are devices that conduct current in one direction only. This is known
as forward conduction. In the reverse direction the diode does not conduct
current.
Main application of diodes are:
1) Conversion of AC voltage to DC voltage in rectifier in power supplies
2) Detect sound or video signal in radio circuits
3) LED diodes are used as light signal indicators and lightings
4) Zener diodes maintain constant voltage, are used in power supplies

1. Conversion of AC voltage to DC voltage

AC voltage is the voltage obtained from the wall sockets at 240V. This
voltage can be used for lighting, cooking ..etc. Electronic equipment is
operated by dc voltage to bias the transistors and other solid state devices
to conduct current. DC voltage is usually obtained from batteries, but this is
expensive. Therefore, we need to convert ac to dc in rectifier circuits. There
are two types of rectifier circuits; half wave and full wave rectifier.

a) Halfwave Rectifier
The halfwave rectifier consists of only one diode connected to the ac
voltage supply to be rectified as shown in the diagram below.
A VAC
Vp

0
t
B
-Vp

VOUT
Vp

0
Π 2π 3π 4π t
Circuit Operation
VAC is the alternating voltage which is fed to the transformer to step it down to the
desired voltage. The voltage appearing across the secondary winding A-B is the
alternating voltage to be rectified in the diode. During the positive half cycle the top of
the transformer at A is positive voltage which forward biases the diode to conduct. In the

2
 following negative half cycle, point A is negative, it reverse biases the diode
to cut-off, the diode does not conduct. This process repeats itself during the
operation of the circuit. If a load, RL is connected across the output, the
voltage that appears across it is as shown above.

Average Voltage
The average voltage of a halfwave rectifier is given by:
1 𝑇
Vav = 𝑇 ∫0 𝑉𝑝𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑑𝑡
1 2𝜋
Vav = 2𝜋 ∫0 𝑉𝑝𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑑𝑡
1 𝜋
Vav = 2𝜋 ∫0 𝑉𝑝𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑑𝑡

𝑉𝑝
Vav =
𝜋

RMS Voltage
Root Mean Square voltage is the dc equivalent value of an ac voltage. It is
given by the expression:
1 𝑇
Vrms = √ 𝑇 [∫0 𝑉𝑝𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑑𝑡]2
𝑉𝑝
Vrms =
√2

b) Full wave Rectifier Circuits

Two basic circuits that convert ac voltage to dc voltage: as full wave
rectifiers are:
Bridge rectifier: uses for diodes as shown below and centre-tap full wave
rectifier

Full wave Bridge Rectifier

The full wave rectifier uses four diodes to convert ac voltage to dc voltage.

Circuit Operation
The ac voltage is applied to the diode rectifiers across A and B. During the
positive half cycle of the ac voltage diode D1 and D3 are forward bias while
3
D2 and D4 are reverse bias. The forward bias diodes conduct into the load
resistor RL, and during the negative half cycles D2 and D4 conduct. This
produces dc voltage across RL as show.

Centre-tap full wave Rectifier

D1 conducts during positive half cycle and D2 conducts during negative half
cycle.

Waveform of Full wave rectifier

The ac input signal is above. Vp is peak voltage

Below it is the waveform of the rectified voltage.
It is dc (direct current) voltage with ripples.
Filter capacitors are used to smoothen the
Ripples to produce a smooth dc voltage.

PIV (peak inverse voltage) of Bridge Rectifier

Peak inverse voltage(PIV) or peak reverse voltage(PRV) can be defined as

the maximum value of the reverse voltage of a diode, which occurs at the
peak of the input cycle when the diode is in reverse bias.

PIV for bridge rectifier is Vp. PIV for center-tap rectifier is 2Vp
It is of great importance that the PIV value must not exceed the reverse break
down voltage of the diode.

Advantages of Full Wave Rectifiers

1) Full wave rectifiers have higher rectifying efficiency than half-wave
rectifiers. This means that they convert AC to DC more efficiently.
2) They have low power loss because no voltage signal is wasted in the
rectification process.
3) The output voltage of centre-tapped full wave rectifier has lower
ripples than a halfwave rectifiers.

4
Disadvantages of Full Wave Rectifiers
The centre-tapped rectifier is more expensive than half-wave rectifier and
tends to occupy a lot of space.
PIV of the diode a twice that of bridge rectifier.

CAPACITOR-INPUT FILTER
The filter is simply a capacitor connected from the rectifier output to ground.
RL represents the equivalent resistance of a load. The half-wave rectifier
circuit diagram is used to illustrate the basic principle and then expand the
concept to full-wave rectification.

Both capacitor and load resistor are connected in parallel. During the
positive first quarter-cycle of the input, the diode is forward biased, allowing
the capacitor to charge to (Vp-0.7)V, as illustrated in the diagram below.

When the input begins to decrease below its peak, as shown in part (b), the
capacitor retains its charge and the diode becomes reverse-biased
because the cathode is more positive than the anode. During the remaining
part of the cycle, the capacitor can discharge only through the load
resistance at a rate determined by the RLC time constant. The larger the
time constant, the less the capacitor will discharge. The process will repeat
itself in the next first quarter of the next cycle.

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 Ripple Factor of Half Wave Rectifier
‘Ripple’ is the unwanted AC component remaining when converting the AC
voltage waveform into a DC. Even though we try out best to remove all AC
components, there is still some small amount left on the output side which
pulsates the DC waveform. This undesirable AC component is called
‘ripple’. Its effect in audio is heard as “hum”

Typica Power Supply

2) Lighting
LEDs are special types of diodes that find applications in lighting houses,
indication lamps, TV screens, 7-segment..etc.
The LED is a P-N junction.

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Light is emitted as a result of a higher energy electron in conduction band falling
and recombining with a hole. The excess energy is emitted as light.

Types of Light Emitting Diode

▪ Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) – infra-red
▪ Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) – red to infra-red, orange
▪ Aluminium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (AlGaAsP) – high-
brightness red, orange-red, orange, and yellow
▪ Gallium Phosphide (GaP) – red, yellow and green
▪ Aluminium Gallium Phosphide (AlGaP) – green

3) Varactor Diodes

A varactor diode is a diode whose internal capacitance varies with the

variation of the reverse voltage. The varactor diode always works in reverse
bias, and it is a voltage-dependent semiconductor device.
Varactor diodes are used in generating high radio frequencies necessary for
tuning in TVs and Radios.

4) Schottky Diodes

Schottky diodes are used for their low turn-on voltage, fast
recovery time and low-loss energy at higher frequencies.
These characteristics make Schottky diodes capable of rectifying a

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 current by facilitating a quick transition from conducting to blocking
state.

Testing Diodes
Any slight damage in the internal structure of the diode, causes it to cease
functioning according to its normal characteristics. In most cases the diode
will develop a short circuit. On rare occasions the diode develops open
circuit, a condition when no current flows through it.
The test for a diode is to view its forward bias or reverse bias voltages
using digital multimeter.
Set the Selector Switch to “Diode” position
With the meter +ve probe connected to anode and -ve probe to the
cathode, observe the reading: ………reads from 0.4 to 0,8 V

Next interchange the probes; +ve probe to connect to cathode and -ve
probe to connect to anode, observe the reading………reads “open”
The above readings indicate a functioning diode, BUT,
If the diode reads 0V or “open” on both positions of the meter probes, then
it is damaged.

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ZENER DIODES
Zener diodes are special types of diodes that are operated in the reverse
mode. They are used in regulating power supply voltage to a constant level
regardless of changes in input voltages.

Symbol

Zener diodes are heavily doped to allow reverse breakdown voltage to

occur at low voltages (1.8 – 240V). The reverse voltage breakdown in
zeners is referred to as Zener voltage. When the Zener voltage is reached
the voltage across the Zener diode will remail constant. Small voltage
increase will simply lead to greatly increased current. This is illustrated in
the diagram below.

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Zener Effect
This effect occurs under the electric field force which is enough to
accelerate the electrons towards the positive polarity of the voltage applied
the accelerated electron collides with many electrons which also accelerate
releasing more electrons like avalanche.
Zener Diode Characteristics Curve
IF

Vz

VR Izmin
VF
△Iz
IZT

△Vz

IZmax
Zener Internal Resistance
IZT – current test point
Zener has a dynamic internal resistance given by: IZmin – minimum current for
Rz = △Vz Zener effect to show
△Iz
IZmax -maximum current allowed
Rz is commonly 10Ω

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Practice Exercises

Exercise 1
Determine the minimum and maximum input voltages that can be regulated
by the Zener diode. Given: IZmin = 1mA, IZmax = 15mA, IZT = 8mA, Rz = 10Ω,
Vz = 5.1V and R = 560Ω, VIN = variable.
R
VOUT VOUT = Vz
VOUTmax = Vz + △Vz
VIN Dz VOUTmin = Vz - △Vz
△Vz = △IzRz
VIN – IR – VOUT = 0
VINmin = IzminR + VOUTmin
VOUTmav = IzmaxR + VOUTmax

Exercise 2
If it is desired that VIN = 20V should be the maximum limit input voltage in
Exercise 1, determine the value of R to be inserted.

Exercise 3
Consider the zener-diode voltage regulator shown below.
+15 V

Vout

Design the circuit to drive a load resistance RL connected at VOUT.

a) What is the voltage at Vout?
b) If R = 1 kΩ, what is the smallest RL that the circuit can handle without
“sagging” the output voltage?
c) What should be the power rating of the resistor R?

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3.5 Transistor Amplifiers

3.5.1 Classes of Amplifiers
Amplifiers are divided into classes according to their operating characteristics. The
classification of amplifiers ranges from entirely linear operation (for use in high-
fidelity signal amplification) with very low efficiency, to entirely non-linear (where a
faithful signal reproduction is not so important) operation but with a much higher
efficiency, while others are a compromise between the two.
Generally, large signal or power amplifiers are used in the output stages of audio
amplifier systems to drive a loudspeaker load. A typical loudspeaker has an
impedance of between 4Ω and 8Ω, thus a power amplifier must be able to supply
the high peak currents required to drive the low impedance speaker.
Amplifier classes are basically divided into three groups... i.e. Class A, Class B
and Class C.
The recent classes of amplifiers are the “switching” amplifier classes of D, E, F, G,
S, T ...etc, which are digital circuits which is pulse width modulation (PWM).

3.5.2 Class A Amplifier

Class A amplifiers are biased so that they conduct throughout regardless of
whether input signal is present or not. Hence, the amplifier conducts through 360o
of the input signal.

Class A amplifier
In order for class A amplifiers to conduct through 360o its Q-point must be chosen
to lie in the centre of the linear region as illustrated below.

a) Efficiency of Class A Amplifiers

They are less efficient because they conduct even in the absence of input signals.
Their efficiency ranges between 25 – 30%.

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b) Application of Class A amplifiers

Class A amplifiers are used where small signals with low power have to be
faithfully amplified without any distortion. These signals may be audio input
signals to amplifier ... for example; microphone output, DVD player, guitar…etc.

Q-point of Class A amplifiers

3.5.3 The Class B amplifiers

Class B amplifiers conduct for 180o of the 360o input signal.

Class B amplifier

a) Efficiency of Class A Amplifiers

They are more efficient because they conduct only for the positive cycles of the
input signal. Their efficiency is around 60%.

b) Application of Class B amplifiers

Class B amplifiers are used in power amplifiers like the audio output stage to drive
the loud speakers.
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Class B amplifier consists of two complimentary pair transistors of NPN and PNP
in a push-pull circuit. Complementary transistors have the same characteristics
but different polarities of PNP and NPN. Each transistor amplifier conducts in turn;
the NPN conducts the positive half cycle then followed by the PNP conducting the
negative half cycle, an action referred to as “push-pull” operation.

The push-pull circuit diagram of complementary pair transistors is shown

below. The dc base bias current is zero. The Q-point is chosen as illustrated in
the diagrams below
Q-Point of Class B amplifiers

When the input signal goes positive, it biases the NPN transistor to conduction
while the PNP is reverse biased and the transistor is switched “OFF”. Likewise,
when the input signal goes negative, the positive transistor switches “OFF” while
the negative biased transistor turns “ON” and conducts the negative portion of the
signal.
This push-pull design of amplifier is more efficient than Class A. In the absence of
input signal, the amplifier does not conduct, hence, power is wasted.

c) Cross-Over Distortion
Class B amplifier design can create distortion at the zero-crossing points due to
the delay of the input signal rising to 0.7V and when the signal is falling below
0.7V. This is illustrated in the diagram below.
The waveform due to the transistors’ dead band of input base voltages are from
-0.7V to +0.7V.
Because of this distortion class AB amplifiers are used instead of class B.

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Cross-over distortion

3.5.4 Class AB Amplifier

Class AB Amplifier is a combination of the “Class A” and the “Class B” amplifier.
This class of amplifier solves the problem of cross-over distortion. Some small
bias current is provided to aid the signal to start conducting immediately when an
input signal appears, hence eliminating cross-over distortion.
Class AB amplifierss are currently one of the most commonly used types of audio
power output amplifier design.

Class AB Amplifier

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Small bias voltage is provided by series diodes or resistors, to eliminate the

crossover distortion created by class B amplifier.
Class AB Amplifier Efficiency
Class AB amplifier is a good compromise between class A and class B in terms of
efficiency and linearity, with conversion efficiencies reaching about 50% to 60%.

3.5.5 Class C Amplifier

The Class C Amplifier design has the greatest efficiency but the poorest linearity
of the classes of amplifiers mentioned here.
The conduction angle for the transistor is significantly less than 180 degrees, and
is generally around the 90 degrees area.
While this form of transistor biasing gives a much-improved efficiency of around
80% to the amplifier, it introduces a very heavy distortion of the output signal.
Therefore, class C amplifiers are not suitable for use as audio amplifiers.

Class C Amplifier Q-point

Due to its heavy audio distortion, class C amplifiers are commonly used in high
frequency sine wave oscillators and certain types of radio frequency amplifiers,
where the pulses of current produced at the amplifiers output can be converted to
complete sine waves of a particular frequency by the use of LC resonant circuits
in its collector circuit.

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3.6 Transistor Biasing

Transistor Biasing is the process of setting a transistor’s DC operating voltage or

current conditions at the correct level so that any AC input signal can be amplified
correctly by the transistor. There are four biasing methods; Base Bias, Emitter
Bias, Voltage Divider Bias and Collector Feedback Bias.

3.6.1 Base Bias

Establishing the correct operating point requires the selection of bias resistors and
load resistors to provide the appropriate input current and collector voltage
conditions. The correct biasing point for a bipolar transistor, either NPN or PNP,
generally lies somewhere between the two extremes of operation with respect to it
being either “fully-ON” or “fully-OFF” along its DC load line. This central operating
point is called the “Quiescent Operating Point”, or Q-point in short.

VCC – IBRB – VBE = 0

IB = VCC – VBE
RB
IC = ꞵdcIB
Collector current depends on ꞵdc

When a bipolar transistor is biased so that its Q-point lies near the middle of its
operating range, that is approximately halfway between cut-off and saturation,
it is said to be operating as a Class-A amplifier. This mode of operation allows
the output voltage to increase and decrease around the amplifiers Q-point
without distortion as the input signal swings through one complete cycle. In
other words, the output is available for the full 360o of the input cycle.

Instability of Base Bias method

The Q-point is defined by a pair of values ICQ and VCEQ. Beta dc increases with
temperature rise changing the Q-point leading to instability of amplifier. In the
equation for IC in the base bias we see that it depends on beta.
IB = VCC – VBE ……………………………….…. (i)
RB

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IC = ꞵdc IB …………………………………….…..(ii)
VCE = VCC - ICRC …………………………………………(iii)
VCE = VCC - ꞵdcIBRC ……………………………………(iv)

3.6.2 Collector Feedback Bias

This self biasing collector feedback configuration is a negative feedback that

provides a relatively stable Q-point by reducing the effect of variations in ꞵdc.
In this circuit, the base bias resistor, RB is connected to the transistor’s
collector C, instead of the supply voltage rail, Vcc. Now if the collector current
increases due to temperature rise (effect of ꞵ), more voltage drops occurs
across RC lowering VC resulting in reduced base drive current and thereby
automatically reducing the collector current to keep the transistor’s Q-point
fixed. Therefore this method of collector feedback biasing produces negative
feedback round the transistor as there is a direct feedback from the output
terminal to the input terminal via resistor, RB.
IB = VC – VBE ………………………………………………………(i)
RB
VCC – IC RC – IC RB – VBE = 0 …………………………..…………….(ii)
ꞵdc
IB = IC ……..……….………………………………………………(iii)
ꞵdc
IC (RC + RB/ꞵdc ) = VCC - VBE ………………….……………………..(iv)

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IC = VCC - VBE
(RC + RB/ꞵdc)

The term RB/ꞵdc is very negligible, therefore we can conclude that IC does
not depend on beta and the configuration of collector feedback is stable.

3.6.3 Transistor Biasing with Emitter Feedback

This biasing method uses both emitter and base-collector feedback to stabilize
the collector current even further. This is because resistors RB1 and RE as well as
the base-emitter junction of the transistor are all effectively connected in series
with the supply voltage, VCC.
The current flowing from the emitter, IE (which is a combination of IC + IB) causes
a voltage drop to appear across RE in such a direction, that it reverse biases the
base-emitter junction.
So if the emitter current increases, due to an increase in collector current,
voltage drop IERE also increases to oppose VBE reducing it with subsequent
reduction in base current and collector current to maintain original value.
Generally, resistor values are set so that the voltage dropped across the emitter
resistor RE is approximately 10% of VCC and the current flowing through
resistor RB1 is 10% of the collector current IC.
Thus this type of transistor biasing configuration works best at relatively low
power supply voltages.

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3.6.4 Potential Divider Bias

The potential divider employs R1 and R2 to set the voltage at the base, VBB.
The circuit can be reduced to its equivalent below. From Kirchoff’s law the loop
equation can be written and the Ic current can be determined.

Potential divider bias circuit diagram Equivalent circuit diagram

VBB is voltage divided at the base of the transistor.
VBB = R1 VCC
R1 + R 2
RB = R1 R2
R1 + R 2
VBB - IBRB – VBE – IERE = 0
IE = IB + IC
IE = IB + ꞵIB = IB(1 + ꞵ)
VBB - IBRB – VBE – IB(1 + ꞵ)RE = 0
VBB – VBE = IBRB + IB(1 + ꞵ)RE
IB = VBB – VBE
RB + (1 + ꞵ)RE
IE ≈ IC = ꞵ IB = VBB – VBE
RB/ꞵ + RE
In Conclusion
RB/ꞵ << RE. IC is not dependent on ꞵdc in the potential divider bias.

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3.7 Transistor AC Equivalent Circuits

In order to better visualize the operation of a transistor in an amplifier circuit, it

is often useful to represent the device by an equivalent circuit.
An equivalent circuit uses various internal parameters to present the
transistor’s operation. The H-parameters and R-parameters are the most
commonly used for transistor amplifiers.

3.7.1 H-Parameters
H-parameters are Hybrid parameters. They are called hybrid because they
have mixed units.

i1 Two-port i2 C
v1 Circuit v2 B
Vbe Vce
E

The bipolar transistor is a device with low-input impedance but high output
impedance. It is more convenient to model its operations using the system’s
hybrid or h-parameters described by the two equations.

v1 = h11i1 + h12v2
i2 = h21i1 + h22v2

where:
v1 = input voltage
v2 = output voltage
i1 = ib
i2 = ic

h11= hi: is the input impedance (Ω)

h12 =hr: is the reverse voltage gain (no units)
h21 = hf: is the forward current gain (no units)
h22 = ho: is the output conductance (siemens)

hi, hr, hf and ho are known as h-parameters. The parameters have mixed units
of Ωs, no units and siemens.

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In the Common Emitter configuration the parameters are:

h11 = hie, h12 = hre, h21 = hfe, h22 = hoe

1) hie = vbe /vc =0

ib
2) hre = vbe /ib =0
vce
3) hfe = ic /vc =0
ib
4) hoe = ic /ib =0
vce

Bipolar Transistor H-Parameter Equivalent Circuit (Common Emitter)

3.8 Small Signal Amplifier

Small signal amplifiers are very useful in amplifying low level weak signals. They
amplify and reproduce the same signal waveform of the original signal. The input
signal has to be transferred from source to amplifier input and the output signal
has to be transferred to the next stage. A typical small signal amplifier circuit
diagram is shown below.

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3.8.1 Amplifier Coupling Capacitors

In Common Emitter Amplifier circuits, capacitors C1 and C2 are used as Coupling
Capacitors to separate the ac signals from the DC biasing voltage. This ensures
that the bias condition set up for the circuit to operate correctly is not affected by
any additional amplifier stages, as the capacitors will only pass ac signals and
block any DC component. The output ac signal is then superimposed on the
biasing of the following stages. Also a bypass capacitor, CE is included in the
Emitter leg circuit.
This capacitor is effectively an open circuit component for DC biasing conditions,
which means that the biasing currents and voltages are not affected by the
addition of the capacitor maintaining a good Q-point stability.
However, this parallel connected bypass capacitor effectively becomes a short
circuit to the Emitter resistor at high frequency signals due to its reactance. Thus
only RL plus a very small internal resistance acts as the transistors load increasing
voltage gain to its maximum. Generally, the value of the bypass capacitor, CE is
chosen to provide a reactance of at most, 1/10th the value of RE at the lowest
operating signal frequency.

3.8.2 Multi-stage Amplifiers

Several amplifiers can be connected in a cascaded arrangement with the output of
one amplifier driving the input of the next. Each amplifier in the cascaded
arrangement is known as a stage. The purpose of the multistage arrangement is
to increase the overall gain.

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Multi-stage amplifier
Assume an amplifier with 4 stages and each has amplification of A1, A2, A3 and
A4. The Overall gai of the amplifier is given by:
Av’ = Av1*Av2*Av3……*Avn
Decibel Voltage Gain
Av (dB) = 20Log Av
Log Av’ = Log Av1 + Log Av2 + Log Av3 + …..+ Log Avn
Note
The Overall gain is less than the product of each stage because of the reduced
gain of the stages when they are connected. As the gain is given by not

3.8.3 Coupling Stages

Connecting one amplifier stage to the next is known as coupling. Coupling may be
done using RC, or direct connection, or transformer connection.
The resistance-capacitance coupling is, in short termed as RC coupling. This is the
mostly used coupling technique in amplifiers.

3.8.4 Construction of a Two-stage RC Coupled Amplifier

The constructional details of a two-stage RC coupled transistor amplifier circuit are

as follows. The two stage amplifier circuit has two transistors, connected in CE
configuration and a common power supply VCC is used. The potential divider
network R1 and R2 and the resistor RE form the biasing and stabilization network.
The emitter by-pass capacitor CE offers a low reactance path to the signal.
The resistor RL is used as a load impedance. The input capacitor Cin present at the
initial stage of the amplifier couples AC signal to the base of the transistor. The
capacitor CC is the coupling capacitor that connects the two stages and prevents
DC interference between the stages and controls the shift of operating point. The
figure below shows the circuit diagram of RC coupled amplifier.

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3.8.5 Operation of RC Coupled Amplifier

When an AC input signal is applied to the base of first transistor, it gets amplified
and appears at the collector load RL which is then passed through the coupling
capacitor CC to the next stage. This becomes the input of the next stage, whose
amplified output again appears across its collector load. Thus the signal is
amplified in stage by stage action.
The important point that has to be noted here is that the total gain is less than the
product of the gains of individual stages. This is because when a second stage is
connected to the first stage, the effective load resistance of the first stage is
reduced due to the shunting effect of the input resistance of the second stage.
Hence, in a multistage amplifier, only the gain of the last stage remains unchanged.
As we consider a two stage amplifier here, the output phase is same as input.
Because the phase reversal is done two times by the two stage CE configured
amplifier circuit.

3.8.6 Frequency Response of RC Coupled Amplifier

Frequency response curve is a graph that indicates the relationship between

voltage gain and function of frequency. The frequency response of a RC coupled
amplifier is as shown in the following graph.

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From the above graph, it is understood that the frequency rolls off or decreases
from below 50Hz and for the frequencies above 20 KHz. whereas the voltage gain
for the range of frequencies between 50Hz and 20 KHz is constant.
We know that,
XC = 1
2πfC
It means that the capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency.

At Low frequencies (below 50 Hz)

The capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency. At low

frequencies, the reactance is quite high. The reactance of input capacitor Cin and
the coupling capacitor CC are so high that only small part of the input signal is
allowed. The reactance of the emitter by pass capacitor CE is also very high during
low frequencies. Hence it cannot shunt the emitter resistance effectively. With all
these factors, the voltage gain rolls off at low frequencies.

At High frequencies (above 20 KHz)

Again considering the same point, we know that the capacitive reactance is low at
high frequencies. So, a capacitor behaves as a short circuit, at high frequencies.
As a result of this, the loading effect of the next stage increases, which reduces
the voltage gain. Along with this, as the capacitance of emitter diode decreases, it
increases the base current of the transistor due to which the current gain (β)
reduces. Hence the voltage gain rolls off at high frequencies.

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At Mid-frequencies (50 Hz to 20 KHz)

The voltage gain of the capacitors is maintained constant in this range of

frequencies, as shown in figure. If the frequency increases, the reactance of the
capacitor CC decreases which tends to increase the gain. But this lower
capacitance reactive increases the loading effect of the next stage by which there
is a reduction in gain.
Due to these two factors, the gain is maintained constant.

3.8.7 Advantages of RC Coupled Amplifier

The following are the advantages of RC coupled amplifier.

• The frequency response of RC amplifier provides constant gain over a wide
frequency range, hence most suitable for audio applications.
• The circuit is simple and has lower cost because it employs resistors and
capacitors which are cheap.
• It becomes more compact with the upgrading technology.

3.8.8 Disadvantages of RC Coupled Amplifier

The following are the disadvantages of RC coupled amplifier.

• The voltage and power gain are low because of the effective load resistance.
• They become noisy with age.
• Due to poor impedance matching, power transfer will be low.

3.8.9 Applications of RC Coupled Amplifier

The following are the applications of RC coupled amplifier.

• They have excellent audio fidelity over a wide range of frequency.
• Widely used as Voltage amplifiers
• Due to poor impedance matching, RC coupling is rarely used in the final
stages.

3.9. Direct Coupled Amplifier

As no coupling devices are used, the coupling of the amplifier stages is done
directly and hence called as Direct coupled amplifier.

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3.9.1 Construction

The figure below indicates the three stage direct coupled transistor amplifier. The
output of first stage transistor T1 is connected to the input of second stage
transistor T2.

The transistor in the first stage will be an NPN transistor, while the transistor in the
next stage will be a PNP transistor and so on. This is because, the variations in
one transistor tend to cancel the variations in the other. The rise in the collector
current and the variation in β of one transistor gets cancelled by the decrease in
the other.

3.9.2 Operation

The input signal when applied at the base of transistor T1, it gets amplified due to
the transistor action and the amplified output appears at the collector resistor Rc of
transistor T1. This output is applied to the base of transistor T2 which further
amplifies the signal. In this way, a signal is amplified in a direct coupled amplifier
circuit.

Advantages

The advantages of direct coupled amplifier are as follows.

• The circuit arrangement is simple because of minimum use of resistors.

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• The circuit is of low cost because of the absence of expensive coupling

devices.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of direct coupled amplifier are as follows.

• It cannot be used for amplifying high frequencies.

• The operating point is shifted due to temperature variations.

Applications

The applications of direct coupled amplifier are as follows.

• Low frequency amplifications.

• Low current amplifications.

Transformer Direct
S.No Particular RC Coupling
Coupling Coupling

Frequency Excellent in audio

1 Poor Best
response frequency range

2 Cost Less More Least

Space and
3 Less More Least
Weight

Impedance
4 Not good Excellent Good
matching

For amplifying
For voltage For Power
5 Use extremely low
amplification amplification
frequencies

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3.10 Negative Feedback

Negative feedback in an amplifier is the method of feeding a portion of the amplified
output to the input in opposite phase. The phase opposition occurs as the
amplifier provides 180o phase shift.
There are two main types of negative feedback circuits. They are −
• Negative Voltage Feedback
• Negative Current Feedback
Negative Voltage Feedback
In this method, the voltage feedback to the input of amplifier is proportional to the
output voltage. This is further classified into two types −
• Voltage-series feedback
• Voltage-shunt feedback
Negative Current Feedback
In this method, the voltage feedback to the input of amplifier is proportional to the
output current. This is further classified into two types.
• Current-series feedback
• Current-shunt feedback
3.10.1 Voltage-Series Feedback
In the voltage series feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in
series with the input voltage through the feedback circuit. This is also known
as shunt-driven series-fed feedback, i.e., a parallel-series circuit.

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As the feedback circuit is connected in shunt with the output, the output impedance is
decreased and due to the series connection with the input, the input impedance is
increased.

3.10.2 Voltage-Shunt Feedback

In the voltage shunt feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in parallel
with the input voltage through the feedback network. This is also known as shunt-driven
shunt-fed feedback i.e., a parallel-parallel proto type.
The below figure shows the block diagram of voltage shunt feedback, by which it is evident
that the feedback circuit is placed in shunt with the output and also with the input.

As the feedback circuit is connected in shunt with the output and the input as well, both
the output impedance and the input impedance are decreased.

3.10.3 Current-Series Feedback

In the current series feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in series
with the input voltage through the feedback circuit. This is also known as series-driven
series-fed feedback i.e., a series-series circuit.
The following figure shows the block diagram of current series feedback, by which it is
evident that the feedback circuit is placed in series with the output and also with the input.

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As the feedback circuit is connected in series with the output and the input as well, both
the output impedance and the input impedance are increased.

3.10.4 Current-Shunt Feedback

In the current shunt feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in series
with the input voltage through the feedback circuit. This is also known as series-driven
shunt-fed feedback i.e., a series-parallel circuit.
The below figure shows the block diagram of current shunt feedback, by which it is evident
that the feedback circuit is placed in series with the output but in parallel with the input.

As the feedback circuit is connected in series with the output, the output impedance
is increased and due to the parallel connection with the input, the input impedance
is decreased.

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Table of the effects of the different types of negative feedbacks.

Types of Feedback
Characteristics
Voltage- Voltage- Current- Current-
Series Shunt Series Shunt

Voltage Gain Decreases Decreases Decreases Decreases

Bandwidth Increases Increases Increases Increases

Input resistance Increases Decreases Increases Decreases

Output resistance Decreases Decreases Increases Increases

Harmonic distortion Decreases Decreases Decreases Decreases

Noise Decreases Decreases Decreases Decreases

22
 CHAPTER THREE
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS (BJT)

Introduction
The invention of the transistor by the Bell Lab in the US in 1948 changed the world. The
transistor would eventually replace the vacuum tube. The transistor, being small and
light has many advantages over the vacuum tube which was heavy and expensive.
BJT Transistors are solid-state, three terminal active devices made from semiconductor
materials.

Types of Transistors:
Based on their construction transistors may be grouped into:
(i) The Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
(ii) Field Effect Transistors (FET and MOSFET)

The BJT has two PN junctions and operates with two charge carriers which are
electrons and holes. The FET operates with only one charge carrier, electrons or holes.

Application of Transistors
Transistors are mainly used in two areas:
(i) Amplifiers for Audio and Radio Frequencies
(ii) Switching In Digital Systems Like Telephony and Electronics Control Systems
Transistors handle different types of signals and power. They are categorized basically
into three categories based on power handling capabilities:
(i) Small Signal (Low Power) Transistors
(ii) Medium Power Transistors
(iii) Power Transistors

Examples of some popular transistors are captured below:

(iv) signal transistor
A small
Medium signal transistor Power transistor
(v)
(vi) BD238 PNP Bipolar
(vii) Medium
(viii)
(ix)
(x)

2N2222 Low Power 2SC5200 - High Power NPN

Bipolar Transistor ...

MOSFET

1
Types of Bipolar Junction Transistors
There are two basic types of bipolar transistor construction, NPN and PNP, which
basically describes the physical arrangement of the P-type and N-type semiconductor
materials from which they are made.

The arrows in the circuit symbol show the direction of "conventional current flow"
between the base terminal and its emitter terminal.

Symbols
The symbols of the PNP and NPN transistors are indicated below. The arrow indicates
the Emitter. The arrow points into the transistor in the PNP and points out of the
transistor in the NPN type.

PNP NPN

Construction of the BJT

The BJT transistor consists of three terminals, which are connected to the doped
regions. They are:
(i) Emitter (E)
(ii) Base (B)
(iii) Collector

The base is sandwiched between

the Emitter and Collector as seen
in the diagram

Emitter region is heavily doped to

provide more conducting charges which are electrons in NPN-type, or holes in PNP-
type transistors.

The Base is made very thin and lightly doped to reduce the probability of recombination
of holes and electrons. The few electrons that recombine with holes in the base region
constitute base current. Base current formed is very small (tens of µA).

The Collector is moderately doped.

PNP Type Transistor

A wire is connected to the p-type emitter region which is heavily doped conducting
charges of holes. The Base terminal is connected to the middle region which is lightly
doped n-type. The collector wire is connected to the other end which is p-type

2
Operation of the BJT Transistor (How the transistor works)

The NPN transistor will be described. The other type, PNP, also works under the same
principle except that holes are the charge carriers, and the polarity of the applied
voltage in the amplifier circuit is reversed. NPN types are more popularly used than
PNP transistors.

For the transistor to work, it must be correctly biased with external voltage source. The
Emitter-Base junction must be forward biased, and the Base-Collector junction reverse
biased. When the Emitter-Base junction is forward biased electrons from the Emitter
cross the junction into the Base (Electrons from the emitter constitute the Emitter
current) Only few electrons recombine to produce Base Current. Though the Base-
Collector junction is reverse bias the strong electric field of the Collector voltage (VCC)
attract the rest of the electrons to diffuse into the Collector region to constitute the
Collector Current.

Transistor Currents and their Relationship

Transistor currents are:
(i) Emitter current (IE)
(ii) Base current (IB)
(iii) Collector current (IC)

Beta DC is the ratio of Collector current to Base current:

ꞵdc = IC
IB
The Beta dc is also known as the Current Gain of the transistor.

Alpha DC is the ratio of Collector current to Emitter current.

αdc = IC
IE

Emitter current is the sum of Base and Collector currents

IE = IB + IC
/IC : 1 = 1 + 1
αdc ꞵdc
= 1 + ꞵdc
ꞵdc

αdc = ꞵdc
1 + ꞵdc

3
 Simple Bias Arrangement for the Transistor Amplifier
To better understand how bias is applied, two voltage sources are shown in the circuit
below. One voltage source is VBB which Forward biases the Base-Emitter junction. The
other voltage source is VCC which Reverse biases the Collector-Base junction.
VCC
RC

IC VBB: To forward bias VBE

IB RB VCC: To reverse bias VCB
RB: Sets the required Base Current
VBB IE RC: Sets the Collector Current

VBB – IB RB – VBE = 0 (Kirchhoff’s law)

IB = VBB - VBE
RB
Similarly:
IC = VCC - VCE
RC

Transistor Voltages:

VCC: Collector Supply voltage

VCE: Collector-Emitter voltage
VBE: Base-Emitter voltage
VCB: Collector-Base voltage

Transistor Characteristics
1) Input Characteristics of a Transistor
The input characteristics of a transistor describes the input voltage (VB) and input
current (IB) when the output voltage VCE is held constant.

4
 IB
VCE1 VCE2 (VCE = const)

VCE2 > VCE1

Rin = VBE
IB

Rin is the input resistance

VBE

Input Characteristics for CE Configuration

2) Output Characteristics of a Transistor

The common emitter’s output characteristic is obtained between the output
voltage VCE and output current IC when the input current IB is constant. We
can examine the values of collector IC at each point of VCE while keeping
the base current IB constant, and varying the output voltage VCE. The
various points of VCE corresponding to collector currents at various points of
the VCE values are recorded.

Rc mA

RB
VCE VCC

uA

Circuit Diagram to Determine the Collector Characteristic Curve

The Output characteristic (also may be referred to as Collector

characteristic) curve; IC vs VCE is plotted and drawn as shown in the
diagram below.

5
The Output characteristics of the common emitter configuration graph is
plotted IC vs VCE, At a constant IB
Saturation
IC IB4
(mA)
IB3
60
Linear Region
IB2
40
IB1
20

IBo
VCE
Cut-off

The Regions of the Graph

In the Saturation region, both PN junctions are forward bias, therefore the
collector current rises very fast even with very low VCE At the knee of the
curve the Collector-Base junction becomes reverse bias and the collector
current does not increase much even if the VCE voltage is ceased. This is
the Linear region, where the collector current is directly proportional to the
base current.

In the Cut-off region, no current flows in the transistor, the transistor is off.

Operation of Amplifiers in the Characteristic regions

Saturation Region
The transistor conducts as a switch. There is no relationship between IB
and IC currents. Collector current becomes saturation current ICsat.

ICsat ≠ ꞵ IB
In Saturation VCE = 0.
ICsat = VCC The transistor operates as a
RC
SWITCH

6
DC Load line
The DC load line enables us to see the values of collector current and
voltage values in the transistor when it is biased to conduct in the
absence of a signal applied at its input.

The load line is a line connecting two points; Vcc/Rc and Vcc.

Ic (mA)

ICsat=Vcc/Rc

Load line

0 VCC VCE

Quiescent Point
The Quiescent point, or Q-point is the DC operating point of a transistor
amplifier. It is a point given by (Vce,Ic) value on the load line.

Exercise
Refer to the circuit below. If Rc =200, RB =10K, ꞵdc = 150, VBB = 3V and
VCC = 10V. Determine the Q-point.

IB = VBB - VBE
Rc mA RB
= 230uA
RB Ic = ꞵIB = 34.5mA
VCC VCE = VCC - IC RC
= 10 - 6.9V
VBB Q-point: IcQ = 34.5mA,
VCEQ = 3.1V

7
 IC(mA) ICsat = Vcc/Rc = 50mA

50 Vcut-off = Vcc = 10V

ICQ=34.5 Q-point
25

VCEQ 10V VCE

Load line for the Exercise above

Graphical Analysis of ac signal amplified in a Transistor

Basic Transistor Amplifier Circuit

The most widely used transistor amplifier circuit configuration is the common emitter
due to its flexible characteristics as seen before. The practical transistor amplifier circuit
does not employ two power supplies, but uses a single power supply. The circuit,
therefore consists of:
1) Biasing arrangement using resistors
2) Coupling signals from one stage to another using capacitors
3) Blocking DC from one stage to another using capacitor

8
 4) Decoupling arrangement using resistor and capacitor
5) Emitter Bypass using capacitor

A typical common emitter amplifier is given in the diagram below:

A small ac signal is applied at the base input of the transistor, it is amplified and
appears at the output in the collector circuit. The output signal is amplified and inverted

Common Emitter Amplifier configuration

This common emitter amplifier configuration, using an NPN transistor has many
applications but is commonly used in audio circuits such as pre-amplifier and power
amplifier stages.

1) Biasing arrangement using resistors

𝐑𝟐
Base voltage = VCC
𝐑𝟏+𝐑𝟐

The base voltage must be set above the emitter by 0.7V

2) Coupling signals from one stage to another using capacitors C1

3) Blocking DC from one stage to another using capacitor

C1 does both coupling and blocking

4) Emitter Bypass using capacitor

C2 provides the path for the ac signal being amplified so that the ac variations
does not affect emitter voltage.

5) RE is emitter current stabilizer, it maintains the emitter voltage constant incase

emitter current tends to increase due to instability from thermal changes in the
transistor. This will increase slightly the emitter voltage which again will
subsequently increase the emitter voltage to reduce the VBE. When VBE is
reduced the emitter current also will reduce, restoring the initial current.

9
Application of Transistor Amplifiers
(i) Transistors are used in Audio Amplifiers
(ii) Transistors are used in Radio frequency Amplifiers
(iii) Transistors are used as Oscillators
(iv) Transistors are used as Switches in switching circuits

Transistor Switch
Transistor operates, or conducts in saturation mode. In saturation mode VCE voltage is
equal to 0.2V. This means that the voltage drop across the transistor (VCE) is negligible,
or can be assumed to be 0V. Collector current has no relationship with the base current.

VCC Given:

Rc Rc =2K, RB =10K, ꞵdc = 150,

VBB = 3V and VCC = 10V.
RB Determine whether the
transistor is conducting in
VBB
saturat ion or linear mode.
ICsat = VCC/RC= 10/2K = 5mA
ICln = ꞵdcIB=150x230uA=34.5mA
ICsat < ICln
Therefore transistor is in
SATURATION

Bipolar Transistor Amplifier Configurations

As the Bipolar Transistor is a three terminal device, there are basically three possible
ways to connect it within an electronic circuit with one terminal being common to both
the input and output. Transistor configurations are:

(i) Common Emitter Configuration - has both Current and Voltage Gain.
(ii) Common Base Configuration - has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.
(iii) Common Collector Configuration - has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.

The Common Emitter Configuration.

This is the most used configuration. The transistor amplifier is biased using resistors to
set suitable DC "biasing" voltage at the transistor’s Base terminal thus allowing it to
operate.

10
 Circuit diagram of the Common Emitter Amplifier

The Common Base (CB) Configuration

In the Common Base, the BASE connection is common (ground) to both the input
signal and the output signal, with the input signal being applied between the base and
the emitter terminals.

Circuit diagram of the Common Base Amplifier

The corresponding output signal is taken from between the base and the collector
terminals as shown with the base terminal grounded or connected to a fixed reference
voltage point.

The Common Collector Transistor Circuit

In the Common Collector, the COLLCTOR connection is common (ground) to both the
input signal and the output signal, with the input signal being applied between the base
and the emitter and the output is taken from the collector and emitter terminals.

Circuit diagram of the Common Collector Amplifier

11
Thus the collector terminal is common to both the input and output circuits.
because the collector terminal is effectively “grounded” or “earthed” through
the power supply.
In many ways the common collector (CC) configuration is the opposite of the
common emitter (CE) configuration, as the connected load resistor is moved
from the usual collector terminal, labelled RC, to the emitter terminal where its
is labelled RE.

Characteristics of the Transistor Amplifier Configurations

Characteristic Common Base Common Emitter Common

Collector
Input Impedance Low Medium High
Output Impedance Very High High Low
Phase Angle 0o 180o 0o
Voltage Gain High Medium Low
Current Gain Low Medium High
Power Gain Low Very High Medium

12
 CHAPTER FIVE

Field Effect Transistors (FET)

5.0 Introduction

The field-Effect Transistor (FET)

The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a current-controlled device; that is,

the base current controls the amount of collector current.
A field-effect transistor (FET) is a voltage-controlled device in which the
voltage at the gate terminal controls the amount of current through the
device. Also, compared to the BJT, the FET has a very high input
resistance, which makes it superior in certain applications
The two major types of FETs are the junction field-effect transistor (JFET)
and the metal oxide (MOSFET)
5.1 The Junction Field-Effect Transistor (JFET)
• The JFET operates with a reverse biased junction to control current in
the channel.
• JFETs fall into two categories: N-channel or P-channel.
• Only one type of charge carrier (electrons/holes) flows in each type.
Basic Structure of JFETs

1
N-Channel
• On each end of a block of N-type material two lead wires are
connected
• One lead is the Source and the other is the Drain
• A P-type region is diffused all round in the N-type material to form an
N-channel as seen in the figure above.
• A wire lead is connected to the P-type which forms the Gate lead.
P-Channel
Formation of P-Channel is similar to the N-channel above as seen in the
diagram above

Basic Operation

• VDD is the positive terminal of the voltage applied on the Drain. It

attracts electrons towards the Drain terminal.
• VGG sets the reverse-biased voltage between the Gate and the Source
• Depletion region is created at the boundary of the pn junction
• This depletion region is wider toward the drain end of the channel
(white area) because the reverse-biased voltage between the Gate
and the Drain is greater than that between the Gate and the Source.

Depletion layer

• Reverse biasing of the gate-source junction with a negative gate

voltage produces a depletion region in the N channel, making the
channel narrower for charge carriers to pass.The channel width, is

2
 controlled by varying the gate voltage, and hence controlling the drain
current, ID.

JFET Symbols

5.2 FET Characteristics

The characteristics of the JFET is shown in the graph below. The graphs are
drawn for different values of control voltage VGS.

In the diagram the control voltage is set to zero, VGS = 0. Then VDD is
gradually increased. The Drain current rises sharply from A to B because
the depletion is not large enough. This is called Ohmic region. At point B the
value of VDS is large enough to create a large depletion due to reverse
Drain-Gate (VGD) voltage. The current is kept constant.

3
Pinch-Off
For VGS = 0, at point B, is the pinch-off voltage, Vp. The current value, IDSS
(Drain -to source current shorted) is the maximum drain current that a
specific JFET can produce. Breakdown occurs at C. Breakdown can result
in irreversible damage to the JFET.

Drain Characteristic Curves

ID
IDSS VGS = 0
VGS = -1V
VGS = - 2V
VGS = - 3V
A VGS(off) = -4V
Vp VDS

Cut-Off
The value of VGS for which ID is reduced to zero is known as Cut-off value.
For an N-channel VGS(off) is negative and for P-channel it is positive.

5.3 JFET Transfer Characteristic

A JFET transfer characteristic curve is nearly parabolic in shape and

therefore can be expressed approximately as:
𝑉𝐺𝑆
ID = IDSS [ 1 - ]2
𝑉𝐺𝑆(𝑜𝑓𝑓)

4
JFET Forward Transconductance
The forward transconductance, gm, is the change in drain current (△ID) for
a given change in Gate-to Source (△VGS) voltage with the Drain-to-Source
voltage constant. It is expressed as the ratio with the unit of siemens.

gm = △ID
△VGS

gmo = 2IDSS
VGS(off)

The transconductance, gm, is also known as transfer characteristics for the

JFET. It is a nonlinear function.
Transconductance Curve
𝑉𝐺𝑆 ID
gm = gmo[1 - ]
𝑉𝐺𝑆(𝑜𝑓𝑓)

△ID2
2 △ID2; gm2 =
△VGS

Example
A JFET data sheet provides the
following information: IDS = 20mA, △ID1
1 △ID1; gm1 =
VGS(off) = -8V, gmo = 4000µS. VGS △VGS
Calculate (i) the forward VGS VGS(off) △VGS △VGS
transconductance for VGS = -4V
(ii) ID at this point.

5
Solution
𝑉𝐺𝑆
gm = gmo[1 - ]
𝑉𝐺𝑆(𝑜𝑓𝑓)
−4
= 4000µS ( 1 - )
−8
= 2000µS

ID at VGS = -4V is calculated as follows:

𝑉𝐺𝑆
ID = IDSS [1 - ]2
𝑉𝐺𝑆(𝑜𝑓𝑓)
−4
= 20mA[1 - ]2
−8
ID = 5mA

5.4 JFET Biasing

The purpose of biasing is to select the proper dc Gate -to-Source voltage to
establish a desired value of Drain current. There are basically two bias
methods we shall consider, self-bias and voltage bias methods.

5.4.1 Self Bias +VDD

For the N-Channel: RD

VDD is positive
VGS is negative VG =0

RG RS
ID
Whereas for P-Channel:
VDD is negative
VGS = VG - VS = 0 - IDRS
VGS is positive
VDS = VD - VS
= VDD – IDRD - IDRS
= VDD – ID(RD + RS)

5.4.2 Voltage Divider Bias

The voltage at the Source of the JFET must be more positive than the
voltage at the Gate in order to keep the Gate-Source junction reverse
biased.

6
 VS = IDRS
𝑅1
VG = ( )VDD
𝑅1+𝑅2

VGS = VG - VS

Practice Exercise
Determine ID and VGS for the JFET with voltage divider bias. Given VDD = 12V, VD = 7V,
R1 = 1M, R2 = 6.8M, RD = 3.3K, RS = 2.7K

Solution
ID = 1.52mA
VDS = 2.56V

5.5 Metal-Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET)

The MOSFET (metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor) is the

second category of FET transistor. A MOSFET has no PN junction structure;
instead, the gate of the MOSFET is insulated from the channel by a silicon
dioxide (SiO2) layer.

The two basic types of MOSFETs are Depletion (D) and Enhancement (E)

Depletion MOSFET (D-MOSFET)

The Drain and Source are diffused into the substrate material and then
connected by a narrow channel adjacent to the insulated gate. Both n-
channel and p-channel devices are shown in the figure below. The n-channel

7
device is described here. The p-channel operation is the same, except for the
voltage polarities which are opposite those of the n-channel device.

The D-MOSFET can be operated in two modes:

1) the depletion mode; OR
2) the enhancement mode

Since the gate is insulated from the channel, either a positive or a negative
gate voltage can be applied.

Depletion Mode Operation

With a negative gate voltage, the negative charges on the gate repel
conduction electrons from the channel, leaving positive ions in their

8
 place.
The n-channel is depleted of some of its electrons, so the channel
conductivity is decreased. The greater the negative voltage on the gate,
the greater the depletion of n-channel electrons.

At VGS(off), the channel is totally depleted and the drain current is zero
VGS(off) is called the gate-source cut-off voltage

D-MOSFET Symbols

N-Channel P-Channel
Drain Drain

Gate Gate

Source
Source

D-MOSFET Transfer Characteristic Curves

D-MOSFET can operate with either positive or negative gate voltages as

indicated in the diagram below.

D-MOSFET Transfer Characteristic Curves

N-Channel ID P-Channel

IDSS IDSS

-VGS VGS(off) 0 0 VGS(off) +VGS

Enhancement Mode Operation

In the Enhancement mode a Positive Gate-to-Source voltage is applied

(VGS is +ve).

With a positive gate voltage, more conduction electrons are attracted into
the channel, thus increasing (enhancing) the channel conductivity.
9
Symbol

EMOSFET Transfer Characteristics

The E-MOSFET uses only channel enhancement. The N-channel device

requires a Positive Source-to- Gate voltage, and a P-channel requires a
Negative voltage at the Gate.

As can be seen in the transfer characteristics, the E-MOS does not have the
IDSS parameter.
N-Channel P-Channel
ID ID

VGS(th) +VGS -VGS VGS(th)

ID = K[VGS - VGS(th)]2
The constant K depends on the particular MOSFET and can be determined
from the data sheet. VGS(th) is threshold voltage, a non-zero value.
Example
The data sheet for a certain E-MOSFET gives ID(on) = 3mA at VGS = 10V and
VGS(on) = 5V. Determine the drain current for VGS = 8V.
K = ID(on)
[VGS - VGS(th) ]2
=

10
 Answer
K = 0.12mA/V2

ID = 1.08mA

N-channel EMOSFET I-V Characteristics

The MOSFET Capacitor

The metal-oxide-semiconductor Capacitor structure is shown in the diagram
below.
MOSFET Capacitor Structure

The metal material may be aluminium or some polycrystalline silicon layer

deposited on the oxide with permittivity ɛox .

11
The substrate is p-type and the metal plate, also known as the Gate is
negative and carries negative charge. Electric field builds up over the
dielectric, silicon oxide. Producing capacitance.
CMOS Inverter
• A p-channel EMOSFET can be used as a load device to form a
Complementary MOS known as CMOS inverter
• The term Complementary implies that both N-MOS and P-MOS are
used in the same circuit

CMOS Inverter
Voltage Transfer Characteristics of CMOS
Inverter

They operate with very little power loss and at relatively high speed.

CMOS Applications
The applications of CMOS inverters include the following:
CMOS inverters are used in different ICs (integrated circuits)
Static RAM
Microcontrollers
Data converters..etc.

12
 Physics 120 - Prof. David Kleinfeld - 2018
Notes on n-channel JFETs in the Active Region

1. Basics
1. IG = 0
2. ID = IS ≡ IDS

In active region, device characteristics are defined by1:

1. VGS(off) ≤ VGS ≤ 0
2. VDS > VGS - VGS(off); recall that both VGS and VGS(off) are negative
3. IDS is independent of VDS (ideal current source)
2
IDSS ⎡ VGS ⎤
( )
2
4. ID is function of VGS, with IDS = ⎡ V − VGS off ⎤⎦ = IDSS ⎢1 - ⎥
2
VGS ( )
off ⎣ GS ⎢⎣ ( )
VGS off ⎥⎦

This implies IDS = IDSS for VGS = 0.

1
The turn-off gate-to-source voltage VGS(off) has a number of aliases, such as threshold voltage or pinch-off
voltage, denoted VGS(off) = VT = VP = VPO = VP0 The active region is also called the "saturation region" or "pentode
region", while the Ohmic region is also called the "linear region" or the "triode region".
 Transconductance: The small signal limit
For small changes in gate voltage, we can calculate the changes in source or drain current.
The constant of proportionality is referred to as the transconductance, denoted gm, where

dIDS IDSS ⎡ VGS ⎤

gm = = 2 ⎢1 − ⎥
dVGS ( )
VGS off ⎢⎣ ( )
VGS off ⎥⎦

so that ΔIS = gm ΔVGS. We will see later that the transconductance plays a role analogous to β
with bipolar junction transistors, but is not a constant, i.e., it depends of VDS!
2. Fixed current source
Let's now consider the world's simplest current source.
Here VGS = 0, so the current is forced to be IDSS. This current is maintained so long as the load
line can accommodate the condition to maintain a value of VDS in the active region, i.e., VDS >
VGS - VGS(off), which reduces to VDS > - VGS(off).
For example, the 2N5485 has IDSS = 8 mA, enough to drive a typical LED.
The load line is given by writing Kirchoff's rule for voltage drops and ignoring the
transconductance 1/gm:
0 = -VDD +IDS RLoad + VDS
to yield the load line:
VDD − VDS
IDS =
RLoad
This must intercept ID = IDSS in the active region. Noting that VDS > - VGS(off), this implies

RLoad =
VDD − VDS V + VGS off
< DD
( )
IDSS IDSS
Here, we slide along the (flat) line of IDS = IDSS so long as VDS > - VGS(off).
This source suffers from having a value of ID that is not adjustable and that may vary with
manufacturing!
3. Improved current source
A more sophisticated source uses a resistor between the source and ground to determine IDS.

Here we have VG = 0 since the gate is grounded but VGS < 0. The loop equation encompassing
the gate and source satisfies (ignoring the transconductance term 1/gm) is:
0 = -VG + VGS + IDS RS
or
VGS
IDS = − .
RS

We need to choose a value of Rs to fix IDS. The second equation that relates IDS and VGS is the
constitutive equation
2
⎛ VGS ⎞
IDS = IDSS ⎜ 1− ⎟
( )
⎝ VGS off ⎠
.
We are free to pick a desired set-point, or co called "quiescent current", denoted IDS,Q, with
IDS,Q < IDSS. Then the required value of RS is found by substituting VGS = -IDS,Q RS into the
constitutive equation, i.e.,
2
⎛ IDS,QRS ⎞
IDS,Q = IDSS ⎜ 1+ ⎟
⎝ ( )
VGS off ⎠
.

Thus

RS =
( )
−VGS off ⎛
⎜ 1−
IDS,Q ⎞
⎟
IDS,Q ⎜⎝ IDSS ⎟⎠
.
As an example relevant to the laboratory 7 exercise with a 2N5485, for the choice IDS,Q =
0.4 mA with IDSS = 8 mA and VGS(off) = - 3 V, we find RS = 5.8 kΩ. We use the closest value
5 % resistor at 5.6 kΩ. These current sources are independent of fluctuations in the power
supply voltage and largely independent of gm.
The load line for ID versus VDS is found by computing the voltage drops along the loop, i.e.,
0 = - VDD + IDS RL + VDS + IDS RS.
VDD − VDS
Thus IDS = and we slide along a curve of constant IDS until we can no longer maintain
R S + RL
a value of VDS in the active region, i.e., VDS > VGS - VGS(off). As before, this limits the maximum
value of RL, since
R S + RL =
VDD − VDS
<
VDD − ⎡⎣ VGS − VGS off ⎤⎦ ( )
IDS,Q IDSQ

or

R S + RL <
VDD − VGS + VGS off ( )=V DD ( )=V
+ IDS,QRS + VGS off DD ( )+ R
+ VGS off
S
IDS,Q IDS,Q IDS,Q

so that

RL <
VDD + VGS off ( )
IDS,Q

as for the simple current source. We slide along the flat line of IDS,Q so long as VDS > - VGS(off).
4. Voltage follower

The analysis is over two loops, one to define RS and the other to define the load line.

We consider the lower loop to relate Vin and IDS:

0 = - Vin +VGS + RS IDS
We get Vout = IDS RS = Vin - VGS.
We see that the output follows the input with the addition of an offset term VGS. Recall that
VGS < 0 so the offset is positive, but unfortunately not a constant

Vin − VGS
We can set IDS = equal to the constitutive relation to find an expression for VGS. The
RS

result is VGS = VGS ( )

⎡
off ⎢1 − GS
( ) ⎡⎢1+
V off
1+ 4
RSIDS,Q ⎛ Vin ⎞ ⎤⎤
- 1⎟ ⎥ ⎥
⎜
⎢
⎢⎣
2RSIDS,Q ⎢
⎣
( ) ( )
VGS off ⎝ VGS off ⎠ ⎥ ⎥⎥ .
⎦⎦
Simply, VGS changes substantially only for changes ΔVin << VGS(off).

We consider the upper loop to relate Vout and IDS and solve for the load line.
0 = - VDD +VDS + RS IDS
so 0 = - VDD +VDS + RS IDS
 VDD − VDS V
and so IDS = = Out
RS RS
.

Inclusion of a nonzero value of 1/gm:

0 = - Vin +VGS + (1/gm) IDS + RS IDS
Vin − VGS
so IDS =
RS + 1 gm

gmRS
and Vout = IDS RS = (
V − VGS
1+ gmRS in
)
.
The key is to maintain Rsgm >> 1 or Rs << 1/gm. This is critical, as gm is also a function of VGS.
4. Improved voltage follower
An improved follower may be built in which the offset voltage VGS is minimized. We use a
current source to define the current through R1 and R2, as show below.

Here we may write an expression for the equilibrium current (ignoring gm):
0 = - Vin + VGS (Q1) + IDS,Q R1 + Vout .
But we previously solved for the self limiting current source corresponding to the lower JFET,
V Q ( )
or IDS,Q = − GS 2 .
R2

Then

0 = - Vin + VGS (Q1) −

( ) R1 + Vout
VGS Q2
R2

For R1 = R2 and matched JFETs (they are manufactured as pairs on a single substrate for this
purpose), the output voltage is exactly the input voltage and we have a perfect follower with a
very large input impedance.