Energy Conversion and Management: Haris Ishaq, Curran Crawford

Energy Conversion and Management 300 (2024) 117869
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Energy Conversion and Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman
Review of ammonia production and utilization: Enabling clean energy

transition and net-zero climate targets
Haris Ishaq a, b, *, Curran Crawford a, b
a
Institute for Integrated Energy Systems at University of Victoria (IESVic), University of Victoria, BC V8P 5C2, Canada
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: In 2015, the Paris agreement was signed by 196 countries in attendance at COP21 that highlighted the need for
Renewable ammonia rapid decarbonization and carbon dioxide removal (CDR) and sets ambitions to reach net zero emissions by mid-
Green ammonia production methods century. The production of ammonia can contribute to achieving net-zero emissions in several ways including
Ammonia utilization, storage, transport,
energy storage, clean fuel, industrial applications and carbon capture and utilization (CCU) processes, if pro
Economy and infrastructure
Sustainable ammonia production
duced using renewable energy (RE) sources with very low greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions during production
Challenges and opportunities and utilization. This review study highlights the potential of green ammonia production pathways, utilization,
Net-zero climate targets ammonia storage and transport, ammonia infrastructure and economy, to serve various roles and provide po
tential benefits in decarbonizing industry and clean energy transitions to meet net-zero climate targets.
Renewable ammonia cannot only help decarbonize existing ammonia markets by displacing fossil fuels, but can
also help greening the industrial sector such as fertilizer and chemical industries and accelerate decarbonization
in hard-to-abate industries, including retrofit of existing ammonia plants. Ammonia is also expected to be used in
the stationary power sector as renewable fuel as the technology matures. It can also play an imperative role as a
promising maritime fuel, owing to its zero-emission properties, high energy density and compliance with ever
more stringent environmental regulations, transporting RE, in the shipping industry that is one of the largest
GHG emitters. Moreover, as a hydrogen carrier, ammonia can deliver industrial feedstocks and enable lower-cost
hydrogen imports as compared with renewable hydrogen. Encouraging green ammonia production technologies
and near-zero-emission technology progress can guide desirable future pathways for the ammonia industry,
including handling important safety considerations of production, storage and end-use.
production sector is emissions intensive owing to the fossil fuels utili

zation and accounts for emitting ~ 450 Mt CO2/year direct emissions
1. Introduction
[4]. Indirect emissions account for ~ 170 Mt CO2/year [4] attributable
to two key sources: chemical reactions when urea-based fertilizer is fed
Ammonia (NH3) plays a vital role in global agricultural systems
to the soil and electricity generation. This trend needs to shift towards
owing to its fertilizer usage. It is a prerequisite for all nitrogen mineral
green ammonia production to decarbonize this sector to align with the
fertilizers and around 70 % of globally produced ammonia is utilized for
clean energy transition.
fertilizers [1]; the remnant is employed in numerous industrial appli
Ammonia has the potential to be used as a green energy carrier (clean
cations namely: chemical, energy storage, cleaning, steel industry and
fuel) as it offers high energy density compared with neat hydrogen’s
synthetic fibers [2]. While ammonia’s potential as fuel shows promise in
energy density. Furthermore, ammonia storage is less energy intensive
the clean energy transitions context. It remains emerging and can
as compared with cryogenic conditions to store liquid hydrogen. Even
contribute significantly to meeting the net-zero emissions targets set to
though ammonia is hazardous to handle, it is less flammable as
be achieved by mid-century [3]. At present, ammonia production relies
compared with hydrogen and can also be used as hydrogen carrier or
heavily on fossil fuels. From the total energy consumption, global
hydrogen storage media [5]. Greener production routes will be
ammonia production accounts for ~ 2 % (8.6 EJ) and feedstock accounts
comparatively more expensive encompassing the air separation and
for ~ 40 % of this energy including raw materials that supply hydrogen
hydrogen buffer storage cost to meet intermittency challenges (wind/
(H2) to the ammonia production and process energy. The ammonia
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: harisishaq@uvic.ca (H. Ishaq).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2023.117869
Received 24 July 2023; Received in revised form 6 November 2023; Accepted 8 November 2023
Available online 3 January 2024
0196-8904/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Ishaq and C. Crawford Energy Conversion and Management 300 (2024) 117869
opportunities in the transition to net-zero CO2 emissions:

Nomenclature Energy storage: Ammonia energy storage is a promising technology
to store and transport RE which is carried out by converting renewable
BECCS bioenergy with carbon capture and storage electricity into chemical energy stored in ammonia. To extract energy,
CAPEX capital expenditure ammonia can either be employed to fuel cells or in combustion engines
CCU carbon capture and utilization to generate electricity. High energy density, existing infrastructure, and
CCUS carbon capture, utilization, and storage easy transportation are the advantages of ammonia energy storage.
CDR carbon dioxide removal Ammonia can easily be stored as a liquid in large volumes at different
GHG greenhouse gas pressures ranging from 10 to 15 bar or cooled to –33 ◦ C which makes
ICEs internal combustion engines ammonia suitable and potential chemical storage of the RE. For this
IMO International Maritime Organization purpose, the existing distribution network of refrigerated tanks can be
LCOE levelized cost of electricity used for storage while road tankers, pipes and ships can be used for
LH2 liquid hydrogen (LH2) transport.
LPG liquefied petroleum gas Zero-carbon fuel: Ammonia (NH3) is gaining attention as a potential
OPEX operational expenditure zero-carbon fuel mainly because it can be produced using a zero-carbon
OTEC Ocean thermal energy conversion process and offers zero-carbon combustion. Ammonia can be burnt/
PSA pressure swing adsorption combusted in engines or utilized in fuel cells to generate electricity
PV photovoltaics producing nitrogen and hydrogen/water as by-products. The zero-
RD&D development and demonstration carbon fuel does not only offer applications in power generation and
RE renewable energy transportation sector, but also marine industry is probable to adopt
SDS sustainable development scenario ammonia as maritime fuel in the near-term future.
SMR steam methane reforming Hydrogen carrier: Ammonia can also be used as hydrogen storage
media to support hydrogen applications (e.g. fuel cells) as bulk
hydrogen storage is comparatively complex and expensive. Hydrogen
has low volumetric energy density in its gaseous state due to its low
solar). Many under-development projects are still facing challenges to density. Even when compressed (~700 bar), the compressed hydrogen
deal with the intermittent nature of renewable energy (RE) sources and offers energy density of 5.6 MJ/l and in its liquid state (~-253 ◦ C), the
much is being done to tackle this challenge using hydrogen buffer liquid hydrogen (LH2) offers improved energy density of 8.5 MJ/l,
storage. An upsurge in ammonia demand is expected to appear with the however, entails energy intensive and expensive cryogenic storage sys
progressively numerous and prosperous global population that comes in tems. In contrast, ammonia offers volumetric energy density of 15.6 MJ/
a period where governments have declared net-zero emissions strategies l at normal pressure and temperature, which is higher than that of LH2.
from energy systems [4,6]. The prime focus and emphasis of this review Furthermore, ammonia can be stored as a liquid at room temperature
study is to highlight the potential of green ammonia production, utili under moderate pressure (~10 bar), which is far more practical than
zation and storage methods, challenges and opportunities, ammonia storing hydrogen at high pressure or extremely low temperature.
infrastructure and economy and enabling more sustainable ammonia Table 1 displays the ammonia properties in comparison with other
production to help meet net-zero climate targets. competitive fuels including hydrogen, methane, and methanol at the
The synthesized ammonia is termed “green” where the involved ambient conditions. Ammonia has the potential to be used as a green
process does not undergo any carbon emissions and is 100 % renewable hydrogen carrier offering high energy density (15.6 MJ/l) [8] and
(excluding embodied systems emissions). The most widely used green density (0.73 kg/m3) [9] that are higher than compressed hydrogen
ammonia production involves the production of hydrogen through the (5.6 MJ/kg) and liquefied hydrogen energy density (8.5 MJ/kg) [10]
water splitting process and separating nitrogen from air, both processes and density (0.083 kg/m3) [11]. The autoignition temperature of
carried out employing RE. The renewable hydrogen and separated ni
trogen are then inputted into the Haber-Bosch process for ammonia
production (reacting nitrogen and hydrogen at high pressure and tem Table 1
perature in the presence of a catalyst). Natural gas reforming-based Ammonia characteristics and properties compared with other competitive fuels
ammonia production plants are now integrating carbon capture, utili (data from [9,12,15–20]).
zation, and storage (CCUS) systems to remove the process emissions
Properties Methanol Methane Hydrogen Ammonia
emitted by the reforming process. The commercially existing ammonia (CH3OH) (CH4) (H2) (NH3)
production process is not “green” as it encompasses the steam methane
Density (kg/m3) 786 0.66 0.08 0.73
reforming (SMR) process for hydrogen production followed by the Dynamic 594 11.0 8.80 9.9
Haber-Bosch process. Around 90 % of the CO2 emissions produced in viscosity × 10-5
commercial ammonia production plants come from SMR process which (P)
is a highly energy-intensive process and contributes about 1.8 % of Energy density 22 50–55.5 8.5 (LH2) 15.6
(MJ/l)
global CO2 emissions [7]. Lower heating 19.92 50.05 120 18.80
Decarbonisation of ammonia production: In order to achieve net- value (MJ/kg)
zero by mid-century, it is critical to reduce CO2 emissions from the Laminar burning 0.36 0.38 3.51 0.07
ammonia production process and the best pathway to reduce these velocity (m/s)
Minimum ignition 0.140 0.280 0.011 8.000
emissions is by employing low-carbon hydrogen production methods as
energy (mJ)
SMR process for hydrogen production emits the major chunk of these Auto-ignition 439 586 500–575 657
CO2 emissions. temperature (℃)
The almost certainly immediate option to produce carbon-free H2 at Octane number 119 120 >100 130
scale is employing renewable hydrogen using a water electrolysis pro Adiabatic flame 1637 1950 2210 1577
temperature (℃)
cess. SMR process and pyrolysis integrated with CCS technology can
Heat capacity ratio 1.20 1.32 1.41 1.32
produce blue hydrogen, however, RE energy based renewable hydrogen Gravimetric 12.5 25.0 100.0 17.8
production or direct RE based ammonia synthesis offer decarbonization hydrogen density
options. Green ammonia production can offer the following (wt%)
2
ammonia is also higher (930 K) [12] than hydrogen (773–850 K) [13]. offering cost-effective solutions. These emission factors consequently
Furthermore, cryogenic conditions (-253 ◦ C) [14] are required to store reflect on the RE based and fossil based ammonia production as well.
liquid hydrogen, however, less energy-intensive conditions (–33℃) [8] Fig. 1 displays the different electricity pathways for ammonia pro
are required for liquid ammonia storage. duction and different colors used refer to the different inputs of energy
and technologies for ammonia production including green ammonia
2. Ammonia production (RE), pink ammonia (nuclear), black ammonia (coal) and grey ammonia
(natural gas).
RE offers some important benefits in comparison to traditional en For the specific process employment, ammonia can be divided into
ergy fuels. It offers environmentally benign and clean energy solutions further color-coding such as methane pyrolysis-based ammonia is
and is not dependent on any fossil fuel type. In order to draw a fair termed as turquoise ammonia, renewable electricity driven electrified
comparison, the emission factors from the plant operation are high steam methane reforming based ammonia is known as grey-green
lighted. Coal based power production has the emission factor of ammonia and if electrified steam methane reforming, natural gas
850–1050 kg of CO2 eq per MWh followed by the natural gas based reforming or coal gasification processes are coupled with carbon capture
power generation that undergoes emission factor of 450–550 kg of CO2 and storage (CCS), the pathway will be termed as blue ammonia. Some
eq per MWh. RE sources, in comparison, have very low emission factors argue that colors are not useful descriptors and that carbon intensity of
such as wind energy (3–15 kg of CO2 eq per MWh), Solar PV (40–50 kg of the final product (H2 or NH3) is a better comparison metric, however,
CO2 eq per MWh) and hydroelectric power (1–20 kg of CO2 eq per MWh) colors are useful at least for describing the pathways, but the final in
considering the lifecycle of the RE technologies [21]. RE has a unique tensity of the produced fuel based on full life cycle accounting (LCA)
significance concerning energy security. Being a critical implementing across the system is ultimately the best comparison metric.
means of societal sustainable development, RE sources will endure by Ammonia is not only considered a feedstock for the fertilizer sector
Fig. 1. Ammonia production pathways from different feedstocks (modified from [22]).
3
but is also well known as an energy carrier and clean fuel. At present, recent literature on ammonia production techniques and methods,
over 90 % of the global ammonia synthesis is carried out using the technoeconomics, life cycle assessments and ammonia technology
Haber-Bosch ammonia synthesis process named after scientists Fritz roadmaps andTable 3 tabulates the ammonia utilization and end-use.
Haber and Carl Bosch who established the ammonia synthesis method Ammonia is among the largest industrial chemicals produced glob
back in 1913 [23]. Ammonia is known as the backbone of the fertilizer ally. Ammonia production consumes approximately 1.2 % of overall
sector. The natural gas feedstock is the main source utilized for syn primary energy and results in approximately 1 % of total GHG emissions.
thesizing ammonia globally. The Haber-Bosch process principally com
bines nitrogen and hydrogen at high-pressure and temperature using an
iron-oxide catalyst. Alternatively, novel solid-state and electrochemical Table 3
ammonia synthesis techniques are in R&D phase.Table 2 displays the Recently published literature on ammonia utilization and end-use.
Authors Focus of study Approach Description
Table 2 Smith et al. [36] Haber-Bosch Energy Prevailing and
Recently published literature on ammonia production techniques and methods. ammonia role landscape prospective role of
Haber-Bosch process-
Authors Focus of study Approach Description
based ammonia in
Chang et al. Renewable Recent advances in Investigated carbon-free energy
[24] ammonia ammonia synthesis, emerging methods landscape
synthesis storage, and and materials for Nayak-Luke et al. RE intermittency Comparative Renewable energy
conversion renewable ammonia [37] impacts assessment intermittency impacts
synthesis, separation, of green ammonia plant
and utilization sizing and levelized
Ganzer and Sustainnable Comparative A framework for cost
Dowell [25] fuels assessment sustainable fuel Chai et al. [38] Ammonia and Review A review study on
production production derived fuels ammonia, ammonia-
accounting for methane and ammonia-
intermittency hydrogen fuels
Wang et al. Sustainnable Comparative Comparative Yapicioglu and Ammonia as fuel Review A review study on
[26] ammonia assessment assessment of Dincer [39] employing ammonia as
synthesis sustainable ammonia fuel for power
synthesis and fossil- generators
based Haber-Bosch Al-Hamed and Ammonia-based Comparative A review study on
processes Dincer [40] carbon capture review ammonia-based carbon
Salmon and Green ammonia Techno-economic Techno-economic capture technologies
Bañares- offshore analysis assessment of Machaj et al. Ammonia as Review A review study on
Alcántara offshore green [41] marine fuel ammonia as a potential
[27] ammonia production fuel for marine industry
Parmar et al. Floating Technical and Production of Lamb et al. [42] Ammonia for Review A review study on
[28] offshore wind economic ammonia from hydrogen catalytic ammonia
driven feasibility floating offshore wind storage decomposition for
ammonia farm hydrogen storage
MacFarlane Ammonia Potential, Ammonia economy Sánchez et al. Ammonia as fuel Thermo- A thermo-chemical
et al. [29] Economy challenges and roadmap [43] chemical standpoint on
applications standpoint evaluating green
Fernandez at Intermediate Electrosynthesis Explored ammonia as fuel for
al. [30] temperature opportunities for power generation
renewable renewable ammonia Juangsa et al. Ammonia as Review A review study on
ammonia electrosynthesis at [44] hydrogen carrier electrochemical and
intermediate thermochemical
temperature processes for ammonia
Sanchez and Renewable Optimization Optimal production production as potential
Martín [16] ammonia of renewable hydrogen carrier
ammonia from air Palys et al. [45] Renewable Systems Explored systems
and water ammonia engineering engineering
Osman et al. Scaling of Techno-economic A techno-economic opportunities of
[31] renewable optimization optimization on employing renewable
ammonia scaling renewable ammonia for
ammonia production sustainable energy
Morgan et al. Sustainable Techno-economic Sustainable solutions and
[32] ammonia review production of agriculture
production ammonia from U.S. Kurien and Mittal Green ammonia Review A review study on
offshore wind farms [9] production and green ammonia
Hollevoet et al. Ammonia Plasma-based Plasma-driven green utilization production and
[33] synthesis ammonia synthesis utilization as dual-fuel
Zhao et al. Green ammonia Potential Green ammonia compression ignition
[34] production opportunities production potential engine fuel
in reducing Elbaz et al. [46] Recent advances Review A review study on
renewable power in ammonia recent developments in
curtailment combustion ammonia combustion
Lee et al. [35] Ammonia Techno-economic Techno-economic Sánchez and Renewable Scale-up and Explored modular
production and life cycle analyses and life cycle Martín [47] ammonia plant down design to address scale-
methods assessment assessment of scaling up and -down issues in
ammonia production renewable ammonia
pathways plants
International Towards Report Ammonia International Renewable Report Innovation Outlook:
Energy sustainable Technology Roadmap Renewable ammonia and Renewable Ammonia
Agency (IEA) ammonia Energy Agency potential
[4] production (IRENA) [22] barriers
4
Around 1.5–2.5 tonnes of CO2 is released to the environment during 1- separation unit operational at intermediate pressure where unreacted
tonne ammonia production depending on the feedstock usage [7,48]. gases are separated by condensing ammonia as a liquid. A refrigeration
Even though there are numerous ammonia synthesis methods, two system is employed to cool, condense and separate liquified ammonia
different commonly available routes of ammonia synthesis globally are and residual gases are recycled by recompression through another
Haber-Bosch and solid-state synthesis process. An air separation unit is compressor and combined with make-up gas and partially employed in
employed to deliver nitrogen in both processes. High purity of nitrogen the combustor to generate process heat.
is required for almost all the ammonia production processes and three The challenges of storing and transporting H2 can be mitigated using
key methodologies that are used for nitrogen separation from the air are green ammonia as hydrogen storage medium/hydrogen carrier to ease
pressure swing adsorption (PSA) [49,50], membrane separation [51,52] the storage and transportation. Even though ammonia offers distinctive
and cryogenic air separation [53,54] that is employed depending on the benefits including high hydrogen density, easy storage and trans
applications and resource availability. Generically, the membrane portation and well-established infrastructure, it also poses some chal
technology separation is recommended for low production while PSA is lenges to employ NH3 as H2 storage medium, such as catalyst and heat
the option for medium capacities and cryogenic air separation for large requirements for cracking process and ammonia toxicity. While storing
capacities. Nitrogen is required to be produced in a high-effective hydrogen in the form of ammonia, cracking process is employed to
manner and low cost since ammonia is synthesized in high quantities recover hydrogen. This cracking process decomposes ammonia into its
and required electrical power for nitrogen separation can be either component elements at high temperature (750-850℃) in the presence of
supplied using conventional or alternate energy resources. a suitable catalyst, where ammonia (NH3) is decomposed into its
The Haber-Bosch is an exothermic process that combines nitrogen component elements, hydrogen and nitrogen. The reaction is as follows:
and hydrogen in 1:3 ratio to synthesize ammonia [55]. Fig. 2 displays
kJ
the commonly employed Haber-Bosch conversion loop. This reaction is 2NH3 (g)→N2 (g) + 3H2 (g)ΔH = 92.44 (2)
mol
exothermic with a standard enthalpy change (ΔH) of about − 92.22 kJ/
mol. The NH3 synthesis reaction is supported by a catalyst and is desired The ammonia cracking process starts with preheating ammonia and
to occur at an optimum temperature range. The catalysts used in the feeding it to the reactor that decomposes it using nickel/iron catalyst at
process are sensitive to impurities, requiring additional energy for pu high temperature. The hot gases leaving the reactor are then cooled and
rification of the feedstock gases. The Haber–Bosch process was estab hydrogen is purified using different techniques such as water scrubbing,
lished in the early twentieth century to react nitrogen with hydrogen membrane separation or PSA. The produced hydrogen is often used in
thermocatalytically rendering the following reaction [56]: applications where high-purity hydrogen is required, such as in fuel
( ) cells, hydrogenation reactions in chemical industry, and for reduction in
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g)→2NH3 (g)ΔH = − 92
kJ
− 46
kJ
for 1 mol ofNH3 metallurgical processes.
mol mol Further existing and emerging green ammonia production tech
(1) niques other then renewable energy-power Haber Bosch process are as
The method characteristics are based on the reactant’s temperature follows.
rise since the nitrogen molecule requires adequate energy for cracking. Electrochemical Synthesis: Also known as electrochemical reduc
A high temperature is required by the reaction to support the catalyst in tion, encompasses renewable electricity to power the reduction of H2O
breaking nitrogen bonds as nitrogen atoms are toughly bound and and N2 to produce NH3. This technique employs renewable energy
constrain the catalyst from executing a new catalytic cycle. However, sources, such as solar, wind or hydropower, to drive the electrochemical
since 1 mol of product is produced in the reaction using 2 mol of re process, resulting in a minimal carbon footprint in green ammonia
actants, the forward reaction is accelerated by high pressure and low production. Fig. 3 illustrates the basic conceptual illustration of the
temperature. Since the temperature of the reaction is not anticipated to electrochemical ammonia synthesis process. Electrochemical process
be conventionally low owing to catalyst poisoning, the pressure of the uses electricity to drive the ammonia synthesis reaction combining N2
reaction is quite high. Characteristically, the operational temperature and H2 [58]. This method, if scaled-up, offers the potential of producing
ranges from 400 to 500 ◦ C, the pressure is 150–250 bar and the energy cleaner and more sustainable as compared with traditional Haber-Bosch
efficiency of 15–30 % [57]. process. Also, electrochemical ammonia synthesis can potentially be
Make-up gas involving a mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen is com performed and carried out at lower pressures and temperatures and
pressed and delivered at an intermediate pressure. This input gas is reducing energy consumption that can potentially allow the RE utili
combined with unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen gases returning from zation. The key challenge in electrochemical ammonia synthesis is
the reactor and compressed through another compressor to achieve finding the suitable catalyst that can enable the reaction at lower
conversion pressure. The input gas is fed to the catalytic reactor that
contains an iron-based catalyst. The resultant gases including ammonia
and unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen gases reach the ammonia
Fig. 3. Basic illustration of electrochemical ammonia synthesis process

Fig. 2. Simple layout of Haber-Bosch ammonia synthesis process. (modified from [58]).
5
pressures and temperatures [59,60]. The N2 requires heaps of energy to on several factors including type of microorganisms used, operational
react and suitable catalysts can help lower this reaction energy barrier to conditions, specific electrochemical cell design and electron transfer
make electrochemical ammonia synthesis feasible. efficiency from electrode to microorganisms. Some primary challenges
Biomass Gasification: Biomass gasification involves converting include comparatively low efficiency, slow reaction rates, suitable sup
biomass, such as crop residues or agricultural waste, into syngas through ply of electrons to the microbes and reaction selectivity.
thermochemical process. Biomass gasification is a developed technology Plasma-Assisted Ammonia Synthesis: This technique involves using
that undergoes a precise process involving controlled amount of steam plasma (a highly energized state of matter) to facilitate the reaction
oxygen and heat to produce syngas without undergoing combustion. The between hydrogen and nitrogen gases to produce ammonia [69,70]. The
overall carbon emission of the processes undergoing biomass gasifica high energy associated with plasma helps augment the reaction kinetics,
tion can be comparatively low as growing biomass sucks CO2 from the possibly leading to the production of ammonia in a more sustainable and
atmosphere, particularly when coupled with CCUS systems. Biomass efficient manner. In this process, N2 and H2 are exposed to plasma, a
gasification can be classified contingent on the gasifying agent such as state of matter comprising of charged particles that help break the strong
steam, air, steam-oxygen, O2-enriched air, air–steam, etc. The gasifica nitrogen triple bonds, which is a critical step in ammonia production.
tion product is a blend of gases also known as syngas, with key com The plasma-assisted ammonia synthesis process efficiency depends on
ponents H2, CO2, H2O, CH4, CO, N2 and air [61]. The syngas can several factors such as type of plasma used, plasma reactor design,
formerly be employed as a feedstock for ammonia production, reducing operational conditions and presence of catalysts. A main challenge
the dependence on fossil fuels and resulting in green ammonia associated with this technique is that reaction generates lots of heat and
production. high temperature can cause ammonia to decompose back into its con
Carbon Capture and Utilization (CCU): Carbon capture and utili stituents, thereby reducing process yield.
zation (CCU) technologies can be integrated with the traditionally used Alkaline Membrane Electrochemical Ammonia Synthesis: In an
ammonia production methods, such as Haber-Bosch process, to reduce alkaline membrane cell, the reactions for the ammonia synthesis occur
GHG emissions [62]. Also, ammonia itself can be used as a sorbent for as follows:
point-source CO2 capture. The in-process carbon dioxide (CO2) emis Reactions in acidic electrolytes:
sions can be captured, stored and/or utilized, resulting in a further
N2 (g) + 6H + + 6e− →2NH3 (g) (3)
environment-friendly ammonia production process.
Green ammonia production is an active R&D area and quite a few
2H + + 2e− →H2 (g) (4)
novel methods are being explored to produce sustainable and green
ammonia [63,64]. Even though these novel green ammonia production Reactions in basic electrolytes:
techniques are still in the R&D stage and their scalability and com
N2 (g) + 6H2 O + 6e− →2NH3 (aq) + 6OH − (5)
mercial viability are being explored. Additional research studies, testing,
pre-commercial deployment and optimization are obligatory to imple 2H2 O + 2e− →H2 (g) + 2OH − (6)
ment such technologies at a large scale for commercial ammonia pro
duction. A few of these novel green ammonia production methods This process is performed in an electrochemical cell where alkaline
include: exchange membrane separates two electrodes and allows certain ions
Renewable Energy-Powered Haber-Bosch Process: Haber-Bosch (OH– in this case) to pass while blocking others, that helps maintaining
process, that uses high-temperature and high-pressure conditions for the ions balance and prevent the products mixing with different elec
ammonia production, can also be driven using renewable energy sources trode reactions. The major advantages of this technique include process
such as solar, wind, hydropower or geothermal. This technique helps operation under milder conditions and relatively easy nitrogen reduc
replacing the fossil fuels utilization to provide process energy and offers tion in alkaline environment that improves the process efficiency
the production of ammonia more sustainably. Even though the ammonia [71,72]. Moreover, finding suitable catalyst materials owing to the ac
synthesis process is exothermic and releases energy, the activation en tivity and stability in alkaline environment and stability and good ionic
ergy requirements and equilibrium considerations make it energy conductivity of the alkaline membrane are the challenges that need to be
intensive process overall. As the Haber-Bosch process efficiency is addressed to ensure efficient cell operation.
typically around 60–70 % and assuming 80 % electrolysis efficiency, the Solar Thermal Ammonia Synthesis: This method produces ammonia
overall system efficiency will be highly dependent on the RE source using the heat from concentrated sunlight that drives the reaction and
efficiency. offers the potential for a more sustainable and lower-carbon process for
Photoelectrochemical Synthesis: This technique involves employing ammonia synthesis. The process starts with solar concentration where
specialized photoelectrochemical cells that use sunlight to directly split sunlight is collected and concentrated and transferred to the heat
water into its constituents and hydrogen is further employed in the transfer medium that provides the high temperature for ammonia syn
ammonia synthesis [65,66]. This approach exterminates the external thesis process in the presence of catalysts [73,74]. Theoretically, the
electricity need which makes it a renewable and sustainable ammonia solar thermal ammonia synthesis efficiency could potentially be higher
production method and can potentially bypass the high pressures and than traditional ammonia synthesis methods as the solar thermal process
temperatures requirements in ammonia synthesis methods. In a directly employs heat to drive the reaction, instead of converting heat
distinctive system, light-absorbing semiconductor materials known as into other forms of energy that helps eliminating some energy losses. To
photoelectrodes capture light energy and generate electron-hole pairs achieve the high required reaction temperatures (400–500 ◦ C) consis
that drive the nitrogen reduction to ammonia and also drive photo tently and controlling the process are the key challenges owing to the
electrochemical water splitting of process to provide hydrogen. How intermittent nature of solar energy along with the costing and
ever, a few challenges associated with this process are finding suitable scalability.
catalysts, efficient light absorption and charge separation, stability and
scalability. 3. Renewable ammonia production methods
Electrobiological/Bioelectrochemical Synthesis: Bioelectrochemi
cal synthesis involves employing microorganisms/enzymes to facilitate Currently, natural gas reforming process is employed commercially
the N2 gas reduction to NH3 in an electrochemical setup. Integrating to produce hydrogen for ammonia synthesis which accompanies several
biological and electrochemical processes in a single process (bio drawbacks of high cost and environmental impact. One of the key mo
electrochemical synthesis) offers the potential for sustainable and green tivations is to eliminate fossil fuel usage and replace it with RE-based
ammonia production [67,68]. The efficiency of this method can depend hydrogen production to produce clean ammonia. Fig. 4 displays the
6
Fig. 4. Green ammonia production methods.
green ammonia production routes based on RE sources that are 3.2. Wind energy
described in detail in this section along with ongoing and under-
deployment green ammonia projects. Ammonia emerges among the most suitable contenders for future
fuel as it is a zero-carbon fuel that offers a net-zero solution when pro
3.1. Solar energy duced via renewable hydrogen [84]. To deal with the intermittency of
wind energy sources, a battery/hydrogen storage media is required to be
Solar energy possesses great potential for renewable hydrogen pro integrated with the energy system to provide a steady demand for
duction and thus, green ammonia. However, it faces some challenges electricity/hydrogen and renewable hydrogen can further be converted
owing to the intermittent nature of the energy source. Recent advances to green ammonia. Onshore/offshore wind energy can directly be
are carrying out research studies and developing technologies to over coupled with water electrolysis system to produce renewable hydrogen
come this challenge either by integrated battery storage or hydrogen along with a storage unit to deal with the intermittency and hydrogen
buffer storage to meet the continuous demand. Renewable hydrogen can can further be converted to green ammonia.
be produced using solar energy using different routes [75] namely; Numerous research studies and commercial plants are exploring and
thermal, photovoltaic and photoelectrochemical and produced renew installing onshore wind farms [20,85,86] for clean hydrogen produc
able hydrogen can thus be employed to produce green ammonia. tion, many ongoing projects are proposing to employ offshore wind
A plethora of recent studies highlighted the advancements in helio farms [32,85,87,88] for renewable hydrogen and green ammonia pro
stat technology and their possible integration with energy systems duction and further research is exploring the floating offshore wind farm
[76,77]. Similarly, many research studies investigated and explore using [89,90] for renewable hydrogen and green ammonia production.
solar thermal energy to produce clean hydrogen directly from thermal
energy using thermochemical cycles [78,79]. Using solar photovoltaics 3.3. Geothermal energy
(PV) is among the mature technologies that are currently being used and
operational in many commercial plants as well. Many research studies Geothermal energy is heat produced and extracted from the Earth’s
are conducted on solar PV-based clean hydrogen production and many subsurface and it is a clean and renewable source that is either used
renewable hydrogen facilities are operational as well as being converted directly for heating/cooling or used to generate electricity [91]. How
to green ammonia facilities [80,81]. Photoelectrochemical is compara ever, in order to be converted into electricity, medium to high resources
tively an emerging technology for clean hydrogen production, however, of temperature are desirable. Existing types of geothermal technologies
investigated in numerous research studies proposing renewable are as follows:
hydrogen for green ammonia production as well [82,83].
7
• Dry steam plants: Employ hydrothermal fluids that are mainly steam other products involving heat, oxygen and steam. As growing biomass
which drives the turbine and thus generator. residues remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, net carbon
• Flash steam plants: Hydrothermal fluid at a temperature > 182 ◦ C is emissions are very low particularly if integrated with CCUS in long term.
employed in flash steam plants. The tank is kept at a pressure lower The gasification process converts organic carbonaceous materials into
than fluid which is sprayed inside the tank and causes fluid to rapidly carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen and carbon monoxide (CO) at high
vaporize/flash and these vapors then drive the turbine. temperatures (>700 ◦ C), with a controlled oxygen and/or steam
• Binary plants: Hot geothermal and a secondary (comparatively low amount. The CO is then converted to CO2 and hydrogen by reacting it
boiling point) fluid are passed through the heat exchanger. with steam through a water–gas shift reaction. The produced renewable
Geothermal fluid’s heat causes the secondary fluid to flash to rapidly hydrogen then reacts with nitrogen and produces green ammonia.
vaporize/flash which drives the turbine.
4. Green ammonia advancements and projects
The geothermal power projects offer the levelized cost of electricity
(LCOE) between $0.049–0.085/kWh between 2010 and 2020 [92]. As a The electrolytic ammonia production route is somewhat expensive
renewable resource, Geothermal resource covers a substantial share of owing to the costs of air separation and hydrogen buffer storage while
electricity and heating demand in many countries. The key geothermal integrating with intermittent solar/wind sources to limit hydrogen input
energy resource benefits are the low cost and continuous operation at a variation. Today, the cost of electrolytic ammonia production ranges
high capacity factor that allows this source to deliver stable, dis from $680–900/tNH3 which is anticipated to reach $400/tNH3 by 2030
patchable electricity that can be used directly to produce renewable [104]. Many novel and promising ammonia production techniques are
hydrogen and thus green ammonia [93,94]. still in the research, development and demonstration (RD&D) phase
such as alkaline membrane electrochemical ammonia synthesis, photo
3.4. Hydro power electrochemical synthesis, electrobiological synthesis, plasma-assisted
ammonia synthesis and solar thermal ammonia synthesis. Green
Hydropower is among the largest RE sources that generate electricity ammonia production is said to be in its primitive commercial deploy
by utilizing the natural flow of moving water. Hydropower technology ment stages. However, many projects and initiatives are underway
generates power employing elevation difference of flowing water from a around the globe predicting ammonia as a potential renewable fuel.
dam, water flow, diversion structure or tidal barrage. Hydropower- Table 4 lists the ongoing/under-deployment projects all around the
based ammonia production employs electricity generated by hydro world and summarizes the companies and government agencies
electric powerplant and produces ammonia from hydrogen and nitro handling the projects, geographical location, project capacities and
gen. This includes two core steps of producing hydrogen through the electricity resources for the projects.
water electrolysis method using hydropower and producing ammonia Key focus area categories (competitiveness, market feasibility and
from renewable hydrogen [95]. One of the key advantages of producing economic feasibility and risk analysis) used to assess the commercial
renewable fuel (ammonia) using hydropower is that it is a renewable feasibility of green ammonia projects are as follows:
and carbon-free process and does not produce greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions. Furthermore, it can be an efficient route for energy storage Competitiveness.
and produced ammonia can be stored, transported and utilized for
numerous applications. • Competitor analysis → Project pipeline evaluation, Company pro
Many research studies have been conducted to explore and investi files, Market balances → How well positioned is the project relative
gate renewable hydrogen and ammonia production using hydropower to existing and future producers? →Plethora of green ammonium
[96,97]. Some of the challenges associated with this green ammonia projects - what makes the project different and less risky?
production route are high electrolysis equipment cost, large electricity • Cost analysis → Delivered costs of markets, Cost curve and emissions
requirements and variability of hydropower. Nevertheless, the advan analysis, Feedstock price forecasts/carbon pricing, Freight/logistical
tages associated with this carbon-free route can contribute towards analysis → Will this project be cost-competitive enough to place its
sustainable energy development. Ocean thermal energy conversion product? →RE vs. fossil fuel pricing importance, including carbon
(OTEC) can also be accounted as a hydropower branch that is driven by pricing
the temperature difference between deep cold and warm surface water.
This process utilizes the warm surface water heat and vaporizes the Market feasibility.
system’s working fluid that drives the turbine. Several research studies
are investigating renewable hydrogen production using hydropower • Product and geographical markets → Demand, supply and trade
[98,99]. The produced electricity is then employed to produce renew analysis, Analysis of alternative scenarios for “new” markets → Will
able hydrogen and thus green ammonia that can reduce ammonia pro the project be able to place its planned sales volumes in target
duction dependency on fossil fuels. markets? →Nascent green ammonia market poses an increased risk
to investors
3.5. Biomass • Sales and marketing strategy → Identification of target markets and
forecast sales volumes and prices, Obstacles and success fac
Biomass is known as a renewable organic resource that takes in tors → Will the project be able to place its planned sales volumes in
agriculture crop residues forest residues, organic municipal waste, crops target markets? →Barriers to market entry could be higher for new
grown explicitly for energy use and animal wastes. Biomass is consid markets e.g. infrastructure and logistics
ered to be one of the most promising hydrogen production routes • Off-takers → Review of off-takers capabilities/risks, Review of off-
[100,101]. Thermochemical processes are the major pathways used for take contracts → How certain is it that off-takers will take sales vol
biomass-based hydrogen and ammonia production including steam umes long-term? →Firm commitments from reputable off-takers -
gasification, supercritical water gasification, reforming, and fast pyrol ideally take or pay-provide comfort to investors, especially for new
ysis [102]. In comparison with pyrolysis, gasification is globally recog markets
nized as a promising technique for large-scale deployment and offers
improved hydrogen yield and higher efficiency [103]. Economic feasibility and risk analysis.
Biomass gasification is considered a matured technology that un
dergoes a controlled process of converting biomass into hydrogen and
8
Table 4
List of green ammonia production facilities.
Project Companies Capacity Electricity Location Status Source
resource
REFUEL Nutrien and other 14 organizations collaboration 1 metric tonne of RE United Expected start 2024 [105]
with US Department of Energy (DOE) funded RE to ammonia per day States
Fuels
REDDAP Topsoe, Vestas and Skovgaard 5,000 tonnes of green Wind and Western Operational by 2023 [106]
ammonia per year solar energy Jutland
HOST Hafnia and Clean Hydrogen Works (CHW) 600,000 tonnes of RE Louisiana Construction start [107]
green ammonia 2028/29
production per year
Green Ammonia Project Ørsted and Yara 75,000 tonnes of Wind power Netherlands Operational by 2024/ [108]
green ammonia per 25
year
Future green bunker fuel Ørsted, Haldor Topsoe, Molslinjen, Bunker Maritime fuel for Wind and Bornholm Construction start [109]
hub Holding Group, Bureau Veritas, Wärtsilä, Port of 60,000 ships solar energy 2028/29
Roenne and Rambøll
Green ammonia production Hy2gen, Trafigura and Copenhagen Infrastructure 600 metric tonnes of RE Norway Construction start [110]
facility Partners (CIP) green ammonia per 2023
day
K-GreeN ammonia-powered KBR, Odfjell, Equinor and Wärtsilä – RE Norway Under planning [111]
offshore drilling
Green ammonia marine fuel IRVING, Texas – ExxonMobil, Grieg Edge, North 100,000 metric RE Norway Memorandum of [112]
Ammonia, and GreenH tonnes of green understanding (MOU)
ammonia per year stage
Green ammonia production Yara and Linde Engineering 20,500 tonnes of RE Norway Product supply by [113]
year
Green ammonia supply and Trammo and Canada-based Teal Corporation 800,000 tonnes of Hydro power Canada Strategic Plan [114]
offtake agreement green ammonia 2022–2026
Courant Hy2Gen and Trafigura 500 tonnes of green Hydro power Canada Completion by 2028 [115]
ammonia per day
Containerized green FuelPositive 300 kg per day of RE Canada Under construction [116]
ammonia production green anhydrous
system ammonia
Independent ammonia AmmPower Corp. 4 metric tonnes of RE Brazil Under construction [117]
making machine green ammonia per
day
HyEx Engie and Enaex 700,000 tonnes of RE Chile Construction start by [118]
year
HNH Copenhagen Infrastructure Partners (CIP), 1 million tonne of Onshore wind Chile Under planning [119]
AustriaEnergy and Ökowind green ammonia per power
year
H2 Magallanes Wood. Total Eren and UMAG 10 GW of onshore Onshore wind Chile Completion by 2030 [120]
wind power capacity power
FFI Fortescue Future Industries (FFI) 700,000 to 900,000 Wind power Canada Under planning [121]
tonnes of green
ammonia per year
Yara HEGRA Aker, Yara and Statkraft – RE Norway Completion by [122]
2026–28
CIP Arla, Danish Crown, DLG, A. P. Moller – Maersk 1.5 million tonnes of Offshore wind Denmark Completion by 2026 [123]
and DFDS CO2 emissions energy
reduction per year
HT/Aquamarine Haldor Topsoe and AQM Capital LLC 300 tonnes of green RE Germany Facility [124]
(Aquamarine) ammonia per day commissioning by
2024
MadoquaPower2X Madoqua Renewables, Power2X and Copenhagen 500,000 tonnes of RE Portugal Full commissioning [125]
Infrastructure Partners (CIP) green ammonia per before 2030
year
HEVO Fusion Fuel Green PLC and CCC 183,000 tonnes of Solar and Morocco Completion by 2026 [126]
green ammonia per fusion fuel
year
Scatec Scatec, Suez Canal Economic Zone (SCZONE), 1 million tonne of RE Egypt Agreement signed [127]
Egyptian Electricity Transmission Company green ammonia per
(EETC), The Sovereign Fund of Egypt (TSFE) and year
New and RE Authority (NREA)
Acme Scatec and ACME 1 million tonne of RE Oman Operational by 2022 [128]
green ammonia per
year
Gente Grande Project Petrofac, and Transitional Energy Group (TEG) 1.3 million tonnes of Wind Energy Chile Environmental [129]
green ammonia per authorizations by
year 2024
NEOM Acwa Power and Air Products 1.2 million tonnes of RE Saudi Arabia Completion by 2023 [130]
green ammonia per
year
(continued on next page)
9
Table 4 (continued )
Project Companies Capacity Electricity Location Status Source
resource
Ammonia production plant OQ, the global integrated energy group 1,000 metric tonnes of Wind and Oman Operational [131]
green ammonia per solar energy
day
World-scale green ACWA Power, OQ, and Air Products 1,200,000 tonnes of RE Oman Joint development [132]
hydrogen-based ammonia green ammonia per agreement (JDA)
production facility year signed
TAQA Abu Dhabi National Energy Company PJSC 2 GW solar Solar Energy Abu Dhabi Techno-feasibility [133]
(TAQA) and Abu Dhabi Ports photovoltaic (PV) stage
power plant
GEO OQ, InterContinental Energy and EnerTech, 9,900,000 tonnes of Wind and Oman Feasibility stage [134]
green ammonia per solar energy
year
World’s largest renewables bp and AREH 9 million tonnes of RE Australia Under planning [135]
and green hydrogen green ammonia
energy hubs
H2Perth Woodside Energy Ltd and several Japanese 600,000 tonnes of RE Australia Under development [136]
companies ammonia per year
H2-Hub™ Orica and H2U Group 5,000 tonnes of green RE Australia Operational by 2025 [137]
ammonia per day
H2TAS Woodside Energy Ltd (Operator), Marubeni 800,000 tonnes of RE Australia Under development [138]
Corporation, IHI Corporation green ammonia per
year
Export scale green hydrogen Origin, integrated energy company 420,000 tonnes of RE Australia Under development [139]
and ammonia plant ammonia per year
FFI Brisbane Fortescue Future Industries (FFI) and Incitec Pivot 350,000 tonnes per RE Australia Front End [140]
Limited (IPL) year green ammonia Engineering Design
(FEED) stage
• Price forecasts → Benchmark and netback price forecast, Green pre market is also working on manufacturing prototypes of ammonia-fueled
mium analysis, Floor price analysis → What returns will be made vehicles employing fuel cells or engines [141,142]. Ammonia, along
investing in the project? Can it withstand cyclical lows? →Potential with its applications in the fertilizer industry, can also be utilized as a
for green premium could bridge gap versus brown ammonia renewable fuel in the maritime industry, ICEs, fuel cells, and gas tur
• Sensitivity analysis → Financial modeling, Alternative scenarios for bines undergoing zero carbon footprint if produced consuming RE
key assumptions → What market developments could make or break sources. Fig. 5 displays the breakdown of ammonia production and
this project? →Increased risk of green versus brown ammonia pro utilization by energy source and sector respectively. Currently, natural
jects. Expect investors to place more emphasis on understanding the gas is being used significantly (76 %) for ammonia production followed
magnitude and likelihood of risks by coal (4 %) as shown in Fig. 5(a). However, this trend is now switching
• Risk analysis →→SWOT analysis of project mitigation strate towards producing more sustainable ammonia and utilizing RE for green
gies → What Market developments could make or break this project? ammonia synthesis. Fig. 5(b) exhibits the ammonia utilization by sector
→Key focus area for assessing the commercial feasibility of green and it is obvious that a major portion of ammonia utilization is domi
ammonia projects nated by the fertilizer industry as ammonia is the most commonly used
nitrogen fertilizer, followed by the industrial chemical (10 %) and
5. Ammonia utilization refrigeration sector (5 %).
Being a versatile chemical, ammonia can be utilized in various ap
Green ammonia has diverse usages and can be utilized in numerous plications using a variety of ways and some of the paramount ammonia
applications. Ammonia offers the potential to be the future clean fuel as utilization techniques are as follows:
it offers carbon-free applications when utilized and can also be used as
an energy carrier and energy storage media. Currently, ammonia is • Agriculture Ammonia is extensively and globally utilized in agri
mostly utilized in the fertilizer industry and refrigeration. The current culture which makes it a backbone of nitrogen-based fertilizer.
Fig. 5. Breakdown of ammonia production and consumption (a) ammonia production by energy source 2020 (b) ammonia utilization by sector 2020 (data
from [143]).
10
• Direct use Ammonia can directly be used in irrefutable applications different fuels can also be utilized, and for power generation through
namely; refrigeration, fuel sector and as cleaning agent. different pathways such as fuel cells, gasification, engines/generation
• Fuel cells One of many techniques where ammonia can be employed and turbines. Ammonia can also be used for water purification, as
as fuel is fuel cells and produces electricity. It can also be an option to refrigerant gas, for manufacturing textiles, explosives and many other
store ammonia and utilize it to meet peak demands, however, chemicals. Numerous ammonia production methodologies are under
ammonia fuel cells are at their early stage and further research is research for a more efficient and cost-effective process.
required to meet the ammonia fuel cell efficiencies.
• Hydrogen production Ammonia can be utilized as hydrogen storage 5.1. Ammonia fuel cell
media and can be catalytically cracked on-site into its constituents
(hydrogen and nitrogen). The working principle of a fuel cell is the reverse process of an
• Combustion In the combustion technique, ammonia cannot only be
electrolyser. Ammonia (NH3), as fuel source, can be used fuel cells that
combusted in internal combustion engines (ICEs) for power genera convert fuel’s chemical energy into electricity. In particular, Alkaline
tion but can also be utilized to drive gas turbines by burning.
fuel cells and solid oxide fuel cells have shown promising potential to
• Chemical synthesis: Ammonia can also be utilized as raw material to use ammonia as a fuel and process steps of ammonia fuel cells are as
produce numerous chemicals namely; urea, ammonium carbamate,
follows:
nitric acid and ammonium nitrate.
• Gasification Syngas can be produced from ammonia gasification
• Ammonia is fed into the anode side of the fuel cell.
that can further be used for the production of chemical and elec • A catalyst at the anode helps splitting ammonia into hydrogen and
tricity generation.
nitrogen and specific reaction and operating conditions depend on
the fuel cell type.
Ammonia as potential renewable fuel has also widespread applica
• The hydrogen produced at the anode is then oxidized to produce
tions in transportation, aviation and marine industries and appeared as a protons (H+) and electrons. The electrons then travel through an
potential maritime fuel. Ammonia is used in different sectors in many
external circuit that creates the electrical power.
ways as shown in Fig. 6 and some of the streamlined usages of ammonia • At the cathode, oxygen from the air combines with the protons and
are; as nitrogen fertilizer, as feedstock for the chemical industry, in
electrons to produce water, which is typically the only byproduct of a
refrigeration applications, as an energy source, as carbon-free fuel, as
hydrogen fuel cell.
hydrogen storage media and as sorbent for point-source CO2 capture.
Moreover, in the transportation, aviation and maritime industry,
ammonia can be utilized in compression ignition engines designed for 5.2. Ammonia combustion engine
ammonia or ammonia dual-fuel engines, spark ignition engines designed
for ammonia or ammonia dual-fuel engines and ammonia mixed with Ammonia can be used as fuel in ICEs, similar to the other fuels such
as gasoline, diesel or natural gas [144,145]. Ammonia undergoes zero
Fig. 6. Ammonia utilization in different applications.
11
carbon emissions when burnt, which makes it an attractive option for a 6.1. Ammonia storage
carbon-free fuel.
Depending on the projected application and usage, numerous forms
2NH3 + 1.5O2 →N2 + 3H2 O (7)
can be used to store ammonia. Ammonia can be stored in liquid form at
The utilization of ammonia in combustion engines faces following high pressure and low temperature for applications in refrigeration and
challenges: chemical feedstock. Ammonia can be adsorbed in solid materials
namely; zeolites and activated carbon and can be stored and transported
• Ammonia has a lower energy content in comparison with other for small-scale applications. Ammonia can be stored in underground
traditional fuels (e.g. gasoline, diesel). caverns for large-scale storage such as excess RE seasonal storage in the
• Ammonia has relatively high ignition temperature that makes it form of ammonia. Ammonia can be stored in the form of ammonium
difficult to ignite and characteristically requires a spark plug to hydrate, which offers lower vapor pressure as compared with pure
initiate combustion process. ammonia, by reacting it with water and used for long-term ammonia
• Even though buring ammonia doesn’t produce CO2 emissions, it storage and transport. Ammonia can be stored in the form of chemical
produces nitrogen oxides (NOx) that are harmful pollutants. compounds namely; urea, ammonium carbamate and ammonium ni
• Ammonia requires careful handling and storage process owing to the trate that can be safely transported over long distances.
toxic nature of ammonia. Ammonia, synthetic natural gas, hydrogen and methanol are the
• Infrastructural changes need to be modified to work with ammonia. main chemical storage routes for energy storage technologies and the
advantages and disadvantages of these chemical storage technologies
The experimental combustion engine has been developed to run as are displayed in Fig. 7. Ammonia and hydrogen are emerging as clean
ammonia, often in a dual-fuel configuration with a traditional fuel like future fuels/energy carriers and offer the potential of playing a signifi
gasoline/diesel that helps initiate combustion [146]. Further research is cant role in global decarbonization and to help meet net-zero emission
being directed to mitigate the NOx emissions from ammonia combustion targets. However, regardless of the great potential offered by hydrogen,
and other processes including catalytic converters and exhaust gas some issues are linked to the storage and distribution of hydrogen which
recirculation techniques. is making the implementation challenging. In contrast, as ammonia has
already been used as a nitrogen fertilizer for decades, the existing
6. Ammonia Storage, transport and infrastructure infrastructure and distribution system are compatible with ammonia.
Moreover, ammonia can be liquefied and stored easily at low tempera
This section contains the storage and transport of ammonia including tures and high pressure which makes storage and transportation easy in
the ammonia economy and requirements of new infrastructure. the liquid phase.
Ammonia offers significant potential to the marine industry and is
being proposed to be adopted as maritime fuel in many ongoing/under-
deployment projects. The criterion used to identify the closest ideal
Fig. 7. Pros and cons of different chemical storage technologies (Modified from [147]).
12
liquid alternative transportation fuel is described as follows: dominant zero-emission fuel by 2050 [151]. Table 5 shows the prop
erties of different fuels in comparison with ammonia for international
• Production flexibility: Should be easily integrated with all prime shipping in terms of energy densities, energy supply, relative tank vol
energy sources such as wind, solar, biomass, nuclear, OTEC, coal ume, injection pressure, supply pressure and SOx and NOx emissions
with CCS, natural gas with CCS, etc). The fuel production process from complete combustion and ammonia offers promising properties to
should rather be simple with possible scalability. be employed as a shipping fuel.
• Distribution infrastructure: Should be supported by an extensive The selection of the ammonia transportation method is contingent on
existing storage and delivery infrastructure several factors such as the ammonia quantity to be transported, the
• Affordability: Affordability involves production CAPEX and OPEX geography of the destination and the transportation distance. Ammonia
costs, infrastructure costs and other considerations. transportation can be carried out using the following techniques:
• Economic development: The aptitude for nationwide fuel production
to become fuel and power independent. • Pipelines are known to be the most cost-effective and efficient way to
• High efficiency potential: Octane rating is critical for highly efficient transport large ammonia quantities over extended distances.
SI engines that permit high engine compression ratios followed by • Road tankers are also used for ammonia transportation over short/
high efficiency. The high-efficiency potential of fuel cells is also medium distances and are designed for safe handling. Safety, envi
imperative. ronmental risks, spill and leaks are avoided while designing the
• End use flexibility: Should be appropriate for use in SI engines, CI specialized ammonia tankers.
engines, fuel-cell, combustion turbines, etc. • Rail transport is also among the common ammonia transportation
• Environment and health: Should have excellent environmental and techniques that are employed for ammonia transportation over
health performance. short/medium distances.
• Safety: Should have acceptable safety characteristics. • Ammonia vessels are also being used for transporting large ammonia
• Sustainability: Should be based on renewable sources and widely quantities internationally and stored in refrigerated tankers that help
available, low-cost raw materials. maintain the low temperature to avoid evaporation.
• Additional benefits: Having supplementary non-fuel usages add
significant utilization potential to society e.g., fertilizer, chemical The cost estimations reveal that shipping costs of ammonia are much
precursor, RE storage, refrigerant, energy carrier, hydrogen source, lower ($40–60/tNH3) for a 10,000 km distance as compared with LH2
cleaner, etc. ($1700–2300/tLH2). In the longer run, process optimization and effi
ciency improvements possibly will reduce transportation costs. The
shipping cost increases slightly with transportation distance. The cost
6.2. Ammonia transport estimation for shipping ammonia for a 20,000 km distance is ($60–80/
tNH3) compared to ($2000–2700/tLH2) for liquid hydrogen [104].
Ships and pipelines have been carrying liquid ammonia for several
decades for the fertilizer industry. Ammonia is quite established in terms
of worldwide transmission that currently relies heavily on liquefied Table 6
petroleum gas (LPG) tankers. This trend is now shifting towards using Efficiencies of employing low-carbon ammonia and hydrogen as fuel in the
ammonia tankers for shipping by directing efforts toward an ammonia marine transport of 10,000 km (data from [1 0 5]).
technology roadmap [4]. Ammonia liquefies at a temperature of –33 ◦ C
Ammonia value chain Hydrogen value chain
or at a pressure of 8.6 bar. The existing largest refrigerated NH3 tanks are Technology Electrolytic Natural gas Electrolytic Natural gas
sited in Qatar with a capacity of 50 kt. Saudi Arabia has the existing with CCUS with CCUS
largest ammonia plant (SAFCO IV) that offers 1.3 Mt/year ammonia Ammonia 85 % 85 % – –
capacity. The United States has more than 10,000 ammonia storage sites production
and various of them are connected to the pipeline network stretching Hydrogen 64 % 74 % 64 % 74 %
over 3,000 km. Even though ammonia can be used as a hydrogen carrier, production (69 %) (69 %)
Liquefaction 70 % 70 % (82 %)
before the end-use, ammonia transport and storage advantages need to
– –
(82 %)
be evaluated against the energy losses that occur while cracking Power plant 44 % 44 % 51 % 51 %
ammonia into its constituents (~25–30 %) and required equipment for Marine 94 % 94 % 94 % 94 %
producing ammonia and reconversion into hydrogen. Ammonia for transport
Overall 22 % 26 % 21 % 25 % (29 %)
shipping decarbonization and maritime fuel carries huge potential
efficiency (24 %) (27 %)
[148]; the International Maritime Organization (IMO) [149,150] has
aggressive targets with projections indicating ammonia will be the
Table 5
Comparison of properties of different fuels for international shipping.
Fuel Energy density Supply energy Relative tank Injection Supply SOx emissions from CO₂₂ emissions from
(MJ/L, LHV) (MJ/kg, LHV) volume pressure (bar) pressure complete combustion (g complete combustion (g
(bar) SOx/km) CO₂₂/km)
Ammonia 12.7 18.6 2.76 600–700 83 0 0

(–33 ◦ C)
Hydrogen 8.5 120 4.12 – – 0 0
(-253 ◦ C)
Ethanol 21 26 1.75 500 10 – –
Methanol 15 19.9 2.33 500 13 0.02 43
LNG 22 50 1.59 300–380 300–380 0.02 37
(-162 ◦ C)
LPG 26 46 1.35 600–700 50 – –
Heavy fuel oil 35 40.5 1.00 950 7–8 0.36 49
13
Table 6 tabulates and compares the efficiencies of employing low- probable to be dropped down to 6 kWh/kgH2 for large scale liquefaction
carbon ammonia and hydrogen as fuel in the marine transport of plants. The marine transport of hydrogen, through liquefaction or by
10,000 km distance considering natural gas with CCUS and electrolytic conversion to ammonia, requires a commensurable amount of energy.
processes including ammonia production, hydrogen production, lique
faction, marine transport and overall efficiencies. 6.3. Ammonia infrastructure
The required resource amount to supply fuel demand is directly
linked with the fuel supply chain and it’s overall energy efficiency as Ammonia infrastructure refers to the several systems and compo
summarised in Table 6. An ample portion of energy is lost during the nents required for the production, storage, transportation, and utiliza
hydrogen production. Low-temperature water electrolysis currently of tion of ammonia as an energy carrier. Ammonia infrastructure is critical
fers around 64 % efficiency while natural gas offers 74 % hydrogen to comprehending the ammonia potential as a sustainable energy car
conversion efficiency. Converting hydrogen into ammonia causes rier, predominantly for a transition to a low-carbon economy. New
another 15 % loss of chemical energy as heat. Even though hydrogen infrastructure requirements, investment and innovation are obligatory
route can avoid this conversion loss, however, hydrogen liquefaction for to achieve near-zero-emission ammonia production. This includes near-
marine transport is very energy-intensive process. At present, 1 kg zero-emission technologies deployment, commercial-scale deployment,
hydrogen liquefaction consumes around 10 kWh of electricity which is rapid deployment of new infrastructure and investment requirements
Fig. 8. Layout of ammonia economy (modified from [22]).
14
for sustainable pathway that are described below. Infrastructure: Ammonia has been used in fertilizer for decades and
Deployment of near-zero-emission technologies. In sustainable comes with existing storage facilities and a supply chain with shows that
development scenario (SDS) presented in Ammonia Technology Road ammonia production, storing, and distribution infrastructure is devel
map [4], the near-zero-emission technologies share strikes approxi oped as compared to hydrogen.
mately 70 % of the entire production by 2050 and electrolysis share in Flexibility: Ammonia offers flexible options as can be employed as an
total production contributes over 25 %. While in NZES, near-zero- energy carrier, fuel and hydrogen storage media that can be cracked
emission technologies realize almost 95 % of the entire production by catalytically into nitrogen and hydrogen.
2050 and electrolysis will contribute over 40 %. Storage: High energy density of ammonia as compared with
Commercial scale deployment. Near-zero-emission technologies hydrogen makes liquid ammonia storage much easy and efficient.
need to be deployed at scale. Electrolysis-based production of ammonia Low-Emissions: Ammonia offers the potential integration with RE
is now being conducted at scale in many projects employing high-load- sources to be produced in an environmentally benign way resulting in
factor electricity, nevertheless, still facing challenges to deal with the fewer emissions as compared with fossil fuels-based hydrogen produc
intermittent nature of RE sources (such as wind and solar) and much is tion methods.
being done to tackle this challenge using hydrogen buffer storage. Ammonia vs. Hydrogen: Ammonia offers more than a few advan
Rapid deployment of new infrastructure. The SDS entails an elec tages over hydrogen as ammonia is comparatively easier to store and
trolyzer capacity of over 110 GW and infrastructure to transport and transport as compared with hydrogen owing to the higher energy den
store 90 Mt of CO2 by 2050 which can be achieved by installing ten sity. Ammonia also has some more advantages over hydrogen such as
30 MW electrolyzers per month and a CO2 capture, transport and storage safety (less flammable and less volatile), flexibility and infrastructure
facility with 1 Mt CO2 capacity every four months from today till 2050. [155].
In NZES, further emission reductions entail an even quicker technolog Ammonia vs. Natural Gas: Ammonia offers higher energy density as
ical deployment. compared with natural gas and more energy per unit volume can be
Investment requirements for sustainable pathway. The SDS requires stored. Ammonia can also be transported easily as compared with nat
$14 billion capital investment annually for the production of ammonia ural gas and emits no GHG emissions upon utilization. Nevertheless,
till 2050, 80 % of which belongs to near-zero-emission technology natural gas can be handled easily and is thus far extensively used as a
routes while NZES requires around $15 billion capital investment fuel, particularly in hydrogen production and power generation.
annually. In SDS, the investment per tonne of produced ammonia up Ammonia vs. Methanol: Ammonia offers higher energy density as
surges that of SPS only after 2040. compared with methanol and more energy per unit volume can be
At present, ammonia is employed in numerous applications as stored. Ammonia also has a higher boiling point as compared with
described earlier in this section. New ammonia decarbonization markets methanol which makes ammonia storage and transport easier and
are proposing ammonia to be used in the marine industry as maritime ammonia emits no GHG emissions upon utilization. Nevertheless,
fuel for power generation [4,41,152,153] and also as a hydrogen carrier methanol is thus far broadly used as fuel and is easier to handle.
[154]. Fig. 8 displays a layout of the potential roles of green ammonia in Ammonia vs. Electricity: Ammonia offers quite a few benefits over
the hydrogen economy including energy input sources, ammonia syn electricity. Ammonia can be stored for extended periods of time and can
thesis, ammonia storage and transport and ammonia utilization. Such an be employed as fuel for diverse applications. Ammonia can also be
ammonia economy has the potential for four energy-related markets employed as a feedstock in the chemical industry. Nevertheless, elec
including (i) ammonia as transportation fuel, (ii) ammonia for heating tricity is more efficient as compared with ammonia concerning energy
applications, (iii) ammonia for electricity generation and (iv) ammonia conversion, and it is thus far widely used in diverse applications.
as hydrogen feedstock. transportation and power generation.
7. Comparative assessment 8. Challenges and opportunities
The choice of fuel depends on the explicit application and re This section sheds some light on the challenges and opportunities
quirements. Ammonia offers several advantages over other fuels, mainly associated with ammonia synthesis processes and techniques with the
in terms of storage and transport, nonetheless, each fuel offers different potential to produce green ammonia. Furthermore, challenges and op
advantages and disadvantages. Some of the key benefits and opportu portunities in the ammonia storage and ammonia utilization methods
nities associated with ammonia production (possible integration and and techniques are described herein.
production using RE, carbon capture and utilization, circular economy,
sustainable agriculture, energy carrier), ammonia storage (alternative 8.1. Challenges and opportunities in ammonia production
storage methods, technological advancements and ammonia for energy
storage) and ammonia utilization (decarbonization, RE integration, • Electrolysis Haber-Bosch process
energy storage, innovation and sustainable agriculture). Also, the chal o Challenges: Lack of catalysts with satisfactory performance, low
lenges of ammonia production (high energy consumption, safety con NH3 concentration, NH3 separation technologies, high energy cost,
cerns and cost), ammonia storage (toxicity and safety concerns, heat management
compatibility with materials and energy requirements) and ammonia o Opportunities: Clean and decarbonized process, low operation
utilization (infrastructure, technological development, safety concerns temperature and pressure, flexible scale
and public perception). • Electro-catalytic process
Even though hydrogen is often considered a promising energy car o Challenges: Low activities and selectivities, reliable method for
rier, ammonia offers numerous advantages over hydrogen in certain determination and quantification of NH3
applications as listed below. o Opportunities: Clean and decarbonized process, mild operating
Safety: Ammonia is less flammable as compared with hydrogen. conditions
Moreover, ammonia can be stored and transported at lower pressures as • Chemical looping process
compared with pressures required for hydrogen storage which also o Challenges: Lack of efficient N carriers, high operation tempera
condenses the associated safety risks. ture, high energy cost, sluggish reaction kinetics
Toxicity: Ammonia is a toxic and hazardous substance unlike o Opportunities: Ambient pressure, circumvention of the competitive
hydrogen and entails vigilant handling, storage, and transportation to adsorption of N2 and H2/H2O, suitable for intermittent operation
avoid accidents and exposure to humans and the environment. • Photo-catalytic process
15
o Challenges: Low activities, fast electron and hole recombination, 8.4. Ammonia safety
photocatalysis by using visible lights
o Opportunities: Clean and decarbonized process, mild operating Ammonia is an important industrial chemical that can play a sig
conditions nificant role in global energy transition, however, misuse or accidental
• Plasma-assisted process release can have serious negative impacts. Ammonia can have toxic ef
o Challenges: Lack of high activity catalysts, high energy cost and low fects on plants, aquatic organisms, and wildlife, if released into the
energy-efficiency environment. High ammonia concentrations in water bodies can cause
o Opportunities: Milder operating conditions, suitable for intermit eutrophication that depletes oxygen levels and can cause harm to
tent operation and facile switch-on/off. aquatic life. Despite the fact ammonia can be burned in internal com
bustion engines (ICEs) and used in ammonia fuel cells, these technolo
8.2. Challenges and opportunities in ammonia-based energy storage gies are not as efficient/well-developed. Ammonia combustion also
produces nitrogen oxides (NOx), potent pollutants that possess health
Challenges. effects, environmental effects, ozone formation and climate change and
should be captured or reused in ammonia synthesis to mitigate these
• Low reactivity as compared with hydrocarbons challenges. Moreover, ammonia can form fine particulate matter, when
• High cost released into the air, which is harmful to air quality. Even though NH3
• Comparatively expensive water electrolysis process possesses potential to a great many applications and can also be used as
• Corrosive-resistant equipment’s requirement H2 storage medium to ease storage and transportation, some safety
• Requires suitable handling (toxic) challenges need to be taken care of owing to the hazardous nature of
• Trace amounts of ammonia in hydrogen after decomposition ammonia. Some of the major challenges associated with handling
ammonia include toxicity, corrosivity and flammability which are
Opportunities. associated with NH3 storage and transportation. Also, ammonia can
exert high pressure that can rupture/leak container if not properly
• High volumetric energy density of ammonia as compared with managed, when stored as liquid, if not properly managed.
hydrogen In order to mitigate these safety challenges associated with handling
• Energy density comparable to fossil fuels (22.5 MJ/kg) ammonia, following measures need to be taken:
• Controllable green ammonia production reactions
• Easily liquefiable • Proper ventilation needs to be ensured in the areas where ammonia is
• Plentiful raw materials for ammonia production stored and handled to prevent the accumulation of harmful ammonia
• Existing expertise from the fertilizer industry in ammonia production concentrations.
• Leak detection systems need to be utilized to detect leakages at very
8.3. Challenges and opportunities in ammonia utilization low concentrations to help take proper safety measures.
• Pressure relief devices need to be equipped with storage and
• Ammonia decomposition handling systems to help relieve the high pressure in ammonia
o Energy utilization form: Providing carbon-free hydrogen storage and transport containers and prevent container rupture.
o Challenges: Insufficiently high hydrogen production rate, high • Regular inspections and maintenance of all ammonia-related
operation temperature for full conversion of NH3 (T ≥ 500℃), NH3 equipment need to be taken to help detect potential issues such as
ship signs of wear, damage, or corrosion.
o Opportunities: Carbon-free H2, available commercialized cata • Ammonia scrubbing systems need to be equipped to neutralize the
lysts, compatible with hydrogen fuel cells ammonia in the case of leakage and to reduce the risk of exposure.
• Electro-oxidation or electrolysis of ammonia Such systems use an acidic solution that reacts with the NH3 to
o Energy utilization form: Providing carbon-free hydrogen produce a non-hazardous product.
o Challenges: Low energy efficiency, large over-potentials on anode • Proper design and installation need to be ensured that all systems
materials during electrolysis, production of NOx, NH3 ship, involved in the ammonia handling, storage and use are designed and
poisoning of electrode surfaces installed to meet applicable safety standards and regulations.
o Opportunities: Carbon-free H2, mild reaction conditions, suitable
for small-scale applications 9. Towards sustainable ammonia production
• Direct ammonia fuel cell
o Energy utilization form: Providing electricity Pathway towards more sustainable ammonia production can include
o Challenges: Large over-potentials on anode materials during encouraging green ammonia production technologies, encouraging
electrolysis, production of NOx, NH3 ship, high operation near-zero-emission technologies progress, desirable future outline
temperature pathways for the ammonia industry, using ammonia efficiently and
o Opportunities: Direct use of ammonia, reduction of the loss of improving the performance of existing equipments that are described
energy efficiency by cracking ammonia herein.
• Catalytic ammonia combustion Encouraging green ammonia production technologies. Emerging
o Energy utilization form: Providing power (heat energy) green ammonia production methods are being explored and deployed to
o Challenges: High-content NH3 or pure ammonia combustion, produce green ammonia using environmentally benign routes and
insufficient combustion efficiency at low temperatures, production employing RE sources (wind, solar, geothermal, hydro, OTEC and
of NOx, NH3 ship biomass). Greener routes will be comparatively expensive encompassing
o Opportunities: High octane number of NH3, direct use of ammonia, the air separation and hydrogen buffer storage cost to meet the inter
established technology of combustion engines or turbines, suitable mittency challenges (wind/solar). Many projects are under-
for hybrid fuel combustion systems (NH3 with another type of fuel development and some are already functional and producing green
such as diesel and H2) ammonia and can help towards achieving a net-zero future.
Encouraging near-zero-emission technologies progress. These near-
zero-emission technologies are emerging and do not only include elec
trolysis but also fossil-based routes and methane pyrolysis with CCS.
16
These pathways are characteristically 10–100% more expensive as including the methods of green ammonia production, ammonia utili
compared with conventional routes but in the long run, these cost zation, storage and transport along with challenges and opportunities,
numbers will drop down and help significantly in sustainable new infrastructure requirements and actions that need to be taken to
development. ward more sustainable ammonia production.
Desirable future outline pathways for ammonia industry. In Sus Renewable ammonia can help decarbonize the standing ammonia
tainable Development Scenario, with the assumption of intensive policy markets and displace fossil fuels from new energy markets. It is also
efforts and expedited new energy technologies innovation timelines, expected to play a substantial role in the energy sector, and the pro
direct CO2 emissions are expected to fall by more than 70 % by 2050 and duction and utilization of electro-fuels can help stabilize the high-
2050 Net-Zero Emissions Scenario [4] offers a trajectory to reduce renewable grid. Greening the industrial sector, particularly the fertil
emissions by 95 % by mid-century and the difference between scenarios izer and chemical industries, ought to be the primary target application,
is the difference in magnitude, not of direction. specifically for retrofits of standing ammonia plants. Ammonia also of
Using ammonia efficiently. Utilizing ammonia proficiently can fers potential to be used in the stationary power sector as renewable fuel
reduce the growth in demand without negotiating the end-user services with long-term purchase commitments and will be adopted as technol
and it can also ease the technology deployment burden. Slower pro ogy gets mature and significant improvement and cost reduction is still
duction growth is the result of approaches such as improving nitrogen possible in electrochemical technologies.
fertilizer and ammonia production efficiency and augmented recycling The R&D should focus more on the advanced techniques for sus
and re-use of ammonia-derived goods. By 2050, NZES and SDS scenarios tainable ammonia production including electrochemical synthesis,
show comparatively 10 % lower ammonia production by 2050. renewable energy-powered Haber-Bosch process, photoelectrochemical
Improving performance of existing equipments. Technological synthesis, bioelectrochemical synthesis and plasma-assisted ammonia
enhancement in the existing equipments is imperative, nonetheless synthesis. Also, technological advancements and suitable measures are
alone is not enough to achieve the required emission savings. The global needed to address the challenges associated with ammonia safety and
average ammonia production energy intensity today is about 41 GJ/t toxicity to help ammonia storage and transportation. In the long term,
and the best available technology (BAT) adoption combined with a renewable ammonia is expected to turn out to be the key commodity to
structural shift in ammonia production and operational improvements transport RE among continents. Encouraging green ammonia produc
can yield around a 25 % reduction in average ammonia production en tion technologies, encouraging near-zero-emission technologies prog
ergy intensity by 2050. ress, using ammonia efficiently, and improving performance of existing
equipments are the key factors that can help achieving sustainable
9.1. Enabling more sustainable ammonia production ammonia production. The ammonia market as fuel for stationary power
and maritime sector is expected to become bigger than the existing
Enabling more sustainable ammonia production includes the in ammonia combined markets by 2050.
dustry being well-informed about change, the central role of govern Sustainable, strong and stable policies will be essential to dissemi
ment, stakeholders’ critical roleplay and vitally important time and nating long-term and capital-intensive renewable technologies. In an
discussing how these can be enabled and play their role. integrated ammonia-urea plant, therefore, fossil-based ammonia cannot
Industry is well-informed for change. Governments and other simply be substituted with renewable ammonia, because new sources of
stakeholders already started acting to reduce ammonia industry emis CO2 would be required. A biomass-based green ammonia pathway will
sions. Some governments are funding innovation by implementing car produce more than the required CO2, creating the opportunity to
bon pricing regimes, whereas, producers have defined and set targets for combine CCS with urea production. This will also open a carbon-
emission reduction and are taking on RD&D projects. negative urea production pathway through a scalable route for bio
Central role of Government. Governments should establish an energy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS). Further RD&D and
ambitious emissions reduction supportive policy environment by form cost reductions are deemed obligatory in the emerging sustainable
ing transition plans in cooperation with mobilizing investment mecha ammonia production techniques and to address ammonia safety/
nisms. The targeted policy can also help address present emissions- toxicity challenges. Novel catalysts need to be explored to achieve
intensive assets, generate a near-zero-emission product market, fast- ammonia synthesis at milder conditions. Some other key takeaways and
track RD&D and incentivize end-use efficiency. Governments need to future recommendations are increasing CO2 emission prices to help
ensure the primed enabling conditions, including low-emission product focus on the deployment of renewable ammonia technologies, sup
market, hydrogen and ammonia infrastructure and CCS. porting the infrastructure and supply chains development of entire, in
Stakeholders’ critical roleplay. It will be obligatory for ammonia vestments in electrolyzer manufacturing, retrofitting technology in the
producers to establish transition strategies, fast-track RD&D and engage direction of renewable ammonia production, re-assess the ammonia role
in infrastructure development supporting initiatives. Farmers should in hydrogen strategies and support demand-side fossil fuels phase-out.
prioritize superlative management practices for further effective fertil
izer use. Investors and financial institutions should implement sustain Declaration of Competing Interest
able investment structures to lead finance in the direction of emissions
reduction prospects. Researchers and organizations can support devel The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
oping schemes, continue early-stage technological research and galva interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
nize key technological support. the work reported in this paper.
Vitally important time. The current decade is critical to enact long-
term success in both 2050 SDS and NZES. Vibrant near-term activities Data availability
take in the launch and implementation of supportive and robust policy
mechanisms, act quickly on energy use and efficiency enhancement, Data will be made available on request.
originate supporting infrastructure, and accelerate RD&D.
Acknowledgment
10. Conclusions and future recommendations
The authors acknowledge support from the private donor funding.
Ammonia is anticipated to become a future zero-carbon fuel for
numerous industrial sectors, residential applications and energy storage
systems. This review provides an in-detail study on renewable ammonia
17
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