RM4151-RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY AND IPR

• What is Research?
• Definition: Research is defined as careful
consideration of study regarding a particular
concern or problem using scientific methods.
• Inductive research methods analyze an
observed event, while deductive methods
verify the observed event. Inductive
approaches are associated with qualitative
research, and deductive methods are more
commonly associated with quantitative
analysis.
 Overview
• What is research methodology?
• Research methodology simply refers to the
practical “how” of any given piece of research.
More specifically, it’s about how a
researcher systematically designs a study to
ensure valid and reliable results that address
the research aims and objectives.
• For example, how did the researcher go
about deciding:
• What data to collect (and what data to ignore)
• Who to collect it from (in research, this is
called “sampling design”)
• How to collect it (this is called “data collection
methods”)
• How to analyse it (this is called “data analysis
methods”)
• What is research methodology definition?
• Research methodology is the specific
procedures or techniques used to identify,
select, process, and analyze information
about a topic.
• In a research paper, the methodology section
allows the reader to critically evaluate a
study's overall validity and reliability.
What are the 4 types of research methodology?
• Data may be grouped into four main types
based on methods for collection:
• observational
• experimental
• simulation
• and derived
 Research methods are broadly
classified as Qualitative and
Quantitative.

• When collecting and analyzing data,

quantitative research deals with numbers and
statistics, while qualitative research deals with
words and meanings.
• Both are important for gaining different kinds
of knowledge.
• Research methods are broadly classified as Qualitative and
Quantitative.
• Both methods have distinctive properties and data collection
methods.
• Qualitative research is expressed in words. It is used to understand
concepts, thoughts or experiences.
• Qualitative methods
• Qualitative research is a method that collects data using
conversational methods, usually open-ended questions. This
method helps a researcher understand what participants think and
why they think in a particular way.
• Types of qualitative methods include:
• One-to-one Interview
• Focus Groups
• Ethnographic studies-such as participant observation and face-to-
face interviewing
• Text Analysis
• Case Study
• Examples of open-ended questions include:
• Tell me about your relationship with your
supervisor.
• How do you see your future?
• Tell me about the children in this photograph.
• What is the purpose of government?
• Why did you choose that answer?
• Difference between the Qualitative and
Quantitative research.
• Quantitative research deals with numbers
and statistics, while qualitative research deals
with words and meanings. Quantitative
methods allow you to systematically measure
variables and test hypotheses. Qualitative
methods allow you to explore concepts and
experiences in more detail
• Quantitative methods- Quantitative research is
expressed in numbers and graphs. It is used to
test or confirm theories and assumptions.
• Quantitative methods deal with numbers and
measurable forms. It uses a systematic way of
investigating events or data. It answers questions
to justify relationships with measurable variables
to either explain, predict, or control a
phenomenon.
• Types of quantitative methods include:
• Survey research
• Descriptive research
• Correlational research
• Remember, research is only valuable and useful
when it is valid, accurate, and reliable.
• What are some examples of quantitative
methods?
• Quantitative data collection methods include
various forms of surveys – online surveys,
paper surveys, mobile surveys and kiosk
surveys, face-to-face interviews, telephone
interviews, longitudinal studies, website
interceptors, online polls, and systematic
observations.
• Quantitative data collection methods
• Surveys: List of closed or multiple choice questions that is
distributed to a sample (online, in person, or over the phone).
• Experiments: Situation in which variables are controlled and
manipulated to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
• Observations: Observing subjects in a natural environment where
variables can’t be controlled.

• Qualitative data collection methods

• Interviews: Asking open-ended questions verbally to respondents.
• Focus groups: Discussion among a group of people about a topic to
gather opinions that can be used for further research.
• Ethnography: Participating in a community or organization for an
extended period of time to closely observe culture and behavior.
• Literature review: Survey of published works by other authors.
• Quantitative research approach
• You survey 300 students at your university and
ask them questions such as: “on a scale from 1-5,
how satisfied are your with your professors?”
• You can perform statistical analysis on the data
and draw conclusions such as: “on average
students rated their professors 4.4”.
• Qualitative research approach
• You conduct in-depth interviews with 15 students
and ask them open-ended questions such as:
“How satisfied are you with your studies?”,
“What is the most positive aspect of your study
program?” and “What can be done to improve
the study program?”
UNIT-1
 UNIT I - RESEARCH DESIGN

• Overview of research process and design

• Use of Secondary and exploratory data to
answer the research question
• Qualitative research
• Observation studies
• Experiments and Surveys.
Research design is a plan to answer your
research question. A research method is a
strategy used to implement that plan.

Research design and methods are different

but closely related, because good research
design ensures that the data you obtain will
help you answer your research question more
effectively
• The Research Process
• Anything you write involves organization and a logical
flow of ideas, so understanding the logic of the
research process before beginning to write is
essential. Simply put, you need to put your writing in
the larger context—see the forest before you even
attempt to see the trees.
• In this brief introductory module, we’ll review the
major steps in the research process, conceptualized
here as a series of steps within a circle, with each step
dependent on the previous one. The circle best depicts
the recursive nature of the process; that is, once the
process has been completed, the researcher may begin
again by refining or expanding on the initial approach,
or even pioneering a completely new approach to
solving the problem.
1.Identify a Research Problem
• You identify a research problem by first
selecting a general topic that’s interesting to
you and to the interests and specialties of
your research advisor. Once identified, you’ll
need to narrow it. For example, if teenage
pregnancy is your general topic area, your
specific topic could be a comparison of how
teenage pregnancy affects young fathers and
mothers differently.
2.Review the Literature
• Find out what’s being asked or what’s already
been done in the area by doing some
exploratory reading. Discuss the topic with
your advisor to gain additional insights,
explore novel approaches, and begin to
develop your research question, purpose
statement, and hypothesis(es), if applicable.
3.Determine Research Question
• A good research question is a question worth
asking; one that poses a problem worth solving. A
good question should:
• Be clear. It must be understandable to you and
to others.
• Be researchable. It should be capable of
developing into a manageable research design, so
data may be collected in relation to it. Extremely
abstract terms are unlikely to be suitable.
• Connect with established theory and research.
There should be a literature on which you can
draw to illuminate how your research question(s)
should be approached.
4.Develop Research Methods
• Once you’ve finalized your research question,
purpose statement, and hypothesis(es), you’ll
need to write your research proposal—a
detailed management plan for your research
project. The proposal is as essential to
successful research as an architect’s plans are
to the construction of a building.
5.Collect & Analyze Data
• In Practical Research–Planning and Design (2005, 8th
Edition), Leedy and Ormrod provide excellent advice
for what the researcher does at this stage in the
research process. The researcher now
• collects data that potentially relate to the problem,
• arranges the data into a logical organizational
structure,
• analyzes and interprets the data to determine their
meaning,
• determines if the data resolve the research problem
or not, and
• determines if the data support the hypothesis or not.
6.Document the Work
• Because research reports differ by discipline,
the most effective way for you to understand
formatting and citations is to examine
reports from others in your department or
field.
7.Communicate Your Research
• Talk with your advisor about potential local,
regional, or national venues to present your
findings. And don’t sell yourself short:
Consider publishing your research in related
books or journals.
• Research design definition
• Research design is the framework of research
methods and techniques chosen by a
researcher. The design allows researchers to
hone in on research methods that are suitable
for the subject matter and set up their studies
up for success.
• The design of a research topic explains the
type of research (experimental, survey
research, correlational, semi-experimental,
review) and also its sub-type (experimental
design, research problem, descriptive case-
study).
• There are three main types of designs for
research:
• Data collection,
• measurement,
• and analysis.
• You can further break down the types of
research design into five categories:
• 1. Descriptive research design: In a
descriptive design, a researcher is solely
interested in describing the situation or case
under their research study. It is a theory-
based design method which is created by
gathering, analyzing, and presenting collected
data.
• 2. Experimental research design:
Experimental research establishes a
relationship between the cause and effect of
a situation.
• 3. Correlational research design: Correlational
research is a non-experimental
research technique that helps researchers
establish a relationship between two closely
connected variables. This type of research
requires two different groups. There is no
assumption while evaluating a relationship
between two different variables, and statistical
analysis techniques calculate the relationship
between them.
• A correlation coefficient determines the
correlation between two variables, whose value
ranges between -1 and +1. If the correlation
coefficient is towards +1, it indicates a positive
relationship between the variables and -1 means
a negative relationship between the two
variables.
• 4. Diagnostic research design: In diagnostic
design, the researcher is looking to evaluate
the underlying cause of a specific topic or
phenomenon(நிகழ் வு). This method helps
one learn more about the factors that create
troublesome situations.
• This design has three parts of the research:
• · Inception(துவக்கம் ) of the issue
• · Diagnosis(கண்டறிதல் ) of the issue
• · Solution for the issue
• 5.Exploratory research is the process of
investigating a problem that has not been
studied or thoroughly investigated in the past
Exploratory type of research is usually
conducted to have a better understanding of
the existing problem, but usually doesn't lead
to a conclusive result.
• Exploratory research: Definition
• Exploratory research is defined as a research used to
investigate a problem which is not clearly defined.
• It is conducted to have a better understanding of the
existing problem, but will not provide conclusive
results.
• For such a research, a researcher starts with a general
idea and uses this research as a medium to identify
issues, that can be the focus for future research.
• An important aspect here is that the researcher should
be willing to change his/her direction subject to the
revelation of new data or insight. Such a research is
usually carried out when the problem is at a
preliminary stage. It is often referred to as grounded
theory approach or interpretive research as it used to
answer questions like what, why and how.
• For example: Consider a scenario where a
juice bar owner feels that increasing the
variety of juices will enable increase in
customers, however he is not sure and needs
more information.
• The owner intends to carry out an exploratory
research to find out and hence decides to do
an exploratory research to find out if
expanding their juices selection will enable
him to get more customers of if there is a
better idea.
 Use of Secondary and exploratory
data to answer the research question
• What is Exploratory Research
• Exploratory type of research is usually
conducted to have a better understanding of
the existing problem, but usually doesn't lead
to a conclusive result.
• Exploratory Research Methods
• There are several exploratory research
methods available for data gathering and
research.
• However, exploratory research has been
classified into two main methods, namely the
primary and secondary research methods.
• Primary Research Methods
• In primary research methods, data is collected
directly from the subject of investigation. The
subject, in this case, maybe a group of people
or an individual.
• It doesn't matter whether the data is collected
by the researcher himself or through a third
party, the main purpose of the research
should be fulfilled. The purpose of conducting
this research is to collect information about
the problem which requires in-depth analysis.
• Some of the primary research methods used
in exploratory research include:
• Surveys
• Surveys are used to collect data from a
predefined subject(s). It can be used collected
to study trends, opinions, and behaviour of a
group of people.
• For example: A survey is sent to a given set of
audience to understand their opinions about
the size of mobile phones when they purchase
one. Based on such information organization
can dig deeper into the topic and make
business related decision.
• Interviews
• Although more stressful and time-consuming
than others, the interview technique is the
best in terms of collecting detailed and
correct data.
• Interviews can be conducted in person, via
phone call or video call.
• Interviews can also be recorded by the
researcher in case he/she needs to go back to
it and confirm specific information.
• Focus Groups
• Focus group is often used by researchers
when trying to collect data from a group of
people with similar characteristics. The
research can be done using any of the three
methods explained above.
•
• Observations: Observation research can be
qualitative observation or quantitative
observation. Such a research is done to observe a
person and draw the finding from their reaction
to certain parameters. In such a research, there
is no direct interaction with the subject.

• For example: An FMCG company wants to know

how it’s consumer react to the new shape of
their product. The researcher observes the
customers first reaction and collects the data,
which is then used to draw inferences from the
collective information.
• Secondary Research Methods
• Secondary research method uses existing
resources on the subject under study. Existing
sources like newspapers, magazines, articles,
papers, etc. are what researchers conduct for
exploratory research.
• All the resources used must be cited in
publications. Some of the secondary research
methods used in exploratory research include:
• Literature
• Literature research is the process of
conducting old resources like publications,
textbooks, articles, magazines, etc. All this
information can be gathered in both soft copy
and hard copy documents.
• For example, an undergraduate student
conducting his/her final project research will
need to conduct textbooks, publications,
papers, articles, etc.
• Online Sources
• With the advent of technology, this research has
gained much popularity among millennials.
Online research sources are the cheapest and
easiest method of research.
• With access to the internet and a personal
computer or mobile phone, a researcher can
browse through as many resources as possible.
They can also be downloaded for further use in
the future.
• The setback of this method is the difficulty of
combing through the many online resources to
find genuine information. Researchers face the
possibility of ending up with incorrect data
because false information may be difficult to
identify.
• Case Study
• A researcher might find relevant information
on the problem under study by studying
existing cases.
• For example, a mathematician trying to
formulate a model to solve the queuing
problem in an airport may conduct existing
research in similar areas.
• A case study could be research that solved
the queuing problem in a shopping mall. This
research will be studied and modified to suit
that of the airport queuing problem.
• How To Conduct Exploratory Research
• Step 1 - Identify the problem
• This is a common starting point for all types of
research. Here, the researcher identifies the
purpose of the research by answering the
"what question".
• For example, when investigating a crime
scene, the FBI needs to first identify what
happened. Was it theft, murder or a case of
child abuse?
• Step 2 - Create the hypothesis
• After identifying the problem, the researcher
goes ahead to check whether there have
been prior investigations regarding the
subject matter. But when the researcher
realizes that there are no previous
investigations, he/she arrives at a hypothesis
based on the questions obtained while
identifying the problem.
• If you are investigating a crime scene, an autopsy
will be performed on the dead body to answer
how he/she was killed.
• Questions like, Was he in a gang?, Fighting over a
business deal? or very rich? will answer the
question of why he was killed.
• With this information, the investigator can arrive
at a hypothesis.
• (ஒன்றின் சாத்தியமான விளக்கமாக
முன் வவக்கப் படுவதும் அதன்
மமய் ம் வமத் தன் வம
உறுதிப் படுத்தப் படாததுமாகிய ஒரு
கருத்து;
• மபாதுவிளக்கம் ; கருதுககாள் .)
• Step 3 - Conduct further research
• To conduct further research, the researcher
needs to first obtain relevant data that will assist
in the research process.
• Some of the methods of collecting data include
interviews, surveys, online sources, etc.
• Once the data has been collected, the researcher
will continue the investigation through
descriptive methods. This process uses
qualitative data.
• Once the data has been obtained, the researcher
will continue his study through descriptive
investigation. Qualitative methods are used to
further study the subject in detail and find out if
the information is true or not.
• Examples of Exploratory Research
• In this section, we shall be considering three
examples of exploratory research and will be
going through the research process as explained
above.
• Exploratory Research Example on Murder
Investigation
• A fresh or inconclusive murder case will be
investigated using exploratory research because
it has not been investigated clearly in the past.
To gain a better understanding of how
exploratory research is used to conduct a murder
investigation, let us review this popular crime
movie titled Murder on the Orient Express.
• Qualitative research
• Observation studies
• Experiments and Surveys.
• Qualitative research:
• 1. One-on-one interview:
• Conducting in-depth interviews is one of the
most common qualitative research methods. It is
a personal interview that is carried out with one
respondent at a time. This is purely a
conversational method and invites opportunities
to get details in depth from the respondent.
• One of the advantages of this method provides a
great opportunity to gather precise data about
what people believe and what their motivations
are. If the researcher is well experienced asking
the right questions can help him/her collect
meaningful data. If they should need more
information the researchers should ask such
follow up questions that will help them collect
more information.
• 2. Focus groups:
• A focus group is also one of the commonly used
qualitative research methods, used in data collection.
A focus group usually includes a limited number of
respondents (6-10) from within your target market.
• The main aim of the focus group is to find answers to
the “why” “what” and “how” questions. Nowadays
focus groups can be sent an online survey on various
devices and responses can be collected at the click of a
button.
• Focus groups are an expensive method as compared
to the other online qualitative research methods.
Typically they are used to explain complex processes.
This method is very useful when it comes to market
research on new products and testing new concepts.
• 3. Ethnographic research(A classic example of ethnographic
research would be an anthropologist traveling to an island,
living within the society on said island for years, and
researching its people and culture through a process of
sustained observation and participation)
• Ethnographic research is the most in-depth observational
method that studies people in their naturally occurring
environment.
• This method requires the researchers to adapt to the target
audiences’ environments which could be anywhere from an
organization to a city or any remote location. Here
geographical constraints can be an issue while collecting
data.
• This research design aims to understand the cultures,
challenges, motivations, and settings that occur.
• 4. Case study research(A case study is a detailed
study of a specific subject, such as a person,
group, place, event, organization, or
phenomenon. ... A case study research design
usually involves qualitative methods, but
quantitative methods are sometimes also used)
• This type of research method is used within a
number of areas like education, social sciences
and similar. This method may look difficult to
operate, however, it is one of the simplest ways
of conducting research as it involves a deep dive
and thorough understanding of the data
collection methods and inferring the data.
• In general terms, the case study analyzes a
defined problem consisting in a real situation and
uses real information as methodological tool.
• 5. Record keeping:
• This method makes use of the already existing
reliable documents and similar sources of
information as the data source. This data can
be used in new research. This is similar to
going to a library. There one can go over books
and other reference material to collect
relevant data that can likely be used in the
research.
• 6. Process of observation: (An observation procedure
is a process used to observe and record a set of
activities or behaviors.)
• Qualitative Observation is a process of research that
uses subjective methodologies to gather systematic
information or data. Since, the focus on qualitative
observation is the research process of using subjective
methodologies to gather information or data.
Qualitative observation is primarily used to equate
quality differences.
• Qualitative observation deals with the 5 major sensory
organs and their functioning – sight, smell, touch,
taste, and hearing. This doesn’t involve measurements
or numbers but instead characteristics.(
• இது அளவீடுகள் அல் லது எண்கவள
உள் ளடக்காது, மாறாக பண்புகவள
உள் ளடக்கியது.
• )
• 1. Observational Study 👀
• In this type of study, we measure or survey
members of a sample without trying to affect
the members or manipulating the variables.
Here, we simply observe what is happening
and record the observations. So, it would be
correct to say that researchers do not impose
any kind of treatment or restriction to the
group nor do they randomly assign the
subjects to a group. There is basically no
manipulation of the environment in which the
subject occurs.
• An opinion survey asking questions about how
people liked the most recent documentary is
an example of an observational study. Here,
the researchers have no control over the
participants.
• Some of the key points about observational
studies are as follows:
• Observational studies are less expensive than
experimental studies.
• The time required for the completion of
observational studies can be several years to
decades.
• 2. Experimental Study 💊
• In this type of study, we randomly assign a
treatment to a group so that the researchers
can draw the cause and effect (causal)
conclusion.
• This random assignment of treatments is what
distinguishes both the studies (observational
and experimental). Here, we experiment and
manipulate the environment of the subject to
measure the response (dependent) variable.
Evidence provided by the experimental study
is considered to be stronger than the
observational study.
• Some of the key points about experimental
studies are as follows:
• Experimental studies are closely monitored.
• Experimental studies are expensive.
• Experimental studies are typically smaller and
shorter than observational studies.
• Now, let us understand the difference
between the two types of studies using
different problems.
• Problem 1:
• A study took a sample of students and asked
them about their bedtime schedules. The data
showed that people who sleep for at least 8
hours before the exam day were more likely to
get good grades than those who sleep for less
than 8 hours.
• Type of Study: Observational
• Reason: The study is a kind of a survey that just
asked people about the number of hours they
sleep right before the exam day and how many
marks they scored. Since the people were not
randomly assigned to any group or given any
treatment, the study was an observational study.
• Problem 2:
• A study randomly assigned people to one of the
two groups. Group 1 was asked to follow a strict
study schedule for a fixed period of time
whereas Group 2 was asked to study in the same
way as they used to earlier. The researchers
looked at which group scored better in the
exams.
• Type of Study: Experimental
• Reason: The study randomly assigned people to
two different groups out of which one group was
given a treatment whereas the other group was
not. Thus, this was an experimental study.
• Problem 3:
• A study took a random sample of people and
examined their smoking habits. Each person
was classified as either a light, moderate or
heavy smoker. The researcher looked at the
stress level of each group.
• Type of Study: Observational
• Reason: The study took a random sample of
people but does not randomly assign people
to different groups. The study simply observed
whether the people were light, moderate, or
heavy smokers and their stress level. Thus,
this was an observational study.
• Survey research definition
• Survey Research is defined as the process of
conducting research using surveys that researchers
send to survey respondents. The data collected from
surveys is then statistically analyzed to draw
meaningful research conclusions.
In the 21st century, every organization’s eager to
understand what their customers think about their
products or services and make better business
decisions. Researchers can conduct research in
multiple ways, but surveys are proven to be one of the
most effective and trustworthy research methods. An
online survey is a method for extracting information
about a significant business matter from an individual
or a group of individuals. It consists of structured
survey questions that motivate the participants to
respond,
• Creditable survey research can give these
businesses access to a vast information bank.
Organizations in media, other companies, and
even governments rely on survey research to
obtain accurate data.

The traditional definition of survey research is a

quantitative method for collecting information
from a pool of respondents by asking multiple
survey questions. This research type includes the
recruitment of individuals, collection, and
analysis of data.
• Survey research methods
• Survey research methods can be derived based on two critical
factors: Survey research tool and time involved to conduct
research.
There are three main survey research methods, divided based on
the medium of conducting survey research:
• Online/ Email: Online survey research is one of the most popular
survey research methods today. The cost involved in online survey
research is extremely minimal, and the responses gathered are
highly accurate.
• Phone: Survey research conducted over the telephone (CATI) can
be useful in collecting data from a more extensive section of the
target population. There are chances that the money invested in
phone surveys will be higher than other mediums, and the time
required will be higher.
• Face-to-face: Researchers conduct face-to-face in-depth interviews
in situations where there is a complicated problem to solve. The
response rate for this method is the highest, but it can be costly.
• Survey research scales
• There are four main scales for measurement of variables:
• Nominal Scale: A nominal scale associates numbers with variables
for mere naming or labeling, and the numbers usually have no
other relevance. It is the most basic of the four levels of
measurement.
• Ordinal Scale: The ordinal scale has an innate order within the
variables along with labels. It establishes the rank between the
variables of a scale but not the difference value between the
variables.
• Interval Scale: The interval scale is a step ahead in comparison to
the other two scales. Along with establishing a rank and name of
variables, the scale also makes known the difference between the
two variables. The only drawback is that there is no fixed start
point of the scale, i.e., the actual zero value is absent.
• Ratio Scale: The ratio scale is the most advanced measurement
scale, which has variables that are labeled in order and have a
calculated difference between variables. In addition to what
interval scale orders, this scale has a fixed starting point, i.e., the
actual zero value is present.
• ordinal scale:
nominal
Interval Scale
• Ratio Scale:
• Benefits of survey research
• In case survey research is used for all the right purposes and is
implemented properly, marketers can benefit by gaining useful,
trustworthy data that they can use to better the ROI of the organization.
• Other benefits of survey research are:
• Minimum investment: Mobile surveys and online surveys have minimal
finance invested per respondent. Even with the gifts and other incentives
provided to the people who participate in the study, online surveys are
extremely economical compared to the paper-based surveys.
• Versatile sources for response collection: You can conduct surveys via
various mediums like online and mobile surveys. You can further classify
them into qualitative mediums like focus groups, interviews, and
quantitative mediums like customer-centric surveys. Due to the offline
survey response collection option, researchers can conduct surveys in
remote areas with limited internet connectivity. This can make data
collection and analysis more convenient and extensive.
• Reliable for respondents: Surveys are extremely secure as the respondent
details and responses are kept safeguarded. This anonymity makes
respondents answer the survey questions candidly and with absolute
honesty. An organization seeking to receive explicit responses for its
survey research must mention that it will be confidential.
 RM4151-RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY AND IPR

UNIT-II
 UNIT II
DATA COLLECTION AND SOURCES

• Measurements
• Measurement Scales
• Questionnaires and Instruments
• Sampling and methods
• Data - Preparing
• Exploring
• examining and displaying
• What is data collection?
• Data collection is a systematic method of
collecting and measuring data gathered from
different sources of information in order to
provide answers to relevant questions. An
accurate evaluation of collected data can help
researchers predict future phenomenon and
trends.
• Data collection can be classified into two, namely:
primary and secondary data. Primary data are
raw data i.e. fresh and are collected for the first
time. Secondary data, on the other hand, are
data that were previously collected and tested.
• Methods of data collection
• The system of data collection is based on the
type of study being conducted. Depending on
the researcher’s research plan and design,
there are several ways data can be collected.
• The most commonly used methods are:
published literature sources, surveys (email
and mail), interviews (telephone, face-to-face
or focus group), observations, documents and
records, and experiments.
• 1. Literature sources
• This involves the collection of data from
already published text available in the public
domain. Literature sources can include:
textbooks, government or private companies’
reports, newspapers, magazines, online
published papers and articles.
• This method of data collection is referred to as
secondary data collection. In comparison to
primary data collection, tt is inexpensive and
not time consuming.
• 2. Surveys
• Survey is another method of gathering
information for research purposes. Information
are gathered through questionnaire, mostly
based on individual or group experiences
regarding a particular phenomenon.
• There are several ways by which this information
can be collected. Most notable ways are: web-
based questionnaire and paper-based
questionnaire (printed form). The results of this
method of data collection are generally easy to
analyse.
• 3. Interviews
• Interview is a qualitative method of data
collection whose results are based on intensive
engagement with respondents about a particular
study. Usually, interviews are used in order to
collect in-depth responses from the professionals
being interviewed.
• Interview can be structured (formal), semi-
structured or unstructured (informal). In essence,
an interview method of data collection can be
conducted through face-to-face meeting with the
interviewee(s) or through telephone.
• 4. Observations
• Observation method of information gathering is
used by monitoring participants in a specific
situation or environment at a given time and day.
Basically, researchers observe the behaviour of
the surrounding environments or people that are
being studied. This type of study can be
contriolled, natural or participant.
• Controlled observation is when the researcher
uses a standardised precedure of observing
participants or the environment. Natural
observation is when participants are being
observed in their natural conditions. Participant
observation is where the researcher becomes
part of the group being studied.
• 5. Documents and records
• This is the process of examining existing
documents and records of an organisation for
tracking changes over a period of time. Records
can be tracked by examining call logs, email logs,
databases, minutes of meetings, staff reports,
information logs, etc.
• For instance, an organisation may want to
understand why there are lots of negative
reviews and complains from customer about its
products or services. In this case, the organisation
will look into records of their products or services
and recorded interaction of employees with
customers.
• 6. Experiments
• Experiemental research is a research method
where the causal relationship between two
variables are being examined. One of the
variables can be manipulated, and the other is
measured. These two variables are classified as
dependent and independent variables.
• In experimental research, data are mostly
collected based on the cause and effect of the
two variables being studied. This type of research
are common among medical researchers, and it
uses quantitative research approach.
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as soon as possible.
• SCALE & MEASUREMENT
• Measurement and Scale in Research Methodology.
Measurement is the process of describing some
property of a phenomenon under study and assigning
a numerical value to it. In our daily life, many things
are measured continuously in different ways for
different purposes.
• We can not only measure physical objects but abstract
objects also, that means we can measure
quantitatively and qualitatively. We can measure
height, weight, length, width, income etc.,
(quantitative measurement) and at the same time, we
can measure attitude, personality, perception,
intelligence, preference (qualitative measurement)
etc. A measurement can give us different kinds of
information about a theoretical concept under study.
• There are four hierarchical levels of
measurement identified by Stevens (1946);
they are
• nominal,
• ordinal,
• interval,
• and ratio.
• Nominal Scale
• This is a method of measuring the objects or
events into a discrete category.
• Here we assign a number to an object only
for the identification of the object. So it is a
categorical data or qualitative data.
• Here the numbers are only used for labeling
the object, and there is no quantitative value
at all.
• Examples of nominal scale data connection
using a questionnaire.
nominal
• Ordinal Scale
• The ordinal scale is the next level of data
measurement scale. Here we measure according to
the rank order of the data without considering the
degree of difference between the data. Here the
“Ordinal” is the indication of “Order”.
• In ordinal measurement, we assign a numerical value
to the variables based on their relative ranking or
positioning in comparison with other data in that
group. An ordinal scale is indicating the logical
hierarchy among variables under observation.
• Here the data has an order. In a nominal scale, there is
no predefined order for arranging the data. But here
the data is arranged according to some predefined
order, but not considering the magnitude of
difference. The ranking scale tells us the relative
position of the objects under study.
• Suppose in a 100-meter race John finished first,
Tom finished second, Mathew finished 3 and
Xavier finished fourth.
• Here we explain the data in ranking scale. We
arrange the data according to the relative
position of the data set. Here we not consider
the magnitude of difference between John and
Tom, Tom and Mathew, Mathew and Xavier.
• They may not finish in the equal interval, that is
Tom finished 5 seconds after John, Mathew
finished 9 seconds after Tom, and Xavier finished
18 seconds after Mathew. Here we do not
consider this magnitude of difference, but only
the order of the finishing position.
• ordinal scale:
• Interval Scale
• It is the next higher level of measurement. It
overcomes the limitation of ordinal scale
measurement. In the ordinal scale, the
magnitude of the difference is unimportant, but
here on an interval scale, the magnitude of the
difference is important. In the interval scale, the
difference between the two variables has a
meaningful interpretation. The distance between
any two adjacent attributes is called an interval,
and intervals are always equal.
• Examples of Interval Scale data connection using
questionnaire.
• How likely do you recommend our product to
your friends or relatives?
• Ratio Scale
• Ratio scale is purely quantitative. Among the four
levels of measurement, ratio scale is the most
precise. The score of zero in ratio scale is not arbitrary
compared to the other three scales.
• This is the unique quality of ratio scale data. It
represents all the characteristics of nominal, ordinal,
and interval scales. Examples of ratio scales are age,
wight, height, income, distance etc.
• Examples of Interval Scale (Ranking Scale) data
connection using questionnaire.
• Specify you monthly income :
• How many students are there in your institution? :
• Number of departments in your organisation :
• What are questionnaire instruments?
• A questionnaire is a research instrument
consisting of a series of questions for the
purpose of gathering information from
respondents.
• Questionnaires can be thought of as a kind of
written interview.
• They can be carried out face to face, by
telephone, computer or post.
• Questionnaires provide a relatively cheap, quick
and efficient way of obtaining large amounts of
information from a large sample of people.
• The questionnaire is the main instrument for
collecting data in survey research. Basically, it is a
set of standardized questions, often called items,
which follow a fixed scheme in order to collect
individual data about one or more specific topics.
• What is a Questionnaire?
• A questionnaire is a research instrument that
consists of a set of questions or other types of
prompts that aims to collect information from a
respondent.
• Data can be collected relatively quickly because
the researcher would not need to be present
when the questionnaires were completed. This
is useful for large populations when interviews
would be impractical.
• However, a problem with questionnaires is that
respondents may lie due to social desirability.
Most people want to present a positive image of
themselves and so may lie or bend the truth to
look good, e.g., pupils would exaggerate revision
duration.(மிகைப் படுத்துவார்ைள் .)
• Questionnaires can be an effective means of
measuring the behavior, attitudes, preferences,
opinions and, intentions of relatively large
numbers of subjects more cheaply and quickly
than other methods.
• Often a questionnaire uses both open and
closed questions to collect data.
• This is beneficial as it means both quantitative
and qualitative data can be obtained.
• There are following types of questionnaires:
• Computer questionnaire. Respondents are
asked to answer the questionnaire which is
sent by mail. ...
• Telephone questionnaire. ...
• In-house survey. ...
• Mail Questionnaire. ...
• Open question questionnaires. ...
• Multiple choice questions. ...
• Dichotomous Questions. ...
• Scaling Questions.
• Computer questionnaire. Respondents are asked to
answer the questionnaire which is sent by mail. The
advantages of the computer questionnaires include
their inexpensive price, time-efficiency, and
respondents do not feel pressured, therefore can
answer when they have time, giving more accurate
answers.
• Telephone questionnaire. Researcher may choose to
call potential respondents with the aim of getting
them to answer the questionnaire. The advantage of
the telephone questionnaire is that, it can be
completed during the short amount of time. The main
disadvantage of the phone questionnaire is that it is
expensive most of the time.
• Moreover, most people do not feel comfortable to
answer many questions asked through the phone and
it is difficult to get sample group to answer
questionnaire over the phone
• In-house survey. This type of questionnaire involves the
researcher visiting respondents in their houses or
workplaces. The advantage of in-house survey is that more
focus towards the questions can be gained from
respondents. However, in-house surveys also have a range
of disadvantages which include being time consuming,
more expensive and respondents may not wish to have
the researcher in their houses or workplaces for various
reasons.
•
• Mail Questionnaire. This sort of questionnaires involve the
researcher to send the questionnaire list to respondents
through post, often attaching pre-paid envelope. Mail
questionnaires have an advantage of providing more
accurate answer, because respondents can answer the
questionnaire in their spare time. The disadvantages
associated with mail questionnaires include them being
expensive, time consuming and sometimes they end up in
the bin put by respondents.
• Questionnaires can include the following types of
questions:
• Open question questionnaires. Open questions differ
from other types of questions used in questionnaires in
a way that open questions may produce unexpected
results, which can make the research more original
and valuable. However, it is difficult to analyze the
results of the findings when the data is obtained
through the questionnaire with open questions.
•
• Multiple choice questions. Respondents are offered a
set of answers they have to choose from. The
downsize of questionnaire with multiple choice
questions is that, if there are too many answers to
choose from, it makes the questionnaire, confusing
and boring, and discourages the respondent to
answer the questionnaire.
• Dichotomous Questions. This type of
questions gives two options to respondents –
yes or no, to choose from. It is the easiest
form of questionnaire for the respondent in
terms of responding it.
•
• Scaling Questions. Also referred to as ranking
questions, they present an option for
respondents to rank the available answers to
the questions on the scale of given range of
values (for example from 1 to 10).5 star,4
star…
• An introduction to sampling methods
• When you conduct research about a group of
people, it’s rarely possible to collect data
from every person in that group. Instead, you
select a sample. The sample is the group of
individuals who will actually participate in the
research.
• To draw valid conclusions from your results,
you have to carefully decide how you will
select a sample that is representative of the
group as a whole.
• There are two types of sampling methods:
• two types of sampling methods:
• Probability sampling involves random
selection, allowing you to make strong
statistical inferences about the whole group.
• Non-probability sampling involves non-
random selection based on convenience or
other criteria, allowing you to easily collect
data.
• You should clearly explain how you selected
your sample in the methodology section of
your paper or thesis.
• Population vs sample
• Probability sampling methods
• Non-probability sampling methods
• Frequently asked questions about sampling
• Population vs sample
• Population vs sample
• First, you need to understand the difference
between a population and a sample, and
identify the target population of your
research.
• The population is the entire group that you
want to draw conclusions about.
• The sample is the specific group of individuals
that you will collect data from.
• The population can be defined in terms of
geographical location, age, income, and many
other characteristics.
 Probability sampling methods
• Probability sampling means that every
member of the population has a chance of
being selected. It is mainly used in
quantitative research. If you want to produce
results that are representative of the whole
population, probability sampling techniques
are the most valid choice.
• There are four main types of probability
sample.
• 1. Simple random sampling
• In a simple random sample, every member of the
population has an equal chance of being
selected. Your sampling frame should include the
whole population.
• To conduct this type of sampling, you can use
tools like random number generators or other
techniques that are based entirely on chance.
• Example
• You want to select a simple random sample of
100 employees of Company X. You assign a
number to every employee in the company
database from 1 to 1000, and use a random
number generator to select 100 numbers.
• 2. Systematic sampling
• Systematic sampling is similar to simple random
sampling, but it is usually slightly easier to
conduct. Every member of the population is listed
with a number, but instead of randomly
generating numbers, individuals are chosen at
regular intervals.
• Example
• All employees of the company are listed in
alphabetical order. From the first 10 numbers,
you randomly select a starting point: number 6.
From number 6 onwards, every 10th person on
the list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and
you end up with a sample of 100 people.
• If you use this technique, it is important to
make sure that there is no hidden pattern in
the list that might skew the sample. For
example, if the HR database groups
employees by team, and team members are
listed in order of seniority, there is a risk that
your interval might skip over people in junior
roles, resulting in a sample that is skewed
towards senior employees.
• 3. Stratified sampling
• Stratified sampling involves dividing the
population into subpopulations that may differ in
important ways. It allows you draw more precise
conclusions by ensuring that every subgroup is
properly represented in the sample.
• To use this sampling method, you divide the
population into subgroups (called strata) based
on the relevant characteristic (e.g. gender, age
range, income bracket, job role).
• Based on the overall proportions of the
population, you calculate how many people
should be sampled from each subgroup. Then
you use random or systematic sampling to select
a sample from each subgroup.
• Example
• The company has 800 female employees and
200 male employees. You want to ensure that
the sample reflects the gender balance of the
company, so you sort the population into two
strata based on gender. Then you use random
sampling on each group, selecting 80 women
and 20 men, which gives you a representative
sample of 100 people.
• 4. Cluster sampling
• Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population
into subgroups, but each subgroup should have similar
characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of
sampling individuals from each subgroup, you
randomly select entire subgroups.
• If it is practically possible, you might include every
individual from each sampled cluster. If the clusters
themselves are large, you can also sample individuals
from within each cluster using one of the techniques
above. This is called multistage sampling.
• This method is good for dealing with large and
dispersed populations, but there is more risk of error in
the sample, as there could be substantial differences
between clusters. It’s difficult to guarantee that the
sampled clusters are really representative of the whole
population.
• Example
• The company has offices in 10 cities across the
country (all with roughly the same number of
employees in similar roles). You don’t have the
capacity to travel to every office to collect
your data, so you use random sampling to
select 3 offices – these are your clusters.
• Non-probability sampling methods
• In a non-probability sample, individuals are
selected based on non-random criteria, and not
every individual has a chance of being included.
• This type of sample is easier and cheaper to
access, but it has a higher risk of sampling bias.
That means the inferences you can make about
the population are weaker than with probability
samples, and your conclusions may be more
limited. If you use a non-probability sample, you
should still aim to make it as representative of the
population as possible.
• Non-probability sampling techniques are often
used in exploratory and qualitative research.
In these types of research, the aim is not to
test a hypothesis about a broad population,
but to develop an initial understanding of a
small or under-researched population.
• 1. Convenience sampling
• A convenience sample simply includes the individuals
who happen to be most accessible to the researcher.
• This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial
data, but there is no way to tell if the sample is
representative of the population, so it can’t produce
generalizable results.
• Example
• You are researching opinions about student support
services in your university, so after each of your
classes, you ask your fellow students to complete a
survey on the topic. This is a convenient way to gather
data, but as you only surveyed students taking the
same classes as you at the same level, the sample is
not representative of all the students at your
university.
• 2. Voluntary response sampling
• Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response
sample is mainly based on ease of access. Instead of the
researcher choosing participants and directly contacting
them, people volunteer themselves (e.g. by responding to a
public online survey).
• Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat
biased, as some people will inherently be more likely to
volunteer than others.
• Example
• You send out the survey to all students at your university
and a lot of students decide to complete it. This can
certainly give you some insight into the topic, but the
people who responded are more likely to be those who
have strong opinions about the student support services, so
you can’t be sure that their opinions are representative of
all students.
• 3. Purposive sampling
• This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling,
involves the researcher using their expertise to select a
sample that is most useful to the purposes of the research.
• It is often used in qualitative research, where the
researcher wants to gain detailed knowledge about a
specific phenomenon rather than make statistical
inferences, or where the population is very small and
specific. An effective purposive sample must have clear
criteria and rationale for inclusion.
• Example
• You want to know more about the opinions and
experiences of disabled students at your university, so you
purposefully select a number of students with different
support needs in order to gather a varied range of data on
their experiences with student services.
• Judgmental or purposive
sampling: Judgemental or purposive
samples are formed by the discretion of the
researcher. Researchers purely consider
the purpose of the study, along with the
understanding of the target audience. For
instance, when researchers want to
understand the thought process of people
interested in studying for their master’s
degree. The selection criteria will be: “Are
you interested in doing your masters in …?”
and those who respond with a “No” are
excluded from the sample.
• 4. Snowball sampling
• If the population is hard to access, snowball
sampling can be used to recruit participants via
other participants. The number of people you
have access to “snowballs” as you get in contact
with more people.
• Example
• You are researching experiences of homelessness
in your city. Since there is no list of all homeless
people in the city, probability sampling isn’t
possible. You meet one person who agrees to
participate in the research, and she puts you in
contact with other homeless people that she
knows in the area.
• Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling is a
sampling method that researchers apply when the
subjects are difficult to trace. For example, it will
be extremely challenging to survey shelterless
people or illegal immigrants. In such cases, using
the snowball theory, researchers can track a few
categories to interview and derive results.
Researchers also implement this sampling method
in situations where the topic is highly sensitive and
not openly discussed—for example, surveys to
gather information about HIV Aids. Not many
victims will readily respond to the questions. Still,
researchers can contact people they might
know(அவர்ைள் அறிந்திருை்ைை்கூடிய
மை்ைள் ) or volunteers associated with the cause
to get in touch with the victims and collect
information.
• Frequently asked questions about sampling
• What is sampling? A sample is a subset of
individuals from a larger population. Sampling
means selecting the group that you will
actually collect data from in your research. For
example, if you are researching the opinions
of students in your university, you could
survey a sample of 100 students.
• In statistics, sampling allows you to test a
hypothesis about the characteristics of a
population.
• Why are samples used in research? Samples
are used to make inferences about
populations. Samples are easier to collect
data from because they are practical, cost-
effective, convenient and manageable.
• What is probability sampling? Probability
sampling means that every member of the
target population has a known chance of
being included in the sample.
• Probability sampling methods include simple
random sampling, systematic sampling,
stratified sampling, and cluster sampling.
• What is non-probability sampling? In non-
probability sampling, the sample is selected
based on non-random criteria, and not every
member of the population has a chance of
being included.
• Common non-probability sampling methods
include convenience sampling, voluntary
response sampling, purposive sampling,
snowball sampling, and quota sampling.
• What is multistage sampling? In multistage
sampling, or multistage cluster sampling, you
draw a sample from a population using
smaller and smaller groups at each stage.
• What is sampling bias? Sampling bias occurs
when some members of a population are
systematically more likely to be selected in a
sample than others.
 DATA PREPARING PROCESS
• The process of preparing data includes
several distinct steps. There are variations
in the steps listed by different data
preparation vendors and data
professionals, but the process typically
involves the following tasks:
• Steps in the data preparation process

• Data collection. Relevant data is gathered

from operational systems, data
warehouses and other data sources.
• Data discovery and profiling. The next step
is to explore the collected data to better
understand what it contains and what
needs to be done to prepare it for the
intended uses.
• Data profiling helps identify patterns,
inconsistencies, anomalies, missing
data, and other attributes and issues in
data sets so problems can be addressed.
• Data cleansing. In this step, the identified
data errors are corrected to create
complete and accurate data sets that are
ready to be processed and analyzed. For
example, faulty data is removed or fixed,
missing values are filled in and
inconsistent entries are harmonized.
• Data structuring. At this point, the data
needs to be structured, modeled and
organized into a unified format that will
meet the requirements of the planned
analytics uses.
• Data transformation and enrichment. In
connection with structuring data, it often
must be transformed to make it consistent
and turn it into usable information. Data
enrichment and optimization further
enhance data sets as needed to produce
the desired business insights.
• Data validation and publishing. To
complete the preparation process,
automated routines are run against the
data to validate its consistency,
completeness and accuracy. The prepared
data is then stored in a data warehouse or
other repository and made available for
use.
• What is Data Exploration?
• Data exploration definition: Data exploration
refers to the initial step in data analysis in
which data analysts use data visualization and
statistical techniques to describe dataset
characterizations, such as size, quantity, and
accuracy, in order to better understand the
nature of the data.
• Data Exploration Tools
• Manual data exploration methods entail either writing
scripts to analyze raw data or manually filtering data
into spreadsheets. Automated data exploration tools,
such as data visualization software, help data
scientists easily monitor data sources and perform big
data exploration on otherwise overwhelmingly large
datasets.
• The best data visualization tools include Google
Charts, Tableau, Grafana, Chartist. js, FusionCharts,
Datawrapper, Infogram, ChartBlocks, and D3. js. The
best tools offer a variety of visualization styles, are easy
to use, and can handle large data sets.
• Graphical displays of data, such as bar charts and
scatter plots, are valuable tools in visual data
exploration.
• A popular tool for manual data exploration is
Microsoft Excel spreadsheets, which can be
used to create basic charts for data
exploration, to view raw data, and to identify
the correlation between variables.
• To identify the correlation between two
continuous variables in Excel, use the function
CORREL() to return the correlation.
• To identify the correlation between two
categorical variables in Excel, the two-way
table method, the stacked column chart
method, and the chi-square test are effective.
• here is a wide variety of proprietary automated data
exploration solutions, including business intelligence
tools, data visualization software, data preparation
software vendors, and data exploration platforms. (The
best data visualization tools include Google Charts,
Tableau, Grafana, Chartist. js, FusionCharts,
Datawrapper, Infogram, ChartBlocks, and D3. js. The
best tools offer a variety of visualization styles, are easy
to use, and can handle large data sets.)
• There are also open source data exploration tools that
include regression capabilities and visualization
features, which can help businesses integrate diverse
data sources to enable faster data exploration.
• Most data analytics software includes data
visualization tools.
• Why is Data Exploration Important?
• Humans process visual data better than numerical
data, therefore it is extremely challenging for data
scientists and data analysts to assign meaning to
thousands of rows and columns of data points and
communicate that meaning without any visual
components.
• Data visualization in data exploration leverages familiar
visual cues such as shapes, dimensions, colors, lines,
points, and angles so that data analysts can effectively
visualize and define the metadata, and then perform
data cleansing. Performing the initial step of data
exploration enables data analysts to better understand
and visually identify anomalies and relationships that
might otherwise go undetected.
• Examining data helps find data entry
errors,evaluate research methodology,
identify outliers,and determine the shape of
a distribution in a data set.
• Researchers typically examine collected data
in two ways--by creating tables and figures.
• What is the meaning of examining data?
• Data analysis is a process of inspecting,
cleansing, transforming, and modelling data
with the goal of discovering useful
information, informing conclusions, and
supporting decision-making.
• Why do researchers examine data?
• The motive behind data analysis in research is
to present accurate and reliable data.
• As far as possible, avoid statistical errors, and
find a way to deal with everyday challenges
like outliers, missing data, data altering, data
mining, or developing graphical
representation.
• Displaying data in research is the last step of
the research process. It is important to display
data accurately because it helps in presenting
the findings of the research effectively to the
reader.
• The purpose of displaying data in research is
to make the findings more visible and make
comparisons easy.
• Displaying data in research is the last step of the
research process. It is important to display data
accurately because it helps in presenting the
findings of the research effectively to the reader.

• The purpose of displaying data in research is to

make the findings more visible and make
comparisons easy. When the researcher will
present the research in front of the research
committee, they will easily understand the
findings of the research from displayed data. The
readers of the research will also be able to
understand it better. Without displayed data, the
data looks too scattered and the reader cannot
make inferences.
• There are basically two ways to display data:
tables and graphs.
• The tabulated data and the graphical
representation both should be used to give more
accurate picture of the research.
• In quantitative research it is very necessary to
display data, on the other hand in qualitative
data the researcher decides whether there is a
need to display data or not. The researcher can
use an appropriate software to help tabulate and
display the data in the form of graphs.
• Microsoft excel is one such example, it is a user-
friendly program that you can use to help display
the data.
• Tables for displaying data in research
• The use of tables to display data is very common in
research. Tables are very effective in presenting a large
amount of data. They organize data very well and makes
the data very visible. A badly tabulated data also occurs, in
case, you do not have knowledge of tables and tabulating
data consult a statistician to do this step effectively.
• Parts of a table
• To know the tables and to tabulate data in tables you
should know the parts or structure of the tables. There are
five parts of a tables, namely;
• Title
• The title of the table speaks about the contents of the
table. The title should have to be concise and precise, no
extra details. The title should be written in sentence case.
• Stub
• The column at the left-most of the table is called as stub. A stub has
a stub-heading at the top of the column, not all tables have stub.
The stub shows the subcategories that are listed along Y-axis.
• Caption
• The caption is the column heading, the variable might have
subcategories which are captioned. These subcategories are
provided on the X-axis, the captions are provided on the top of each
column.
• Body
• The body of the table is the actual part of the table in which resides
the whole values, results, and analysis.
• Footnotes
• There can be many different types of notes that you may have to
provide at the end of the table. The footnotes are provided just
below the table and labeled as the source. The source generally are
provided when the table has been taken from some other source.
They are also provided for explaining some point in the table.
Sometimes there is some part of the table that is taken from a
source so it should also be mentioned.
• Types of tables
• Tables are the most simple means to display data,
they can be categorized into the following;
• Univariate
• Bivariate
• Polyvariate
• These categories are based on the numbers of
variables that need to be tabulated in the table. A
univariate table has one variable to be tabulated;
a bivariate table, as the name suggests, has two
variables to be tabulated and a polyvariate table
has more than two variables to be tabulated.
• Graphs to display data
• The purpose of displaying data is to make the communications
easier. Graphs should be used in displaying data when they can add
to the visual beauty of the data. The researcher should decide
whether there is a need for table only or he should also present
data in the form of a suitable graph.
• Types of graphs
• You can use a suitable graph type depending on the type of data
and the variables involved in the data.
• The histogram
• The histogram is a graph that is highly used for displaying data. A
histogram consists of rectangles that are drawn next to each other
on the graph. The rectangles have no space in between them. A
histogram can be drawn for a single variable as well as for two or
more than two variables. The height of the bars in the histogram
represent the frequency of each variable. It can be drawn for both
categorical and continuous variables.
• The bar chart
• The bar chart is similar to a histogram except in that it
is drawn only for categorical variables. Since it is used
for categorical variables, therefore, it is drawn with
space between the rectangles.
• The frequency polygon
• A frequency polygon is also very much like a histogram.
A frequency polygon consists of frequency rectangles
drawn next to each other but the values taken to draw
the rectangles is the midpoint of the values. The height
of the rectangles describes the frequency of each
interval. A line is drawn that touches the midpoints at
the highest frequency level on Y-axis and it touches the
X-axis on each extreme end.
• The pie chart
• The pie chart is a very different way to display data.
The pie chart is a circle, as a circle has 360 degrees so it
is taken in percentage and the whole pie or circle
represent the whole population. The pie or circle is
divided into slices or sections, each section represents
the magnitude of the category or the sub-category.
• The trend curve
• The trend curve is also called as the line diagram. It is
drawn by plotting the midpoints on the X-axis and the
frequencies commensurate with each interval on the Y-
axis. The trend curve is drawn only for a set of data
that has been measured on the continuous, interval or
ratio scale. A trend diagram or the line diagram is most
suitable for plotting values that show changes over a
period of time.
• The area chart
• The area chart is a variation of the trend curve. In
area chart, the sub-categories of a variable can be
displayed. The categories in the chart are
displayed by shading them with different colors
or patterns. For example, if there are both males
and females category in the dataset both can be
highlighted in this chart.
• The scattergram
• A scattergram is a very simple way to plot the
data on a chart. The scattergram is used for data
where the change in one variable affects the
change in the other variable. The frequency
against each interval is plotted with the help of
dots.
RM4151

UNIT-III
 UNIT III -DATA ANALYSIS AND
REPORTING
1. Overview of Multivariate analysis

2. Hypotheses testing and Measures of

Association.

3. Presenting Insights and findings using written

reports and oral presentation.
• What is multivariate analysis?
• Multivariate analysis is a set of techniques
used for analysis of data sets that contain
more than one variable, and the techniques
are especially valuable when working with
correlated variables.
• Introduction
• Overview of Multivariate analysis:
• Multivariate means involving multiple
dependent variables resulting in one
outcome.
• This explains that the majority of the
problems in the real world are Multivariate.
• For example, we cannot predict the weather
of any year based on the season. There are
multiple factors like pollution,
humidity(ஈரப்பதம் ),
precipitation(மழைப்பபொழிவு), etc.
• 1.What is multivariate analysis?
• In data analytics, we look at different variables
(or factors) and how they might impact
certain situations or outcomes. For example,
in marketing, you might look at how the
variable “money spent on advertising”
impacts the variable “number of sales.”
• In the healthcare sector, you might want to
explore whether there’s a correlation between
“weekly hours of exercise” and “cholesterol
level.”
• There are three categories of analysis to be
aware of:
• Univariate analysis, which looks at just one
variable
• Bivariate analysis, which analyzes two
variables
• Multivariate analysis, which looks at more
than two variables
• An example of multivariate analysis
• Let’s imagine you’re interested in the
relationship between a person’s social media
habits and their self-esteem. You could carry
out a bivariate analysis, comparing the
following two variables:
• How many hours a day a person spends on
Instagram
• Their self-esteem score (measured using a
self-esteem scale)
• you may or may not find a relationship between the
two variables; however, you know that, in reality, self-
esteem is a complex concept.
• It’s likely impacted by many different factors—not just
how many hours a person spends on Instagram.
• You might also want to consider factors such as age,
employment status, how often a person exercises,
and relationship status (for example). In order to
deduce the extent to which each of these variables
correlates with self-esteem, and with each other, you’d
need to run a multivariate analysis.
• So we know that multivariate analysis is used when you
want to explore more than two variables at once. Now
let’s consider some of the different techniques you
might use to do this.
• 2. Multivariate data analysis techniques and
examples
• There are many different techniques for
multivariate analysis, and they can be divided
into two categories:
• Dependence techniques
• Interdependence techniques
• So what’s the difference? Let’s take a look.
• Multivariate analysis techniques:
• Dependence vs. interdependence
• When we use the terms “dependence” and
“interdependence,” we’re referring to different types
of relationships within the data. To give a brief
explanation:
• Dependence methods
• Dependence methods are used when one or some of
the variables are dependent on others. Dependence
looks at cause and effect; in other words, can the
values of two or more independent variables be used
to explain, describe, or predict the value of another,
dependent variable? To give a simple example, the
dependent variable of “weight” might be predicted by
independent variables such as “height” and “age.”
• For example:
• How well you perform in a race depends on
your training.
• How much you weigh depends on your diet.
• How much you earn depends upon the
number of hours you work.
• Whatever event you are expecting to change
is always the dependent variable.
• In the first example above race performance is
the variable you would expect to change if you
changed your training, so that’s the
dependent variable. In the second example,
the dependent variable is weight and in the
third example the dependent variable is the
amount earned
• In machine learning, dependence techniques
are used to build predictive models. The
analyst enters input data into the model,
specifying which variables are independent
and which ones are dependent—in other
words.
• Interdependence methods(Interdependence is
defined as a state or condition of being mutually
reliant on each other)
• Interdependence methods are used to understand the
structural makeup and underlying patterns within a
dataset.
• With that in mind, let’s consider some useful
multivariate analysis techniques. We’ll look at:
• What are examples of independent variables?
• It is a variable that stands alone and isn't changed by
the other variables you are trying to measure. For
example, someone's age might be an independent
variable. Other factors (such as what they eat, how
much they go to school, how much television they
watch) aren't going to change a person's age.
multivariate analysis techniques
• Multiple linear regression
• Multiple logistic regression
• Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA)
• Factor analysis
• Cluster analysis
• Multiple linear regression
• Multiple linear regression is a dependence
method which looks at the relationship between
one dependent variable and two or more
independent variables.
• A multiple regression model will tell you the
extent to which each independent variable has a
linear relationship with the dependent variable.
• This is useful as it helps you to understand which
factors are likely to influence a certain outcome,
allowing you to estimate future outcomes.
• Example of multiple regression:
• As a data analyst, you could use multiple
regression to predict crop growth. In this
example, crop growth is your dependent
variable and you want to see how different
factors affect it.
• Your independent variables could be rainfall,
temperature, amount of sunlight, and amount
of fertilizer added to the soil.
• A multiple regression model would show you
the proportion of variance in crop growth that
each independent variable accounts for.
• Multiple logistic regression
• Logistic regression analysis is used to calculate
(and predict) the probability of a binary event
occurring.
• A binary outcome is one where there are only
two possible outcomes; either the event
occurs (1) or it doesn’t (0).
• Example of logistic regression:
• Let’s imagine you work as an analyst within the
insurance sector and you need to predict how likely it
is that each potential customer will make a claim.
• You might enter a range of independent variables into
your model, such as age, whether or not they have a
serious health condition, their occupation, and so on.
• Using these variables, a logistic regression analysis will
calculate the probability of the event (making a claim)
occurring.
• Another example is the filters used to classify email as
“spam” or “not spam.” You’ll find a more detailed
explanation in this complete guide to logistic
regression.
• Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA)
• Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) is used to
measure the effect of multiple independent variables
on two or more dependent variables. With MANOVA,
it’s important to note that the independent variables
are categorical, while the dependent variables are
metric in nature.
• A categorical variable is a variable that belongs to a
distinct category—for example, the variable
“employment status” could be categorized into certain
units, such as “employed full-time,” “employed part-
time,” “unemployed,” and so on. A metric variable is
measured quantitatively and takes on a numerical
value.
• In MANOVA analysis, you’re looking at various
combinations of the independent variables to
compare how they differ in their effects on the
dependent variable.
• Example of MANOVA:
• Let’s imagine you work for an engineering company that is on a
mission to build a super-fast, eco-friendly rocket. You could use
MANOVA to measure the effect that various design combinations
have on both the speed of the rocket and the amount of carbon
dioxide it emits. In this scenario, your categorical independent
variables could be:
• Engine type, categorized as E1, E2, or E3
• Material used for the rocket exterior, categorized as M1, M2, or
M3
• Type of fuel used to power the rocket, categorized as F1, F2, or F3
• Your metric dependent variables are speed in kilometers per hour,
and carbon dioxide measured in parts per million.
• Using MANOVA, you’d test different combinations (e.g. E1, M1, and
F1 vs. E1, M2, and F1, vs. E1, M3, and F1, and so on) to calculate the
effect of all the independent variables. This should help you to find
the optimal design solution for your rocket.
• Hypotheses testing(அனுமொனம் )
• Hypothesis testing is a systematic procedure
for deciding whether the results of a research
study support a particular theory which
applies to a population.
• Hypothesis testing uses sample data to
evaluate a hypothesis about a population.
• Hypothesis testing is a formal procedure for
investigating our ideas about the world using
statistics. It is most often used by scientists to
test specific predictions, called hypotheses,
that arise from theories.
• Hypothesis testing is an act in statistics
whereby an analyst tests an assumption
regarding a population parameter.
• The methodology employed by the analyst
depends on the nature of the data used and
the reason for the analysis.
• Hypothesis testing is used to assess the
plausibility(நம் பகத்தன்ழம) of a
hypothesis by using sample data.
• How Hypothesis Testing Works
• In hypothesis testing, an analyst tests a
statistical sample, with the goal of providing
evidence on the plausibility of the null
hypothesis.
• Statistical analysts test a hypothesis by
measuring and examining a random sample
of the population being analyzed.
• The null hypothesis is usually a hypothesis of
equality between population parameters;
• e.g., a null hypothesis may state that the
population mean return is equal to zero.
• The alternative hypothesis is effectively the
opposite of a null hypothesis (e.g., the
population mean return is not equal to zero).
• Thus, they are mutually exclusive, and only
one can be true. However, one of the two
hypotheses will always be true.
• 4 Steps of Hypothesis Testing
• All hypotheses are tested using a four-step
process:
• The first step is for the analyst to state the two
hypotheses so that only one can be right.
• The next step is to formulate an analysis plan,
which outlines how the data will be evaluated.
• The third step is to carry out the plan and
physically analyze the sample data.
• The fourth and final step is to analyze the results
and either reject the null hypothesis, or state
that the null hypothesis is plausible, given the
data.
(penny -ஓர் ஆங் கிலச் பசம் பு
நொணயம் )
• Real-World Example of Hypothesis Testing
• If, for example, a person wants to test that a
penny has exactly a 50% chance of landing on
heads, the null hypothesis would be that 50%
is correct, and the alternative hypothesis
would be that 50% is not correct.
• Mathematically, the null hypothesis would be
represented as Ho: P = 0.5.
• The alternative hypothesis would be denoted
as "Ha" and be identical to the null
hypothesis, except with the equal sign struck-
through, meaning that it does not equal 50%.
• If, on the other hand, there were 48 heads
and 52 tails, then it is plausible that the coin
could be fair and still produce such a result. In
cases such as this where the null hypothesis is
"accepted," the analyst states that the
difference between the expected results (50
heads and 50 tails) and the observed results
(48 heads and 52 tails) is "explainable by
chance alone."
• Five Steps in Hypothesis Testing:
• Specify the Null Hypothesis
• Specify the Alternative Hypothesis
• Set the Significance Level (a)
• Calculate the Test Statistic and Corresponding
P-Value
• Drawing a Conclusion
• Step 1: Specify the Null Hypothesis
• The null hypothesis (H0) is a statement of no
effect, relationship, or difference between
two or more groups or factors.
• In research studies, a researcher is usually
interested in disproving the null hypothesis.
• Examples: There is no difference in intubation
rates across ages 0 to 5 years.
• Step 2: Specify the Alternative Hypothesis
• The alternative hypothesis (H1) is the statement
that there is an effect or difference.
• This is usually the hypothesis the researcher is
interested in proving. The alternative hypothesis
can be one-sided (only provides one direction,
e.g., lower) or two-sided.
• We often use two-sided tests even when our
true hypothesis is one-sided because it requires
more evidence against the null hypothesis to
accept the alternative hypothesis.
• Examples: The intubation success rate differs
with the age of the patient being treated
(two-sided).
• Step 3: Set the Significance Level (a)
• The significance level (denoted by the Greek
letter alpha— a) is generally set at 0.05.
• This means that there is a 5% chance that you
will accept your alternative hypothesis when
your null hypothesis is actually true.
• Step 4: Calculate the Test Statistic and
Corresponding P-Value
• In another section we present some basic test
statistics to evaluate a hypothesis.
• Hypothesis testing generally uses a test
statistic that compares groups or examines
associations between variables.
• When describing a single sample without
establishing relationships between variables, a
confidence interval is commonly used.
• Example: P-value = 0.01 This will happen 1 in
100 times by pure chance if your null
hypothesis is true. Not likely to happen strictly
by chance.
• Example: P-value = 0.75 This will happen 75 in
100 times by pure chance if your null
hypothesis is true. Very likely to occur strictly
by chance.
• Step 5: Drawing a Conclusion
• P-value <= significance level (a) => Reject
your null hypothesis in favor of your
alternative hypothesis. Your result is
statistically significant.
• P-value > significance level (a) => Fail to
reject your null hypothesis.
• Your result is not statistically significant.
Presenting Insights and findings using written
reports and oral presentation.
Chapter 20
Presenting Insights
and Findings:
Written and Oral
Reports
 Sponsor Presentation
and the Research Process

20-46
 The Written Research Report

20-47
 Guidelines for Short Reports

Tell reader why you are writing

Remind reader of request

Write in an expository style

Write report and hold for review

Attach detailed materials in appendix

20-48
 The Long Research Report

20-49
 Report Modules

Prefatory Information
Introduction
Methodology
Findings
Conclusions & Recommendations
Appendices
Bibliography

20-50
 Components:
Short Report: Memo or Letter-Style
1. Introduction
 Problem statement
 Research objectives
 Background
2. Conclusions
 Summary and conclusions
 Recommendations

20-51
 Components:
Short Report: Technical
1. Prefatory Information (all)
2. Introduction (all, plus brief methodology and
limitations)
3. Findings
4. Conclusions
5. Appendices

20-52
 20-53
Components:
Long, Report: Management

1. Prefatory Information
(all)
2. Introduction (all, plus
brief methods and
limitations)
3. Conclusions and
Recommendations
4. Findings
5. Appendices
 20-54
Components:
Long Report: Technical

1. Prefatory Information
2. Introduction
3. Methodology (full,
detailed)
4. Findings
5. Conclusions
6. Appendices
7. Bibliography
 Sample Findings Page: Tabular

20-55
 20-56

Sample Findings Page: Graphical

 Findings Page Templates

20-57
 Prewriting Concerns

What is the report’s purpose?

Who will read the report?

What are the circumstances?

How will the report be used?

20-58
 The Outline
I. Major Topic Heading
A. Major subtopic heading
1. Subtopic
a. Minor subtopic
1) Further detail

20-59
 Types of Outlines
Topic Sentence
I. Demand I. Demand for refrigerators
A. How measured A. Measured in terms f
1. Voluntary error factory shipments as
2. Shipping error reported by the U.S.
a. Monthly Department of
variance Commerce
1. Error is introduced
into year to year
comparisons

20-60
 Grammar and Style Proofreader Results

20-61
 Adjusting Pace

Use ample white space

Use headings
Use visual aids
Use italics and underlining
Choose words carefully
Repeat and summarize
Use service words strategically

20-62
 Considerations for Writing

Readability

Comprehensibility

Tone

20-63
 Avoiding Overcrowded Text

Use shorter paragraphs

Indent or space parts of text

Use headings

Use bullets

20-64
 Presentation of Statistics- four methods for
presenting data in a report.

Text Semi-tabular

Tables Graphics

20-65
 Example of Text Presentation

Wal-Mart regained its top rank in the Forbes

500 due to its strong sales performance (11%
increase, $351.1 billion). Although Wal-Mart
surpassed number-2 ranked Exxon Mobil in
sales, Wal-Mart’s profitability ($11.2 billion)
was far below that of the oil giant ($39.5
billion).

20-66
 Example: Semi-Tabular Presentation

Although Wal-Mart regained the top spot in the

Fortune 500, its performance shows signs of
weakness in profitability.
• Wal-Mart is the largest business in the Fortune 500
with sales increasing more than 11% over last year’s
performance.
• Oil giant and energy exploration leader Exxon Mobil
is the most profitable company in the Fortune 500
due to record crude oil prices increasing its profits to
$39.5 billion, compared to $11.2 billion for Wal-
Mart.

20-67
 Example of
Tabular Presentation

Revenue Sales Profit

Company Rank ($, millions) Growth Profits Growth

Wal-Mart 1 $351,139.0 11.2% $11,284.0 0.5%

Exxon Mobil 2 $347,254.0 02.2% $39,500.0 9.3%

General 6 $168,307.0 07.1% $20,829.0 27.4%

Electric

20-68
 Sample
Tabular Findings

20-69
 Graphics Presentation

20-70
 Sample Graphics within Report

20-71
 Sample Line Graph

20-72
 Sample Area Chart

20-73
 Sample Pie Charts

20-74
 Sample Bar Chart

20-75
 Pictograph

20-76
 Geographs

20-77
 3-D Graphs

20-78
 The Oral Report

20-79
 The Oral Report

Opening

Findings and
conclusions

Recommendations

20-80
 Presentation Type

Extemporaneous Memorized
20-81
 Speaker Characteristics
Vocal Physical
• Do you speak softly? • Do you rock back and
forth?
• Do you speak too
rapidly? • Do you fiddle with
things?
• Do you vary volume, • Do you stare into
tone, and rate of space?
speaking? • Do you misuse visuals?
• Do you fill pauses (e.g.,
you know, uhm, ah)?

20-82
 20-83

Audiovisuals

High Tech
• Computer-drawn
visuals
• Computer
animation
• Computer with
embedded video
and audio clips
 20-84

Audiovisuals

Low Tech
• Chalkboard/
Whiteboard
• Handouts
• Flip charts
• Overhead
transparencies
• Slides
 Key Terms

• Area chart • Management report

• Bar chart • Pace
• Briefing • Pictograph
• Executive summary • Pie chart
• Extemporaneous • Readability index
presentation • Sentence outline
• Geographic chart • Technical report
• Letter of transmittal • 3-D graphic
• Line graph • Topic outline
20-85
 UNIT IV

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS

• Intellectual Property
• The concept of IPR
• Evolution and development of concept of IPR
• IPR development process, Trade secrets
• utility Models
• IPR & Bio diversity
• Role of WIPO and WTO in IPR establishments
• Right of Property
• Common rules of IPR practices
• Types and Features of IPR Agreement
• Trademark
• Functions of UNESCO in IPR maintenance.
• Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) are legal rights
that protect creations and/or inventions
resulting from intellectual activity in the
industrial, scientific, literary or artistic fields.
The most common IPRs include
• patents,
• copyrights,
• marks and
• trade secrets.
• What is Intellectual Property?
• Intellectual property (IP) refers to creations
of the mind, such as inventions; literary and
artistic works; designs; and symbols, names
and images used in commerce.

• IP is protected in law by, for

example, patents, copyright and trademarks
, which enable people to earn recognition or
financial benefit from what they invent or
create.
• What are intellectual property rights?
• Intellectual property rights are the
rights given to persons over the
creations of their minds. They usually
give the creator an exclusive right over
the use of his/her creation for a certain
period of time
• Types of intellectual property rights
• Patents. A patent is an exclusive right granted for an invention.
Generally speaking, a patent provides the patent owner with the
right to decide how - or .
• Trademarks. A trademark is a sign capable of distinguishing the
goods or services of one enterprise from those of other
enterprises. Trademarks date back to ...
• Copyrights and patents are not the same things, although they
are often confused.
• Trade secrets are IP rights on confidential information which
may be sold or licensed. The unauthorized acquisition, use or
disclosure of such secret.
• PATENTS

• As defined by the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO), a

patent is a type of limited-duration protection that can be used to

protect inventions (or discoveries) that are new, non-obvious, and

useful, such a new process, machine, article of manufacture, or

composition of matter.

• When a property owner holds a patent, others are prevented, under law,

from offering for sale, making, or using the product.

• COPYRIGHTS
• Copyrights and patents are not the same things, although they
are often confused.
• A copyright is a type of intellectual property protection that
protects original works of authorship, which might include
literary works, music, art, and more. Today, copyrights also
protect computer software and architecture.
• Copyright protections are automatic; once you create something,
it is yours. However, if your rights under copyright protections
are infringed and you wish to file a lawsuit, then registration of
your copyright will be necessary.
• TRADEMARKS
• Finally, the fourth type of intellectual property protection
is a trademark protection. Remember, patents are used
to protect inventions and discoveries and copyrights are
used to protect expressions of ideas and creations, like
art and writing.
• Trademarks, then, refer to phrases, words, or symbols
that distinguish the source of a product or services of one
party from another. For example, the Nike symbol–which
nearly all could easily recognize and identify–is a type of
trademark.
• Trade secrets are IP rights on confidential
information which may be sold or licensed.
The unauthorized acquisition, use or disclosure
of such secret.
• Examples of trade secrets include recipes for
certain foods and beverages (like Mrs. Fields’
cookies or Sprite), new inventions, software,
processes, and even different marketing
strategies.
• Examples of trade secrets include recipes for certain
foods and beverages (like Mrs. Fields’ cookies or Sprite),
new inventions, software, processes, and even different
marketing strategies.
• When a person or business holds a trade secret
protection, others cannot copy or steal the idea. In order
to establish information as a “trade secret,” and to incur
the legal protections associated with trade secrets,
businesses must actively behave in a manner that
demonstrates their desire to protect the information.
• Examples of intellectual property rights include:
• Patents
• Domain names
• Industrial design
• Confidential information
• Inventions
• Moral rights
• Database rights
• Works of authorship
• Service marks
• Logos
• Trademarks
• Design rights
• Business or trade names
• Commercial secrets
• Computer software
• Examples-Trademarks

• Trademarks protect logos, sounds, words,

colors, or symbols used by a company to

distinguish its service or product. Trademark

examples include the Twitter logo, McDonald’s

golden arches, and the font used by Dunkin.

• What is copyright example?

• Examples of unique creations include computer

software, art, poetry, graphic designs, musical lyrics
and compositions, novels, film, original architectural
designs, website content, etc. One safeguard that can be
used to legally protect an original creation is
copyright. ... Not all types of work can be copyrighted.
Role of WIPO and WTO in IPR establishments
• What is WIPO and its role?

• World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO),

international organization designed to promote the
worldwide protection of both industrial property
(inventions, trademarks, and designs) and
copyrighted materials (literary, musical,
photographic, and other artistic works).
• WIPO– World Intellectual Property
Organization (‘WIPO’) is a specialized agency
that ensures the rights of
inventors/artists/creators and intellectual
property owners are not subject to
infringement(மீறல் ).
• WIPO is one of the 17 special agencies of the
United Nations (UN). Its role is to promote
the protection and encourage the creation of
intellectual properties, which greatly benefits
the economy.
• Objectives of WIPO–
• 1. To provide services for the international
application of IPRs
2. To exchange Intellectual Property information
among the signed/member countries
3. To provide for legal and technical assistance
for the development of other countries
4. To resolve disputes and issues related to
Intellectual Property and harmonizing the IP laws
and regulations
5. To assist developing countries through advice,
furnishing documents, and training
6. To promote interaction between stakeholders
from different backgrounds at the national level
• The WIPO Convention, the constituent
instrument of the World Intellectual Property
Organization (WIPO), was signed at Stockholm
on July 14, 1967, entered into force in 1970
and was amended in 1979. WIPO is an
intergovernmental organization that became
in 1974 one of the specialized agencies of the
United Nations system of organizations.
 World Trade Organization (WTO)

• World Trade Organization (WTO) is the

only international organization dealing with
the global rules of trade.

• Its main function is to ensure that trade

flows as smoothly, predictably and freely
as possible.
• The WTO
• The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the
only global international organization dealing
with the rules of trade between nations. At
its heart are the WTO agreements, negotiated
and signed by the bulk of the world’s trading
nations and ratified in their parliaments.
• What is the WTO?
• Who we are
The WTO has many roles: it operates a global system of
trade rules, it acts as a forum for negotiating trade
agreements, it settles trade disputes between its members
and it supports the needs of developing countries.

• What we do
All major decisions are made by the WTO's member
governments.

• What we stand for

A number of simple, fundamental principles form the
foundation of the multilateral trading system.

• Overview
The primary purpose of the WTO is to open trade for the
benefit of all.
• The main functions of WTO are :-

1. To facilitate implementation, administration and operations of the

objectives of the Agreement and of the Ministerial Trade Agreement.

2. To provide the forum for negotiations among its members concerning

their multilateral trade relations , in matters relating to the agreements .

3. To provide a framework for implementation, administration and

operation of multilateral and bilateral agreements of world trade.

4. To administer the understanding of rules and Procedures governing the

Settlement of dispute .
Rights of Property
• What are examples of property rights?
• The rights of property ownership can be
extended by using patents and copyrights to
protect: Scarce(பற் றாக்குறற) physical
resources such as houses, cars, books, and
cellphones. Non-human creatures like dogs,
cats, horses or birds.
• Intellectual property such as inventions, ideas,
or words.
• What Are Property Rights?
• Property rights define the theoretical and
legal ownership of resources and how they
can be used.
• These resources can be both
tangible(உறுதியான) or intangible and
can be owned by individuals, businesses, and
governments.
• The property rights and ownership of a
property can be claimed through copyrights
and patents to protect the following:
• Diminishing supplies, such as land and natural
resources.
• Living beings other than humans, such as
birds, cats, dogs, and horses.
• Intellectual properties, such as novels,
literature, inventions, and ideas.
• Rights of Private Property
• This means that a single owner may have the
legal rights and claim of title over the
property. Private property owners will have
the legal rights to make use of the property
they own to their benefits. Private owners can
exchange the resources on their wish.
 Understanding Property Rights
• Property is secured by laws that are clearly
defined and enforced by the state.
• These laws define ownership and any associated
benefits that come with holding the property.
• The term property is very expansive, though the
legal protection for certain kinds of property
varies between jurisdictions. (அதிகார
வரம் புகள் )
• Property is generally owned by individuals or a
small group of people. The rights of property
ownership can be extended by using patents and
copyrights to protect:
1. Scarce physical resources such as houses, cars,
books, and cellphones
2. Non-human creatures like dogs, cats, horses or
birds
3. Intellectual property such as inventions, ideas,
or words
4. Other types of property, such as
communal(வகுப் புவாத) or government
property, are legally owned by well-defined
groups. These are typically deemed public
property.
• That includes holding on to it, selling or renting it
out for profit, or transferring it to another party.
 Acquiring Rights to a Property
(ஒரு ச ொத்துக்கொன
உரிமைகமைப் சபறுதல் )
• Individuals in a private property rights
regime(ஆட்சி) acquire and transfer in
mutually agreed-upon transfers, or else
through homesteading(வீட்டு மறன).
• Mutual transfers include rents, sales,
voluntary sharing, inheritances, gambling, and
charity.
• Private Property Rights
• Private property rights are one of the pillars of capitalist
economies, as well as many legal systems, and moral
philosophies(தார்மீக தத்துவங் கள் ).
• Within a private property rights regime, individuals need
the ability to exclude others from the uses and benefits of
their property
• (மற் றவர்கறள அவர்களின் ச ாத்தின்
பயன் பாடுகள் மற் றும் நன் றமகளிலிருந்து
விலக்கும் திறன் ).
• All privately owned resources are
rivalrous(பபாட்டியாளர்), meaning only a single user
may possess the title and legal claim to the property.
• Private property owners also have the exclusive
right(பிரத்திபயக உரிறம) to use and benefit from
the services or products.
• Private property owners may exchange the resource on a
voluntary basis.
• Special Considerations
• Private Property Rights and Market Prices
• Every market price in a voluntary, capitalist
society originates through transfers of private
property.
• Each transaction takes place between one
property owner and someone interested in
acquiring the property.
• The value at which the property exchanges
depends on how valuable it is to each party.
Common rules of IPR practices
• Rule 1: Get Professional Help
• However, there is no guarantee that a patent
application will become a granted patent.
• Indeed, at the application stage they do not
even check that your description describes an
invention at all.
• Rule 2: Know Your (Intellectual Property)
Rights
• IP rights come in various guises, and each is a
defensive right to pursue legal action in the
event that a third party infringes.
• In very basic terms:
• Patents protect inventions—broadly, things
that are new and not obvious—and the way
they work.
• Registered designs protect the appearance of
products (not the function, which is protected
by patents).
• Trademarks protect brands (e.g., trade names
and logos).
• Copyright protects the expression of ideas—
i.e., the words you choose to use to describe
your idea—not an idea itself.
• Rule 3: Think about Why You Want IP (i.e.,
What You Will Actually Do with It)
• Any money spent on IP is capital that cannot
be spent on production, marketing, etc., so
think carefully about why you are investing in
protecting your IP. There are many good
reasons: to stop people from copying you; to
add value to your company if you want to sell
it;
• Rule 4: If You Don't Protect the IP, Your
Innovation Is Less Likely to Happen
• Maybe you are not an entrepreneur yourself,
but have an idea that you would like to see it
exploited(சுரண்டப் பட்டது)—it could,
after all, make the world a better place.
• Rule 5: What's in a Name?
• You have a great idea but it's not patentable, or you
have applied for patent protection but are worried
that it may not cover everything, and of course the
protection will expire after 20 years [5].
• This is where trademarks come in to fill the gap in your
protection. Unlike patents and designs, a trademark or
brand can be protected with a registration at any time
(unless someone else has got there before you)—you
do not need to have kept your name a secret, and once
registered the right will only expire if you stop using it
or fail to renew it (generally every 10 years). So, you
can protect your invention with a patent and sell it
under your brand, which is also protected.
• Rule 6: Be Realistic about What You Can, and Cannot, Protect
• IP rights are, generally speaking, national rights provided by individual
governments to regulate activity in that particular country. In some cases
there are bilateral and multilateral agreements (for example, most of the
world has signed up to the Berne Agreement, which accords the same
level of copyright protection to foreign nationals of other Berne states that
is provided to nationals of the state concerned [6]).
• However, for most rights, it is a national issue. In an ideal world, each
incremental improvement would be patented in each national jurisdiction
(there are approximately 200 countries in the world), along with the name
you trade under, and every brand would be the subject of a trademark, as
would any color associated with your company and any sound you use,
your products and their packaging would be the subject of registered
designs, and your patent attorneys would be very wealthy!
• In the real world it is essential to be realistic. A patenting regime covering
more than the US, Europe, and a handful of other countries is a rare sight
outside the realms of very large companies (such as big pharma), and even
many big companies restrict themselves to key markets.
• Rule 7: It's Big Business and Controversial

• The world of IP is a big one. It's controversial, as it has a huge impact on international

relations and trade. It's also controversial for political reasons, as many people feel that

aggressive protection stifles the utility of products that have the potential to do good in the

emerging world (again, for example, big pharma). The World Intellectual Property

Organization (WIPO) is the United Nations agency dedicated to this area [7], and it's worth

considering its overarching aims, which include reducing the knowledge gap between

developed and developing countries, and ensuring that the IP system continues to effectively

serve its fundamental purpose of encouraging creativity and innovation in all countries.

• Of course, many question the value to society of IP, or at least the expansion of IP, in

promoting creativity and innovation. The Public Library of Science describes itself as a driving

force of the open-access movement, and accordingly, unlike many copyrighted works, this

article may be copied without seeking permission, provided that the original authors and

source are cited

• Rule 8: Keep Your Idea Secret until You Have Filed a Patent Application
• Little upsets a patent attorney more than hearing “I have a great idea—it's
selling really well” or “I've shown it to a few companies and they seem
very interested”.
• There is an old maxim that says a secret shared is not a secret anymore.
While a secret shared under a non-disclosure agreement (NDA)—
documents most people have heard about but probably never read—
ought to stay secret, discussing an invention under the umbrella of
confidentiality is no substitute for being able to freely discuss or publish
an idea that is protected by a patent application.
• Obviously, once your idea is published by a journal it is too late to file a
patent application—your invention has been made available to the public.
However, earlier in the publication cycle the situation is different. If you
send a paper to a journal for submission, it will (excluding open review) be
treated as a confidential disclosure to the publisher and the reviewers.
Notwithstanding, the best advice is still to file a patent application before
submitting a paper, either to avoid a potential “abusive disclosure” or hold
up the publication of the paper.
• In summary, novelty is key to patentability and your own disclosures count
against you, so remember to file a patent application before telling
anybody who is not bound by confidence
• Rule 9: Trade Secrets
• Regarding patents, the economic reasoning behind the system is an
exchange between you and the public. The government allows you a
monopoly, and your side of the bargain is to disclose fully your invention
so that once your 20 years of protection is up, it can be freely exploited for
the good of society. A patent can provide you with a 20-year government
approved monopoly. However, some ideas cannot be patented and
indeed, some innovators don't want to patent their ideas. All is not lost
here, however, as we fall back on an older idea and one much beloved of
thriller writers: the trade secret.
• If you really can keep a secret, your monopoly on an idea or product may
never end. But once the genie's out of the bottle, like a champagne cork,
you won't get it back in and you are unlikely to extract sufficient damages
from whoever breaches confidentiality. Thus, if you have an idea that
cannot be reverse engineered, you do not have to enter into the patent
bargain. Trade secrets are free—just prevent the secret being disclosed.
But bear in mind that that this can be very difficult indeed, but not
impossible. Famous successful examples include the recipe for Coca-Cola
and the formulation of the alcoholic beverage Chartreuse, which is only
known by two monks.
• Rule 10: Make Sure the IP Is Owned in a Way That Allows Development
• Notice that we don't suggest “make sure you own the IP of your
invention”. If you discover something whilst working as an employee (e.g.,
of a company or an academic establishment), there will certainly be
something in your contract about this. Generally, the employer will have
first call on the invention, but may have clauses that will return rights to
the individual if it is not exploited within a certain time—in some
countries this is enshrined in law [8].
• Ownership of IP is a minefield, and can be particularly difficult in an
academic setting where numerous complicating features are involved.
Universities, as employers, are likely to have a right to their employees'
inventions; funding bodies may make their own claim; inventorship is not
like authorship—the people whose names are on an academic paper are
unlikely all to be inventors; and in cross-border collaborations, national
laws on ownership may well be in competition with each other. One
complicating factor that is often encountered is joint ownership: if you
can, avoid joint ownership; instead, set up a company to own the IP and
license it to partners if necessary (otherwise you face differing national
rules on what joint owners can do with and without each other's
permission).
• Introduction to IPR
• The Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) are the legal rights
that are conferred as an exclusive right, to the creator or
the inventor in order to, protect his invention or creation
for a period of time.
• Originally, only patent, copyrights and trademarks of
industrial design were protected under the IPR but, now it
has a much wider meaning. IPR enhances technological
advancement as it’s a mechanism of handling piracy,
unauthorized use and infringement [1].
• It gives protection to the trade secrets and undisclosed
information which, are important factors in the industries
and the R & D institutions.
• The Drugs and Pharmaceuticals are the match that requires
to have a strong IP system as inventing new drugs comes
with all associated risks at the developmental stage. Here,
competition is driven by the scientific knowledge concepts
rather than manufacturing know-how
• Types of Intellectual Property[2]
• 1. Patents – A Patent is a document issued by the government office,
on application request, normally to protect the rights of the new
inventions, ideas or scientific processes. The Patent holders are required
to pay, periodic renewal fees to the government. Therefore, the
approved Patent is for a limited period of time only.
• 2. Copyright – It covers all the literary and artistic works including
novels, plays and poems, films, music, architectural designs or
photographs etc. It deals with the rights of the intellectual creators and
also, include the rights of the creator/inventor and those of performers,
producers and the broadcasters as well.
• 3. Trademarks – They specifically protect the colours, sounds, designs,
phrases or symbols of individual’s creative creation. It indicates trade
origin and the source of the trademark owner. It gives the licensor, the
ability to control the permission, marketing, financial arrangements and
the quality of his products. They may be granted separately from the
Patent and know-how licenses.
• 4. Trade Secrets – The systems, processes, formulas, strategies or any
other form of confidential information of any organisation is covered
under this. This is majorly to provide these organisations, with competitive
advantage in the market as they are vital in the growth of the company.
Evolution and development of concept of IPR:
• The foundation of International Intellectual
Property Protection was created in the 19th
century at various Congresses in Vienna
and the rest of Europe.
• The protection of Industrial Property was
created in Paris Convention in the year 1883.
Patents, Trade Marks
and Industrial designs were the three main
properties that were
granted protection in this convention.
• In 1998, India became a
member of the Paris Convention.
• In 1886, International Copyright Act was passed
The Paris Convention marked the beginning of
the International Trade Marks Protection laws
and introduced the
concept of a well known mark.
• Special unions and arrangements
have been created for the countries who are
members of the Paris
Convention.
• Madrid agreement is one special arrangement
that was
created to standardize the trademarks. Madrid
agreement embodies
the fundamental principles outlined in the Paris
Convention.
• The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT) was
negotiated during the UN Conference on
Trade and Employment
and was the outcome of the failure of
negotiating governments
to create the International Trade
Organization (ITO). GATT was
formed in 1949 and lasted until 1993, when it
was replaced by the
World Trade Organization in 1995.
• In 1960 the World Intellectual Property
Organization was
created. It governs the Paris and Berne
Convention. In 1967 World
Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) was
established by
these conventions.
• In 1977 World Trade Organization (WTO) was
created and become an important international
organization for the
development and understanding of IPR;
successor to the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade.
• India ratified the agreement establishing the
World Trade Organization (WTO).

• This Agreement, inter-alia, contains an Agreement

on Trade
Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
(TRIPS) which
came into force from 1st January 1995.
• The obligations under the TRIPS Agreement
relate to provision of
minimum standards of protection within the
member countries legal
systems and practices. The IPR scene in
India has undergone a
dramatic change since 1995 with the creation
of various tools of
Intellectual Property 7,8 .
 RM4151 RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY AND IPR

UNIT V -PATENTS
• Patents – objectives and benefits of patent
• Concept, features of patent
• Inventive step, Specification, Types of patent
application
• process E-filling,
• Examination of patent,
• Grant of patent,
• Revocation,
• Equitable Assignments,
• Licences, Licensing of related patents,
• patent agents, Registration of patent agents.
• Patents:
• Patents
• What is a patent?
• A patent is an exclusive right granted for an
invention, which is a product or a process that
provides, in general, a new way of doing
something, or offers a new technical solution
to a problem. To get a patent, technical
information about the invention must be
disclosed to the public in a patent application
• The purpose of the patent system is to
encourage innovation by granting inventors a
patent for their inventions. A patent is a
governmental grant to inventors of a right to
exclude others from making, using, offering
for sale, or selling or importing to, the United
States, their invention.
• Intended to prevent others from copying,
trading, modifying, or importing the
inventors’ ideas without their consent, patent
protection continues for years.
OBJECTIVES:
1. Be coherent and balanced
1. offering a fair level of protection to
inventors/applicants from all backgrounds
2. Provide legal certainty to
inventors/applicants and third parties alike
3. Promote high quality patents by ensuring
that patent protection is provided only to
inventions.
4. Support economic growth
1. enabling global patent rights to be acquired in
an efficient manner
• There are a lot of benefits that the owner can
enjoy after obtaining a patent, some of which
are as follows:
• Exclusive access to every right from the time of
early filing
1. Patent registration begins bestowing the
inventors with the benefits right from the first
step, i.e., the time of filing for the patent.
2. The applicant gets the security and surety that
no other person or company could claim the
ideas similar to his invention, as soon as he files
the Provisional Patent Application.
3. If someone else applies for the same patent, his
request will get rejected for the filing period.
• Freedom to make changes
• The patent law entitles the owner to use his
ideas in any way for the permitted period. It
means that the owner owns full freedom to
utilize, sell, or even modify the original
invention and to prevent others from making
profits from the same ideas without his
consent.
• Note that patent infringement is a criminal
offense.
• ROI (Return on Investment)
• Sometimes, the owner finds that his invention
is not bringing good outcomes for him and
therefore, wants to hand it over to any other
deserving or successful person.
• Once obtained, the patent rights allow him to
earn a good amount of ROI, i.e., returns on
his investments by commercializing the
invention.
• Opportunities to get a good market
reputation
• Patent rights enable the inventor to get a
noticeable market status and improve his
portfolio by uncovering the invention publicly.
It then helps him in building up a good
relationship with consumers and competitors
that ultimately add to his revenue.
• Public disclosure
• Patent rights allow public
disclosure(வெளிப்படுத்தல் ) that helps
the inventor in building up his portfolio along
with increasing the funds, market value, and
business partners.
 Patent Law - Salient Features
• Both product and process patent provided
• Term of patent – 20 years
• Examination on request
• Both pre-grant and post-grant opposition
• Fast track mechanism for disposal of appeals
• Provision for protection of bio-diversity and
traditional knowledge
• Publication of applications after 18 months
with facility for early publication
• Substantially reduced time-lines
• Types of Patent Application
• A patent is a statutory authorization or
license which establishes a right or title over
an invention for a particular period.
• It is primarily meant for the prevention of
other businesses or its kind from making,
using or selling an invention of a similar
nature.
• In this article, we look at the different types of
patent application in detail.
• Types of Patent
• The types of patent application are:
• Provisional Application
• Ordinary or Non-Provisional Application
• Convention Application
• PCT International Application
• PCT National Phase Application
• Patent of Addition
• Divisional Application
• The rest of the article covers these types in
detail.
1. Provisional Application
• A provisional application, also known as a
temporary application, is filed when an
invention is under experimentation and isn’t
finalized.
• Moreover, it is a preliminary application
which is filed before the patent office for
claiming priority, as the Indian Patent Office
follows the ‘First to File’ system (known
popularly as the First-Come-First-Served-
Basis).
• To add more, this type of patent application is
filed when an invention requires additional
time for development. If an application is
supported by a provisional specification, the
applicant is necessitated to file a complete
specification within twelve months from the
date of filing a provisional application.
• An application for this purpose must include
a brief explanation of the invention and must
be drafted in a meticulous manner so as to
ensure that the priority rights are secured for
the invention.
2.Ordinary or Non-Provisional Application
• This type of application is filed if the applicant
doesn’t have any priority to claim or if the
application is not filed in pursuance(திட்டம் ,
வெயல் ஆகியெற் றறத் வதொடர்ந்து நடத்துதல் ) of any

preceding convention application.

• It must be supported by a complete
specification, the likes of which must depict
the invention in detail.
• Complete specification can be filed through:
• Direct Filing – wherein complete specification
is initially filed with the Indian Patent Office
without filing any corresponding provisional
specification.
• Subsequent Filing – wherein complete
specification is filed subsequent to the filing of
the corresponding provisional specification
and claiming priority from the filed
provisional specification.
• A complete specification entails the
following:
• Title
• A preamble(முன் னுறர) to the invention.
• The technical field of the invention.
• Background of the invention.
• Objects of the invention.
• Statement of the invention.
• A brief description of the drawings
• A detailed description of the invention.
• Claims
• Abstract
3.Convention Application- ெர்ெததெ கொப் புரிறமத்
தொக்கல்
• A convention application is filed for claiming a
priority date based on the same or substantially
similar application filed in any of the convention
countries.
• To avail a status of convention, an applicant is
required to file an application in the Indian Patent
Office within a year from the date of the initial
filing of a similar application in the convention
country. To re-iterate in simpler terms, a
convention application entitles the applicant to
claim priority in all the convention countries.
• What is Convention Patent Filing?

The territorial nature of the Patent limits the

scope of applicability of such rights in countries
other than the one granting it.
The solution to this problem, is going for
international Patent filing for Patent registration
and one mode of doing so is filing a convention
Patent application which allows an individual to
make international Patent filings in the countries
which are party to the Paris Convention
(Convention Countries) based on a prior Patent
filing made in any of those convention countries
(known as the basic application).
4.PCT International Application- The Patent
Cooperation Treaty (PCT) is an international
patent law treaty, concluded in 1970.
• As can be deciphered from its name, a PCT
Application is an international application.
Though the application does not provide for the
grant of an international patent, it paves the
way for a streamlined(வநறிப்படுத்தப்பட்டது) patent
application process in many countries at one go.
• It is governed by the Patent Corporation Treaty
and can be validated in up to 142 countries. Filing
this application would protect an invention from
being replicated in these designated countries.
• Apart from this, it renders the following other
benefits:
• The application provides an International
Search Report citing prior art, which discloses
whether or not the invention is novel.
• It provides an option for requesting an
International Preliminary Examination
Report, which is a report that contains an
option on the patentability of the invention.
5.PCT National Phase Application
• It is considered essential for an applicant to
file a national phase application in each of the
country wherein protection is sought for.
• The time-frame for filing the same is
scheduled within 31 months from the priority
date or the international filing date,
whichever is earlier.
• The time-limit could be enhanced through
National Laws by each member country.
• With respect to the National Phase
Application, the title, description, abstract
and claims as filed in the International
Application under PCT shall be considered as
the Complete Specification.
• Apart from this, the regulations applicable for
filing and processing an ordinary patent
application is also applied here.
6.Patent of Addition
• This application must be filed if the applicant
discovers that he has come across an invention
which is a slight modification of the invention
which has already been applied for or patented
by the applicant.
• It can only be filed if the invention doesn’t
involve a substantial inventive step.
• 'Patent of Addition' falls under Sections 54, 55
and 56 of the Patents Act, 1970. It is an
application made for a patent undergoing
improvement or modification of the invention
described or disclosed in the main application
for which the patentee has already applied for
or has obtained a patent.
7.Divisional Application- parent application
• An applicant may choose to divide an
application and furnish two or more
applications if a particular application claims
for more than one invention. The priority date
for these applications is similar to that of the
parent application.
• What is a divisional of a patent?
• A divisional patent application (sometimes
referred to as a divisional application or simply
a divisional) is a type of patent application
which contains matter from a previously filed
application (the so-called parent application).
• What is patent e-filing?
• June 20, 2016 by Intepat Team Patent. The
Indian Patent Office has introduced E-filing of
patent services way back in 2007 in order to
ease the process of filing.
• Manual filing required submission of hard
copies of all the required documents to the
appropriate authority.
• This usually proved to be a long complicated
process that was very time-consuming. With the
introduction of e-filing, the process became more
user-friendly and relatively faster.
• Though first introduced in the year 2007 e-filing
has been made compulsory as per the Patent
(Amendment) Rules 2016.
• Therefore, the Indian Patent office has increased
an additional 10% statutory fees for accepting
manual filing for patents with effect from 16th
May 2016.
• Today we delve into the process and benefits of
Indian patent e-filing.
• E-filing patent application in India: Process
• Firstly, E-filing of patent services was first
introduced in India in the year 2007.
• This was revamped புதுப்பிக்கப் பட்டது) as the
(

Comprehensive Online Patent Filing Services

in the year 2012.
• 1) The first step is to register at Online Filing of
Patents platform. After registering, the user
ID and password are generated.
• 2) The Comprehensive Online Patent Filing
Services has a dual login facility. This means
that an Applicant or Agent can login either
using the User ID and password or the digital
signature.
• 3) Thereafter, logging in the website has a list
of comprehensive steps that allow the
Applicant to download client software on
which he can create and sign the patent
application.
• 4) After uploading the digitally signed patent
application the (auto-calculated) payment
must be made.
• 5) The status of the application can be
checked.
• 6) The acknowledgment will generate after
receipt of the payment.
• Benefits of e-filing of patents in India:
• i. The foremost advantage of e-filing of patent
applications is its flexibility. In the sense that a
patent application can be filed at any time and at
any place.
• ii. Increase in speed in another benefit. The
electronic medium ensures that the application is
filed immediately. There can be no delays as is
usual in the case of manual filing. This also
ensures that an acknowledgment is generated
immediately.
• iii. Additionally, even at the patent office, the
accuracy increases, given the fact that there is no
scope for manual entry of any of the details. This
reduction in the margin of error ensures a more
efficient review.
• iv. While drafting patent applications the primary
concern for most applicants is adherence to the
format.
• E-filing makes this process easy owing to the available
software that can cross-check the format of the
application in order to ensure that they comply with
the required format.
• E-PCT is an online platform that can be used for filing
PCT applications. Moreover, e-filing allows for
validation with the IPO database.
• v. In addition, the introduction of the Comprehensive
Online Patent Filing Services has ensured that there are
minimum transaction errors.
• vi. After registration, each Applicant or Agent will have
a unique user profile where he can add and update his
digital signature.
• What is patent examination in India?
• In India, an application for patent only goes
through examination when a request for such
examination is made to the Controller of
Patents within a period of 48 months from
the date of filing of that patent application.
• Patent Examination Procedure
1. Missing the deadline for filing request for examination
can prove fatal for the patent application. Since it is
absolutely clear that missing the deadline, would
eventually kill the patent application.
2. If the request of examination is made within the
prescribed time limit, the Indian Patent office takes up the
application for examination.
3. The normal Requests for Patent Examination can be filed
within a period of 48 months from the priority date or
date of filing of the patent application whichever is
earlier.
4. If the patent examination request is not filed within the
specified time limit the patent application shall be
treated as withdrawn by the Indian Patent Office.
5. It is mandatory under Indian Patent Act 1970, to file a
request for patent examination as per the prescribed
timeline.
6. Ordinarily, within one month from the date of a
request for examination, the Controller is
required to refer the application to an
examiner.
7. Further, the examiner is then required to prepare
the Examination Report within one month, but
not exceeding three months from the date of
reference for such examination by the
Controller.
8. On the other hand, upon a request for an
expedited examination(விறரெொன
ஆய் வு), the examiner will be required to give
the Examination Report within one month, but
not exceeding two months from the date of
reference for examination by the Controller.
9. he provision of expedited examination is
available for startups and applicants who have
included India, in their PCT application as an
International Searching Authority (ISA) or
International Preliminary Examining Authority
(IPEA). Therefore, selecting India as ISA can be
beneficial to expedite the grant process.
10. An early publication request can be made along
with prescribed fees if one does want to wait, till
the expiry of 18 months from the date of filing for
publishing the patent application.
11. Generally the patent application is published
within a month after request for early
publication.
 Why do I have to file Request for Examination in
India?
• The Process of examination starts with filing a request for
examination.
• Unlike publication, this is not an automatic process.
• Only after receiving the Request for Examination (RFE) the
controller transfers the patent application to the patent examiner.
• The request for examination has to be made within 48 months
from the date of priority or filing whichever is earlier.
• The patent examiner examines the patent application, and
prepares the examination report on the basis of various
patentability criterias like:

1. Patentable subject matter;

2. Novelty;(புதுறம)
3. Inventive step;(கண்டுபிடிப் பு)
4. Industrial application; and
5. Specification Enablement(விெரக்குறிப் பு)
• Who can file the Request for Examination in
India and How?
• In India a Request for patent examination (RFE)
may be filed by:
1. the patent applicant of the patent application
or by any other interested person Request of
Examination is filed by filling Form 18.
2. The interested person (third party) has to
submit appropriate evidence of his interest in
the particular patent application.
3. Form-18 has to be filed, specifying the details of
the patent applicant or other interested person,
application number, title, date of filing and
publication date along with the prescribed
fees.
• What is First Examination Report under the
Patent Act?
• Once the patent application is examined, the
Patent office issues an examination report to the
patent applicant which is generally known as
First Examination Report (FER).
• The examiner submits this to the controller.
• It usually contains prior arts similar to claimed
invention. Prior art here means existing
documents before the date of filing, similar to
claimed invention. It need not be commercially
available. It is just evidence which proves that the
claimed invention is already known.
• The Applicant should reply the objections (if
any) and place the application in order for
grant within 12 months from the date of issue
of the FER (First Examination Report).
• In this case too, if the reply to the examination
report is not made within prescribed time
limit, which is 12 months, the application is
deemed to be abandoned.(விண்ணப் பம்
ககவிடப் பட்டதாகக் கருதப் படுகிறது)
• What is grant of patent in India?
• India Patent Office grants patent so that any
invention can be freely commercialised or
utilised without any fear of
infringement.(மீறல் )
• All changes affecting patent right should
always be recorded in the Indian Patent Office.
• The Indian Patent Office grants patents which
are governed by the Indian Patents Act, 1970.
• Revocation(திரும் பப் வபறுதல் )
• Patent revocation means cancellation of the
rights granted to a person by the grant of a
patent.
• A patent can be revoked on petition of any
person interested or of the Central
Government or on a counter claim in a suit for
infringement of the patent by the High Court.
• The term “Revocation” means Cancellation of
the patent rights acquired to patentee.
• The revocation of patent can be applied by
making a petition by any person interested or
it can be also applied by the Central
Government.
• In most of the cases revocation are filed on a
counter claim against patent infringement
suits in High Court or in IPAB (the Intellectual
Property Appellate Board).
• The provision for Revocation of patents is
mentioned under section 104.
• Equitable Assignments: Any agreement
including a letter in which the patentee
agrees to give a certain defined share of the
patent to another person is an equitable
assignment of the patent.
• An assignment which does not fulfil the
statutory criteria for a legal assignment. An
equitable assignment may be made in one of
two ways:
• The assignor can inform the assignee that he
transfers a right or rights to him.
• The assignor can instruct the other party or
parties to the agreement to discharge their
obligation to the assignee instead of the
assignor.
• Equitable Assignment
• An equitable assignment may not appear to be
self-evident by the law's standard, but it
presents the assignee with a title that is
protected and recognized in equity.
• It's based on the essence of a declaration of trust;
• specifically, essential fairness and natural justice.
• As long as there is valuable consideration
involved, it does not matter if a formal agreement
is signed. There needs to be some sort of intent
displayed from one party to assign and the other
party to receive.
• What is a patent?
• An exclusive right granted for an invention,
which is either a product or a process, and offers
a new way of doing a work or provides with a
new technical solution to an existing problem, is
called a patent.1
• What is called Patent Licensing?
• Patent Licensing is an act of or a process of
granting, to a third party, permissions to
extricate benefits by selling and using the
licensed product.
• The patent owner gives license to a third person
to use, sell and extract benefits from his
patented invention, for an amount already
decided as royalty.
1. Licensing is a major facet of intellectual property. A
license agreement is a partnership between two
persons, one patent owner and other known as
licensor who is authorized to use patent.
• What are the types of Patent License?
• There are following five types of patent
licensing:2
• Exclusive License
• An exclusive license is one in which all the
rights of the patent is transferred to the
licensee, but the title. In such case, the
licensee has all the rights as of the patent
owner except of transferring the patent to
another person.
• Non-exclusive License
• In a non-exclusive right, the licensee has the
right to sell and make the patented design,
but such right is not
exclusive.(பிரத்திதயகமொனது)
• Patent owner may grant permission to use
and make such patented design to any other
person also. In this case, all of them have the
right to make, use and sell the patented
design. The rights enshrined by this license is
not exclusive to a particular licensee.
• Sub-license
• It is a type if license issued by the licensee to
different organizations to make the products.
Sublicense can be said to be granting of certain
licensed rights on a product to a third party by
the licensee.
• Cross License
• When a product requires support of some other
product to make its place in the market and for
better utilization, cross license is preferred. Cross
license can be understood as exchange of license
between different organizations and individuals.
Recently, Ericsson and Oppo entered into a cross
license agreement between them covering
various patent portfolios of both the companies
including portfolios of 2G, 3G and 4G.
• Compulsory License
• When the government grants permission to any
individuals or organizations to use, sell or make a
patented design or product, irrespective of the
will of the patent owner, for the public good, it is
referred to as compulsory license. Compulsory
license is usually seen being granted in the
pharmaceutical products and the products which
fulfils the criteria as mentioned in Section 84 of
the Patents Act, 1970.
• The first compulsory license, in India, was given
to Natco Pharma Ltd. for producing generic
version of Nexavar which was a patented
medicine of Bayer Corporation, on March 9,
2012.
• Meaning of the term Patent Agent
• Patent agent as defined under Section 2(n) of
the India Patent Act, 1970 is a person who is
registered under the patent act as a patent
agent.
• The definition under the act defines as to who
is a patent agent. In order to understand the
meaning of the term ‘Patent agent’ in simple
terms, it can be defined as “a person who
files the patent application” The process
involved in the preparation of a patent
application is taken care of by the patent
agent.
• That is, he helps in the preparation of the
documents, including drafting, filing and
prosecution of an application before the
controller on behalf of any person who wishes
to obtain a patent.

• Qualification required for being a patent agent

• For a person to qualify to get his name
registered in the Patent register he shall meet
the criteria specified under Section 126 of the
act. As per which, the qualifications required to
be a patent agent are as follows:
• He should be a citizen of India;
• Should have completed 21 years of age;
• Procedure for registering as a Patent Agent
• Rule 109, 110, and 111 of the Rules provides the
procedure to become a patent agent. In this regard, a
person intending to register as a patent agent shall
comply with the following procedure:
• 1. Application for examination
• A person shall make a request to the Controller and
pay the requisite fee as provided in the First
Schedule[2], as per which if the person intends to apply
online then he shall pay an amount of Rupees 3,200
and in case of the offline mode of application
payment of Rs. 3500 is prescribed. After making the
payment, the details of the said payment shall be
provided to the Controller, in order to appear for the
required qualifying examination.
• 2. Particulars of examination
• Only a person meeting the qualification
provided under Section 126[4] of the Act shall
apply for the patent examination. The
applicant should select the center of his
convenience to write the exam. The
examination is usually conducted in 5 cities
that is, Mumbai, Delhi, Nagpur, Chennai and
Kolkata. The Indian patent examination is
conducted once every year.
• 3. Registration
• The person shall first submit a Form 22 application provided under
the rules.
• He shall also furnish with it any other information as required by
the controller.
• After a person has cleared the exam and furnished any other
necessary and relevant details required by the controller such as
age proof, citizenship proof, character certificate in original by
gazette officer along with self-attested copy of proof of degree,
admit card signed by the candidate along with invigilator’s
signature, passport size photograph along with specimen
signature.
• He shall then in accordance with Rule 111, pay the fees as specified
under the First Schedule and submit the receipt of the same to the
controller.
• The controller shall upon verifying the same, enter the candidate’s
name in the register of Patent agents and issue a certificate of
registration as a patent agent to the candidate.
• The certificate so issued is valid only within India that is, it is
recognized only by the Indian Patent office and by Patent
Cooperation Treaty.