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another in the AVA Academia series...
The Fundamentals
of Architecture
Lorraine Farrelly
The Fundamentals of Architecture
Lorraine Farrelly
An AVA Book
Published by AVA Publishing SA
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Second edition © AVA Publishing SA 2012
First published in 2007
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form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without permission of the copyright
holder.
ISBN 978-2-940411-75-7
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Farrelly, Lorraine.
The Fundamentals of Architecture. / Lorraine Farrelly. p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN: 9782940411757 (pbk. : alk. paper)
eISBN: 9782940447350
1. Architecture. 2. Architecture -- Study and teaching.
3. Architectural design.
NA2500 .F37 2012
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Design by Gavin Ambrose
Cover image: copyright of GuoZhongHua and courtesy of
Shutterstock.com.
Production by AVA Book Production Pte. Ltd., Singapore
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F The Fundamentals
of Architecture
Lorraine Farrelly
 Contents

INTRODUCTION 06

CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 3

4
Placing Architecture 10 History and Precedent 32 Construction 62

Site 12 A timeline of architectural Materials 64

Place and space 20 influences 34 Elements 72
City context 22 The ancient world 36 Prefabrication 78
Landscape context 24 The classical world 38 Structure 80
The medieval world 40 Innovation 82
Case study: Redesigning a The Renaissance 42 Innovative materials 84
university campus 26 Baroque 46
Exercise: Site analysis 30 Modernism 50 Case study: Designing a pavilion 86
Exercise: Axonometric drawing 90
Case study: Reconstructing a
museum 56
Exercise: Skylines 60
CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 6
5
Representation 92 Contemporary Ideas 136 Realization 162

CAD drawing 94 Universal ideas and principles 138 Project timeline 164
Sketching 96 Functionalism 142 The project 166
Scale 102 Form-driven architecture 146 Contributors and their roles 168
Orthographic projection 106 Monumentalism 150 The brief 170
Perspective 112 Zeitgeist 152 The concept 172
Three-dimensional images 114 Site analysis 174
Physical modelling 118 Case study: Integrating with an The design process 176
CAD modelling 120 urban landscape 156 Detail development 178
Layout and presentation 122 Exercise: Analytical diagrams 160 The finished building 180
Storyboarding 124
Portfolios 126

Case study: Renovation 130

Exercise: Photomontage 134

CONCLUSION 182 INDEX 190

BIBLIOGRAPHY & WEBOGRAPHY 184 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 192
GLOSSARY 186 WORKING WITH ETHICS 193
Contents

PICTURE CREDITS 188

 Introduction

Architecture
1. The art or practice of designing and
constructing buildings.
2. The style in which a building is designed
and constructed.

6
This second edition of The Fundamentals of Architecture This book has been divided into chapters that
introduces architecture to a wide audience. It will summarize various aspects of thinking during the
explore fundamental ideas that architects need process of designing buildings. This process starts with
to consider when designing buildings, places and a concept or idea. This may be stimulated by an aspect
spaces. The intention of this book is to introduce the of the brief – the intended function of the building. It
fundamental principles of architecture. There are may be an aspect of the material or construction of the
many visual references and illustrations that explain building that inspires the concept, or some historical or
the thinking process required to develop an idea and, contemporary precedent or existing building.
eventually, build a building.
Architecture is a complex and compelling subject.
Many architectural ideas are never realized; buildings Buildings surround us and make up our physical
require a vision and ideas can remain conceptual or worlds. Making a building requires many layers of
stay on the drawing board. Architecture is a visual thinking and exploration.
language and architects communicate through drawings,
models and eventually through the spaces and places
we construct.
 1

At its simplest, architecture is about defining the physical 1. SECC Conference Centre, Glasgow, Scotland
space around us, for example, a room and the objects within it. Foster + Partners, 1995–1997
This building has a strong profile on its site along
It can be a house, a skyscraper or a series of buildings, or part the River Clyde in Glasgow. The centre has a curved
of a master plan of a city. Whatever the scale of the building, aluminium roof, which looks much like the hard shell
it evolves incrementally from concept sketch or drawing to of an armadillo, suggesting a strong, formal metaphor
for the building’s form and shape.
inhabited space or building.

Introduction
 1
1. The Schröder House, Utrecht, The Netherlands
Gerrit Rietveld, 1924–1925
Artistic movements can also influence architectural form.
The De Stijl (the style) movement in The Netherlands
strongly influenced the development of Gerrit Rietveld’s
architecture, in particular his Schröder House in Utrecht.

2. Sketch of the Schröder House

This student drawing shows a geometric analysis of
the Schröder House. When laid over an elevation drawing
of the building, it shows how each element is
proportionally connected. The red lines show the
incorporation of the ‘golden section’ (see page 123),
which is a geometric proportioning system.

8 CHAPTER BY CHAPTER
This book has been structured and divided into a series
of subjects in order to cover the full design process.

The first chapter, Placing Architecture, refers to the

site the building occupies and how that needs to be
analysed and understood before starting the idea. The
next chapter, History and Precedent, shows that all
architecture is informed by ideas that have preceded
it – this could be a reference to a plan, a use of material
or a structural idea. No architecture is completely new;
it connects to a vast knowledge of historical precedent, 2
whether implicit or explicit, or informed by the recent
and distant past.

The third chapter, Construction, introduces the basic

aspects of building techniques. This chapter includes
aspects of structure and material, and the making and
substance of building.
3

The next chapter, Representation, refers to the communication of ideas, 3. Analysis of the Schröder House
from freehand sketching, to computer drawing and modelling. The fifth This three-dimensional perspective
drawing of the Schröder House suggests
chapter, Contemporary Ideas, explores the many ways in which architecture how the internal spaces of the building
can be influenced by the prevalent ‘zeitgeist’, or spirit of the age. are defined by intersecting horizontal
and vertical planes. The shadow
projected at the bottom of the
The final chapter explores the realization of a building, from the first stages drawing directly connects to the
of conceptual thinking, through to the final stages of implementation of a building’s plan.
building on site. This is where all the thinking, the consideration of the site,
precedent, materials and structure come together. Making a successful building
or structure requires the planning of information and organizing teams of
professional people who do the facilitating and building contractors who do
the making. The success of a building can be judged by the response of the
client and how it fulfils its original brief.
Introduction
 Chapter 1
Placing Architecture

In architectural terms, ‘context’ generally refers

to the place in which architecture or buildings
are located. Context is specific and significantly
affects how an architectural idea is generated.
Many architects use context to provide a clear
connection with their architectural concept, so the
10 resultant building is integrated and almost becomes
indistinguishable from the surrounding environment.
Other responses may react against the environment,
and the resultant buildings will be distinct and
Placing Architecture

separate from their surroundings. Either way, the

critical issue is that the context has been studied,
analysed and responded to deliberately and clearly.
The Fundamentals of Architecture

1. Townscape model
This model of a laser-cut map highlights aspects of a townscape: a
project site is identified as a series of red blocks to distinguish it from
the surrounding city site.
 1

11

Introduction < Placing Architecture > History and Precedent

 Site
Architecture belongs somewhere, it will rest on a particular
place: a site. The site will have distinguishing characteristics
in terms of topography, location and historical definitions.

12 UNDERSTANDING SITE
An urban site will have a physical history that will inform The location of a building relates not only to its site, but
the architectural concept. There will be memories and also to the area around it. This presents a further range of
traces of other buildings on the site, and surrounding issues to be considered, such as the scale of surrounding
buildings that have their own important characteristics; buildings and the materials of the area that have been
from use of materials, or their form and height, to the previously used to construct buildings.
type of details and physical characteristics that the user
Placing Architecture

will engage with. A landscape site may have a less obvious On site it is important to imagine ideas of form, mass,
history. However, its physical qualities, its topography, materials, entrance and view. The site is both a limitation
geology and plant life for example, will serve as indicators to design and a provider of incredible opportunities. It
for architectural design. is what makes the architecture specific and unique as no
two sites are exactly the same. Every site has its own life
There is a fundamental need for an architect to understand cycle, which creates yet more variables in terms of its
the site that a building sits on. The site will suggest a series interpretation and understanding. Site analysis is critical
of parameters that will affect the architectural design. For for architecture, as it provides criteria for the architect to
example, broad considerations might include orientation work with.
(how the sun moves around the site) and access (how do
you arrive at the site? What is the journey from and to the
building?).
1 1. Casa Malaparte (Villa Malaparte), Capri, Italy
Adalberto Libera, 1937–1943
Adalberto Libera provides us with a clear example of a building
responding to its landscape. The Casa Malaparte sits on top of a
rocky outcrop on the eastern side of the Island of Capri in Italy. It is
constructed from masonry, and is so intrinsically connected to its
site that it actually appears to be part of the landscape.

2. A city skyline, London, UK

In an urban environment, a mixture of historical and contemporary
buildings can work well together. The London skyline, viewed here
from the South Bank, shows a city that has evolved over hundreds
of years, each element connecting to the other in terms of material,
form and scale.

13
2
 1 1. Istanbul: Karaköy analysis
This is a map of an area of Istanbul,
alongside the water edge, the study
identifies the key centres of activity along
the map and also describes the various
intended ‘character areas‘ through use
of colour.

14 SITE ANALYSIS AND MAPPING

Techniques to record and understand a site are varied, To properly analyse a site it must be mapped, which
from physical surveys (measuring quantitatively what means recording the many forms of information that exist
is there) to qualitatively interpreting aspects of light, on it. The mapping needs to include physical aspects of
sound and experience. Most simply, just visiting a site to the site, but also more qualitative aspects of the experience
watch and record its life cycle can provide clues about and personal interpretations of the place.
how to produce a suitable design response.
Placing Architecture

There are a range of tools that can be used to map a site,

Contextual site responses respect the known parameters of investigate it and produce a design from its indicators.
the site. Acontextual responses deliberately work against These are analytical tools that allow the site to be
the same parameters to create contrast and reaction. For measured in a range of different ways.
either approach it is necessary for the architect to have
read the site, and properly understood it via various forms
of site analysis.
2 2. Personal interpretations of a site
A collage image of London comprises a set
of sketches of a journey, overlaid on a train
map; a personal interpretation of a visit to
London.

TOOL ONE: PERSONAL INTERPRETATION OF A SITE 15

The first impression we have of a place is critical. Our Serial vision is a useful technique to apply to any site
personal interpretations of the overall character of a site (or building), in order to explain how it operates spatially
will inform subsequent design decisions, and it is important and to identify its significance. The visuals can be
to record these honestly and immediately. created either as a series of sketches or as photographs
of the journey, as long as they are assembled and read in
The idea of a personal journey around a site and the sequence.
interpretation of it is something that Gordon Cullen
focuses upon when he describes the concept of ‘serial
vision’ in his book The Concise Townscape (1961). This
concept suggests that the area under study is drawn as a
map, and a series of points are then identified on it, each
one indicating a different view of the site. These views
are then sketched out as small thumbnails, which offer
personal impressions of the site’s space.

Site > Place and space

 1 2

1., 2. & 3. Figure ground studies

1. Figure ground study of London with the
River Thames clearly indicated as an open
space.
2. A site in Old Portsmouth, UK; the blue
areas indicate the water’s edge, major
roads are grey and the buildings are black.
3. This series of images illustrates the
position of a site in relationship to its
orientation.

16 TOOL TWO: FIGURE GROUND STUDY

A figure ground study is a type of drawing that maps analysis. This method allows for a focus on the figure
buildings as solid blocks, clearly identifying the space (building) and the ground (space around the building).
around them. A figure ground study presents a city as Historically, figure ground studies have been used to
areas of spaces and solids, producing an abstract site identify the different types of space in cities.
Placing Architecture

Site Positioning

Wind Rose

UK Portsea Island Old Portsmouth, Camber

3

Laid brick Cobbles Loud

Water Tarmac Public Private Normal Quiet Vehicular Pedestrian
Surface materials

Building Use

Noise Map

Movement / Access
Figure Ground Map

Prospect

Sun Paths

Summer Solace

Winter Solace
Site analysis
4

TOOL THREE: HISTORICAL TRACING OF THE SITE 17

Mapping a site over a series of significant stages in the course of its history provides a description
of the life and memory of a place. Historical tracing can be achieved by overlaying a range of same-
scale maps from the same site, each one depicting a different stage of the site’s development. Doing
so allows all the maps to be read concurrently and produces an image of the site that captures both its
past and present.

Historical tracing can provide important triggers for a design idea. There may be a historic
route, path, road or railway line that could suggest a significant axis, which could be
acknowledged in a design idea. Similarly, remains of Roman walls or other important structures
could also be recognized in a new building proposal. Historical site analysis can provide
inspiration for a contemporary idea that connects directly with the past archaeology of a site.

4. Historical tracing of a site

Historical site mapping can bring together
all the significant developments in a site’s
lifespan. This provides a ‘complete’ picture Site > Place and space
of the site, which can then be used as a
source of inspiration for future concepts.
 1 2

18 SITE SURVEYS
The condition of any site will need to be recorded in a survey. A survey 1. Site surveys
can be described as a record of something already in existence, and can A series of sketch urban studies of the
be produced either in the form of a physical map or model, or a measured town of Havant, UK, to illustrate the
different types of spaces.
drawing that explains where doors, windows or boundaries exist, as well
as specific information such as relative heights of surrounding buildings, 2. Massing model
elevation details or heights of ground level across a site.
Placing Architecture

A physical massing model of Istanbul

indicating the density of the city.
Detailed site analysis will measure physical aspects of the site. A site survey
3., 4. & 5. Combination images
will provide dimensions of its width and depth and indicate any adjacent
These combination images use a digital
building at the levels of plan, elevation and section (see page 106) to create aerial view and CAD model of a townscape.
an accurate record of what currently exists. This is an essential part of the
design process.

Site surveys can also record different ‘levels’. A level site survey shows the
variations of contours and inclines and these may also be used to suggest
ways in which to develop the design concept.
 4
3

5
19

Site > Place and space

 Place and space
When does a space become a place? A space is
physical, it has dimensions, it is located somewhere,
it experiences change through time and it inhabits
memory. A place is somewhere that activities, events
and occasions happen. A building can be a place or
a series of places. Equally, a city can be made up of
many important spaces as well as being a place itself.
A place has memory and some sense of identity.

20 THE MEMORY OF PLACE

The concept of memory of place is based on the premise that impressive
places are strongly remembered; they have significant characteristics, Carlo Scarpa 1906–1978
sounds, textures, events that make them memorable. For architects, An Italian architect, Carlo Scarpa
understanding the sense of place is particularly important when approached historic sites by placing
responding to, for example, a historic site or a building in a conservation his own contemporary architecture
area. There will be aspects of the history and the memory of the site that within an existing environment. He did
Placing Architecture

need to be reinforced. this with great care and deliberation,

using a range of forms and materials
Designing architecture and cities as places requires an understanding of that are clearly identifiable from
the events that may take place, as well as the events that have already the existing building, yet still
occurred. There is a need for imagined buildings or spaces that can be complementary. Scarpa carefully
considered as arenas for these events to occur. studied his site and respected
important aspects of route,
movement, view and reinforced
1. Castelvecchio, Verona, Italy these ideas with his own designs. In
Restoration by Carlo Scarpa 1954–1967 this way, he respected and explored
Castelvecchio (old castle) is a historic Italian castle and Scarpa’s restoration transformed
aspects of the memory of the site.
it into a relevant, contemporary piece of architecture. It can still be read as a castle, but also
as a contemporary sculpture garden and museum.

2. La Villette Matrix from Event-Cities 2 (MIT Press, 2001)

Bernard Tschumi
In his book, Event-Cities 2, Bernard Tschumi explores the possibility of a city as a series of
potential places for events (such as living, performing, buying or selling) to occur. These
maps suggest the physical location of these events.
 2
1

21

Site < Place and space > City context

 sensory
fun
playful
1
City context
The city is an environment
in which much of our new
architecture is placed. It is a
context for living and working
in contemporary society. The
city provides precedent for
architecture and an environment
to interact with and enrich.

healthy
22 A CREATION
Cities are places for events to occur and for life to
2
unfold, they are constructs created by and engaged with
thousands of people. Cities are imagined and depicted
by many innovators, architects, politicians, artists, authors
and designers.
Placing Architecture

There are many imagined views of the city. Many of

these ideas represent a utopia of what a city could be
and how we might live our lives. Realization of these
ideals has been seen, to a certain degree, in Seaside in
the US, Milton Keynes in the UK and Chandigarh in
India. These new cities were first imagined and then
created as new and complete concepts for living.
Their design was not restricted by issues of historical
infrastructure or a limited palette of available materials,
instead there was an architectural opportunity to start
afresh and build a new future.
 engaging
inviting
energetic

activity
community

connecting
23

1. An interpretation of a
3
church site
A collage image that uses
a site photo as a basis for
analysis with keywords and
texts describing activity and
potential for the site.

2. Parc de la Villette, Paris,

France
Bernard Tschumi, 1982–1998

Place and space < City context > Landscape context

One of Parc de la Villette’s 35
red follies (pavilions), which
house cafés, information kiosks
and other activity centres.

3. A student’s impression of
Istanbul
This series of sketches of
Istanbul presents a personal
view of the city, capturing
people as well as places.
 Landscape context
Within the context of landscape, buildings can either become part
of the environment or distinct and separate from it. Many large
buildings or structures can themselves be considered as types
of landscape, such as airports, parks or mainline train stations.
They are structures so large in scale that they contain buildings
and other structures within them.

24 LANDSCAPE AND CONTEXT

A landscape, whatever its scale, creates new possibilities Together, these varying aspects of understanding provide
for dwelling, inhabiting and living. Whether a site is important parameters to suggest an architectural solution,
urban, open, closed or rural, in order for an architect one that will be appropriate to the place and its meaning,
to respond to it with a design proposal it needs to be and one that will contribute something to its context.
understood, in both intuitive and personal ways, as well
as through quantitative and measured assessment.
Placing Architecture

1. Madrid Barajas Airport, Madrid, Spain

Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners, 1997–2005
Contemporary buildings, such as airports, exist at such
a vast scale that they become in themselves a landscape.
This airport shows the organic form that has been created
within a landscape. The building’s legible, modular design
creates a repeating sequence of waves formed by vast wings
of prefabricated steel. Supported on central ‘trees’, the roof is
punctuated by roof lights providing carefully controlled natural
light throughout the upper level of the terminal.
1

25
case study Redesigning a university campus

Project: Headington Campus, Oxford Brookes University

Architect: Design Engine Architects Ltd.
Client: Oxford Brookes University
Location/date: Oxford, UK/ 2009–ongoing

This chapter has considered the context of There will be a range of different scales and
building, which requires a broad consideration types of spaces for students to interact with
of the site on which the building sits, as well as each other, combining social space with group
aspects of orientation, view, scale, massing and learning environments. These spaces will adapt
form, which are relative to the buildings and to the students’ changing needs and have the
spaces around them. flexibility to enable both individual study and
group learning.
When Oxford Brookes University decided to
redevelop their main Headington campus, they In addition, there are open, external spaces as
commissioned British-based architects Design well as courtyards and internal squares. Finally,
Engine to produce a new master plan for the a range of spaces at the edge of the site are more
2,276 square meters (24,500 square feet) site. public spaces; they form part of the streets and
They were asked to design a series of public space of the city and community around
interconnected buildings as part of a phased them. The spaces and buildings are part of a
development for the university. Design Engine’s landscape, working together to create a new sense
plans were approved and work began on the of place, a new campus environment and identity
26 £80 million (USD$123 million) scheme in 2011. for the university. A set of streets and walkways
The project encompasses a new library, student are used to connect buildings, classrooms and
union and School of the Built Environment; other learning facilities for students.
all arranged around new internal courtyards,
and commercial space leading off a new
public piazza.

The challenge on this site was to work with a

Placing Architecture

range of existing buildings and spaces on a

scheme the scale of a village or small town. The
brief for the project required an understanding
of a range of buildings and spaces: some large,
open spaces such as libraries; other smaller
spaces, such as classrooms, seminars and
complementary services spaces.

1. Concept drawing
This three-dimensional concept drawing shows the
relationship between the main elements of the project
for the proposed campus and the route that connects
the various different elements of the site.
 1

27

Landscape context < Case Study > Exercise

 The concept
The concept of the scheme is a linear will be a subject of aspects of research and
connection through the site that links all the investigation. The wall cladding and glazing
buildings and spaces. The main space or ‘block’ system uses images of the cellular structure of
within the scheme is a library and student learning trees to connect in a visual way to the university’s
environmental agenda, but also to bring nature
space, which will be clad with a specially treated
into and onto the building.
glazing that will create a distinctive visual effect
for the building. The idea of the building is that it This finish to the building will create a very
forms a series of blocks and spaces. The wall of the distinctive effect; both internally, as it filters the
buildings is analogous to a skin; a layer that brings light into the building and externally, as surface
together all elements of the site in a or façade.
comprehensive visual way.

This ‘skin’ is comprised of cladding panels and a

glazing system that has been purposely designed
for the project. The building itself

28
Placing Architecture

1. Site diagram
This diagram indicates the existing building
elements, the proposed elements and the
new open spaces of the campus.
 2

M003-SCA-AR-1041

M003-SCA-AR-SEC-1062
M003-SCA-AR-SEC-1064

M003-SCA-AR-ELE-1051
M003-SCA-AR-ELE-1054

M003-SCA-AR-ELE-1023

M003-SCA-AR-ELE-1055

N ROAD
HEADINGTO
M003-SCA-AR-ELE-1023

M003-SCA-AR-ELE-1020 M003-SCA-AR-ELE-1050 M003-SCA-AR-ELE-1050 M003-SCA-AR-ELE-1020

M003-SCA-AR-ELE-1021
GIPSY LANE
Buckley

Existing Library

Media
Center

Public Piazza

Abercrombie Building
(Building X)

Colonnade Building
(Building B)

Abercrombie Extension
(Building C)

M003-SCA-AR-SEC-1060 M003-SCA-AR-SEC-1060

ICELS
Central Court Clerici B
29
X
Library C
(Building A)
Existing Main
Lecture Hall A

Existing Main Hall

Key:
Extent of Planning Application

Sinclair Refectory Extent of Oxford Brookes University Site

M003-SCA-AR-SEC-1061 M003-SCA-AR-SEC-1061

Extent of Proposed Built Works

Tonge

Extent of Non-Appication Buildings

Western Court

Total Site area

M003-SCA-AR-SEC-1063 M003-SCA-AR-SEC-1063
49,726 metres sq

Site subject of Planning Application

22,085 metres sq

South Court
Tree heights are not indicated on this set
of drawings refer to Tree Survey for more
information.
Dashed line: Fuller
Building to be demolished as part of Masterplan
(not part of this application)

Notes:

Proposed Finished Floor Level 1 to be +99.92m above

0 datum unless otherwise stated

For details of proposed landscaping scheme refer to

Warehouse Landscape Architects' documentation

Gibbs Landscaping shown in this drawing is for illustrative

purposes only
M003-SCA-AR-ELE-1023

M003-SCA-AR-ELE-1021

D 18.12.09 New Planning Application DE JR

C 14.07.09 Revised to show outline of proposed demolitions DE JR
Revised planning issue, principle changes:
M003-SCA-AR-ELE-1053 Pooled Teaching M003-SCA-AR-ELE-1053 Storey reduction in height of main library building
(Building D) B 15.06.09 Introduction of basement as a result of the above DE JR
Introduction of set-back to library west façade
Relocation of energy centre flue away from boundary
A 31.03.09 Issued for Planning DE JR
date drawn chkd

0 2.5 5 10 15 20 25m
M003-SCA-AR-ELE-1023
M003-SCA-AR-ELE-1054

M003-SCA-AR-ELE-1055

John Payne Building

M003-SCA-AR-ELE-1051
M003-SCA-AR-SEC-1064

M003-SCA-AR-SEC-307

M003-SCA-AR-ELE-1052 M003-SCA-AR-ELE-1052 Design Engine Architects Limited

MH

3+4 St Clement Yard Winchester SO23 9DR

www.designengine.co.uk
01962 890111

M003-SCA-AR-ELE-1022 M003-SCA-AR-ELE-1022 project title date of origin scale

New Library and Teaching March 2009 1:500 @ A1

Building
client drawing title

Oxford Brookes University Proposed Site Plan

status drawing reference revision

PLANNING SCA-AR-PLN-1030 D

Landscape context < Case study > Exercise

2. Master plan
An overall master plan view of the campus indicating
landscape, existing buildings and surrounding context.
 Chapter 1

Exercise: Site analysis

Site analysis involves Site analysis should inform Some issues that may
recording the aspects of a your site proposal. For this affect your design:
project site to inform the exercise: Climate
design as it develops. Each Vistas
1. Pick a chosen site and
site is different and will have Existing axes
locate a site plan.
a different combination of Transport
considerations to record. 2. Tracing over the top of History
It is important to take time your site plan, indicate site Scale
to ‘read’ a site, to walk issues that may influence Existing structures
across and around it; to your design. Material
experience it and to try to 3. Use diagrams to connect
record it in terms of physical different issues across the
information and data, such site. Use different colours or
as size and orientation, shading to visually separate
but also more personal these ideas. There may be
30 interpretation, such as a series of diagrams that
interesting open spaces use the same base plan
and important views. All this and concentrate on the key
information can be referred themes of the site.
to when designing to a
project brief.
Placing Architecture

1. Scale map
When analysing site context a scale map is important for
understanding the location of a site and surrounding features.
This base map can then be developed using colour and text
to describe information about the site, such as wind direction,
orientation and so on.

exercise
1

31

Key

Site

Sun path

Wind

Vistas

Buildings

Buildings
Case study < Exercise

of historical
significance
 Chapter 2
History and Precedent

Design and innovation builds on precedent,

on ideas and concepts that have evolved over
time. Architecture uses precedents from social
and cultural history and applies these influences
to contemporary buildings, forms and structures.
Having a historical understanding of buildings is
32 an essential part of architectural design because
it allows a relationship between the material,
physical and formal developments that have been
previously explored by other architects. Reacting
History and Precedent

against, or responding to, these ideas has been

the basis of architectural evolution.

1. The Kolumba, Cologne, Germany

Peter Zumthor, 2003–2007
The Kolumba art museum, completed in 2007 by Peter Zumthor,
The Fundamentals of Architecture

responds and reacts to the existing historic context of a Gothic

church. The new and old are physically connected.
 1

33

Placing Architecture < History and Precedent > Construction

 1755
Laugier’s hut (or the primitive
hut) was described by Abbé
Laugier in his seminal essay
on architecture. It uses
nature to create an analogy
with architecture; the trunks
of trees form columns, and
1492 branches and leaves form the
3100 BC roof. It represents the earliest
Leonardo da Vinci’s Vitruvian Man
Stonehenge in and simplest form of shelter.
represents the relationship between
Wiltshire, England,
man and geometry. It was inspired
is a monument
made of a circle 450 BC by Da Vinci’s studies of Vitruvius who
The Acropolis in 1194 described a set of measurements or
of stones. These
Athens, Greece, is Chartres Cathedral modules based on man’s proportions
sarsen stones
a collection of near Paris, France, and dimensions.
weigh up to 50
tonnes each and buildings represents a Gothic
originated over constructed on style of architecture
50 km away. The the Acropolis and it achieves an
structure is aligned Hill. It consists of impressive internal
with solstice and the Parthenon, nave height of 37
equinox points and Erechtheion and metres (134 feet).
is still used to the Temple of Flying buttresses
celebrate these Athena Nike. They provide external
events today. represent the most support on the
enduring symbols walls to help
of classical achieve this height.
architecture and
culture.

34 A TIMELINE OF ARCHITECTURAL INFLUENCES

2600 BC AD 126 1417 1779

The pyramids at Giza The Pantheon was built by the Filippo Brunelleschi was a Florentine architect Constructed from cast
in Egypt represent Roman emperor Hadrian and who famously designed the Duomo in Florence, iron, the Iron Bridge
the most enduring of intended as a temple for all Italy. Brunelleschi developed a machine to in Shropshire, England,
architectural symbols. gods. He used concrete to allow perspective to be analysed and drawn. represents the industrial
Intended as tombs for create an impressive dome The machine was constructed from a series of revolution and the
History and Precedent

the Pharaoh Cheops structure with an open oculus mirrors that allowed him to analyse what new materials and
and his successors, at the top that allows light to he saw. Until this point, painting and images technologies that were
they were built from trace across the inner space. did not represent perspective accurately as to revolutionize building
stone and involved there was no conceptual or mathematical form. Iron was to create
the organization of understanding of it. the potential for lighter,
several thousand more ambitious
men to construct. The structures and buildings.
pyramids represent
one of the most
famous and wondrous
monuments in the
world.
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