Polynomials

 Polynomial
An algebraic expression in which the exponents of the variables are non-negative integers
are called polynomials. For example, 3x4 + 2x3 + x + 9, 3x4 etc are polynomials.

 Constant polynomial: A constant polynomial is of the form , where k is a real

number. For example, –9, 10, 0 are constant polynomials.

 Zero polynomial: A constant polynomial ‘0’ is called zero polynomial.

General form of a polynomial:

A polynomial of the form where are

constants and .
Here, are the respective coefficients of and n is the power of the
variable x.
and are called the terms of p(x).

 Classification of polynomials on the basis of number of terms

o A polynomial having one term is called a monomial e.g. 3x, 25t3 etc.
o A polynomial having two terms is called a binomial e.g. 2t – 6, 3x4 + 2x etc.
o A polynomial having three terms is called a trinomial. e.g. 3x4 + 8x + 7 etc.

 Degree

The degree of a polynomial is the highest exponent of the variable of the polynomial. For
example, the degree of polynomial 3x4 + 2x3 + x + 9 is 4.
The degree of a term of a polynomial is the value of the exponent of the term.

 Classification of polynomial according to their degrees

 A polynomial of degree one is called a linear polynomial e.g. 3x + 2, 4x, x + 9.

 A polynomial of degree two is called a quadratic polynomial. e.g. x2 + 9, 3x2 + 4x + 6 .
 A polynomial of degree three is called a cubic polynomial e.g. 10x3 + 3, 9x3 .

Note: The degree of a non-zero constant polynomial is zero and the degree of a zero
polynomial is not defined.

 Values of polynomials at different points

 A polynomial is made up of constants and variables. Hence, the value of the polynomial
changes as the value of the variable in the polynomial changes. Thus, for the different
values of the variable x, we get different values of the polynomial.

Example:
Find the value of polynomial at x = –2.

Solution:

The variable in the given polynomial is x. Hence, replacing x by ‒2.

p (x) = 3x3 + 2x + 9
∴ p (–2) = 3 (–2)3 + 2 (–2) + 9
= –24 – 4 + 9
= –19

 Zeroes of a polynomial

A real number a is said to be the zero of polynomial p(x) if p(a) = 0. In this case, a is also
called the root of the equation p(x) = 0.

Note:

 The maximum number of roots of a polynomial is less than or equal to the degree of the
polynomial.
 A non-zero constant polynomial has no zeroes.
 A polynomial can have more than one zero.

Example: Check if is a zero of polynomial, p(x) = 2x2 – 7x – 15.

Solution:
Put in the given polynomial p(x).

Hence, is a zero of polynomial p(x).

 Division of a polynomial by a monomial using long division method

 Example: Divide by x – 2.

Solution:

Divison of polynomials by monomials also satisfy Division algorithm i.e., Dividend =

Divisor × Quotient + Remainder

It can be easily verified that here .

 Remainder Theorem

If p(x) is a polynomial of degree greater than or equal to one and a is any real number then
if p(x) is divided by the linear polynomial x – a, the remainder is p(a).

Example: Find the remainder when is divided by x – 2.

Solution:
The zero of x – 2 is 2.

Therefore, by remainder theorem, the remainder is 33.

 Factor Theorem

If p(x) is a polynomial of degree n ≥ 1 and a is any real number, then

o x – a is a factor of p(x), if p(a) = 0.

o p(a) = 0, if (x – a) is a factor of p(x).

Example: Determine whether x + 3 is a factor of .

Solution: The zero of x + 3 is –3.

Let
 = –27 + 45 – 15 – 3
= –45 + 45
=0
Therefore, by factor theorem, x + 3 is the factor of p(x).

 Factorisation of quadratic polynomials of the form ax2 + bx + c can be done using Factor
theorem and splitting the middle term.

Example 1: Factorize x2 – 7x + 10 using the factor theorem.

Solution: Let p(x) = x2 − 7x + 10

The constant term is 10 and its factors are ±1, ±2, ±5and ±10.

Let us check the value of the polynomial for each of these factors of 10.

p(1) = 12 − 7 1 + 10 = 1 − 7 + 10 = 4 ≠ 0
Hence, x − 1 is not a factor of p(x).

p(2) = 22 − 7 2 + 10 = 4 − 14 + 10 = 0
Hence, x − 2 is a factor of p(x).

p(5) = 52 − 7 5 + 10 = 25 − 35 + 10 = 0
Hence, x − 5 is a factor of p(x).

We know that a quadratic polynomial can have a maximum of two factors. We have
obtained the two factors of the given polynomial, which are x – 2 and x – 5.
Thus, we can write the given polynomial as:

p(x) = x2 − 7x + 10 = (x − 2) (x − 5)

Example 2: Factorize 2x2 – 11x + 15 by splitting the middle term.

Solution: The given polynomial is 2x2 − 11x + 15.

Here, a c= 2 × 15 = 30. The middle term is − 11. Therefore, we have to split − 11 into two
numbers such that their product is 30 and their sum is –11. These numbers are − 5 and − 6
[As ( 5) + ( 6) = 11 and ( 5) × ( 6) = 30].

Thus, we have:

2x2 − 11x + 15 = 2x2 − 5x – 6x + 15

= x (2x – 5) – 3 (2x – 5)
= (2x – 5) (x – 3)

Note: A quadratic polynomial can have a maximum of two factors.

 Factorisation of cubic polynomials of the form ax3 + bx2 + cx + d can be done using factor
theorem and hit and trial method.

A cubic polynomial can have a maximum of three linear factors. So, by knowing one of these
factors, we can reduce it to a quadratic polynomial.
Thus, to factorize a cubic polynomial, we first find a factor by the hit and trial method or by
using the factor theorem, and then reduce the cubic polynomial into a quadratic polynomial
and it is then solved further.

Example: Factorise p(x) = x3 – 7x + 6

Solution: The constant term is 6.

The factors of 6 are ±1, ±2, ±3 and ±6.
Let x = 1
p (x = 1) = (1)3 – 7 (1) + 6
=1–7+6
=0
Thus, (x – 1) is a factor of p(x).
Now we have to group the term of p (x) such that we can take (x – 1) as common.
Therefore, p(x) = x3 – 7x + 6
= x3 – x2 + x2 – x – 6x + 6
= x2 (x – 1) + x (x – 1) – 6 (x – 1)
= (x – 1) (x2 + x – 6) ... (1)
Now, we factorize (x2 + x – 6) by splitting its middle term.

x2+ x – 6 = x2 + 3x – 2x – 6
= x (x + 3) –2 (x + 3)
= (x – 2) (x + 3)
From equation (1), we get
p(x) = (x – 1) (x – 2) (x + 3)

Hence, factors of polynomial p(x) are (x – 1), (x – 2) and (x + 3).

 Identity: (x + y + z)2 = x2 + y2 + z2 + 2xy + 2yz + 2zx

We can use this identity to factorize and expand the polynomials.

For example, the given expression can be factorized as follows:

On comparing the expression with (x + y + z)2 = x2 + y2 + z2 + 2xy + 2yz + 2zx, we get

 Identities: (x + y)3 = x3 + y3 + 3xy (x + y) and (x – y)3 = x3 – y3 – 3xy (x – y)

Other ways to represent these identities are:

o x3 + y3 = (x + y)3 – 3xy (x + y)
o x3 + y3 = (x + y) (x2 – xy + y2)
o x3 – y3 = (x – y)3 + 3xy (x – y)
o x3 – y3 = (x – y) (x2 + xy + y2)

Example: Expand (3x + 2y)3 – (3x – 2y)3

Solution: (3x + 2y)3 = (3x)3 + (2y)3 + 3 (3x) (2y) (3x + 2y)

= 27x3 + 8y3 + 54x2y + 36xy2 ... (1)
(3x – 2y)3 = (3x)3 – (2y)3 – 3 (3x) (2y) (3x – 2y)
= 27x3 – 8y3 – 54x2y + 36xy2 ... (2)
From equations (1) and (2) in given expression, we get
(3x + 2y)3 – (3x – 2y)3 = (27x3 + 8y3 + 54x2y + 36xy2) – (27x3 – 8y3 – 54x2y + 36xy2)
= 27x3 + 8y3 + 54x2y + 36xy2 – 27x3 + 8y3 + 54x2y – 36xy2
= 16y3 + 108x2y

Identity: x3 + y3 + z3 – 3xyz = (x + y + z)(x2 + y2 + z2 – xy – yz – zx)

The expression can be factorized using this identity as

follows:

Special case: If (x + y + z) = 0 then x3 + y3 + z3 = 3xyz.

 Probability

 Some of the terms related to probability are:

Experiment: When an operation is planned and done under controlled conditions, it is

known as an experiment. For example, tossing a coin, throwing a die etc., are all
experiments.

o Outcomes: Different results obtained in an experiment are known as outcomes. For

example, on tossing a coin, if the result is a head, then the outcome is a head; if the result is
a tail, then the outcome is a tail.

o Random: An experiment is random if it is done without any conscious decision. For

example, drawing a card from a well-shuffled pack of playing cards is a random experiment
if it is done without seeing the card.

o Trial: A trial is an action or an experiment that results in one or several outcomes. For
example, if a coin is tossed five times, then each toss of the coin is called a trial.

o Sample space: The set of all possible outcomes of an experiment is called the sample
space. It is denoted by the letter ‘S’. Sample space in the experiment of tossing a coin is {H,
T}.

o Event: The event of an experiment is one or more outcomes of the experiment. For
example, tossing a coin and getting a head or a tail is an event.

 Probability:
o The empirical (or experimental) probability of an event A is given by

Example: When a coin is tossed 500 times and on the upper face of the coin tail comes up
280 times. What is the probability of getting head on the upper face of the coin?

Solution: Let A be the event of getting head on the upper face of the coin.
Total number of trials = 500
Number of trials in which tail comes up = 280
Number of trials in which head comes up = 500 – 280 = 220

o The probability of an event always lies between 0 and 1 (0 and 1 inclusive).

 Triangles

 SAS congruence rule

If two sides of a triangle and the angle included between them are equal to the
corresponding two sides and included angle of another triangle, then the triangles are
congruent by SAS congruence rule.

Example:

Are ΔABC and ΔRPQ congruent?

Solution: In ΔABC and ΔRPQ,

AB = RP

∠ABC = ∠RPQ

BC = PQ

∴ ΔABC ΔRPQ (By SAS congruence rule)

 CPCT

CPCT stands for ‘corresponding parts of congruent triangles’. ‘Corresponding parts’

means corresponding sides and angles of triangles. According to CPCT, if two or more
triangles are congruent to one another, then all of their corresponding parts are equal.

 ASA congruence rule

If two angles and included side of a triangle are equal to the two corresponding angles and
the included side of another triangle, then the triangles are congruent by ASA congruence
rule.

Example: In the following figure, AD is the median of ΔABC.

 Are ΔABD and ΔACD congruent?

Solution: In ΔABC,

AB = AC (Given)

∴∠ACB = ∠ABC (Base angles of an isosceles triangle have equal measures)

Now, in ΔABD and ΔACD,

∠ABD = ∠ACD

BD = CD (AD is the median)

∠ADB = ∠ADC = 90°

ΔABD ΔACD (By ASA congruence rule)

 AAS congruence rule

If two angles and one side of a triangle are equal to the corresponding angles and side of
the other triangle then the two triangles are congruent to each other. This criterion is
known as the AAS congruence rule.
For example, in the given triangles, ∠B = ∠D = 130°, ∠C = ∠E = 20° and AC = EF = 6 cm.

∴ By AAS congruence rule, ΔABC ΔFDE

 SSS congruence rule

If three sides of a triangle are equal to the three sides of the other triangle, then the two
triangles are congruent by SSS congruence rule.

Example:
 Are ΔABC and ΔQRP congruent?

Solution: In ΔABC and ΔQRP

AB = QR = 5 cm

BC = PR = 7.5 cm

AC = PQ = 3.5 cm

ΔABC ΔQRP (By SSS congruence rule)

 RHS congruence rule

If the hypotenuse and one side of a right triangle are equal to the hypotenuse and one side
of the other right triangle, then the two triangles are congruent to each other by RHS
congruence rule.

Example:

If in the given figure, ∠B = ∠Q = 90°, AC = PR, and AB = PQ,

∴ By RHS congruence rule, ΔABC ΔPQR

 Angles opposite to equal sides of a triangle are equal.

Example: Find the missing angles in the following triangles.

 Solution: We know that angles opposite to equal sides of a triangle are equal.
∴∠ABC = ∠ACB = x (say)
By angle sum property of triangles, we obtain
∠ABC + ∠BCA + ∠CAB = 180°
⇒ x + x + 70° = 180°
⇒ 2x = 110°
⇒ x = 55°
Thus, ∠ABC = ∠BCA = 55°

 Sides opposite to equal angles of a triangle are equal in length. Thus, we can say that if two
angles of a triangle are equal then the sides opposite to them are also equal, therefore the
triangle is isosceles.

 If two sides of a triangle are unequal then the longer side has the greater angle opposite it.
Thus, we can say that angle opposite to the shorter side of a triangle is smaller.
For example, in the given triangle, AC > AB, therefore ∠ABC > ∠ACB.

 If two angles of a triangle are unequal then the greater angle has the longer side opposite
it.Thus, we can say that the smaller angle has the shorter side opposite it.

For example, in the given figure, ∠BAC > ∠ACB, therefore BC > AB.
 Number Systems

 Irrational Numbers
o Irrational numbers are those which cannot be expressed in the form , where p, q are
integers and q ≠ 0.
Example: are irrational numbers.

Irrational numbers are the numbers which neither terminate nor repeat.
Example: or as 3.14, both of which are rationals.

 Decimal expansion of a rational number can be of two types:

(i) Terminating
(ii) Non-terminating and repetitive

In order to find decimal expansion of rational numbers we use long division method.

For example, to find the decimal expansion of .

We perform the long division of 1237 by 25.

Hence, the decimal expansion of is 49.48. Since the remainder is obtained as zero, the
decimal number is terminating.

 Decimal expansion of irrational numbers

o The decimal expansion of an irrational number is non-terminating and non-

repeating. Thus, a number whose decimal expansion is non-terminating and non- repeating
is irrational.
 For example, the decimal expansion of is 1.41421…. , which is clearly non-terminating
and non-repeating. Thus, is an irrational number.

o The number is irrational if it is not possible to represent a in the form bn, where b is a
factor of a.
For example, is irrational as 12 cannot be written in the form b6, where b is a factor of
12.

 Conversion of decimals into equivalent rational numbers:

o Non-terminating repeating decimals can be easily converted into their equivalent rational
numbers.
For example, can be converted in the form , where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0
as follows:
Let x =
⇒ x = 2.35961961... … (1)
On multiplying both sides of equation (1) with 100, we obtain:
100x = 235.961961961... … (2)
On multiplying both sides of equation (2) with 1000, we obtain:
100000x = 235961.961961961... … (3)
On subtracting equation (2) from equation (3), we obtain:
99900x = 235726

Thus,

 Irrational numbers between any two rational numbers:

There are infinite irrational numbers between any two rational numbers.
We can find irrational numbers between two rational numbers using the following steps:

Step 1: Find the decimal representation (up to 2 or 3 places of decimal) of the two given
rational numbers. Let those decimal representations be a and b, such that a < b.

Step 2: Choose the required non-terminating and non-repeating decimal numbers (i.e.,
irrationl numbers) between a and b.

Example: 0.34560561562563…, 0.3574744744474444… and

0.369874562301…are three irrational numbers beween 0.33 and 0.4.

 Representation of rational numbers on number line using successive

magnification:

Example: Visualize on the number line, upto 4 decimal places.

 Solution:

Step 1: As 3 < 3.3232 < 4, so divide the gap between 3 and 4 on the number line into 10
equal parts and magnify the distance between them.

Step 2: As 3.3 < 3.3232 < 3.4, so again divide the gap between between 3.3 and 3.4 into 10
equal parts to locate the given number more accurately.

Step 3: As 3.32 < 3.3232 < 3.33 so, we continue the same procedure by dividing the gap
between 3.32 and 3.33 into 10 equal parts.

Step 4: Also, 3.323 < 3.3232 < 3.324, so by dividing the gap between 3.323 and 3.324 into
10 equal parts, we can locate 3.3232.

 Represent irrational numbers on the number line:

We can represent irrational numbers of the form on the number line by first
plotting , where n is any positive integer.
Example: Locate on the number line.

Solution:

As
 To locate on the number line, we first need to construct a length of .

By Pythagoras theorem, OB2 = OA2 + AB2 = 22 + 12 = 5

Steps:
Mark O at 0 and A at 2 on the number line, and then draw AB of unit length perpendicular
to OA. Then, by Pythagoras Theorem, .
Construct BD of unit length perpendicular to OB. Thus, by Pythagoras theorem,

Using a compass with centre O and radius OD, draw an arc intersecting the number line at
point P.
Thus, P corresponds to the number .

 Representation of real numbers of the form on the number line, where n is any
positive real number:

We cannot represent on number line directly, so we will use the geometrical method to
represent on the number line.

Example:

Represent on the number line.

Solution:

Step 1: Draw a line and mark a point A on it. Mark points B and C such that AB = 8.3 units
and BC = 1 unit.
 Step 2: Find the mid-point of AC and mark it as M. Taking M as the centre and MA as the
radius, draw a semi-circle.

Step 3: From B, draw a perpendicular to AC. Let it meet the semi-circle at D. Taking B as the
centre and BD as the radius, draw an arc that intersects the line at E.

Now, the distance BE on this line is units.

 Operation on irrational numbers:

o Like terms: The terms or numbers whose irrational parts are the same are known as like
terms. We can add or subtract like irrational numbers only.
o Unlike terms: The terms or numbers whose irrational parts are not the same are known as
unlike terms.

We can perform addition, subtraction, multiplication and division involving irrational

numbers.

Note:

(1) The sum or difference of a rational and an irrational number is always irrational.
(2) The product or quotient of a non-zero rational number and an irrational number is
always irrational.

Example:

(1)

(2)
 (3)

(4)

 Closure Property of irrational numbers:

Irrational numbers are not closed under addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

Example: , and , which are not an irrational

numbers.

 Identities related to square root of positive real numbers:

If a and b are positive real numbers then

We can use these identities to solve expressions involving irrational numbers.

Example:
 Rationalization of denominators:

o The denominator of can be rationalized by multiplying both the numerator and the
denominator by , where a, b, x and y are integers.

o The denominator of can be rationalized by multiplying both the numerator and the
denominator by , where a, b, c and d are integers.
Note: and are the conjugates of and respectively.

Example: Rationalize

Solution:

 Laws of rational exponents of real numbers:

Let a and b be two real numbers and m and n be two rational numbers then
Example:
 Circles

 Chords of a circle that are equal in length subtend equal angles at the centre of the circle.
In the given figure, if AB and CD are two equal chords then ∠AOB = ∠COD

Converse of this property also holds true, which states that chords subtending equal angles
at the centre of the circle are equal in length.

Example: If AB and CD are equal chords of a circle then show that AD and CB are also
equal.

Solution: Construction: Let us join OA, OB, OC and OD.

As AB = CD
∴ ∠AOB = ∠COD [Equal chords subtend equal angles at the centre]
⇒ ∠AOB + ∠BOD = ∠COD + ∠BOD
⇒ ∠AOD = ∠BOC
⇒ AD = CB [Chords subtending equal angles at the centre are equal in length]

 Perpendicular drawn from the centre of a circle to a chord bisects the chord.
In the given figure, AL will be equal to LB if OL ⊥ AB, where O is the centre of the circle.
 Converse of this property also holds true, which states that the line joining the centre of the
circle to the mid-point of a chord is perpendicular to the chord.

Example: In the given figure, OL⊥AB. If OA = 17 cm and AB = 30 cm then find the length of
OL.

Solution: We know that the perpendicular drawn from the centre of a circle to a chord
bisects the chord.

∴ AL = BL = 15 cm
Now in right-angled triangle OLA, using Pythagoras theorem
(OA)2 = (OL)2 + (AL)2
⇒ (17)2 = (OL)2 + (15)2
⇒ (OL)2 = (17)2 – (15)2
⇒ (OL)2 = 289 – 225
⇒ OL =
∴ OL = 8 cm

 There is one and only one circle passing through three given non-collinear points.
Therefore, at least three points are required to construct a unique circle.

 Equal chords of a circle (or congruent circles) are equidistant from the centre of the circle.
In the given figure, OL will be equal to OM if AB = CD, where O is the centre of the circle.
 Converse of the property also holds true, which states that chords which are equidistant
from the centre of a circle are equal in length.

 If two chords of a circle are equal then their corresponding arcs (minor or major) are
congruent.

In the given figure, arc AB will be congruent to arc CD if chord AB = chord CD.

Converse of the property also holds true, which states that if two arcs of a circle are
congruent then their corresponding chords are equal.

 Congruent arcs subtend equal angles at the centre of the circle.

In the given figure, ∠AOB will be equal to ∠COD if arcs AB and CD are congruent.

Converse of the property is also true, which states that two arcs subtending equal angles at
the centre of the circle are congruent.
 The angle subtended by an arc at the centre of the circle is double the angle subtended by
the arc at the remaining part of the circle.
In the given figure, ∠AOB and ∠AXB are the angles subtended by arc AB at the centre and at
remaining part of the circle.

∴ 2 × ∠AXB = ∠AOB
⇒ ∠AXB = × 30° = 15°

 The angle lying in the major segment is an acute angle and the angle lying in the minor
segment is an obtuse angle. This statement is true for all major and minor segments in a
circle.

 Angles in the same segment of a circle are equal.

In the given figure, ∠PRQ and ∠PSQ lie in the same segment of the circle.
∴ ∠PRQ = ∠PSQ

 A set of points that lie on a common circle are known as concyclic points.

Here, points A, B, D and E are concyclic points.

o If a line segment joining two points subtends equal angles at two other points lying on the
same side of the line segment then the four points are concyclic.
 In the given figure, if ∠ACB = ∠ADB then the points A, B, C and D are concyclic as C and D lie
on the same side of the line segment.

 A quadrilateral whose vertices lie on a circle is known as a cyclic quadrilateral.

Properties of cyclic quadrilateral:

o The sum of each pair of opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral is 180°.

 Converse of the property also holds true, which states that if the sum of a pair of opposite
angles of a quadrilateral is 180° then the quadrilateral is cyclic.

o Exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the interior opposite angle.

Example: In the given figure, find the value of x and y.

Solution: We know that in a cyclic quadrilateral opposite angles are supplementary.

In cyclic quadrilateral ABEF, ∠A + ∠BEF = 180°
⇒∠BEF = y = 70°
Also,∠BEF + BED = 180° (Linear pair)
⇒∠BED = 110°
In cyclic quadrilateral BCDE, ∠BED + ∠C = 180°
⇒∠C = x =70°
 Lines and Angles

 Corresponding angles

When a transversal intersects two lines l and m, the corresponding angles so formed at the
intersection points are named as follows:

∠1 and ∠5, ∠2 and ∠6

∠3 and ∠7, ∠4 and ∠8

 Corresponding angles axiom

If a transversal intersects two parallel lines, then each pair of corresponding angles is
equal.
In the above figure, if lines l and m become parallel then we will have following pair of
equal angles:
∠1 =∠5, ∠2 =∠6, ∠3 =∠7 and ∠4 = ∠8

 Converse of corresponding angles axiom

If a transversal intersects two lines such that a pair of corresponding angles is equal, then
the two lines are parallel to each other.

In the figure, the corresponding angles are equal. Therefore, the lines l and m are parallel to
each other.

 Alternate angles
 When a transversal intersects two lines l and m, the alternate angles so formed at the
intersection points are named as follows:

Alternate interior angles

∠3 and ∠5, ∠4 and ∠6

Alternate exterior angles

∠1 and ∠7, ∠2 and ∠8

 Alternate angles axiom

If a transversal intersects two parallel lines, then the angles in each pair of alternate angles
are equal.

In the above figure, lines l and m are parallel. So, by using the alternate angles axiom, we
can say that:
∠1 = ∠7, ∠2 = ∠8, ∠3 = ∠5 and ∠4 = ∠6

 Converse of alternate angles axiom

If a transversal intersects two lines such that the angles in a pair of alternate angles are
equal, then the two lines are parallel.
 In the above figure, alternate interior angles are equal (100°) and thus, lines l and m are
parallel.

 Property of interior angles on the same side of a transversal:

If a transversal intersects two parallel lines, then the angles in a pair of interior angles on
the same side of the transversal are supplementary.
For example,

In the given figure, if lines l and m are parallel to each other then ∠1 + ∠4 = 180° and ∠2 +
∠3 = 180°.

 Converse of the property of interior angles on the same side of a transversal:

If a transversal intersects two lines such that the interior angles on the same side of the
transversal are supplementary, then the lines intersected by the transversal are parallel.

Example: In the given figure, decide whether l is parallel to m or not.

 Solution:

∠x = 96° (Vertically opposite angles)

∠x + 84 = 96° + 84° = 180°
i.e., Sum of the interior angles on the same side of the transversal is supplementary.
Therefore, l||m.

 Lines which are parallel to the same line are parallel to each other.
In the given figure, AB ॥ CD and CD ॥ EF, therefore AB ॥ EF.

Example: In the given figure, line AB is parallel to CD and CD is parallel to EF. Find the
value of x
 Solution: It is given that AB || CD and CD || EF.
We know that the lines which are parallel to the same line are parallel to each other.
Therefore, AB || EF.
⇒ x = 75° (Alternate interior angles)

 Angle sum property of triangles:

The sum of all the three interior angles of a triangle is 180°.
∴ ∠A + ∠B + ∠C = 180°

Example: If the measures of the angles of a triangle are in the ratio 2: 4: 6, then find all the
angles of the triangle.

Solution: Ratio of the measures of angles = 2: 4: 6

Therefore, let the angles of the triangle measure 2x, 4x, and 6x.
Now, 2x + 4x + 6x = 180° {By angle sum property of triangles}
⇒ 12x = 180°
⇒ x = 15°
Thus, the angles of the triangle are
2x =2 × 15° = 30°,
4x = 3 × 15° = 60°
6x = 6 × 15° = 90°.

The measure of one of angle is 90°.

 Facts deduced from angle sum property of triangles:

 There can be no triangle with two right angles or two obtuse angles.
There can be no triangle with all angles less than or greater than 60°.

 Relation between the vertex angle and the angles made by the bisectors of the
remaining angles:

In ΔABC, BX and CY are bisectors of ∠B and ∠C respectively. Also, O is the point of

intersection of BX and CY.
Therefore, .

 The angle formed by a side of a triangle with an extended adjacent side is called
an exterior angle of the triangle.

It can be seen that in ΔABC, side CB is extended up to point D. This extended side forms an
angle with side AB, i.e., ∠ABD. This angle lies exterior to the triangle. Hence, ∠ABD is an
exterior angle of ΔABC.

 If a side of a triangle is produced, then the exterior angle so formed is equal to the sum of
the two interior opposite angles.

∠ACX = ∠BAC + ∠ABC

This property is known as exterior angle property of a triangle.
 Example: Find the value of x in the following figure.

Solution: ∠QRS is an exterior angle of ΔPQR. It is thus equal to the sum of its interior
opposite angles.
∴∠QRS = ∠QPR + ∠PQR
⇒ x = 65° + 70° = 135°
Thus, the value of x is 135°.

 Two exterior angles can be drawn at each vertex of triangle. The two angles thus drawn
have an equal measure and are equal to the sum of the two opposite interior angles.
 Linear Equations in Two Variables

Linear equation in two variables:

An equation of the form, ax + by + c = 0, where a, b and c are constants, such that a and b are
both not zero and x and y are variables is called a linear equation in two variables.
For example, 2x + 3y + 10 = 0, 3x + 7y = 0

 Real life situations can be expressed mathematically as linear equations in two variables.

Example: The age of Ram is 3 more than twice the age of Mohan. Write a linear equation in
two variables to represent this statement.

Solution: Let the age of Mohan be x years and the age of Ram be y years.
Thus, the given condition can be expressed as y = 2x + 3

Solution of a linear equation in two variables:

The values of the variables in a linear equation, which satisfy the equation are the solutions
of that linear equation.

o A linear equation in two variables has infinitely many solutions.

o Solution of linear equation in two variables can be found by substitution method.

Example: Find two different solutions of the equation 4x + 5y = 20.

Solution: Given equation is 4x + 5y = 20.

If we take x = 0, we obtain:
4 × 0 + 5y = 20
⇒ 5y = 20
⇒y=4
So, (0, 4) is a solution of the given equation.

If we take y = 0, we obtain:
4x + 5 × 0 = 20
⇒ 4x = 20
⇒x=5
So, (5, 0) is a solution of the given equation.

 The geometrical representation of the linear equation, ax + by + c = 0, is a straight line.

 In order to represent a linear equation in two variables graphically, its two or three
different points are calculated and then the corresponding points are plotted and joined on
 the coordinate plane.

Example: Represent x + 3y = 6 on a graph paper.

Solution: The given equation is x + 3y = 6

For x = 0, 3y = 6 y = = 2
For x = 3, 3 + 3y = 6 3y = 3 y=1

x 0 3

y 2 1

By plotting (0, 2) and (3, 1) on coordinate plane and then joining them, the given equation
can be represented as:

 An equation of the form, y = mx, represents a line passing through the origin.

 Graphical solution of linear equation in two variables:

Every point on the graph of a linear equation in two variables is a solution of the linear
equation and moreover, every solution of the linear equation is a point on the graph of the
linear equation.

Example: A bag contains some Re 1 coins and some Rs 2 coins. The total worth of coins is
Rs 45. Find the number of Re 1 coins, if there are 10 coins of Rs 2.

Solution: Let there be x coins of Re 1 and y coins of Rs 2.

Thus, 1x + 2y = 45
⇒ x + 2y = 45
This is the required linear equation of the given information. The three solutions of this
equation have been given in the tabular form as follows:
x 5 15 25
 y 20 15 10
By plotting the points (5, 20), (15, 15) and (25, 10), we obtain the following graph.

From the above graph, it can be seen that the value of x corresponding to y = 10 is 25.
Therefore, there are 25 coins of Re 1, if there are 10 coins of Rs 2.

 The graph of x = a is a straight line parallel to the y-axis, situated at a distance of a units
from y-axis.

 The graph of y = b is a straight line parallel to the x-axis, situated at a distance of b units
from x-axis.

Example: Represent the equation 2y + 5 = 0, on Cartesian plane.

Solution: 2y + 5 = 0

2y = –5

y= = –2.5, which is of the form y = b.

The graph of this equation can be drawn as follows:

 Coordinate Geometry

 Cartesian plane and the terms associated with it

To identify the position of an object or a point in a plane, we require two perpendicular

lines: one of them is horizontal and the other is vertical.

Example: Put an eraser on a book and then describe the position of the eraser.

Solution: In order to identify the position of the eraser on the book, we take the adjacent
edges as perpendicular lines. Take 1 unit = 1 cm along the vertical and horizontal lines.
Now, it is seen that the eraser is at a distance of 11 cm from the vertical line and 10 cm
from the horizontal line.

Thus, conventionally, the position of the eraser can be written as (11, 10).

 Cartesian system
A Cartesian system consists of two perpendicular lines: one of them is horizontal and the
other is vertical. The horizontal line is called the x- axis and the vertical line is called the y -
axis. The point of intersection of the two lines is called origin, and is denoted by O.
 o XOX' is called the x-axis; YOY' is called the y-axis; the point O is called the origin.

o Positive numbers lie on the directions of OX and OY.

o Negative numbers lie on the directions of OX' and OY'.

o OX and OY are respectively called positive x-axis and positive y-axis.

o OX' and OY' are respectively called negative x-axis and negative y-axis. The axes
divide the plane into four equal parts. The four parts are called quadrants, numbered
I, II, III and IV, in anticlockwise from positive x-axis, OX.

o The plane is also called co-ordinate plane or Cartesian plane or xy -plane.

 Coordinate Geometry

Example: Name the quadrant or the axis in which the points (5, –4), (2, 7) and (0, –9) lie?

Solution The coordinates of the point (5, –4) are of the form (+, –).
(5, –4) lie in quadrant IV
The coordinates of the point (2, 7) are of the form (+, +).
(2, 7) lie in quadrant I.
The coordinates of the point (0, –9) are of the form (0, b).
(0, –9) lie on the y-axis

The coordinates of a point on the coordinate plane can be determined by the following
conventions.
 The x-coordinate of a point is its perpendicular distance from the y-axis, measured along
the x-axis (positive along the positive x-axis and negative along the negative x-axis).
The x-coordinate is also called the abscissa.
The y-coordinate of a point is its perpendicular distance from the x-axis, measured along
the y-axis ( positive along the positive y-axis and negative along the negative y -axis)
The y-coordinate is also called the ordinate.
In stating the coordinates of a point in the coordinate plane, the x-coordinate comes first
and then the y-coordinate. The coordinates are placed in brackets.

Example:

What are the coordinates of points A, B and C in the given figure?

Solution: It is observed that

x-coordinate of point A is 5
y-coordinate of point A is 2
Coordinates of point A are (5, 2).
x-coordinate of point C is –5
y-coordinate of point C is 2
Coordinates of point C are (–5, 2).

Note:The coordinates of the origin are (0, 0). Since the origin has zero distance from both
the axes, its abscissa and ordinate are both zero.

 Relationship between the signs of the coordinates of a point and the quadrant of the
point in which it lies:
 The 1st quadrant is enclosed by the positive x-axis and positive y-axis. So, a point in the
1st quadrant is in the form (+, +).The 2nd quadrant is enclosed by the negative x-axis and
positive y-axis. So, a point in the 2nd quadrant is in the form (–, +).The 3rd quadrant is
enclosed by the negative x-axis and the negative y-axis. So, the point in the 3rd quadrant is
in the form (–, –).
The 4th quadrant is enclosed by the positive x-axis and the negative y-axis. So, the point in
the 4th quadrant is in the form (+, –).

 Location of a point in the plane when its coordinates are given

Example: Plot the following ordered pairs of numbers (x, y) as points in the coordinate
plane.
[Use the scale 1 cm = 1 unit]

x –3 4 –3 0
y 4 –3 –3 2

Solution:

x –3 4 –3 0
y 4 –3 –3 2

Taking 1 cm = 1 unit, we draw the x-axis and y-axis.

The pairs of numbers in the given table can be represented as (–3, 4), (4, –3) and
(–3, –3), (0, 2).
These points can be located in the coordinate plane as:
 NB: The coordinates of the point on the x-axis are of the form (a, 0) and the coordinates of
the point on the y-axis are of the form (0, b), where a, b are real numbers.

 We can plot a point in the Cartesian plane, if the coordinates of the points are given.

Example: Plot the points A (5, –3) and B (–2, 5) on the Cartesian plane.

Solution: To plot A (5, –3):

(1) Move 5 units along OX and mark the endpoint as M.

(2) From M and perpendicular to the x-axis, move 3 units along OY'. Mark the endpoint as
A.
This is the location of the point (5, –3) on the Cartesian plane.

To plot B (–2, 5):

(1) Move 2 units along OX' and mark the endpoint as N.

(2) From N and perpendicular to the x-axis, move 5 units along OY. Mark the endpoint as B.
This is the location of the point (–2, 5) on the Cartesian plane.

Points A and B are plotted in the following graph.

 Statistics

 Construction of histogram of different class intervals

A histogram is a graphical representation of grouped data.

Example: Represent the given data in the form of a histogram.

Marks 0 – 20 20 – 30 30 – 50 50 – 60
Number of
10 13 16 11
students

Solution: Here, the minimum class size is 10.

Thus, we can find the adjusted frequencies using the following formula,

Number of Adjusted
Marks Class size
students frequency
0 – 20 10 20
20 – 30 13 10
30 – 50 16 20
50 – 60 11 10

The histogram of the given data can be drawn as follows:

 Interpretation of histograms

The interpretation of data represented by a histogram can be done by looking at it.

Example: The following histogram shows the production of food grains (in thousand tonnes)
over a period of time.

(i) What is the total production of food grains from 2004 to 2009?

(ii) In which periods were the production of food grains the highest and the lowest?

Solution:

(i) The total production of food grains from 2004 to 2009 can be ascertained by adding the
heights of the class intervals 2004–2007 and 2007–2009.
∴ Total production of food grains from 2004 to 2009 = 7000 tonnes + 6000 tonnes
= 13000 tonnes

(ii) It is clear from the histogram that the bar corresponding to the class interval 2004–
2007 is the tallest, and that corresponding to the class interval 2009–2010 is the shortest.
So, the production of food grains was the highest in the period 2004–2007 and the lowest
in the period 2009–2010 (i.e., 7000 tonnes and 4000 tonnes respectively).

 Construction of frequency polygons

A frequency polygon is a continuous curve obtained by plotting and joining the ordered
pairs of class marks and their corresponding frequencies.
 There are two ways to construct a frequency polygon.

o The frequency polygon for a grouped data is drawn by first drawing its histogram and then
by joining the mid-points of the top of bars and the mid-points of the classes preceding and
succeeding the lowest and highest class respectively.

o One other way of drawing a frequency polygon is by plotting and joining the ordered pairs
(of class marks and their corresponding frequencies) with the mid-points of the classes
preceding and succeeding lowest and highest class respectively.

Example: Here are the weights (in kg) of the babies born in a hospital during a particular
week.

2.3, 2.0, 2.5, 2.7, 3.0, 3.2, 3.1, 2.2, 3.0, 2.5, 2.4, 3.0, 2.3, 2.4, 2.8
Draw a histogram for the data and then draw a frequency polygon using it.

Solution: The frequency distribution table of the given data is as follows:

Class interval Frequency

2.0–2.5 6
2.5–3.0 4
3.0–3.5 5

The histogram and frequency polygon for the given data can be drawn as:

 Mean of data sets

Mean or average of a data is given by the formula,

 Mean =

Note:

o Mean always lies between the highest and lowest observations of the data.
o It is not necessary that mean is any one of the observations of the data.

1. If the mean
of n observations x1,x2,x3....xnx1,x2,x3....xn is x¯x¯ then (x1−x¯)+(x2−x¯)+(x3−x¯)+...+(xn−x¯)
=0x1-x¯+x2-x¯+x3-x¯+...+xn-x¯=0.

2. If the mean of n observations x1,x2,x3....xnx1,x2,x3....xn is x¯x¯ then the mean

of (x1+p), (x2+p), (x3+p), ..., (xn+p)x1+p, x2+p, x3+p, ..., xn+p is (x¯x¯ + p).

3. If the mean of n observations x1,x2,x3....xnx1,x2,x3....xn is x¯x¯ then the mean

of (x1−p), (x2−p), (x3−p), ..., (xn−p)x1-p, x2-p, x3-p, ..., xn-p is (x¯x¯ − p).

4. If the mean of n observations x1,x2,x3....xnx1,x2,x3....xn is x¯x¯ then the mean

of px1, px2, px3, ..., pxnpx1, px2, px3, ..., pxn is px¯x¯.

5. If the mean of n observations x1,x2,x3....xnx1,x2,x3....xn is x¯x¯ then the mean

of x1p, x2p, x3p, ..., xnpx1p, x2p, x3p, ..., xnp is x¯px¯p.

Example: The runs scored by a batsman in 6 matches are as follows:

24, 126, 78, 43, 69, 86
What is the average run scored by the batsman?

Solution: Total number of runs scored = 24 + 126 + 78 + 43 + 69 + 86

= 426
Number of matches = 6
∴ Average runs scored =

 Mean of a frequency distribution table

Formula to calculate mean from a frequency distribution table is given by,

, where fi and xi are the frequencies and observations respectively.

For example, consider the following data.

Number of students fi xi
Marks (xi)
(fi)
10 4 40
20 3 60
30 5 150
 40 7 280
50 10 500

Here,

 Median
Median is the value of the middlemost observation when the data is arranged in increasing
or decreasing order.

To find the median, the observations are arranged in ascending or descending order and
then, if the number of observations (n) is odd, the value of observation is the
median.
If the number of observations (n) is even, then the mean of the values
of and observations is the median.

Example: The weights of 7 students are as follows: 30, 35, 41, 29, 28, 32, 30. What is the
median of this data?

Solution: The observations in ascending order are 28, 29, 30, 30, 32, 35, 41.
Here, n = 7 (which is odd)

 We can interpret the double bar graph by reading and analyzing it.

Example: The given double bar graph represents the marks obtained by Harry and John in
different subjects.
 We can analyze the given double bar graph and answer the following questions.

1. What is the differnce between the marks scored by Harry and John in Science?

Answer: Marks scored by Harry in science = 50

Marks scored by John in science = 30

Difference = 50 – 30 = 20

2. In which subject both the students got equal marks?

Answer: Both the students got equal marks in Maths.

3. Who is better in studies among Harry and John?

Answer: Total marks obtained by Harry = 30 + 40 + 30 + 50 + 30 = 180

Total marks obtained by John = 40 + 40 + 20 + 30 + 40 = 170

Total marks obtained by Harry is more than John. So, Harry is better in studies than John.

 In a pictograph, pictures of objects are used for representing data. Tally marks cannot be
used for representing huge numbers. However, these numbers can be represented with the
help of pictographs.

 Data can also be represented by using bar diagram or bar graph. In a bar graph, bars of
uniform width are drawn horizontally or vertically. These bars are placed at equal distance
from each other. The length of each bar gives the required information.
 The data in an unorganised form is called raw data. In order to draw meaningful inferences
from a data, we need to organise the data systematically.

We can organise a data in the following ways:

o Frequency distribution table

o Histogram
o Pie chart

 Construction of grouped frequency distribution table:

There are two ways to group the data to make frequency distribution table. These are as
follows:

Inclusive method (Discontinuous form):

The classes can be defined in inclusive method as 1 - 10, 11 - 20, 21 - 30 and 31 - 40. Here,
both limits are inclusive in each class.

Exclusive method (Continuous form):

In exclusive method, we take the class intervals as 0 – 10, 10 – 20, 20 – 30. The
observations which are more than 0 but less than 10 will come under the group 0 – 10; the
numbers which are more than 10 but less than 20 will come under the group 10 – 20 and
so on. Here, the common observation will belong to the higher class, i.e. 10 will be included
in the class interval 10 – 20 and similarly we follow this for the other observations also.
For example, the ages of some residents of a particular locality are given as follows:
7, 28, 30, 32, 18, 19, 37, 36, 14, 27, 12, 8, 17, 24, 22, 2, 21, 5, 21, 36, 38, 25, 10, 25, 9.
Frequency distribution table can be drawn as follows:

Inclusive method:

Class intervals Tally marks Frequency

1 – 10 6
11 – 20 5
21 – 30 9
31 – 40 5
Exclusive method:

Class intervals Tally marks Frequency

1 – 10 5
10 – 20 6
20 – 30 8
30 – 40 6
 Few points to be remembered while choosing class intervals:

1. Classes should not be overlapping and all values or observations should be covered in these
classes.
2. The class size for all classes should be equal.
3. The number of class intervals is normally between 5 and 10.
4. Class marks and class limits should be taken as integers or simple fractions.
 Areas of Parallelograms and Triangles

 Parallelograms on the same (or equal) base and between the same parallels are equal in
area.

Converse of the property is also true, which states that parallelograms on the same base
and having equal areas lie between the same parallels.

Example: In the given figure, if the area of parallelogram PQST is 16 cm2 then find the side
of the square PQRS.

Solution: Square PQRS and parallelogram PQST lie on the same base PQ and between the
same parallels PQ and TR.

We know that the parallelograms on the same base and between the same parallels are
equal in area.

∴ area (PQRS) = area (PQST) = 16 cm2

area of square (PQRS) = side × side
⇒ (side)2 = 16 cm2
⇒ side = 4 cm

 If a parallelogram and a triangle lie on the same (or equal) base and between the same
parallels then the area of the triangle is half the area of the parallelogram.

 Triangles on the same base (or equal base) and between the same parallels are equal in
area.

In the given figure, ΔABC and ΔDBC lie on the same base BC and BC || XY, therefore area of
ΔABC is equal to the area of ΔDBC.
 Converse of the property is also true, which states that triangles having the same base and
equal areas lie between the same parallels.

o An important result states that a median of a triangle divides it into two triangles of equal
area.
 Constructions

 Construction of perpendicular bisector of a line segment

Perpendicular Bisector: A line that bisects a line segment at 90° is called the
perpendicular bisector of the line segment.

Example: Construct a perpendicular bisector of the line segment AB of length 8.2 cm.

Solution:

(1) Draw a line segment AB = 8.2 cm using a ruler.

(2) Draw two arcs taking A and B as centres and radius more than 4.1 cm on both sides of
AB. Let the arcs intersect at points P and Q. Join PQ.

PQ is the required perpendicular bisector of line segment AB.

Note: We can verify the validity of construction of perpendicular bisector of a line segment
using congruence.

 Construction Of Bisector Of An Angle

Bisector of an angle: A ray that divides an angle into two equal parts is called the bisector
of the angle.

Example: Construct 55° by bisecting an angle of measure 110°.

Solution:
(i) With the help of a protractor, draw ∠POQ = 110°.
(ii) Draw an arc of any radius taking O as centre. Let this arc intersect the arms OP and OQ
at points X and Y respectively.
 (iii) Taking X and Y as centres and radius more than half of XY, draw arcs to intersect each
other, say at R. Join ray OR.

Now, OR is the bisector of ∠POQ i.e., ∠POR = ∠ROQ = 55°

Note: We can verify the validity of construction of angle bisector using congruence.

 The steps for the construction of angles of measures 60° and 120° are as follows:

1. Draw a line l and mark a point O on it.

2. Place the pointer of the compass at O and draw an arc of convenient radius that cuts l at P.
3. With the same radius, draw an arc with centre P that cuts the previous arc at Q.
4. Similarly, with the same radius, draw an arc with centre Q that cuts the arc at R.
5. Join OQ and OR to get ∠QOP = 60° and ∠ROP = 120°.

 Now, 30° is nothing but half of angle 60°. Therefore, 30°angle can be obtained by drawing
the bisector of ∠QOP.

Here, ∠SOP = 30°.

 Similarly, we can draw other angles of measures 45°, 90°, 135°, and 150° using the above
method.

 Construction of a triangle when the length of base, base angle and the sum of other
two sides are given

Let us suppose that base BC, ∠B and (AB + AC) of ΔABC are given.

Step 1: Draw BC and construct∠B at point B.

Step 2: Draw an arc on BX, which cuts it at point P, such that BP = AB + AC. Join PC and
draw its perpendicular bisector. Let this perpendicular bisector intersect BP at A.

Now, ΔABC is the required triangle.

 Construction of triangle when the length of base, base angle and the difference
between the other two sides are given
Let us suppose base BC, ∠B, and (AB – AC) are given.

Step 1: Draw BC and construct ∠B at point B.

Step 2: Draw an arc on BX, which cuts it at point P, such that BP = AB – AC. Join PC and
draw its perpendicular bisector. Let this perpendicular bisector intersect BX at point A. Join
AC.

Now, ΔABC is the required triangle.

Note: We can easily verify both the constructions.

 Construction of a triangle when its perimeter and base angles are given
Let us suppose that the perimeter and base angles, ∠B and ∠C of ΔABC are given.

Step 1: Draw a line segment PQ of length equal to the perimeter of the triangle and draw
the base angles at points P and Q.

Step 2: Draw the angle bisectors of ∠P and ∠Q. Let these angle bisectors intersect each
other at point A.

Step 3: Draw the perpendicular bisectors of AP and AQ. Let these perpendicular bisectors
intersect PQ at points B and C respectively. Join AB and AC.

Now, ΔABC is the required triangle.

Note: We can easily verify our construction using congruence.

 Introduction to Euclid's Geometry

 Definitions in Euclidean Geometry:

During Euclid’s period, the notations of points, line, plane (or surface), and so on were
derived from what was seen around them.

Some of the definitions given in him are as follows:

o A point is that which has no part.

o A line is breadth-less length.

o A straight line is one that lies evenly with the points on itself.

o A surface is that which has length and breadth only.

o The edges of a surface are lines.

o A plane surface is one that lies evenly with the straight lines on itself.

 Euclid’s axioms:
Axioms are the assumptions that are obvious universal truths, but are not proved. These
are used throughout mathematics and are not specifically linked to geometry.

Some of Euclid’s axioms are as follows:

o Things that are equal to the same things are equal to one another.

o If equals are added to equals then the wholes are also equal.

o If equals are subtracted from equals then the remainders are equal.

o Things that coincide with one another are equal to one another.

o The whole is greater than the part.

o Things that are double of the same things are equal to one another.

o Things that are halves of the same things are equal to one another.

 Euclid's postulates:
Postulates are also universal truths that need not be proved. Euclid used the term
“postulate” for the assumptions that were specific to geometry.
 Postulate 1: It is possible to draw a straight line from any point to any other point.
Euclid has frequently assumed this postulate, without mentioning that there is
a unique line joining two distinct points. The above result can be stated in the form of an
axiom as follows.

Axiom: Given two distinct points, there is a unique line that passes through them.

Postulate 2: A terminated line can be produced indefinitely.

Note: According to present day terms, the second postulate states that a line segment can
be extended on either side to form a line.

Postulate 3: It is possible to describe a circle with any centre and radius.

Postulate 4: All right angles are equal to one another.

 Postulate 5:
If a straight line falling on two straight lines forms interior angles that together measure less
than two right angles on the same side of it, then the two straight lines, when produced
indefinitely, meet on that side on which the sum of the angles is less than two right angles.
Euclid's fifth postulate is also called parallel postulate.

Two cases arise from this postulate:

Case 1: If the sum of the two angles is greater than two right angles then the two lines will
never meet, no matter how long they are extended in that direction.

Case 2: If the sum of the two angles is exactly equal to two right angles then the two lines
will never meet, no matter how long they are continued in both directions.

 Playfair's axiom is the alternative of Euclid's fifth postulate, which can be stated as:
For every line in a plane, there exists another unique line in the same plane parallel to the
given line, which passes through a point placed at a certain distance from that line.
 Surface Areas and Volumes

 Surface areas of cuboid:

Lateral surface area of the cuboid = 2h (l + b)

Total surface area of the cuboid = 2 (lb + bh + hl)

Note: Length of the diagonal of a cuboid =

Example: Find the edge of a cube whose surface area is 294 m2.

Solution: Let the edge of the given cube be a.

∴ Surface area of the cube = 6a2
Given, 6a2 = 294

 Surface areas of cube:

Lateral surface area of the cube = 4a2

Total surface area of the cube = 6a2
Note: Length of the diagonal of a cube =

 Surface areas of solid cylinder

o Curved surface area = 2πrh, where r and h are the radius and height
o Total surface area = 2πr (r + h), where r and h are the radius and height
 Example : What is the curved surface area of a cylinder of radius 2 cm and height 14
cm?

Solution: Curved surface area of cylinder = 2πrh

 Surface areas of hollow cylinder

o Curved surface area = 2πh (r + R), where r, R and h are the inner radius, outer radius and
height

o Total surface area = CSA of outer cylinder + CSA of inner cylinder + 2 × Area of base

= 2π (r + R) (h + R – r), where r, R and h are the inner radius, outer radius and height

 Surface areas of cone

o Curved surface area = πrl, where r and l are the radius and slant height
o Total surface area = πr (l + r), where r and l are the radius and slant height

Here, , where h is the height.

 Example: Calculate the curved surface area of a cone of base radius 3 cm and height 4 cm.

Solution: Here, r = 3 cm and h = 4 cm

Curved surface area = πrl = π × 3 × 5 cm2 = 15π cm2

 Surface areas of sphere and hemisphere

o Surface area of sphere = 4πr2, where r is the radius

o Curved surface area of hemisphere = 2πr2, where r is the radius

o Total surface area of hemisphere = 3πr2, where r is the radius

Example: What is the radius of a balloon whose surface area is 5544 cm2?

Solution: Let radius of the balloon be r.

Surface area of the balloon = 4πr2 = 5544 cm2
⇒4× × r2 = 5544 cm2
⇒ r2 = cm2
⇒ r2 = 441 cm2
⇒r= cm
 Thus, the radius of the balloon is 21 cm.

 Volume of cube and cuboid

o Volume of cube = a3, where a is the side of the cube
o Volume of cuboid = l × b × h, where l, b and h are respectively the length, breadth and height
of the cuboid.

Example: What is the side of a cube of volume 512 cm3?

Solution: Volume of cube = 512 cm3

 Volume of the solid cylinder and hollow cylinder

o Volume of solid cylinder = πr2h, where r and h are the radius and height of the solid
cylinder

o Volume of the hollow cylinder = π (R2 − r2) h, where r, R and h are the inner radius, outer
radius and height of hollow cylinder

Example: Find the volume of the pillar of radius 70 cm and height 10 m.

Solution: Radius of the pillar (r) = 70 cm = = 0.7 m

 Height of the pillar (h) = 10 m

 Volume of a cone = , where r and h are the radius of base and height of the cone.

Example: Calculate the volume of a cone of base radius 3 cm and height 4 cm.

Solution: Here, r = 3 cm and h = 4 cm

 Volume of sphere and hemisphere

Volume of sphere
Volume of hemisphere

Example 1: Calculate the volume of a sphere whose surface area is 9π cm2.

Solution: Surface area = 9π cm2

Example 2: The inner radius of a hemispherical bowl is 4.2 cm. What is the capacity of the
bowl?

Solution: Here, r = 4.2 cm

Volume of the bowl
1 ml = 1 cm3
Thus, the capacity of the bowl is 155.232 ml.
 Heron's Formula

 Perimeter is the length of the boundary of a closed figure.

 The perimeter of a polygon is the sum of the lengths of all its sides.
In case of a triangle ABC, with sides of lengths a, b and c units:

Perimeter of ABC = AB + BC + AC = a + b + c

 The semi-perimeter of a triangle is half the perimeter of the triangle.

The semi-perimeter (s) of a triangle with sides a, b and c is .

 The semi-perimeter of a triangle is used for calculating its area when the length of altitude
is not known.

 Area of triangle using Heron's formula:

When all the three sides of a triangle are given, its area can be calculated using Heron’s
formula, which is given by:
Area of triangle =
Here, s is the semi-perimeter of the triangle and is given by,

Example: Find the area of a triangle whose sides are 9 cm, 28 cm and 35 cm.

Solution: Let a = 9 cm, b = 28 cm and c = 35 cm

Semi-perimeter,
Area of triangle =

 Area of quadrilaterals using Heron's formula:

Area of a quadrilateral can also be calculated using Heron’s formula. In this, the
quadrilateral is divided into two triangles and then the area of each triangle is calculated
using Heron’s formula.

Example: What is the area of the given quadrilateral?

Solution: ΔABD is a right-angled triangle.

Using Pythagoras Theorem, we get

Area (ΔABD) =
For ΔBCD, let a = 6 cm, b = 11 cm and c = 15 cm
Semi-perimeter,
Area (ΔBCD) =

Area of quadrilateral ABCD =

 Quadrilaterals

 Diagonal of a parallelogram divides it into two congruent triangles.

In the given figure, if ABCD is a parallelogram and AC is its diagonal then ΔABC ΔCDA.

Example: The area of the parallelogram PQRS is 120 cm2. Find the distance between the
parallel sides PQ and SR, if the length of the side PQ is 10 cm.

Solution: Let us draw a diagonal SQ of parallelogram PQRS and a perpendicular SX on the

extended line PQ as shown in the figure.

We know that a diagonal of a parallelogram divides it into two congruent triangles. Also,
congruent figures are equal in area.

∴ area (ΔPQS) = area (ΔQRS)

Area of parallelogram PQRS = area (ΔPQS) + area (ΔQRS)
= 2 × area (ΔPQS)
⇒area (ΔPQS) = (area of parallelogram PQRS) = cm2 = 60 cm2
Also, area (ΔPQS) = (PQ)(SX) = 60 cm2
⇒ (PQ) (SX) = 120 cm2
⇒ SX = cm2
⇒ SX = 12 cm

Thus, the distance between the parallel sides PQ and SR is 12 cm.

 Opposite sides in a parallelogram are equal. Conversely, in a quadrilateral, if each pair of
opposite sides are equal then the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.

Example: In the following figure, ABCD is a parallelogram. Find the length of each sides.
 Solution: We know, the opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal in length.

Therefore, AB = CD

3x = 2x + 5

⇒ 3x – 2x = 5

∴x=5

Thus, AB = 3x = 3 × 5 = 15 cm

BC = 4x – 3 = 4 × 5 – 3 = 17 cm

CD = 2x + 5 = 2 × 5 + 5 = 15 cm

Also, BC = AD [opposite sides of parallelogram]

∴ AD = 17 cm

 In a parallelogram, opposite angles are equal. Conversely in a quadrilateral, if pair of

opposite angles is equal, then the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.

If in the quadrilateral PQRS, ∠P = ∠R and ∠Q = ∠S as shown in the above figure, then the
quadrilateral is a parallelogram.

 The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other. Conversely, if the diagonals of a

quadrilateral bisect each other, then it is a parallelogram.
Suppose ABCD is a quadrilateral. The diagonals of the quadrilateral intersect at O such that
AO = OC and DO = OB
 Therefore, ABCD is a parallelogram.

Example: In the given figure, ABCD is a parallelogram. If OD = (3x – 2) cm and OB = (2x + 3)

cm, then find x and length of diagonal BD.

Solution: We know that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.

∴ OD = OB
⇒ 3x – 2 = 2x + 3
⇒ 3x – 2x = 3 + 2
⇒x=5
Thus, the value of x is 5.
Length of BD = OD + OB
= (3x – 2) + (2x + 3)
= (3×5 – 2) + (2×5 + 3)
= 13 + 13
= 26 cm

 A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if a pair of opposite sides is equal and parallel.

Example: In the given figure, ABCD is a parallelogram and L and M are the mid-points of
AD and BC respectively. Prove that BMDL is a parallelogram.

Solution: As L and M are the mid-points of AD and BC respectively.

Therefore, … (1)

As BC = AD (Since ABCD is a parallelogram)

 ⇒
⇒ BM = LD … (2) (From (1))
Also, BC || AD
⇒ BM || LD
Hence, BMDL is a parallelogram.

 Mid-point theorem states that the line segment joining the mid-point of any two sides of a
triangle is parallel to the third side and is half of it.

.
In ΔABC, if D and E are the mid-points of sides AB and AC respectively then by mid-point
theorem DE ॥ BC and DE =

Converse of the mid-point theorem is also true, which states that a line through the mid-
point of one side of a triangle and parallel to the other side bisects the third side.

In ΔABC, if AP = PB and PQ ॥ BC then PQ bisects AC i.e., Q is the mid-point of AC.