Download the full version of the textbook now at textbookfull.

com

History An Introduction to Theory Method and

Practice Second Edition Peter Claus

https://textbookfull.com/product/history-an-
introduction-to-theory-method-and-practice-second-
edition-peter-claus/

Explore and download more textbook at https://textbookfull.com

 Recommended digital products (PDF, EPUB, MOBI) that
you can download immediately if you are interested.

History An Introduction to Theory Method and Practice

Peter Claus

https://textbookfull.com/product/history-an-introduction-to-theory-
method-and-practice-peter-claus/

textbookfull.com

Beginning Theory An Introduction to Literary and Cultural

Theory Peter Barry

https://textbookfull.com/product/beginning-theory-an-introduction-to-
literary-and-cultural-theory-peter-barry/

textbookfull.com

An Introduction to Number Theory with Cryptography, Second

Edition Kraft

https://textbookfull.com/product/an-introduction-to-number-theory-
with-cryptography-second-edition-kraft/

textbookfull.com

Exit and Voice The Paradox of Cross Border Politics in

Mexico Lauren Duquette-Rury

https://textbookfull.com/product/exit-and-voice-the-paradox-of-cross-
border-politics-in-mexico-lauren-duquette-rury/

textbookfull.com
Cenozoic Foraminifera and Calcareous Nannofossil
Biostratigraphy of the Niger Delta Oluwafeyisola Sylvester
Adegoke
https://textbookfull.com/product/cenozoic-foraminifera-and-calcareous-
nannofossil-biostratigraphy-of-the-niger-delta-oluwafeyisola-
sylvester-adegoke/
textbookfull.com

Lover A Student Teacher Romance 1st Edition Eden O'Neill

https://textbookfull.com/product/lover-a-student-teacher-romance-1st-
edition-eden-oneill/

textbookfull.com

Saving Sharlee Safe and Secure 1 1st Edition Alyssa

Bailey

https://textbookfull.com/product/saving-sharlee-safe-and-secure-1-1st-
edition-alyssa-bailey/

textbookfull.com

History of universities. Volume XXIX/2 1st Edition

Mordechai Feingold

https://textbookfull.com/product/history-of-universities-volume-
xxix-2-1st-edition-mordechai-feingold/

textbookfull.com

Hydrostatic Testing, Corrosion, and Microbiologically

Influenced Corrosion: A Field Manual for Control and
Prevention 1st Edition Reza Javaherdashti
https://textbookfull.com/product/hydrostatic-testing-corrosion-and-
microbiologically-influenced-corrosion-a-field-manual-for-control-and-
prevention-1st-edition-reza-javaherdashti/
textbookfull.com
Machine Learning with Spark Nick Pentreath

https://textbookfull.com/product/machine-learning-with-spark-nick-
pentreath/

textbookfull.com
 HISTORY
An in tro d u c tio n to th e o ry , m eth o d and practice

Most students of history still see in Historiography a long and forbidding word, best avoided. Here is a book
which will change all that. In their timely textbook Peter Claus and John Marriott invite readers to join the
many - past and present - who have taken history seriously and have contributed to its making. History: An
introduction to theory, m ethod and practice is accessible, interesting and inclusive. At a time when history has
come to include so many approaches and sources, this is also a welcome guide to how historians understand
their traditions and their roles in contemporary culture.
Professor Miri Rubin, Queen Mary, University of London

This is a comprehensive introductory guide to the nature of historiography which examines the history
of historical writing from Herodotus to post-modernism, discusses the nature of historical knowledge and
examines a wide range of perspectives with which historians have made sense of the past. It is clearly written
and set out, includes extracts from the works of many of the historians whom it discusses and suggests
ways in which students can develop the subject for themselves. It will be welcomed both by teachers and
by their students.
Steve Rigby, Emeritus Professor of Medieval Social and Economic History, University of Manchester

Students (and their teachers) will be grateful for this book. From Herodotus to postmodernism and internet
history, Peter Claus and John Marriott's survey of how the human past has been studied and written about is
impressive in both its range and its clarity. It can be dipped into when needed, while its totality provides a
splendid overview of the richness and diversity that exist within the writing of History.
Dr Bryan Ward-Perkins, Trinity College Oxford

This is a systematic and well-structured assessment of modern historical writing. Students will find that
sense is made of such approaches as psychohistory, Marxism and postmodernism, that each is illustrated
with concrete and lively examples, and that potential pitfalls and further reading are identified. Some may
read the whole book; far more will draw on the chapters most useful to themselves.
Professor Michael Hicks, University of Winchester

Claus and Marriott introduce students to different aspects of historiography and methodology in a simple,
appealing and engaging manner. Using interesting methods and examples to explore historical and theoretical
arguments, this is a good book to support the study of history at university level.
Dr Xavier Guegan, School of Historical Studies, Newcastle University
This page intentionally left blank
 HISTORY
An introduction to theory, method and practice

Peter Claus and John M a rrio tt

O Routledge
Taylor & Francis Group

LONDON AND NEW YORK

First published 2 0 1 2 by Pearson Education Limited

Published 2 0 1 3 by Routledge
2 Park S qu are, Milton Park, A bingdon, Oxon O X 1 4 4R N
711 Third A venu e, N e w York, N Y 1 0 0 1 7 , U S A

Routledge is an imprint o f the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

C opyright © 2 0 1 2 , Taylor & Francis.

The rights of Peter Claus and John Marriott to be identified as authors of this work have
been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book m ay be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or
by any electronic, m echanical, or other m eans, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system , without permission
in writing from the publishers.

Notices
K now ledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research m ethods, professional practices, or m edical
treatm ent m ay becom e necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must alw ays rely on their own exp erien ce and know ledge in
evaluating and using any information, m ethods, com pounds, or experim ents described herein. In
using such information or m ethods they should be mindful o fth e ir own safety and the safety of
others, including parties for w hom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
assum e any liability for any injury and/or da m ag e to persons or property as a m atter of products
liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any m ethods, products,
instructions, or ideas contained in the m aterial herein.

ISB N 13: 9 7 8 -1 -4 0 5 8 -1 2 5 4 -2 (pbk)

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

Typeset in 9.5/13pt ITC Charter by 35

 Contents

Preface ix
Acknowledgements xi
Publisher's Acknowledgements xii
Introduction: history matters xiv

THEORY

Part 1 PERSPECTIVES AND THEMES

Chapter 1
Proof and the problem of objectivity 3

1 History: a science or an art? 4

2 History and the status of knowledge 8
3 Choosing evidence, challenging interpretations 13

Chapter 2
The ordering of time 24

1 Time, history, modernity 25

2 Newton and the ‘time reckoner' 30
3 Time, history and the shape of things to come 35
4 Events, people and periods: what is ‘Victorian', when were the sixties? 38

Part 2 PHILOSOPHIES 47

Chapter 3
Enlightenment and romanticism 49
1 Secular histories: Hume, Gibbon, Smith andRobertson 50
2 Romanticism, national histories and the hero in history: Sir Walter Scott
and Thomas Carlyle 56
3 The legacies of Enlightenment andRomanticism 61

Chapter 4
From Hegel to von Ranke 69

1 Hegel and the spirit of history 70

2 Marx and ‘historical materialism' 73
3 Marxism in the twentieth century 77
VI Contents

Chapter 5
Postmodernism and postcolonialism 89

1 Modernity and the Enlightenment 90

2 Postmodernism 94
3 Postcolonialism and the West 98

Part 3 HISTORIES 1 11

Chapter 6
Ideas of history: from the ancients to the Christians I 13

1 Herodotus and gold-digging ants II 4

2 Thucydides and reason: an historian for our times? 11 8
3 W hat did the Romans ever do for history? 121
4 Late antiquity, Christianity and the End of Days 125

Chapter 7
From the Middle Ages to the Renaissance 134

1 European Christendom and the ‘age of Bede' 135

2 Peoples of the history book: Jewish and Islamic conceptions of history 139
3 The Renaissance, humanism and the rediscovery of the classics 145

Chapter 8
The English tradition 154

1 The Battle of the Books: Camden, Clarendon and English historicalwriting 155
2 Constitutionalism and the whig interpretation of history 159
3 T h e ‘new Whigs': the school of J. H. Plumb 162

METHOD

Part 4 VARIETIES 175

Chapter 9
Political, social and cultural history 177
1 High and low politics: a case study of the British Labour Party 178
2 Social history and its legacy 182
3 Cultural history and its expansion 187

Chapter 10
Feminism, gender and women's history 196

1 History and feminism 197

2 Women: hidden from history 200
3 Gender and identity 204
 Contents VII

Chapter 11
Public history 215

1 W hat is public history? 216

2 The consumption of public history 221
3 Producing public history 224
4 Public history as contested knowledge 227

Chapter 12
Global histories 233

1 The challenge of global history 234

2 The origins of global history 238
3 Enter ‘new world history' 243

Part 5 APPROACHES & DISCIPLINES 255

Chapter 13
Visual and literary cultures 257

1 Ways of seeing: paintings, photographs and architecture 258

2 Film history and its conventions 265
3 Literature and its uses 269

Chapter 14
Anthropology 280

1 Pens and pith helmets: the influence of anthropology onhistory 281

2 Functionalism and structuralism: understanding the Lord Mayor's Show 286
3 Myths and history: Jewish conspiracies andt h e ‘blood libel' 289
4 The ‘dying god': Captain Cook and ethnohistory 291
5 Microhistories: cheese, worms, night battles and ecstasies 294

Chapter 15
Geography 303

1 History, space and place 304

2 Geographies of empire 307
3 ‘How to lie with maps': maps,methodologyand the metropolis 312

Chapter 16
Sociology 323

1 Is sociology of use to historians? 324

2 History and the problem of the sociological method in understanding class,
authority and the city 328
3 History, sociology and religion 334
VIII Contents

Chapter 17
Economics 343

1 Economics, population and social change 344

2 Economic historians and the big historical questions 348
3 The business of business history 354

PRACTICE

Part 6 SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES 363

Chapter 18
Sources 365

1 Documents and their limits: form, tone, semantics 366

2 Reading early documents: palaeography and Latin 371
3 Fakes and forgeries: protocols and the Hitler Diaries 375
4 History and the Internet 377

Chapter 19
Archives 386

1 W hat is an archive? 387

2 ‘When we return as human beings again': archives and ashes 390
3 ‘Speaking for ourselves': state archives and community archives 393

Chapter 20
Oral history 405

1 ‘Anthropologies of ourselves': urban, rural, foreign 406

2 Oral historiography 41 3
3 Interviewing techniques and the limits of memory: Arthur Harding and
the East End underworld 41 6
4 The wider conceptual problem 41 9

Bibliography 427
Index 443
 Preface

W hile there may have been a perceptible shift away from the further reaches o f linguistic
theory, where postmodernism and ‘deconstruction’ methodologies have sought to convince
us that there is no such thing as historical truth, and where history is merely a ‘text’ that
can be read in endless different ways, historians continue to reflect on their craft. This book
seeks to be part o f that reflection but is written unapologetically for real tutors, real students
and relates to courses actually being taught in colleges and universities today. In fact, with
an increasing emphasis on interdisciplinary approaches, as w ell as a greater focus on the
processes o f historical study and writing, courses on theory, method and historiographical
practice seem to grow in number and significance. Even in those history departments that
attempt to integrate the teaching o f historiography into thematic- and period-based courses,
a book such as this which discusses the main issues presented by history as a discipline outside
the context o f the topic, or else uses an historical era or topic as a dynamic example o f how
a core idea o f history works, might prove to be a useful teaching and learning aid.
In this sense, our ambition is to be part o f a debate about historiography but also to provide
a resource to students working at both an introductory and an advanced level. In doing this,
the book enthusiastically engages with theoretical disciplines and perspectives forged in
areas such as literature, sociology, geography, and anthropology, and the rest o f the arts or
social sciences. It draws distinctions between history as a method in the humanities and the
practice o f historians engaged in the production o f history, both in the academy but also
those working outside the profession.
Theories o f history, historical methodologies and historiography sometimes present
themselves as distinct and problematic areas in the life o f the historian. W hile studying
history at university, however, rarely are they encountered as discrete spheres. Each topic
or problem comes with its theoretical and methodological components which suggest in
the strongest possible terms how history should be done. These elements are so completely
intertwined that it takes conscious and informed deliberation to tease them apart. This is
a problem that History aims to help the student solve. Each chapter, theme and case study
pays particular attention to each o f these elements but also recognises their profound inter­
relationship. Drawing on the experiences o f historians working in every historical period
makes this an academically rigorous, yet intellectually accessible and transparent exercise:
from those beavering away at the shape and significance o f field systems in the Middle Ages;
those building an expertise in palaeography as a vital tool o f translation; to historians o f
visual culture o f the Renaissance; or those peeling away the layered meanings o f Tudor state
papers; or even to contemporary political or cultural histories thrown up by more immediate
concerns o f politics or locality.
At the heart o f the book is an analytical narrative that carries forward the main description
and discussion o f the topic or theme o f each chapter. All o f the supporting material relates
to a greater or lesser extent to this core text. Effective pedagogy is the main concern o f every
Visit https://textbookfull.com
now to explore a rich
collection of eBooks, textbook
and enjoy exciting offers!
x Preface

part o f the book and this is as true o f the continuous text as o f any o f its parts. However,
where many points have required particular illustration, explanation and elaboration, further
pedagogical support is provided alongside or within the narrative.
At certain points it has been necessary to acknowledge the difficult and problematic
nature of the material under review in the main narrative and that this material needs special
treatment. Particular elements o f theoretical and methodological problems or historical debates
are discussed in this way. Some historiographical debates stand out not just because o f
their importance for how w e understand and interpret the past but because they cut to the
heart o f the methods by which w e actually study and write history. These debates are often
complex, however, and their importance in terms o f theory and method are rarely spelt out
in history books whose main concern, not unreasonably, is to tell a story, but in the telling
o f that story historical theory tends rather to be encrypted within the historical argument o f
the books and articles themselves. Consequently, it is very difficult for students to come to
terms with the underlying elements o f these debates, something that the structure o f this book
is at pains to address. A jargon-busting attempt to define difficult and unfamiliar concepts is
provided as the text unfolds as are brief biographical introductions to the major figures that
have made the discipline o f history a solid and verifiable branch o f human knowledge.
Finally, at its best the existing literature on applied historiography (for use in the seminar
room) offers the views o f experienced professional historians on the theory and practice
o f history and there is an inescapable tendency for them to be more or less subjective and
reflexive in their surveys o f themes and problems. For a number o f reasons this book attempts
to step beyond this, featuring as it does a w ide variety o f explanatory devices, where clarity
and accessibility o f information is o f vital concern.
This volume is an extension o f our experiences as working historians and teachers, and is
driven by our own capabilities and thoughts about the subject picked up over years and across
a number o f diverse institutions. W e hope that what follows itself reflects those valuable
experiences and our knowledge o f the discipline garnered in some small measure since our
own days as students, days that now seem lost in the mists o f time.

Peter Claus (Oxford)

John Marriott (Yorkshire)
 Acknowledgements

It would seem an act o f madness in this age o f research assessment exercises, focused subject
specialisms and narrow periodisations to embark on a textbook that roams across periods,
disciplines and geographical boundaries with little apparent regard for the particular expertise
o f its authors. Hence our thanks are due to those colleagues and readers o f the book who
have helped us enormously to convey historical ideas and concepts familiar to us as experi­
enced tutors, but often through the use o f examples less familiar, say from the early modern
or medieval periods or from the ancient world. If w e have not always pulled this o ff it is our
responsibility and not theirs.
Colleagues include Paul Sinclair at St Clare’s College in Oxford, Dr Roy Edwards,
University o f Southampton, Avichag Valk in Tel Aviv, Dr Emma Cavell, University o f Exeter,
Dr Abigail Green, Brasenose College, Oxford, Dr Bernard Gowers, Kings, London. The Master
and Fellows o f Pembroke College, Oxford provided Peter Claus with an academic home
while Dr Adrian Gregory (Charlton Athletic) and Dr Stephen Tuck (Wolverhampton Wanderers)
at Pembroke have been a constant source o f strength and humour. John Marriott has equally
found colleagues and students at the University o f East London to be creative sources for
ideas and approaches that have now crystallised in the chapters o f this book. The late Raphael
Samuel and now the Raphael Samuel History Centre has been a point o f contact for both
Peter and John. While Raph may have resisted the notion o f a textbook, seemingly fixed
in a point o f time, he may w ell have appreciated the attempt to create a cross-disciplinary
narrative that falls outside any special focus on period or subject and which may have utility
for students o f history.
To those who were professionally employed by the publishers to read chapters we
extend both sympathies and profound gratitude. Their comments were invariably useful
and w e have done our best to incorporate their suggestions. These include Dr Amanda
Power, University o f Sheffield, Dr Xavier Guegan, Newcastle University, Dr Alan Marshall,
Bath Spa University, Dr T. J. Hochstrasser, London School o f Economics, Professor Steve
Hindle, Huntington Library, San Marino, California, Professor Michael Hicks, Head of History,
University o f Winchester, Professor Philip Williamson, University o f Durham, Dr Stephen
Caunce, University o f Central Lancashire, Professor Diana Jeater, University o f the West o f
England, Bristol and Dr Martin Johnes, Swansea University.
Above all w e want to put on record our thanks to Stuart Hay from Pearson Longman
who read chapter drafts from the point o f view o f a student from hell but who has helped
to bring clarity (if clarity there is) to the book, and to John Shaw, the original co-author
alongside Peter Claus, who shaped the architecture o f the book and who w ill recognise
much in its final structure.
Finally w e thank our families to whom w e dedicate the book: Xaviere Hassan, Avichag
Valk, Samuel Claus (L ’Chaim) and June and Malcolm Claus on behalf o f Peter, and for John,
Kanta and the twins Kabir and Karishma.
 Publisher's Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the following fo r permission to reproduce copyright material:

Figures
Figure on page 374 from http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/Palaeography/where_to_
start.htm#abbreviations, and contains public sector information licensed under the Open
Government Licence v1.0.

Text
Extract on pages 72-3 from The Secret o f World History: Selected Writings on th e A rt and
Science o f History, edited and translated by Roger Wines, N ew York: Fordham University Press
(von Ranke, L. 1981) pp. 56-59; Extract on pages 104-5 from Reprinted by permission
o f the publisher from ‘Historical emplotment and the problem o f truth’ by Hayden White
in, Probing the Limits o f Representation: Nazism and the ‘Final Solution’, edited by Saul
Friedlander, pp. 37-40, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press (1992), Copyright
© 1992 by the President and Fellows o f Harvard College; Extract on pages 251-2 from
Imperial Meridian. The British Empire and the World, 1780-1830, Longman (Bayly, C. A.
1989) pp. 98-99; Exhibit on page 130 from Herodotus, TheHistoryofHerodotus, translated
by George Rawlinson, http://classics.mit.edu/'Herodotus/history.html, with permission from
The Internet Classics Archive; Extract on page 166 from British values, whatever they are,
w on’t hold us together by Linda Colley, The Guardian, 18 May 2006, Copyright Guardian
News & Media Ltd 2006; Extract on pages 170-1 from Polydore Vergil, To Henry V111,
Invincible King o f England, France, and Ireland, Defender o f the Faith, the Poem o f the English
History, http://www.philological.bham.ac.uk/polverg/1e.html#letter (taken 19 Dec. 2010),
edited and translated by Dana Sutton, Copyright the University o f Birmingham; Extract on
page 231 from Review by Patrick Wright o f ‘Shadow Sites: Photography, Archaeology and
the British Landscape 1927-1955’ by Kitty Hauser (Oxford University Press, 2007), Twentieth
Century British History, 19 (2 ), 2008, pp. 239-242, by permission o f Oxford University
Press; Extract on page 341 from The Pub and the People by Mass-Observation, Faber & Faber
(Smith, G. 1987) pp. 46-47; Extract on page 348 from EconomicHistoryofMedievalEurope,
Longman (Pounds, N. J. G. 1994) p. 37; Extract on pages 360-1 from Economic History o f
Medieval Europe, Longman (Pounds, N. J. G. 1994) pp. 91-92; Extract on page 384 from
Understanding the Cap o f Liberty: symbolic practice and social conflict in early nineteenth
century England, Past and Present, Oxford University Press, 122 (1), pp. 75-119 (Epstein, J. A.
1989), by permission o f The Past and Present Society; Extract on pages 368-70 from The
Jew in the Medieval World: A Sourcebook, Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press (1938),
with permission from HUC Press; Extract on page 390 from On the methods o f History
Workshop: A Reply, History Workshop Journal, 9, 1, pp. 162-175 (Samuel, R. 1980), by per­
mission o f Oxford University Press; Extract on page 406 from Archives o f American History,
 Publisher's Acknowledgements xiii

http://americanhistory.si.edu/september11/ September 30 2007, Smithsonian Institution;

Extract on page 408 from Barbara Hughes, King’s Cross Voices 2004, http://www.
kingscrossvoices.org.uk, Camden Local Studies and Archives; Extract on page 409 from Norma
Steel, King’s Cross Voices, 2004, http://www.kingscrossvoices.org.uk, Camden Local Studies
and Archives; Extract on pages 406 - 7 from Helena Wright, a Curator at the Smithsonian
Institution at Washington, Archives o f American History, http://americanhistory.si.edu/
september11/ September 30 2007, Smithsonian Institution; Extract on pages 408-9 from
Reg Hopkins, King’s Cross Voices, 2004, http://www.kingscrossvoices.org.uk, Camden Local
Studies and Archives; Exhibit on pages 409-11 from East Midlands Oral History Archive,
transcripts from, http://www.le.ac.uk/emoha/community/resources/county/newton/
describe.html, East Midlands Oral History Archive; Extracts on pages 411-12, page 412
from http://www.southafrica.info/public_services/citizens/education/sahistoryonline.htm.

Photos
The publisher would like to thank the follow ing for their kind permission to reproduce their
photographs:

(Key: b-bottom; c-centre; l-left; r-right; t-top)

278 Bridgeman Art Library Ltd: Ashmolean Museum, University o f Oxford, UK; 283 Pitt
Rivers Museum, University o f Oxford; 333 Bruce Hoffman courtesy o f crimetheory.com;
Plate 1 Bridgeman Art Library Ltd: Metropolitan Museum o f Art, N ew York, USA / Photo ©
Boltin Picture Library; Plate 3 English Heritage Photo Library; Plate 4 Alamy Images: David
Hoffman (b ). Mary Evans Picture Library: ( t ) ; Plate 5 © The British Library Board; Plate 6
Guildhall Art Gallery; Plate 7 The Library o f The London School o f Economics and Political
Science; Plate 8 The Open University; Plate 9 Mary Evans Picture Library.

All other images © Pearson Education

In some instances w e have been unable to trace the owners o f copyright material, and we
would appreciate any information that would enable us to do so.
 Introduction: history matters

In the sense o f both the past and the study o f the past, history matters. At a personal level,
history offers us an unrivalled means o f making sense o f where w e have come from, and
therefore where w e are in the modern world. In this respect, we are all historians by instinct
for, when faced with a personal problem, w e look to the past in order to trace its origins and
from this hopefully work toward a resolution. The extraordinary popularity o f history pro­
grammes, costume dramas, documentaries, historical novels and heritage sites testify to
the enduring importance o f history in the lives o f non-historians. At a w ider level, different
interpretations o f the past have provoked, and continue to provoke conflict between peoples.
When this escalates into war, opposing sides justify their action by appealing to the historical
record. Past grievances - real or imaginary - have therefore served as a powerful stimulus
to action. Finally, although it is fashionable to bemoan the failure o f contemporary politicians
to learn from the mistakes o f the past, it is clear that in some dramatic instances such as the
dropping o f atomic bombs on civilian populations, lessons have been learnt.
This book is not intended, however, to persuade anyone o f the importance o f history. W e
anticipate that by the time it is read by a prospective historian or enthusiastic amateur, the
case would already have been made in their minds. Rather, w e wish to provide an accessible
introduction to some o f the concerns that have preoccupied historians over time. Instinctive
though w e may be as historians, w e can become better historians if w e take the trouble to
learn something about the discipline o f historiography, that is, how historians go about the
task o f exploring the past. For this seemingly simple project is fraught with difficulties. From
the time o f Herodotus and Thucydides in the ancient world, the role o f the historian and the
very nature o f history have been contested. For the past two thousand years, therefore, the
boundaries o f history have been fluid. Even now, some hundred or so years after the estab­
lishment o f history as an academic discipline, w e are not entirely sure what ‘proper’ history
is, or where the line separating history from say sociology or geography runs.
The difficulties are further compounded w h en w e broach the question ofhistorical truth.
At school w e were inclined to believe the claims that history books told us about the past as
it actually happened. Much o f this derives from the moment in the late nineteenth century
when the discipline o f history emerged, and embarked on what was considered as a realistic
mission to retrieve the truth from the past. Prior to this, people who wrote about the past
had other objectives in mind, most notably the political imperative to consolidate the
authority o f the state or peoples they represented. Many historians today are also committed
to historical truth, but despite the various methods used to retrieve it, historical truth remains
 Introduction: history matters xv

an elusive goal. Some critics go as far as to suggest that the promise is entirely false for the
historical record is always open to different interpretations, and who is in a position to decide
which one is the truth?
These are the matters w e intend to explore in the course o f the book. Its publication is
timely. Some o f the classic introductory texts which opened up debates within historiography,
such as E. H. Carr’s What is History? (1961) and G. E. R. Elton’s The Practice o f History (1967),
now look decidedly dated in that they do not address the important developments o f
recent years. John Tosh’s popular and admirable The Pursuit o f History (2009) claims to be an
introduction to modern history, but is not for the person coming to history for the first time.
W e felt the need for a textbook which encompassed the broad range o f historical inquiry in
ways which were accessible to the non-specialist. W e have assumed no previous knowledge
o f the discipline, eliminated as far as possible the use o f jargon, and drawn upon historical
examples which w e anticipate w ill be o f interest to a modern readership. Above all, in writing
the book w e had in mind a person who was about to embark on a serious study o f history,
and therefore needed to know more about the nature o f the discipline from examples o f
studies undertaken by some o f its leading figures. W e hope too that it may be o f interest in
some o f the areas it touches upon to postgraduates eager to consolidate their knowledge
and to take that knowledge up to another level. Although this is indisputably a textbook w e
are anxious not to imply that closure is either likely or desirable in history; in all areas o f our
discipline w e would want to treat history as very much open to dispute. Indeed, w e would
like to encourage debate and dispute among students and general readers alike.
The book is not designed to be read sequentially; rather, w e consider it as a handbook,
and prefer that you simply dip into individual chapters when the need arises to know more
about particular aspects o f the discipline. The book is, however, organised in a w ay to help
you make sense o f the material. Here w e have adopted the three broad themes o f the title
- Theory, Method and Practice - which are addressed in turn. Theory is divided into three
parts. In Part One, Perspectives and themes, w e begin by talking through two issues which
have been seen as the defining elements o f history, namely, the pursuit o f historical truth
and the ordering o f time. It w ill come as no comfort to know that these fundamental features
o f historical inquiry raise complex issues which continue to be hotly debated, but w e take
you carefully on the first steps o f the journey.
Part 2, Philosophies, examines the theoretical precepts o f modern historical practice which
arose out o f the Enlightenment, but which were developed in the course o f the nineteenth
and twentieth centuries, and came in recent years under challenges mounted to this paradigm
by perspectives from postmodernism and postcolonialism. Part 3, Histories surveys the
broad trajectory o f historical inquiry from ancient times, through the work o f Christian,
Jewish and Islamic scholars o f the middle ages and Renaissance periods, to the emergence
in Britain in the aftermath o f the seventeenth-century Civil War, o f W hig interpretations o f
history, and so on to the work o f our best known contemporary historians.
Reaching the ‘Method’ theme in Part 4, Varieties, w e describe some o f the more influential
strands o f history which have emerged in the postwar period as a challenge to traditional
approaches. The boundaries o f cultural, feminist, public and global histories may be defined
imprecisely, but historians working in these fields have greatly extended the scope o f his­
torical inquiry, and at the same time placed on the agenda new ways o f thinking about who
and what are legitimate subjects and objects o f study and, indeed, who might be regarded
xvi Introduction: history matters

as a bona fide historian. Part 5, Approaches & disciplines looks at the often troubled rela­
tionships between history and disciplines within the social sciences, including geography
and anthropology. Given that the boundaries o f history are fluid and permeable, it comes as
no surprise to learn that historians have tended to borrow freely from other disciplines. By
breaking down what are often artificially constructed barriers between disciplines, this too
has opened up exciting new avenues o f historical inquiry. Finally, in ‘Practice’, Part Six, Skills
and techniques, w e provide more practical guidance on some o f the problems encountered
by an historian embarking on an exciting venture o f research. The focus is on evidence - what
forms it takes, how it is gathered and stored, and some o f the problems it presents for us.
W e have attempted to make the material accessible not only by avoiding overly complex
theoretical discussion but also through various pedagogical devices. Each chapter therefore
begins with a short introduction which elaborates on the themes in the context o f the study
o f history. At the end o f the chapters, there is a brief section entitled ‘In Practice’ which
explains w hy the issues raised remain important to the study o f history, and why they should
be taken seriously by practising historians. The Summary brings all the arguments o f the
chapter together while the ‘Discussion document’ feature at the end takes the form o f brief
extracts from primary or secondary sources which touch directly on these issues and provide
useful starting points for further reflection, particularly in seminar discussions. Finally, the
‘Further reading’ section provides guidance on material which w e have found useful and
hope will extend and deepen student awareness o f the overarching themes.
Both o f us are modern historians. Peter Claus has researched histories o f the metropolis
and has been committed to widening participation and the democratisation o f the archive,
while John Marriott is a cultural and intellectual historian with a long-standing interest
in London and Empire during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. In writing this book
w e have understandably drawn upon knowledge o f our particular specialisms, but at the
same time w e have attempted to widen the geographical and temporal scope o f the book
by including discussions o f historical episodes in ancient and medieval periods, from both
European and non-European worlds. W hile the authorship has been shared, the large bulk
o f the writing has been done by Peter. John joined the project when the original co-author
was forced to pull out through ill health, by which time the book had already taken shape,
and several o f the chapters had been completed in draft form.
W e stated at the outset that our primary intent was not to persuade anyone o f the
relevance and excitement o f history, but w e share a passion for the subject which w e hope
comes over in the writing. If some o f this happens to rub o ff onto potential historians then
perhaps that is no bad thing for at least one o f our unstated goals w ill have been met.
 Part 1

PERSPECTIVES A N D THEMES
This page intentionally left blank
 1 Proof and the problem of
1 objectivity

1 History: a science or an art?

2 History and the status of knowledge
3 Choosing evidence, challenging interpretations

Introduction

This chapter introduces history as a discipline and as an approach to historical knowledge.

While it cannot be comprehensive, its aim nevertheless is to explore problems faced by
historians as they seek to understand past societies. How they do this depends on many
factors. At its simplest, however, it largely depends on whether history is regarded as a science
which has the historian as objective fact finder and analyst. Or whether, alternatively, history
is treated as an art in which the historian presents an interpretation of the past that is a
result of either personal experience or the social and cultural milieu in which the historian
is located. The first section introduces these issues by looking afresh at the argument first
raised in the 1960s between historians E. H. Carr and Geoffrey Elton but in the newer context
of postmodernism. It sets out the varying ways in which each of these prominent historians
approached the discipline and dealt with historical evidence in all its varied forms. Section 2
uses historical writing concerned with the events of 1857, the Indian Mutiny, in order to discuss
whether history is truly a dependable basis of knowledge that can provide a comprehensive
and reliable explanation of how past societies change. The third and final section will focus
on another dispute between historians, that of Chartism. W e shall see how historical facts
are generated but also how historians select evidence and then use innovative techniques to
inform our historical understanding. This section will explain how historical explanations for
a single historical event or period can change radically over time, either by the discovery of
new evidence or, more likely, the altering approach to evidence by historians influenced by
developing methodologies.
Visit https://textbookfull.com
now to explore a rich
collection of eBooks, textbook
and enjoy exciting offers!
4 C h ap ter 1 Proof and the problem of objectivity

Section 1

History: a science or an art?

W hy bother? W hy study history? W hy does history matter? For professionals who teach
and research history it provides, let it be said, a source o f income and occasionally a very
pleasing one at that. But it is more than that. Most historians are deeply engaged in trying
to uncover the past, not only because there are fascinating stories to be told, but also because
the telling o f the past has enormous contemporary importance. Our understanding o f the
present relies in large part upon how w e view the past, and this vital issue is o f concern
to us all, whether or not w e are trained historians. This recognition lies at the very heart o f
what w e would describe as historical imagination - an imagination possessed by all those
who look to the past as a means o f understanding their place in the contemporary world.
Something o f this spirit is captured by the comic writer and raconteur, Stephen Fry:

Great and good men and wom en stirred sugar into their coffees knowing that it had been
picked by slaves. Kind good ancestors o f all o f us in this room never questioned hangings,
burnings, tortures, inequality, suffering and injustice that today revolts us. If w e dare to
presume to damn them with our fleeting ideas o f morality then w e risk damnation from our
descendants for whatever it is that w e are doing that future history will jud ge as intolerable
and wicked: eating meat, driving cars, appearing on TV, visiting zoos, w ho knows? W e haven’t
arrived at our own moral and ethical imperatives by each o f us working them out from first
principles, w e have inherited them and they w ere born out o f blood and suffering - as all
human things, and human beings are. This does not stop us from admiring and praising
the progressive heroes who got there early and risked their lives to advance causes w e now
take for granted. In the end, I suppose my point is that history is all about imagination rather
than facts. If you cannot imagine yourself wanting to riot against catholic emancipation say,
or becoming an early Tory and signing up to fight with the Old Pretender, or cheering on
Prynne as the theatres are closed and Puritanism holds sway . . . knowing is not enough -
if you cannot feel what our ancestors felt when they cried ‘Wilkes and Liberty!’ or indeed
cried ‘Death to W ilkes!’ if you cannot feel with them, then all you can do is jud ge them and
condemn them, or praise them and over-adulate them. History is not the story o f strangers,
aliens from another realm, it is the story o f us had w e been born a little earlier. History is
memory, w e have to remember what it is like to be a Roman, or a Jacobite or a Chartist or
even - if w e dare, and w e should dare - a Nazi. History is not an abstraction, it is the enemy
o f abstraction. ( The Observer, 9 July 2006)

This does not address the question o f precisely what history is. Put simply, history is
the study o f the past, but as you make your w ay through this chapter, indeed this book,
you w ill realise such simplicities mask some complex issues. Note, for example, that there
is ambiguity in the term ‘history’. When w e talk o f ‘history’, do w e mean the past? Or do
w e mean what is written and taught about the past - historiography? It is usually clear
from the context which meaning w e are using, but the very fact that w e have the same term
to describe both meanings says something rather important. Studying history at a more
 History: a science or an art? 5

advanced level should make us become a little more circumspect about the nature o f the
relationship between the past and what is written and taught about the past. Fry defines
history and historians in a promiscuous way (as writers about the past) and that too w ill be
the approach o f this chapter as w e seek to get at the essence o f our subject and why w e are
or why w e want to be historians. In particular w e shall examine the extent to which history
as a discipline can be seen, crudely put, as either a science or an art and the implications
for taking one view over the other.
The former Regius Professor o f Modern History at the University o f Cambridge, the late
Sir Geoffrey Elton (1921-94), put it succinctly: history is at once interesting and exciting,
amusing and instructive. Yet Elton was against historians having empathy for the past, for
such an emotional engagement displaces what should be the object o f the historian, namely,
rational enquiry into past events. As a traditional historian, he believed very much in the
possibilities o f history as an exercise in empirical or fact-based truth and the ability o f the
historian to analyse objectively the results o f research with a high degree o f precision.
These ideas were expressed in Elton’s The Practice o f History (1967), which remains
a useful elaboration o f how history is conventionally viewed. It is a book, however, which
was written consciously as a rejoinder to E. H. Carr (1892-1982) and his What is History?
(1961), which had argued for a rather more sensitive approach to historical evidence. For
Carr, history is subjective because historians are recognised as part o f the process o f doing
history, unable to separate prejudices and presuppositions from conclusions drawn solely
from evidence. It is this factor above all others that has secured Carrs’ reputation as a radical
in his approach to history, while Elton is seen as a defender o f the conservative approach to
history. If both views are caricatures, arch conservative and historiographical radical, each
historian has left us with a legacy upon which w e can build.
This spat between Elton and Carr on the status o f historical knowledge is by common
consent the defining debate about how the study o f the past should be approached. While
Elton was unquestionably suspicious o f history’s ability to predict the future, he nonetheless
understood the role o f the historian and saw history as ‘scientific’, that is, a method o f rational
inquiry. By approaching evidence critically, he argued, historical truth can be revealed. ‘Hard
w ork’ and ‘clear thinking’ would promote a healthy scepticism as the historian investigates
the primary sources or considers the views o f other historians.
According to Elton, the successful resolution o f all historical problems depends upon the
appropriate use o f evidence. To this end three main stages o f reading evidence are required:
a review o f the available evidence (what sources exist?), the informed criticism o f that
evidence (what exactly does it testify to?), and from that evidence the framing o f answers
(what actually happened in the past?). Historical research must therefore ‘arise from the
evidence not from the mind o f the enquirer’, thereby avoiding the ‘preconceived notions’ o f
the historian. By follow ing these guidelines, the historian ‘w ell trained in the principles
o f scholarship’ can reveal the truth, or ‘as near to the truth o f the past as he has any hope of
getting’ (Elton, 2002, pp. 4 6 -8 0 ). In his Return to Essentials: Some Reflections on the Present
State o f Historical Study (1991), Elton develops these arguments by rejecting theory, ‘theory
mongers’ and the abstraction o f history because theory imposes ideas upon the evidence
in ways which compromise its objectivity or distort its use. Elton was thus adamant that the
involvement o f the historian as a subjective individual, the ‘infiltration o f historiographical
methods’ and the ‘problem o f historical reconstruction’ should be ‘reduced to a minimum.
6 C h ap ter 1 Proof and the problem of objectivity

The historian must act only as a conduit through which the experiences o f the past travel
while a relationship with the dead provides the thrill and the challenge o f history. If nothing
else, for the ‘honest historian’, as Elton put it, just doing history allows ‘the enormous
enlargement o f one’s acquaintances’, a list that is renewed and refreshed with every visit to
the archive (Elton, 2002, pp. 83, 79, 142).
Yet historians, like anyone else, are social and cultural animals, prompting the suggestion
that history is less a science and more an art: it is made through the imagination o f a
particular moment rather than discovered or applied by objective methodology. The past can
reveal truths which are part o f our personal and collective lives. If, for example, w e consider
a landscape beautiful, it is because w e have absorbed historical assumptions which influence
how w e understand that landscape. Mountains were seen only as obstacles to easy travel
before the eighteenth century, and then subsequently regarded as glorious monuments to
nature; these changing views were not based on objective approaches to the evidence but
in sensibilities that emerged from the Enlightenment; that is, notions o f the sublime
majesty o f nature that quite simply changed dramatically with the influence o f Romanticism
(see Chapter 3). In this context, w e may have an idea o f the English village that is bucolic,
charming and seemingly unchanging, the epitome o f Englishness. It may consist in our
mind’s eye o f a church, a duck pond, a war memorial, a cricket pitch or village green and
a public house or ‘pub’, a sense o f England as a pastoral idyll symbolised by the thatched
roofed house or, perhaps, the ‘babbling brook’ or haystack, even if this particular feature o f
the countryside actually disappeared from English fields almost half a century ago (Samuel,
1994, p. 107). It is an image that contrasts with landscapes o f smoking chimneys or rows
o f terraced houses that make up the ‘pit’ village o f the former mining communities, the ‘dark
satanic mills’ demonised by writers such as Blake, Dickens and Arnold Bennett who are all
evoked when scholars o f the Victorian period write the history o f industrialisation or, with
contemporaries o f that time, they examine the ‘condition o f England’.
People outside this European sensibility may never know this aesthetic, and instead
may see the thatched roof in an English village as a sign o f poverty. People o f earlier periods
might read the picture differently not because they lacked humanity, sensibilities, taste,
or should somehow be considered inferior to us, but because the historical milieus in which
they lived were simply different. W illiam Cobbett (1763-1835), pamphleteer and social
commentator, recalled in his Rural Rides, sometime in the 1820s, travelling through the
rolling hills o f the Cotswolds in England. He hated the picturesque scenery: to him the live­
stock that populated its gentle hills and slopes would feed the ‘Great W en’ or large drain;
the teeming multitudes o f London. Before Cobbett, or certainly in the century before he was
born, the argument that the Cotswolds was a storehouse for the industrial masses could not
have been made or would have been made in a quite different way.
I t could be argued then that whatever period or era o f history w e live in is steeped
with sensibilities and dominant ascetics that colour our lives and shade how w e learn
or write history, challenging our efforts to be dispassionate in the w ay w e read evidence.
Although the ancients, it should be noted, could not have known they were ancient and
could not in some w ay live out ancient lives any more than w e can know precisely that w e
are somehow ‘postmodern’. Johan Huizinga’s highly speculative but extremely stimulating
The Waning o f the Middle Ages (2001), first published in 1924, looked at the culture o f
fourteenth and fifteenth century France and the Low Countries and concluded that artists,
 History: a science or an art? 7

as w ell as theologians, poets, chroniclers, princes and statesmen should be treated ‘not as
the harbingers o f a coming culture, but as perfecting and concluding the old’ (Huizinga,
Preface to Doubleday Anchor edition). Chivalry, hierarchy, gothic forms and symbolism
that were so important to medieval architecture, art and life were not the rotten remains o f
a stagnant, ‘dark’ or ‘middle’ age in history whose only real purpose was to stand in contrast
to the bright, humanist ‘Renaissance period’ that was about to be born. If w e were alive then,
unknowingly on the cusp o f the medieval and early-modern eras, w e would surely have a
maelstrom o f influences that dictated our attitudes to what might be uniquely considered
at this moment to be pleasing in appearance.
If the contemporary observer can therefore differentiate between beauty and ugliness
and make historical judgements about what they represent or how they have changed, it
is because our experiences in the present are altogether more encompassing than attempts
to recapture the past through the acquisition o f analytical skills or training for historians
proposed by Elton. As children w e are not aware o f ideas o f beauty or what is culturally
significant, but soon learn to understand what is beautiful, and what w e are attracted to and
what repels our sensibilities, as w e are shown, for instance, a vista and told emphatically
that it is pleasing or important.
These examples from the history o f landscape, aesthetics or the competing ideas o f the
English village, serve to illustrate the message at the heart o f this section: that history does
indeed matter in a w ay that would find agreement between both Carr and Elton, if in differ­
ing ways. If w e are to understand our ancestors, as Fry says, and the real importance o f
history, then w e must learn about the human condition, a condition that after all is both
individually and socially constructed. To see such a construction, however, is to assert that
what influences historians are situated primarily in the present. Accordingly, this present-
minded approach to history and historical evidence does not speak for those historians who
legitimately, and often in ways that are very productive, believe that ‘the past is another
country’ which should be treated entirely in its own terms.
‘The past is a foreign country’ is the opening line to the novel by L. P. Hartley called The
Go-Between ‘ and is a place where ‘they do things differently.’ This articulates how from
the perspective o f Elton and others, the present is indeed separated from the past: ‘they’ are
separated from ‘us’. And yet as David Lowenthal noted in his 1985 book The Past is a Foreign
Country:

During most o f history men scarcely differentiated past from present, referring even to
remote events, if at all, as though they were then occurring. Up to the nineteenth century
those that gave any thought to the historical past supposed it much like the present. To be
sure, the drama o f history recorded major changes o f life and landscape, but human nature
supposedly remained constant, events always actuated by the same passions and prejudices.
Even when ennobled by nostalgia or depreciated by partisans o f progress, the past seemed
not a foreign country but a part o f their own. And chroniclers portrayed bygone times with
an immediacy and intimacy that reflected the supposed likeness.
(Lowenthal, 1985, p. xvi)

Only with the rise o f scientific-type methodology and the importance placed on ways
o f gathering evidence could distinctions be made between ‘then’ and ‘now ’, and by so doing
demonstrate that objectivity could find historical proof and that history could tell an
unfolding and coherent story that was plausibly true.
8 C h ap ter 1 Proof and the problem of objectivity

Some commentators interested in questions that arise from the quest for historical
objectivity and coherent narratives, such as the historian Gertrude Himmelfarb, articulate
an overwhelming need to revive histories that promote synthesised or unified themes con­
cerned with class, nation, ideas and so forth. However universal or ‘whole’ narratives such
as the story o f nation or class have been, efforts to foster and promote a single, coherent and
integrated history have become increasingly difficult precisely because o f renewed efforts
to write histories o f gender, race and so on that speak to our lives in the here and now.
Like Elton, Himmelfarb has argued that a downplaying o f political history over a number
o f years has encouraged historical knowledge to be treated in isolation with each topic
treated like a piece o f a jigsaw but where seldom a complete picture comes into view. The
real distinction that Himmelfarb makes, however, is between an ‘old’ history that attempts
to understand contemporaries in their own terms and the ‘new’ history that, while laudable
in taking notice o f say the historical role o f women or black people, tends to interpret
the past solely through the optic o f the present (Himmelfarb, 2004). The fragmentation o f
historical narratives into stories about ‘identities’ has been influenced by literary theory that
deconstructs the language used in historical sources to the point where the voice o f the
author o f a document is given no authority and whose meaning can never be truly known.
The text and the language o f the text, from this perspective, have no context besides the
preoccupations and concerns o f the historian in the present day (see Chapter 5).
W e are presented then with a serious choice about how history as a discipline works,
what it can reasonably do and how it is approached. Taking our cue from historians such
as Elton or Himmelfarb, is the objectivity o f history something w e strive for? Or is the sub­
jectivity and (to an extent) present mindedness o f Carr and others more convincing? What
are the pressures and influences bearing down on us as w e ‘do’ history, and can w e resist
these pressures to the extent that w e can really know things about the past by using objective
methods? To address these questions and to introduce others, w e shall need to take a trip
to India and the British Raj.

Section 2

History and the status of knowledge

The Indian Mutiny began in the summer o f 1857 and was finally crushed nearly a year later.
It has entered into our popular imagination, but just note how. The use o f the term ‘mutiny’,
rather than, say, revolt, suggests that this was a traitorous act perpetrated by subjects o f the
British crown. This was how it was seen at the time, and helps to explain why the retribution
o f the British was so brutal. A memorial in Delhi remembers the mutiny. Built by the British
in 1863, it takes the form o f an octagonal shaped tower and ornamental facade in the gothic
style. It is dedicated to the memory o f those soldiers and loyal Indians o f the Delhi Field
Force who were killed or died o f disease during what now might be considered as the initial
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
tavottelemaan syytä näihin jumauksiin tietä saadaksensa. Waan
mahdoton oli sillon keksiä, mikä vasta nykysempinä aikoina, monet
vuosituhannet myöhemmin, on tullut paremmin tutuksi. Tiedon
kaipuussa levottivat he sillä uteliaisuutensa, että päättivät jonkun
mahtavan, ehkä muuten oudon ja näkymättömän, olennon pilvissä
elelevän, joka sekä iski sieltä leimahtelevat tulet, että äannähteli
nämät kummat jumaukset. Muuta nimeä ei tieten, kutsuivat he hänen
jumaksi eli jumalaksi, sillä jumauksillapa hän olentonsa ilmotti.
Samate kutsumat pienet lapset lammasta määksi, lehmää myyksi
jne äänistä, joita he näiltä elämillä kuulevat. Samalla tavalla, kun
meille sana jumala, taisi Wenäläisille tulla sanansa boh, jolla he
Jumalata nimittävät, sillä tämäki sana alkuansa osottanee jotai
pauhua eli juminata. Samaa alkua ovat myös luultaksemme
Tatarilaisilla Jumalan nimenä tärä, Ostiakkilaisilla turum eli torom,
Woqulilaisilla torom, Tsuvassilaissilla tora eli tor, muinasten
Gothilaisten thor, Skythiläisten tara jne, joilla kaikilla näyttää jotai
täräystä alkuansa tavoteltuna.

Näin toki yrittäneet selvittää, miten esivanhempamme uudelleen

saivat alun Jumalan tuntoa ja itse nimenki, lähtisimmä mielellämme
toista asiata tutkimaan, kuinka Jumalan lääni tästä ensin
pienemmästä alusta vähitellen suureni, siksi että häntä viimmen
pidettiin kaiken maailman tekiäna ja haltiana. Jo alkuansaki, ehk' ei
hänen valtansa vielä mahtanut suuresti pilviä ulommaksi antauta,
pidettiin Jumalala jotensaki mahtavana, pilviä liikuttelevana, tulta,
säitä ja sateita lähettävänä urohona. Taisipa nimet ilmonen Jumala,
pilvien pitäjä, hattaroin hallitsia jo siilon tulla hänelle annetuiksi.
Aikasin taitiin häntä myös luojaksi nimittää, jolla sanalla sillon oli
paljo pienempi piiri, kun nykyjään. Luomisella alkuperäänsä ei näytä
ymmärretyksi, kun mitä hyvänsä lähettämistä eli erille panemista
itsensä eli toisten luota.[1] Jumalan ilmasta tulta, vesiä, lumia,
rakeita ja toisinaan kiviäki luodessa eli lähetteissä, ruvettiin häntä
siitä luojaksi nimittämään. Muinosille Greikalaisille luulisimma
samalla tavalla tulleen heidän kielisen Jumalan nimensä theos, joka
meidän kielellä olisi luoja eli pania. Taivaalliseksi Jumalaksi kutsuttiin
häntä paikasta, jossa hän eleli ja joka erittäin hänen voimastansa eli
mahdistansa lienee taivoksi eli taivaaksi nimitetty.[2] Taivaasta ja
minkä laatusna esi'isämme sitä pitivät, saamma toiste enemmin
lausua, nyt vaan nimitämmä, uulleen heidän sitä moni-, tosinaan
kuusi- ja yhdeksänkikantiseksi rakennukseksi. Näillä kansilla arveltiin
Jumalan öillä lepäelevän. Taisivatpa pitääki monet aurinkoa Jumalan
päänä ja sentähden sitä päiväksi nimittää, vasta myöhemmin
auringoksi sanoen, tällä nimellä johon kuhun auriahan eli hataraan
astiaan verrattuna, niinkun sitä vieläki on tapana auringon eli päivän
kehäksi sanoa. Sentähden päivän sitte piti illaksi aleta, Jumalan sillä
yöksi kirjavalle taivon kannelle päästä, jonka hän päällensä oli kiinni
nakannut, jotta piti laidatse itse päälle kiivetä. Toisena aamuna jällen
laitaa myöten alle saava aukasi hän tämän kannen ja taivalsi
päiväsiä matkojansa kuni ennenki.

Waikka aikaa voittain Jumalata ruaettiin suuremmaksi

ajateltamaan ja monta luonnon vaikutusta, pilvistä erilläki, hanen
työksensä arveltamaan, niin olivat aina hänen enimmät toimensa
kuitenki pilvissä, kussa myöhemmin hänelle luultiin mainio paja
olevan, josta häntä myös takojaksi nimitettiin. Hänen takomiksi
arveltiin nyt taivastaki ja kaikkia sen kansia. Näin Jumalan aina
suuremmaksi tultua ja ihmisten viimmenkän ajatellen, ken kaiken
tämän maailman olisi tehnyt, eikä ketään suurempata olentoa sen
tekiäksi tieten, päättivät he siksi Jumalan. Mitä ennen tiettiin, hänen
pajassansa monenlaatusia kapineita valmistelevan ja ulomma
luotansa lähettelevän, se hyvin kyllö myönti tätä ajatusta maailman
rakennuksesta. Ennen ihmismuistoa olisi hän kaikki mitä tavattiin,
valmistellut ja kunne kunki paikallensa luonut. Siitä alettiinki
maailmata toisella sanalla luonnoksi nimittää ja Jumalata näinki
ymmärtäen luojaksi.[3] Niinpä ovat muutamat, ilman ennen
Jumalasta mitään tietänättäkän, aivan maailman rakennuksesta
yksinänsä, tulleet ensimmäiseen Jumalan tuntoon johdatetuiksi. Näin
kerto muutama Grönlandin maan asukas tästä aineesta: Se on tosi,
sano hän, että meillä ennen ei ollut tietoa Jumalasta ja vapahtajasta.
Mutta elköön sentähdcn kenkän luulko, ettemme toisinaan tätäki
asiata ajatuksillamme noudatelleet. Itseki arvelin usein tähän
laatuun: pienintään kajakkata (s.o. venettä) ei saada ilman suurta
työtä ja taitoa valmiiksi. Ja kuitenki on harrakkaki paljo
mahtavammasti tehty, eikä ole meistä kenkän häntä mies tekemään.
Wielä mahtamammin, kun harakka ja muut elävät, on ihminen
rakettu. Kenpä siis olisi hänen tehnyt? — Hoetaan maasta
kasvaneen, vaan miksi ei kasva vieläki? Ja jos kasvaisiki, niin mistä
olisivat itse maa ja meri, kuu, päivä ja tähdet kasvaneet? Tosiaanki
on kaikilla näillä ollut tekiä, jonka mahtia, taitoa ja ymmärrystä meillä
on työläs arvata'kan, sillä niin kauniit, hyvät ja hyödylliset ovat kaikki
hänen tekonsa. Jos nyt aivan umpinaisesta tämä muukalainen tuli
kaikkiluojan Jumalan olemista tavottelemaan, kuinka paljoa helpompi
eikö toki ollutki esi-isillemme, ennen tietystä mahtavasta pilvien
Jumalasta tulla taivaan ja maanki luoja Jumalan tuntemaan. Ja niin
tulivatki, kun vaan sitte olisivat sihen tyytyneet. Mutta onnettomasti
rupesivat Jumalan toimituksia omaan talouteensa vertaamaan. Eipä
pienimmässään perehessä, ajattelivat he, voi yksi kaikkia toimittaa,
niinkö siis Jumala kaikkiin yksinänsä ennättäisi? Tämän ajatuksen
saatua, autovat Jumalalle paljo käskyläisiä, joilla kaikilla olivat
määrätyt työnsä toimitettavat ja joita aikaa voittain epälukuhun asti
eneni. Näitäki nimitettiin toisinaan jumaliksi, toisinaan haltioiksi,
kuninkaiksi, isänniksi, emänniksi, pojiksi, neitsyiksi, piioiksi ja miksi
millonki. Waan itse pääjumalatadalettiin nyt, perehenvanhimman
tapaan, ukoksi, taatoksi, isoksi, vaariksi, vanhaksi mieheksi jne
kutsua. Wanhan virkansa pilvissä toimitti hän vieläki itse, mutta kun
hänen lääninsä kuitenki näin oli suurentunut ja häntä Jumalan
nimellä usein muissaki tapauksissa mainittiin, niin tuli tarpeelliseksi
sillon toisella nimellä häntä kohdella, koska hänen toimistansa
pilvissä jotai erittäin oli lausumista. Tästä sai nyt se mainittava
nimivaihto jumalan ja ukon välillä. Jumala tuli yhteiseksi nimeksi
sekä entiselle jumalalle, jota nyt ukoksi sanottiin, että muille hänen
kaskyläisillensä, jota vaston korkeinta jumalata erittäin nimitettiin
ukoksi eli luojaksi.

Waan nämät aineet, jotka kuitenki ovat siitä arvosta, että sietävät
laviammalta tutkittaa ja lausuttaa, kun tässä osassa sihen tilaa olisi,
heitämmä toistaseksi, nyt vaan mainiten, että ukkoa ei rukoiltu
ainoasti kylväjiltä sateen tähden, vaan myös moninaisissa muissa
tiloissa, metsä-, meri- ja sotamiehillä, taudeissa, karjan
menestykseksi jne, josta kyllä hamatsemma, että häntä pidettiin yli
muiden voimallisna Jumalana, sillä monissa näissä tiloissa olisi
löytynyt lähempiäki erityisiä haltioita ja auttajoita, jos muuten olisivat
kyllä voimallisiksi arvatut.

Näin siis päättäisimmä, esi'isillämme aikoinansa olleen

pääjumalana ukon eli luojan ja tämän käskyläisinä muita alhasempia
niink. Tapio, Ahti, Lempo, Hiisi, Tuoni, Kalma, Louhi, Mielikki,
Luonnottaret, Kuuttaret, Päivättäret, Otavattaret, Tuulettaret,
Suvettaret, Etelättäret, Syöjättäret, Tuonettaret jne, jota vaston
senlaiset kun Kaleva, Wäinämöinen, Ilmarinen, Lemminkäinen,
Joukahainen, ehkä toisinaan jumalain verosina pidettynä, mieltä ei
lueta kun muiksi muinasten Suomalaisten urhollisiksi sankareiksi.
Näistä itsekustaki toiste enemmän.
 [1] Luoda kiviä s.o. panna erille jostai eli johon paikkaan; l.
verkkoa, kangasta, p.e. nimeksi eli aluksi; lehmä loi vasikan, käärme
l. nahkansa, pani erille luotansa; luo ojaa, löylyä, pane erille maasta,
kiukaasta; luo vene vesille, salmen poikki, pane erille rannasta,
rannasta rantaan; se on luotu minulle, erille pantu millua vasten.
Samate sanoissa luoma, luoko, luoto, luoti, tuode, luonto, luonne,
luola, loitto (luoitto), luopuoa jne.

[2] Woimaa eli mahtia osottavasta pääsanasta tai (tain, taida), joka
itse nyt on kielestämme hävinnyt, vaan josta vielä löytään
johtosanoja niink. taitaa, taito, taika, taimi, taima, tainta, taipua
(samate k. voipua sanasta voida), taintua, taistella jne, joissa
kaikissa on joku voiman eli mahdin osotus. Niin lienee latinan
kielinen taivon nimitys firmamentum ja ruotsin kielinen fäste myös
alkunsa saaneet.

[3] Suomalaiset paikka paikoin Wenäjän puolella tuskin

ymmärtäisivät, mitä tavottelisit sanoessa Jumala loi kaiken
maailman, sillä luomista he siinä kohdassa sanovat tekemiseksi eli
laatimiseksi. Muutamista Uutta Testamenttiä Repolan papin luona
Greikasta Suomeksi käätessäni, siten paremmin oppiakseni, millä
sanoilla heidän puheensa mukaan hän sitä kaännettäväksi tahto,
käytin sanaa luoda äsken mainitussa osotuksessa, joka hänelle,
ehkä muuten sel- välle, lapsesta olleelle suomalaiselle näytti oudoksi
ja jonka hän ainaki oikasi, sanoen tehdä eli laatia. Muuten on sana
maailmaki heillä oudonlainen, jota he vaan ilmaksi nimittävät.

Satuja.
 Ukko ja Kuolema.

Wanha köyhä ukko hakkasi puita metsässä. Alko kantamuksen

saatua kotiin astua. Wäsymällään laski puut maahan, valitti
vanhuuttansa, köyhyyttänsä ja kaikkea viheliäisyyttänsä, sanoen
viimmen: "voi jos toki kerran kuolemaki tulisi!" Kuolema sattu paikalle
ja lausu: "tässä olenki, miksi kutsuit?" Ukko vähän hämmästyneenä
vastasi "enkä miksikän, jos et tahtoisit vähäksi matkaksi katamustani
ottaa. Kun polonen juuri olin uupua."

Elohon elävän mieli, miehen mennehen manalle.

Kontio ja Hiiri.

Kontio nukku korvessa ja lauma hiiriä piti ympärillä menoa.

Wiimmen heräsi kontio ja sai muutaman, kovin rohkiasti aivan
seljälle hypänneen, kynsiinsä. Hiiri rukoili armoa, pyysi anteeksi
rikostansa, vahingosta tällä kerralla näin onnettomasti sattuneen,
jota hän ei konssa toiste tekisi. Wielä lupasi hän kaikella kunnialla
muistaa, jos nyt hengissä pääsisi. Kontio, ehkä suuttunutki, laski
hänen viimmen irti, sanoen: "yksipä ollet syöden, kun säästäenki;
mene matkohisi mokoma." Ei aikoja, niin muutamana päivänä kontio
eräteillänsä puuttuu verkkoon, eikä päässyt vapaaksi, jos millä yritti.
Kovin tuskautuneena tapasi hänen hiiri ja olko arvelematta verkon
pauloja poikki järsiä. Sillä pääsi kontio pian vapaaksi. Waan hiiri
lausu: "pidit minua pilkkana, etkä toivonut mitänä hyvää, mutta
näetpä voivan hiirenki hyvä hyvällä palkita."

Ei niin köyhää, ettei toista auta, ei niin rikasta, ettei apua tarvitse.
 Linnut, Nelijalkaset ja Yöleikko.

Oli muinen sota linnuilla nelijalkasten kanssa. Jos millä puolella

voitolla oltiin, sillä puolella pyöri yöleikko, lintunen seassa lintuna,
hiirenä nelijalkasten joukossa. Wiimmen rauhanteossa ei
kumpanenkan puoli tuntenut häntä omaksensa, sanoen aina
suurimman hädän aikana hänen toisella puolella nähneensä. Niin
päätettiin yksituumasesti ajaa pois hän mailta ilmoilta. Siitä ajasta
asti ei ole yöleikko päiväsaikana tohtinut silmänsä näyttää.

Pah' on syöä siemenensä, maansa petteä pahempi.

Suomen kansan Arvutuksuia.

1. Suuton söi, käsitön ampu, vesilinnun vempeleltä, haapanan

havun selältä.

2. Mies ollut alusta ilman, ilman loppuhun elävä, ei ehi sinä ikänä,
pääse päivikuntinensa, viien viikon täyttäväksi.

3. Pikku lintu liinahäntä läpi seinän lentelevi.

4. Tupa tuuti, lakka laulo, mies tuuti tuvan sisässä, jonk' on suussa
Suomen lukku, Tapion rahat takana.

5. Suurempi sukua suurta, kuninkaita korkiampi, lattialla

tallatahan, kuni koiroa pahinta.
 Osviittoja. 1. Suuton, käsiton s.o. aurinko eli päivä; söi, ampu s.o.
sulatti; vesilinnun, haapanan s.o. lumitykyn; vempeleltä, havun
selältä s.o. oksalta eli lyngykseltä. 2. Kuu. 3. Pikkulintu s.o. neula;
liinahäntä s.o. silmäystä eli lanka neulan perässä; seinän s.o.
vaatteen; lentelevi s.o. kulkevi. 4. Tupa s.o. oravan pesä; lakka s.o.
puun latva; laulo s.o. heilu eli hahisi; mies s.o. orava; lukko s.o.
maan pidentä eli verot; Tapion s.o. metsän; rahat s.o. ravara. 5.
Päiväpaiste.

*****

Paljo ilmanki tässä osassa puhetta Suomen kieleen koskevista

aineista ollunna, pelkäämmä, sitä vielä lisätessämme, jo heti
työmme alussa lukian kyllästyneenä lennettävän, jos minne'ki,
mehiläisemme. Sentähden lykkäämmä tulemaksi kuuksi koko kielen
seikan nöyrimmällä anomuksella ja toivolla, itsekunki siksi
armahtavaisesti kohtelevan tätä talven pakkasissa pyrivätä
mehiläistä ja erittäin senlaisia saamia, kun Aigypto, Polyneisia, Indo,
Greikalaiset, metsakko, karjakko, opisto, kasta, toisinto, kirjamellinen
jne. Sillä toivolla lähdemmä nyt kuumme täytteeksi selvittämään
muutamia.

Suomen kansan Sanalaskuja.

1. Anna kättä käyvän miehen, suuta ulkovan urohon.

Käyvällä ja ulkovalla ymmärretään toisinaan köyhää ja koditonta,

toisinaan muuten kulkevaista, tuntematonta. Edellisessä
tapauksessa kehottaa sanalasku, köyhiäksi ja varattomia hyvin
kohtelemaan; jälkimmäisessä, varalla pitämään, ettei
tuntemattomiakan tylysti vastaan oteta, josta vaan katumus saattaisi
seurata.

2. Parempi pajussa maata, kuni paimenen sivussa, orpolapsen

kainalossa.

Tällä sanalaskulla olen kuullut naimatta jäänetten tyttöin itsiänsa

toisinaan lohdutteleman ja epäilemättä olisiki hyvä, jos he sen,
vaikka aina, mielessänsä pitäisivät. Waan valitettavasti runoa
myöten

Kyll' on niitäki kylissä

Tyttäriä tyhmempiä,
Jotk' ei o'ota ollenkana
Puhe'mieheltä puhetta.

Kesällä kenossa kaulan,

Talvella takana silmin,
Katselevat, kääntelevät,
Kenen keksiä pitäisi;
Mies olla mikä' hyvänsä,
Talon laiska juoppolalli,
Eli köyhä kestin poika,
Elikkä rahaton renki,
Joka vaan vihille veisi
Waikka vaskisormuksella;
Jos vuoen, kahen perästä
Korjan perä on kotona,
Talon turkki tuiskun suoja,
Läpilauta lapsen likka,
 Käsivirkka kätkyn soutu,
Penkki, pankko pöytä lauta.

(Korhonen).

3. Niin on niittyin asiat, kun on niityt aialliset.

Koskee erittäin talon, jos toisinaan muihinki, toimihin. Sen nyt

tietääki jokanen, menestyvän työt sitä myöten, miten niitä huolella ja
uutteruudella toimitetaan.

4. Syöpi leivän survosenki, kun on meistä mielin määrin, omin

ottamin urosta.

Sanalasku päättää köyhemmenki suodun ja mielen- myötäsen

miehen olevan paremman, kun muka rikkaan pakolla otetun. Miten
lienee, heitän peräti naisten huoleksi, itse tuumailla ja arvaella.

MEHILÄINEN W. 1836.
Helmikuulta.

Tauti.
 Surma hiihti suota myöten,
Tauti talvitietä myöten.
Noin puhuvi suuri Surma,
Aika Tauti arvelevi,
Illalla talon takana, 5
Talon aittojen takana:
"Kenenkä tapan talosta —
Tapanko ukon talosta?"

"Jos tapan ukon talosta,

Taitavi kalat kaota, 10
Lohimurkkinat mureta,
Nuotat tulla tukkuloihin,
Wenehet vesille jäähä;
En tapa ukkoa talosta."

Surma hiihti suota myöten, 15

Tauti talvitietä myöten.
Noin puhuvi suuri Surma jne.
"Kenenkä tapan talosta —
Tapanko akan talosta?"

"Jos tapan akan talosta, 20

Lyhenevi lehmän lypsi,
Maion kantajat katovi,
Maitokupit kuivettuvi,
Ravistuvi voirasiat;
En tapa akkoa talosta." 25

Surma hiihti suota myöten

Tauti talvitietä myöten.
Noin puhuvi suuri Surma
 jne
"Kenenkä tapan talosta —
Tapanko pojan talosta?" 30
"Jos tapan pojan talosta,
Haviävi halme'maani,
Kaskikirvehet katovi,
Elopurnoset putovi,
Jyvälaarit laukiavi; 35
En tapa poikoa talosta."

Surma hiihti suota myöten,

Tauti talvitietä myöten.
Noin puhuvi suuri Surma
jne
"Kenenkä tapan talosta — 40
Tapanko tytön talosta?"
"Jos tapan tytön talosta,
Häviävi hääveroni,
Wähenevi kihlavärkit,
Jääpi sulhoset surulle. 45
Poikaset pahoilla mielin;
En tapa tyttöä talosta."

Surma hiihti suota myöten,

Tauti talvitietä myöten.
Noin puhuvi suuri Surma 50
jne.
"Kenenkä tapan talosta
Tapanko talosta minnän?
Jos tapan talosta minnän,
Saapi mies on toisen naisen;
 Saapi naisen naimisella, 55
Ehk' ei lapselle emoa."

Toisintoja. v. 4—6. Ajatteli aika Tauti, Talon keskitanterella. v. 7—9.

kenen tappanen t. T. talosta vaarin? J. t. talosta vaarin. v. 8—9. T.
talon isännän? Tappaisin t. i. v. 10—11. Taitaisi talo hävitä, Pian
mennä pieni maani v. 19—20. T. talosta muorin? J. t. t. m. T. talon
emännän? J. t. t. e. Tappanen talosta vaimon? J. t. t. v. 21—22, L.
lehmilykky, Maitomaljaset k. Katoneeko suuri karja, Levinneekö
lehmiläavä. v. 23. Pienenevi piimäamme. v. 33—34. Hävinneekö h.
Katonevi kaskikirves. v. 34. Jyväpurno puonneeki. v. 41-42, T. talosta
neien? J. t. talosta neein. v. 43—44. Hävinneekö h. vähenneekö k. v.
45. Saapi s. s. Tullaan s. s. v. 46. Jää pojat pahoilla m. v. 54.
Jäähään lapset itkemähän, Pienoset pisartamahan Ostolla orihin
saapi, Uuen naisen naimisella.

Hekkalan Maria.

Jo nyt joutu naimavuosi,

Wihkivuosi mnmmeseltä,
Joill' ei ole ennen ollut,
Eikä saanchet osansa.

5—14
Pojat nuorena nopiat
Elelimät öillä ensin,
Maan kun joutu manhemmaksi,
Ettei jaksa yöjalassa
Kyllä kutkia kylällä,
Otettama on uusi ncuo,
Uuet kihlat ostettamat,
Monet kihlat kirkkaimmat,
Kaunihimmat kaulamärkit,
Kultasormukset soria???

15—20
Tyttärill' on työlähampi,
Aina outo outettama,
Eikä tule toi sinänsä,
Maikka malmoa pitäpi,
Käypi toimo työlähäksi,
Ajatukset ahtahaksi.

21—26
Tuumailimat tuosta kerran
Kaksi kaunista tytärtä,
Sisarukset Siikajoessa,
Kuulut Pulkkilan kylällä,
Alapuolella asumat,
Heiteltynä Hekkalahan.

27—41.
Riitta ensin rintavasti
Sanopi sanalla tuolla
Marialle mahtamasti:
"Mikä neuoksi hyväksi,
Mikä neuon antajaksi;
Nuoret kaikki korjatahan,
Minä vanhanen vakainen.
Tulen vielä tuommoseksi,
Kun tuo taivahan mäkärä
Alla pilvien asuva.
Joko Yrkön yksinäisen,
Rahattoman rannistani,
Wiimmen ottanen omaksi,
Kun ei tulle kumminkana
Tarjoksi talollisia."

42—59.
Mari sanopi samalla:
"Otan minä, vaikka mistä;
Mull' on miellä muille asti,
Paljo ihtessä piteä,
Paljo on pantuna rahoja,
Lukon taaksi tallittuna.
Rahat annan arkustani,
Talo ensin ostetahan,
Sitte maata muokatahan,
Jotta syömmä selvän leivän,
Ruisleivän runsahimman.
Wiel' on lehmä Lehtikorva,
Joka lypsäpi lujasti,
Wasikan tekepi toisin.
Kaks on lammasta kotona,
Jotka joutuen kerihten,
Syksyt kuon syylinkiä,
Talvet vanttuja vatustan."

60—65.
Riitta aivan riski suusta,
Kieli kerkiä sanoissa,
Sano vielä toisen kerran
Marialle mahtavasti:
"Laita sulhanen sinulle,
Elikkä ennätän esinnä."

66—75.
Mari varsin vastoapi:
"Ei ole minulla vielä
Miestä tiettyä tulossa;
Sulhanen sinulla ompi
Laita ihtesi vihille.
Sin' olet elänyt enemmin,
Kohta täytät talven tullen
Wiisikymmentä visusti,
Minä vuotta viisitoista
Olen nuorempi sinua"

76—87.
Tuli poika Pulkkilahan,
Joutu tuolta Siikajoelta,
Keski Kestilän kylästä,
Pölyhousu Haapalainen,
Mainittava mestariksi,
Opit kaikki ottanunna
Hän oli oiva ompelia,
Warsin vaatetten tekiä,
Wielä seppä sen mokoma,
Häylyvä hätävarassa,
Kylän tarvetten takoja;
Tuli tuonne Pulkkilahan.
 88—91.
Riitta Hekkalan havahti:
"Jo on poika Pulkkilahan
Tullut oiva ompelija,
Raatali rahan keriä"

92—95.
Mari heti nauratellen
Sano: "terve tultuasi!
Joko olet ompelijaksi
Toki kerran kerkinynnä!

96—101,
Käski lähtiä kotiinsa
Tekemähän taitavasti
Ensin turkki tuulen suoja,
Sitte röiy sievänlainen,
Wielä pelsi pehmiämpi,
Jolla vietäisi vihille."

102—107.
Illan tultua ilosen
Lähti poika kulkemahan,
Walmisti vaeltamahan.
Wielä Wiiolle menepi,
Näki Yrkön yksinänsä
Kartanolla kahtelevan.

108—111.
"Mitä Yrkkö yksinäsi
Siinä seisot siirtymättä,
Ajattelet ahkerasti,
Kallistellen kartanolla?"

112-115.
"Miel' on mennä Hekkalahan;
Joko lienevät levolla."
"Sinne se minunkin tieni,
On tahottu ompelohon."

116—119.
Lähti kohta kulkemahan
Yhtä tietä Yrkön kanssa;
Astu poika ahkerasti
Tuonne Hekkalan talohon.

120—123,
Sitte tuonne tultuansa,
Päästyänsä matkan päähän,
Kohta koitteli ovia,
Oisko lukkohon lukittu.

124—137.
Naiset arvahin asian —
Jo on pojat joutunehet;
Naisten syän sylkähtäpi,
Mieli hyppäsi hyväksi.
Wielä neuoit vierahia,
Opetit oven takoa:
"Ovipieless' on avainki
Piilosalla pistettynä;
Ota, aukase avia
Avamella oikialla,
Siirrä salpa koukerolla,
Jousi potkase takasin,
Loirat oikein osoa
Solikoia sormellasi."

138—143.
Otti oikian avamen,
Jolla aukasi ovia,
Siirti salvan koukerolla,
Jousen potkasi takasin,
Loirat oikein osasi
Solikoia sormellansa.

144—153.
Mari sänkynsä levitti,
Paljo peittoja panepi,
Sanopi sanalla tuolla:
"Riisu vieras vikkelästi
Poies kintahat käsistä,
Lakki laske arkulleni,
Kengät keskilattialle;
Wilu siell' on seisoessa,
Painu tänne pakkasesta,
Siirry peittojen sisälle."

154—159.
Poika nöyrä neuottua
Teki, oikein osasi,
Pani sänkyhyn samalla,
Syltä kaulahan kamahti,
Anto suuta suikiasti,
Näppärästi neitoselle.

160—165.
Mari esteli esinnä,
Sanopi sanalla tällä:
"Oisit kyllä oiva poika,
Kaunis kaikessa siassa,
Waan on kontittu kovasti,
Juoniteltu juomariksi."

166—175.
Poika varsin vastoapi:
"En ole juonut julkisesti,
Enkä varkahin varonut;
Kun tahot kuulla kontimiestä,
Paljo on minulla niitä,
Jotka vissinki vihavat.
Ota aasi oivallinen,
Pitkäkorva kumppaliksi,
Sitä ei kontita kovasti,
Juonitella juomariksi."

176—179.
Mari lausu lempehestsi
"Elä suutu suottakana,
Waikkapa valehtelevat,
Panettelevat pakanat."

180—183.
Siinäpä Samu samalla
Tutummaksi tulla tahto,