Transistors

Basic Construction
For a Diode we saw that it is made up from two pieces of semiconductor material, either
silicon or germanium to form a simple PN-junction. If we now join together two individual
signal diodes back-to-back, this will give us two PN-junctions connected together in series
that share a common P or N terminal. The fusion of these two diodes produces a three
layer, two junctions, three terminal device forming the basis of a Bipolar Junction transistor.

The BJT has 3 terminals namely Emmitter, Base and Collector. Based on structure there are
two types of BJT namely NPN and PNP.

The emitter is heavily doped and injects a large number of majority carriers into the base.
The emitter is always forward biased with respect to the base. Majority carriers are
collected by the collector. A few majority carriers also flow out of the base terminal.

In pnp transistors, majority carriers are holes and in npn transistors, majority carriers are
electrons.

Working of NPN transistor

The base emitter junction is forward biased and base collector junction is reversed biased.
The forward bias causes the electrons in the n-type emitter to flow towards the base. This
constitutes the emitter current IE.

As these electrons flow through the p-type base, they tend to combine with holes. As the
base is lightly doped and very thin, only a few electrons i.e less than 5% combine with holes
to constitute base current IB.

The remaining electrons (more than 95%) cross over into the collector region to constitute
collector current IC.

In this way almost entire emitter current flows in the collector circuit.

The emitter current is the sum of collector and base current.

IE = IB + IC

Working of PNP transistor

The base emitter junction is forward biased and base collector junction is reversed biased.
The forward bias causes the holes in the p-type emitter to flow towards the base. This
constitute the emitter current IE.

As these holes cross into n-type base, they tend to combine with the electrons. As the base
is lightly doped and very thin, therefore only a few holes i.e. less than 5% combine with the
electrons. This constitutes the base current IB.

The remainder holes i.e. more than 95% cross into the collector region to constitute
collector current IC.

In this way almost entire emitter current flows in the collector circuit.

The emitter current is the sum of collector and base current.

IE = IB + IC
Transistor Action
The input circuit (i.e. emitter-base junction) has low resistance because of forward bias
whereas output circuit (i.e. collector-base junction) has high resistance due to reverse bias.
As we have seen, the input emitter current almost entirely flows in the collector circuit.
Therefore, a transistor transfers the input signal current from a low-resistance circuit to a
high-resistance circuit. This is the key factor responsible for the amplifying capability of the
transistor.

Current Components of BJT Transistor

When BJT transistor is not biased, that is, there is no voltage drop across its junctions and
thus, no current flows through it. If Emitter-Base junction is forward biased and Collector-
Base junction is reverse biased, the voltage across the device causes electrons from emitter
to flow to collector. In this, electrons pass through P type lightly doped base region and
some of the electrons recombine with holes. Therefore, collector current is less than that of
emitter current. Emitter current, Base current and Collector current can be related by.

IE = IB + IC

Mainly three parameters are used to define BJT transistor performance. Current
Amplification factor, Base Transport Factor, Emitter Injection Efficiency parameters
shows the performance of NPN transistor and PNP transistor.

1) Current Gain Alpha (α):

It is the ratio of collector current to the emitter current with no load and constant
voltages. Alpha is always less than unity.

2) Beta (β):
It is the ratio of collector current to the base current on no load and constant
voltages. For general purpose transistors Beta has value between 20 and 200.
 3) Emitter Injection Efficiency
Emitter injection efficiency in a BJT transistor defines the efficiency of majority
carrier injection from emitter. It is the ratio of current due to emitter majority
carriers to the total emitter current. It defines the injection capability of an emitter.
Heavily doped region will have high injection factor.

Relation between α and β

α is the ratio of collector current to the emitter current.

===>

Β is the ratio of collector current to the base current

===>

Where IE is emitter current, IB is base current and IC is collector current.

For a transistor we have

IE = IB + IC

Dividing both sides by IC, we have

Substituting values of α and β

Or
Characteristics of BJT
BJT can be connected in three different configurations by keeping one terminal common
and using the other two terminals for the input and output. These three types of
configurations respond differently to the input signal applied to the circuit. The
three different configurations of BJT are listed below.

 Common Base (CB) configuration

 Common Emitter (CE) configuration
 Common Collector (CC) Configuration

Among these, the Common Base configurations will have voltage gain, but no current gain,
whereas the Common Collector Configuration has current gain, but no voltage gain and the
Common Emitter Configuration will have both current and voltage gain.

Common Base (CB) Configuration

The Common Base configuration is also called as the grounded base configuration, where
the base of the BJT is connected as a common between both the input and output signal.
The input to the BJT is applied across the Base and Emitter Terminals and the output from
the BJT is obtained across the Base and Collector terminal. The input current (I E) flowing
through the emitter will be quite higher when compared with both the Base current (I B) and
the Collector Current (IC) as the emitter current is the sum of both the Base current and
Collector current. Since the collector current output is less than the Emitter current input
the current gain of this configuration will be unity (1) or less.
Input characteristics

The input Characteristic curve for the Common Base configurations is drawn between the
emitter current IE and the voltage between the base and emitter VBE. During the Common
base configuration, the Transistor gets forward biased hence it will show characteristics
similar to that of the forward characteristics of a diode where the IE increases for fixed VBE
when VCB increases.

Output Characteristics

The output characteristic of the Common Base configuration is graph between the collector
current IC and collector-base voltage VCB. In common base configuration, if the input current
or emitter current is zero then the output current or collector current is also zero. So the
transistor will be in the cut-off region. If the emitter current is slightly increased then the
output current or collector current also increases. So the transistor falls into the active
region. If the base current is heavily increased then the current flowing through the
transistor also heavily increases. As a result, the transistor falls into the saturation region.
Common Emitter (CE) Configuration
The Common Emitter Configuration is also called the grounded emitter configuration where
the emitter acts as the common terminal between the input applied between the base and
emitter and the output obtained between the collector and the emitter. This configuration
produces the highest current and power gain when compared with the other two types of
configurations; this is because of the fact that the input impedance is low as it is connected
to a forward-biased PN junction whereas the output impedance is high as it is obtained for
the reverse-biased PN junction.

Input Characteristics

The input characteristics of the Common Emitter configuration are drawn between the base
current IB and the base-emitter voltage VBE. Here the Voltage between the Collector and the
emitter is the most common parameter. It shows characteristics similar to that of the
forward characteristics of a diode.
Output Characteristics

The output characteristics is drawn between the Collector Current IC and the collector-
emitter voltage VCE. In common emitter configuration, if the input current or base current is
zero then the output current or collector current is also zero. So the transistor will be in the
cut-off region. If the base current is slightly increased then the output current or collector
current also increases. So the transistor falls into the active region. If the base current is
heavily increased then the current flowing through the transistor also heavily increases. As a
result, the transistor falls into the saturation region.

Common Collector (CC) Configuration

The Common Collector Configuration is also called the grounded Collector configuration
where the collector terminal is kept as the common terminal between the input signal
applied across the base and the emitter, and the output signal obtained across the collector
and the emitter. This configuration is commonly called as the Voltage follower or the
emitter follower circuit. This configuration will be useful for impedance matching
applications as it has very high input impedance, in the region of hundreds of thousands of
ohms while having relatively low output impedance.
Input Characteristics

The input characteristics describe the relationship between input current or base current (IB)
and input voltage or base-collector voltage (VBC).

Output characteristics
The output characteristics describe the relationship between output current or emitter
current (IE) and output voltage or emitter-collector voltage (VCE). In common collector
configuration, if the input current or base current is zero then the output current or emitter
current is also zero. So the transistor will be in the cut-off region. If the base current is
slightly increased then the output current or emitter current also increases. So the transistor
falls into the active region. If the base current is heavily increased then the current flowing
through the transistor also heavily increases. As a result, the transistor falls into the
saturation region.

Comparison Between all three configurations

Transistor Biasing
Transistor Biasing is the process of setting a transistors DC operating voltage or current
conditions to the correct level so that any AC input signal can be amplified correctly by the
transistor.

Need for Biasing

1) To keep emitter-base junction forward biased and base-collector junction reverse
biased during entire input cycle.
2) To stabilize Q point against changes in temperature, variation in transistor
parameters and aging of components.

Q-point of a transistor
Q point is defined as the point on the output characteristics (IC,VCE) when no signal is applied
to the input. The Q point stands for “Quiescent point” is also known as “operating point”. It
determine the value of collector current and collector emitter voltage.

Load Line
When a value for the maximum possible collector current is considered, that point will be
present on the Y-axis, which is nothing but the Saturation point. As well, when a value for
the maximum possible collector emitter voltage is considered, that point will be present on
the X-axis, which is the Cut-off point.
When a line is drawn joining these two points, such a line can be called as Load line.
DC Load Line
When the transistor is given the bias and no signal is applied at its input, the load line drawn
under such conditions is termed as DC load line. Here there will be no amplification as
the signal is absent.

The value of collector emitter voltage at any given time will be

When VCE=0, collector current is maximum and given as

When IC=0, collector-emitter voltage is maximum and given as

 \

AC Load Line
The AC and DC load lines normally are not the same, however, they must share one point in
common, and that's the Q point. Usually, the slope of the AC load line is steeper than that of
the DC load line. This is because the AC resistance tends to be less than the DC resistance
due to loading and capacitor bypassing.

Selection criterion for Q point

To ensure faithful amplification, the following basic conditions must be satisfied.

 Proper zero signal collector current

 Minimum proper base-emitter voltage (VBE) at any instant.
 Minimum proper collector-emitter voltage (VCE) at any instant.

The fulfilment of these conditions ensures that the transistor works in the active region
having input forward biased and output reverse biased.
Fixed Bias Method

In this method, a resistor RB of high resistance is connected in base, as the name implies.
The required zero signal base current is provided by VCC which flows through RB. The base
emitter junction is forward biased, as base is positive with respect to emitter.

From above equation we have

Merits

1) Circuit is simple.
2) The operating point can be fixed anywhere in the active region by varying the value
of RB.

Demerits

1) Thermal stability not provided by circuit and so Q point varies.

2) Circuit depends on beta value.

Emitter-Stabilized Bias
A configuration in which a bipolar junction transistor or a BJT is reinforced with an emitter
resistor for enhancing its stability with regards to changing ambient temperatures, is called
an emitter stabilized bias circuit for BJT.

Apply KVL at base circuit

Apply KVL to collector circuit

From above equation

Merits

1) Less distortion.
2) Higher Q point stability

Demerits

1) Reduced Gain.

Voltage divider Bias

Voltage Divider Bias Circuit is the most stable of the three basic transistor bias circuits.
Resistors R1 and R2 constitute a voltage divider that divides the supply voltage to produce
the base bias voltage (VB). The RE provides stability in gain of the emitter current of a
transistor circuit. The total dc load in series with the transistor is (RC + RE)
Using voltage divider rule

Where IB is less than I1 and I1=I2

Apply KVL to collector circuit

From above equation

Advantages

1) It offers excellent stabilisation and hence Q point does not shift.

2) When used in amplifiers, it provides better amplification.

Transistor as an Amplifier
The transistor raises the strength of a weak signal and hence acts as an amplifier. The
transistor amplifier circuit is shown in the figure below. The transistor has three terminals
namely emitter, base and collector. The emitter and base of the transistor are connected in
forward biased and the collector base region is in reverse bias.
The input signal or weak signal is applied across the emitter base terminal and the output is
obtained at the load resistor RL which is connected in the collector circuit. The DC voltage
VEB is applied to the input circuit along with the input signal to achieve the amplification.
The DC voltage VEB keeps the emitter-base junction under the forward biased condition
regardless of the polarity of the input signal and is known as a bias voltage.

When a weak signal is applied to the input, a small change in signal voltage causes a change
in emitter current (or we can say a change of 0.1V in signal voltage causes a change of 1mA
in the emitter current) because the input circuit has very low resistance. This change is
almost the same in collector current because of the transistor action. (IE=IC)

In the collector circuit, a load resistor RL of high value is connected. When collector current
flows through such a high resistance, it produces a large voltage drop across it. Thus, a weak
signal (0.1V) applied to the input circuit appears in the amplified form (10V) in the collector
circuit.

Transistor as a switch
A transistor is used as an electronic switch by driving it either in saturation or in cut off.
There are two main regions in the operation of a transistor which we can consider
as ON and OFF states. They are saturation and cut off states. Let us have a look at the
behaviour of a transistor in those two states.

Operation in Cut-off condition

The following figure shows a transistor in cut-off region.

When the base of the transistor is given negative, the transistor goes to cut off state. There
is no collector current. Hence IC = 0.

The voltage VCC applied at the collector appears across the collector resistor RC. Therefore,
VCE = VCC

Operation in Saturation region

The following figure shows a transistor in saturation region.

When the base voltage is positive and transistor goes into saturation, IC flows through RC.

Then VCC drops across RC. The output will be zero.

IC=IC (sat) =VCC/RC and VCE=0

Therefore a transistor works as a switch when driven into saturation and cut off regions by
applying positive and negative voltages to the base.