DICTIONARY

of the
NEW TESTAMENT Use
of the OLD TESTAMENT

EDITED BY

G. K. Beale, D. A. Carson,
Benjamin L. Gladd,
and Andrew David Naselli

K
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 Deuteronomy, Book of

cf. Exod. 19–20), rebellion at Horeb (Deut. 9:8–10:11;

Death See Creation cf. Exod. 32–34), and numerous wilderness events like
the rebellion at Kadesh (e.g., Deut. 1:19–45; cf. Num.
Demons See Satan 13–14), the movement past Edom, Moab, and Ammon
(Deut. 2:1–23; cf. Num. 20:14–21:20), the Transjordan’s
conquest (Deut. 2:24–3:20; cf. Num. 21:21–35), and the
Deuteronomy, Book of episode with Balaam and the Moabites (Deut. 23:4–5; cf.
Perhaps no other book has influenced biblical thought Num. 22–24). Through such narrative rehashing, Moses
like Deuteronomy. From Scripture’s perspective, Mo- warns of the seriousness of sin, grounds the covenant at
ses’s Deuteronomic messages formalize the post-exodus Moab in a context of Yahweh’s past grace, and motivates
generations’ old-covenant relationship with God by pro- present and future Israelite generations to love the Lord
viding them a constitution for life in the promised land. and pursue righteousness.
It also helps later seers, sages, sovereigns, and songwrit- Recalling Yahweh’s covenant with and promises to
ers to unravel the movement of Israel’s history from the fathers. Deuteronomy is clear that what Yahweh
entrance into the land to exile. Finally, it enables read- has done for Israel through the exodus, covenant at
ers to grasp the nature of covenant responsibility and Horeb, preservation through the wilderness, and re-
the possibility of lasting covenant relationship and to newed covenant at Moab is a direct outworking of what
hope for the age of restoration beyond curse associated God promised to the patriarchs. Moses speaks of the
Israelite “fathers” (ʾābôt) around fifty times in Deuter-
with a covenant-mediating prophet like but greater than
onomy, referring regularly to “the land I/Yahweh swore
Moses, under whose ministry Yahweh would transform
to the fathers” (Deut. 1:8, 35; 6:10, 18, 23; 7:13; 8:1; 9:5;
hearts and empower love and obedience.
10:11; 11:9, 21; 19:8; 26:3, 15; 28:11; 30:20; 31:7, 20; cf.
Deuteronomy’s Hermeneutics 1:21), “the God of your/our fathers” (1:11, 21; 4:1; 6:3; 12:1;
26:7; 27:3; cf. 29:25), and “the covenant/oath that I/Yah-
Deuteronomy stands climactically as the last install-
weh made with your fathers” (4:31; 7:12; 8:18; 29:12–13;
ment in the Pentateuch and narrates the last days of
cf. 5:3; 29:25). In addition, seven times Deuteronomy
Moses’s life by highlighting his “words” to Israel in the
uses the patriarchal name formula (“Abraham, Isaac,
region of the Jordan in the wilderness (Deut. 1:1) and
and Jacob”), five of which stand appositionally to “the
“the terms of the covenant the Lord commanded Moses
fathers” (1:8; 6:10; 9:5; 29:13; 30:20; cf. 9:27; 34:4). Deu-
to make with the Israelites in Moab, in addition to the
teronomy also associates “your fathers” with the seventy
covenant he made with them at Horeb” (29:1). Deuter-
who “went down into Egypt” (10:22; cf. 26:5). Because
onomy not only stands as the last book in the Penta-
the book gives no further information regarding these
teuch’s literary sequence but also explicitly builds on the
elements, it assumes prior knowledge of Genesis’s his-
preceding story and distinguishes the Horeb (i.e., Sinai)
torical traditions.
covenant materials of Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers Against the deconstructive, redactional approaches
from those bound up in Deuteronomy, which presents of higher critics and against the transgenerational rhe-
itself as covenant renewal. This may be why the Greek torical views of Jerry Hwang (Remembrance) and Bill
translator rendered the book deutero-nomos (“second Arnold, Israel’s “fathers” in Deuteronomy are always
law”; cf. 17:18). the patriarchs (i.e., Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob) and the
Moses himself calls Deuteronomy’s “words” and generations associated with them (Tigay, 61). Along with
“terms” “this Book of the Law” (29:21; 30:10; 31:26), those texts explicitly naming the patriarchs, others nec-
and this embedded book or scroll shapes the bulk of essarily refer to the patriarchs by way of temporal sig-
Deuteronomy and addresses the nature and possibility nals (e.g., 1:11, 21, 35; 4:37; 6:23; 7:8; 8:3, 16; 10:11, 15, 22)
of Israel’s lasting covenant relationship. The narrator and/or their inclusion of key phrases from the original
stresses that by proclaiming and writing the messages name formula text in 1:8 (e.g., 4:1, 31; 6:18; 7:12–13; 8:1;
in his lawbook, Moses “legally enforced” ( piel of bʾr, 11:9, 21) (see esp. Arnold, 12–17, 19–27). The remaining
rendered “expound” in the NIV) the law as covenantally texts (e.g., 6:3; 8:18) lack any clues suggesting a referent
binding instruction for future Israelite generations (1:5; besides the patriarchs.
cf. 27:8; so Braulik and Lohfink). Moses’s narrative reuse of the revelation and re-
Examples of allusions to earlier pentateuchal narra- bellion at Horeb. Deuteronomy 5–11 shapes the first
tives. Deuteronomy includes numerous general recol- movement within Deuteronomy’s second main ad-
lections from Genesis of Yahweh’s choice of the patri- dress (chaps. 5–26). While its primary genre is pro-
archs and his promise of land to them (e.g., Deut. 1:8; phetic exhortation, Moses often recasts past narra-
6:10; 7:12–13; 10:22; 29:12). It also incorporates many tives to substantiate his sermonic appeals. Consider
historical flashbacks to Exodus and Numbers, includ- two examples.
ing the exodus (e.g., Deut. 4:34, 37–38; 29:2–3; cf. Exod. 5:2–31. Deuteronomy 5:1 opens with three conjoined
4–15), revelation at Horeb (e.g., Deut. 4:9–14; 5:2–33; charges. The first is an imperative (“Hear . . . the decrees
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 Deuteronomy, Book of

and laws”) and the second and third charges build upon After noting that Yahweh announced Israel’s sin (Deut.
it (“Learn them and be sure to follow them”). Before 9:12), Moses places God’s statement of intent to destroy
adding further exhortation in 5:32–33, 5:2–31 recalls in its own speech act (9:13–14). The prophet then fails to
Yahweh’s covenant-making acts at Horeb to clarify why recount his initial prayer and God’s response (cf. Exod.
Israel must listen to Moses’s commands. Israel must 32:11–14). He instead immediately details that he de-
listen since at Horeb God made a covenant with Israel scended from the mountain and smashed the covenant
(not the patriarchs, 5:2–3), who not only experienced documents (Deut. 9:15–17) to build a sense of forebod-
the Horeb theophany and the giving of the Ten Words ing about the people’s future. Indeed, it is only after
(5:4–22) but also saw Moses installed as the covenant Moses recalls his second season of intercession (9:18),
mediator. Deuteronomy 5:23–27 details how the people highlights Israel’s evil and God’s wrath (9:18–19), gives
requested Moses’s mediatorship, and then 5:28–31 iden- further narrative delay (9:20–24), returns to overview
tifies that Yahweh appointed him to the role. his prayer (9:25–29), and digresses on a brief excursus
Both Exod. 20 and Deut. 5 include similar but not (10:1–9) that we finally learn that the Lord listened to
identical versions of the Ten Words (see below). Exodus the prophet’s prayer and that “it was not his will to de-
20 simply notes that the people requested that Moses stroy you” (10:10). Rather, he purposed for Moses to
mediate between them and Yahweh (Exod. 20:18–19), lead the people into the land that he swore to give to
whereas Deuteronomy highlights specifically that it the patriarchs (10:11). (For more, see Hayes; Hwang,
was the congregation’s representatives who entreated “Theophany.”)
the prophet (Deut. 5:23–27). Deuteronomy 5:28–31 notes Moses’s account of the rebellion at Horeb in no way
specifically that Yahweh heard the leaders’ request and contradicts the narrative in Exod. 32. Nevertheless,
directed Moses—elements not present in Exod. 20. the changes in Deut. 9–10 elevate the seriousness of
The account in Exod. 20 is short and functions to con- Moses’s original charge in 9:3 that Israel must know
clude the initial narrative record of the Sinai revelation. Yahweh as “a devouring fire.” The changes also prepare
In contrast, in Deut. 5 Moses recalls this history as mo- the listener for the inference in 10:12, “And now, Israel,
tivation for heeding his present instruction. He narrates what does the Lord your God ask of you but to fear
in more specific and personal ways and by this validates the Lord your God?” Moses draws on a well-known
his role as Yahweh’s mouthpiece. The Moab generation past event to heighten Israel’s sense of need to pursue
and all those receiving his written instruction in future the Lord.
generations need to heed the decrees and laws he is Examples of allusions to earlier pentateuchal laws.
about to declare (5:1, 32) because they requested and Moses’s instruction also often recalls earlier laws in Exo-
Yahweh appointed him as covenant mediator (5:2–31). dus, Leviticus, and Numbers (e.g., Deut. 5:6–21 [Exod.
9:7–10:11. As in Deut. 5, the main genre of 9:1–10:11 20:1–17]; 14:3–21 [Lev. 11:1–28]; 14:21 [Exod. 23:19; 34:26];
is prophetic exhortation, as highlighted by the direc- 16:16–17 [Exod. 23:14–17]; 19:15 [Num. 35:30]; 22:9–11
tive charge in 9:3: “But be assured today that the Lord [Lev. 19:19]; 24:8 [Lev. 13–14]). This material and his
your God—he is the one who goes across ahead of additional commands build upon and finalize Israel’s
you—is a devouring fire” (NIV adapted). Israel must constitutional documents that together are to guide and
take their sin seriously, or God’s punishment on the govern the people’s faith and practice in the promised
Anakites will also befall them! To support this warn- land.
ing, Moses again uses narrative retelling, this time of The Decalogue in Deut. 5:6–21. In Deut. 5:6–21 Moses
Israel’s Horeb and wilderness rebellions. After empha- recasts the Decalogue from Exod. 20:1–17 when he in-
sizing Israel’s stubbornness (9:4–6), Moses calls the cludes it in validating his prophetic role as mediator.
people to remember how they rebelled in the wilder- The most substantial changes come in relation to the
ness, thus arousing God’s just anger (9:7). He supplies call to keep the Sabbath and the prohibition on coveting
three examples (Horeb, 9:8–21; Taberah, Massah, and a neighbor’s wife. (For more, see DeRouchie, “Count-
Kibroth Hattaavah, 9:22; Kadesh Barnea, 9:23), but he ing”; “Making”.)
develops only the first, likely because it was at Horeb Keep the Sabbath. Exodus 20:8–11 calls house-
that Israel experienced most vividly the devouring fire hold heads to “remember the Sabbath day” (v. 8) and
of God. Throughout Moses’s retelling, he assumes that grounds the call to not work on the Sabbath in Yahweh’s
his hearers are familiar with the various accounts, but making the world in six days but having rested on the
his fresh narration emphasizes in greater ways the dan- Sabbath (v. 11). It ends by noting how Yahweh “blessed
ger in which unrighteous Israel now finds themselves the Sabbath and made it holy” (v. 11). In contrast, Deut.
before God. 5:12–15 charges people to “observe the Sabbath day . . .
Moses’s narrative retelling opens by declaring how as the Lord your God has commanded you” (v. 12). This
“at Horeb you aroused the Lord’s wrath so that he addition emphasizes the lasting relevance of Yahweh’s
was angry enough to destroy you” (Deut. 9:8; cf. Exod. words for this new generation. Moses adds humani-
32:7–10). Moses then recalls the Horeb rebellion and em- tarian love as a purpose for prohibiting work among
phasizes Israel’s doom more than he does in Exod. 32. all household members and living property: “so that

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 Deuteronomy, Book of

your male and female servants may rest, as you do” diversification that would naturally come with urban-
(v. 14; cf. Exod. 23:12; Deut. 12:12, 18; 16:11, 14). Finally, ization (so Schnittjer, 129). These elements directly
Moses further grounds the call to keep the Sabbath by relate to how Deuteronomy emphasizes that the de-
recalling Israel’s slavery in Egypt (5:15), which not only centralized people, settled independently throughout
treats the present generation as if they were the ones the promised land, must continue to prioritize the cen-
God redeemed but also places the first creation in par- tralized sanctuary at the site God designates (12:5, 11).
allel with the exodus, thus treating the latter as a new To that place they must bring their offerings “because
creation. The Lord rescued Israel from slavery, and so the Lord your God has blessed you” (12:7). Moses’s
they must now value his image in others by letting all Deuteronomic legislation supplements the earlier law
rest on the seventh day. by identifying how Israel should heed it in the time of
Never covet your neighbor’s wife. Exodus’s com- settlement.
mand to never “covet” one’s neighbor’s wife, male or Handling skin disease in Deut. 24:8–9. In Deut. 24:8–
female servant, ox or donkey, or anything that is his 9, Moses writes, “In cases of defiling skin diseases, be
follows the initial charge to never “covet” a “neighbor’s very careful to do exactly as the Levitical priests in-
house” (Exod. 20:17). In Deuteronomy, Moses swaps struct you. You must follow carefully what I have com-
“house” and “wife,” thus placing the prohibition against manded them. Remember what the Lord your God did
coveting a neighbor’s wife on its own line (Deut. 5:21). to Miriam along the way after you came out of Egypt.”
In light of Deuteronomy’s stress on the rights of the Moses directs these words to the congregation, and their
vulnerable, especially women (e.g., Deut. 10:17–18; need to “follow carefully what I have commanded” the
12:12; 15:12; 20:7; 21:10–17; 22:13–21, 23–29), Daniel Levitical priests likely refers “to the instructions re-
Block (“Covet,” 462) is likely correct to see “a deliber- lating to the various forms of leprosy as they appear
ate effort to ensure the elevated status of the wife in in Lev. 13–14” (Weinfeld, Deuteronomy 1–11, 30). This
a family unit and to foreclose any temptation to use is significant since many liberal scholars assert that
the Exodus version of the command to justify men’s Deuteronomy shows no dependence on the priestly/
treatment of their wives as if they were mere property, holiness materials in Leviticus. Importantly, Leviticus
along with the rest of the household possessions” (cf. explicitly identifies that Yahweh has given Moses (and
Schnittjer, 103–4). Thus, Moses highlights that house- Aaron) instructions for how the priests are to respond
hold heads must seek to preserve others’ rights and when met by a member of the assembly with leprous
not only their own. disease (Lev. 13:2–3; 14:2–3). Detailed guidelines follow.
The Decalogue version in Deut. 5:6–21 stands distinct In contrast, in Deuteronomy Moses is speaking to the
in several ways from the one in Exod. 20:1–17. Never- whole congregation, and there is no need to inform
theless, Moses treats this new record as the very Ten them of the specific instructions for the priests. The
Words God spoke out of the fire at the mountain (Deut. religious leaders will know what to do; the congregants
5:4–5, 22 with 4:12–13 and 10:4). This is the thrust of the need only go to them and heed their instructions. (For
twice stated subordinate clause, “as the Lord your God more, see Kilchör, “Reception.”) To add further motiva-
has commanded you” (5:12, 16). Yahweh clearly allowed tion, Moses recalls Miriam’s skin disease with which
his unchanging revelation to find fresh motivation and God punished her while Israel journeyed through the
new application within this new context, while not com- wilderness en route to the promised land (Num. 12:10–
manding anything new. 15). Moses has a host of earlier written materials (and
The three pilgrimage feasts in Deut. 16:16–17. Both memories) available when he is preaching his Deutero-
Exod. 23:14–17 and Deut. 16:16–17 mandate that “three nomic messages.
times a year all your men must appear before the [Sov- Deuteronomy’s hermeneutical and theological strat-
ereign] Lord” (Exod. 23:17; Deut. 16:16) to celebrate egy. In Deuteronomy Moses assumes, repurposes, and
“the Festival of Unleavened Bread,” “the Festival of supplements earlier materials. At least three factors
Harvest/Weeks,” and “the Festival of Ingathering/ appear to have guided Deuteronomy’s hermeneutical
Tabernacles” (Exod. 23:15–16; Deut. 16:16). “No one principles: (1) the desire to stress the lasting signifi-
shall appear before the Lord empty-handed” (Deut. cance and certain fulfillment of past promises; (2) the
16:16; cf. Exod. 23:15). The semantic parallels between need to motivate present and future loyalty by recall-
the Book of the Covenant and Deuteronomy are clear, ing past experience; and (3) the demand to indicate the
but Deuteronomy makes advances in two ways: (1) It abiding authority, implications, and fresh applications
stresses that the celebration must occur “at the place of past instruction.
[Yahweh] will choose” (Deut. 16:16; cf. vv. 2, 6, 7, 11, Stressing the lasting significance and certain ful-
15). (2) Whereas Exod. 23:14–17 highlights the need for fillment of past promises. Moses regularly recalls the
crop gifts (cf. Num. 15:18–21), Deuteronomy’s silence patriarchs, most commonly in relation to Yahweh’s
on the nature of the gift and its stress on giving in promises to them. He evokes the promise of the land
“proportion to the way the Lord your God has blessed (1) to urge Israel to enter and possess it (Deut. 1:8), (2)
you” (16:17) opens the door for the greater economic to emphasize how sin prevented many from enjoying
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 Deuteronomy, Book of

the land (1:35), (3) to stress that Israel must remain cov- Deuteronomy as Foundation to the Rest
enantally faithful to flourish and endure in the land of the OT
(6:18; 7:12–13; 8:1), (4) to note how the land promise Moses stressed the canonical nature of his words (Deut.
motivated Yahweh’s saving activity and blessing (9:5, 4:2; 12:32) and instructed the priests and elders to read
27; 26:15), (5) to reaffirm how the land promise will the book of the tôrâ publicly every seven years (31:10–11).
be fulfilled (31:7), and (6) to mark the certainty of this It was this tôrâ that was to guide Israel’s kings (17:18–19)
fulfillment as the context for future ethics (26:3) and and stand as a perpetual witness against the people
disobedience (31:20). Moses points to Yahweh as the (31:26). Deuteronomy supplied Israel with a theological
patriarchs’ God to identify him as the one who made a framework for understanding their relationship with
covenant with them (29:25), who promised them that he God (e.g., 6:4–9, 20–25) and the covenant history that
would multiply Israel (1:11; 6:3) and give them the land was to come (4:25–31; 30:1–14; 31:16–18, 26–29). Further-
(1:21; 4:1), and who by these promises is motivated to more, its structural echoes of ancient Near Eastern trea-
save his people (26:7). Moses also stresses the certainty ties and law codes highlight how its covenant guidelines
that Yahweh will fulfill the covenant that he swore to and motivating sanctions (29:1) were politically binding
them (4:31; 8:18).
on all future generations until the prophet mediating
Motivating loyalty by recalling past experience.
the new covenant (18:15–19) would arise (see Kitchen,
In Deuteronomy, three different times Moses draws
283–89; Huddleston, 30–66). Hence, Deuteronomy’s in-
on Israel’s encounter with God at Horeb to motivate
fluence on subsequent OT literature is not surprising.
the people’s present loyalty. The prophet urges them
The book stands as the foundation of what some term
not to engage in idolatry since Yahweh’s theophany at
the “Deuteronomistic History,” as is clear from the way
the mountain included no form (4:9–24). Moses then
its vocabulary and perspective pervade Joshua through
charges Israel to heed his voice because Yahweh ap-
Kings (for lists, see Weinfeld, School, 320–65). However,
proved their request that Moses mediate the covenant
against the historical-critical consensus, the Deutero-
(chap. 5). Finally, Moses recalls Israel’s rebellion with
nomic flavor of the covenant history is likely due not to
the golden calf to ground his charge that they know
a Deuteronomistic redaction of the whole but to Deuter-
Yahweh as a consuming fire and to emphasize the grave
onomy’s influence on the later writings (see Richter).
danger of disloyalty (9:3–21, 25–29; 10:10–11). In each in-
The OT’s historical-narrative books regularly charac-
stance, the prophet substantiates his present appeals by
terize Moses’s law as the benchmark for proper conduct
recalling past narratives that identify the nature of God,
(e.g., Josh. 1:7, 13; 1 Kings 2:3) and often quote or allude
the seriousness of sin, and/or the sweet, undeserving
to Deuteronomy (e.g., Judg. 3:6 [Deut. 7:3]; 2 Kings 14:6
nature of divine mercy. Past experience should influ-
ence present ethics. and 2 Chron. 25:4 [Deut. 24:16]; 2 Kings 23:25 [Deut.
Indicating the abiding authority, implications, 6:5]; Neh. 1:5 and Dan. 9:4 [Deut. 7:9]). They also perva-
and fresh applications of past instruction. Moses’s sively assume that the reader should judge the history
messages in Deuteronomy identify awareness of the of the covenant people by the foundational covenant
Decalogue from Exod. 20:1–17, the Book of the Cov- materials of the Pentateuch (e.g., Judg. 2:15 and Dan.
enant in 20:22–23:33, and the priestly instructions 9:11–13 [Deut. 28:15–68]).
in Leviticus. What Moses does not explicitly recall, Deuteronomy also highly influenced Israel’s writing
he still appears to assume, and there is no reason to prophets (e.g., Jer. 23:21–22; Zech. 7:11–12; cf. Dan. 9:10).
think the earlier covenant materials bear anything They use Moses’s law to guide their teaching and indict-
but abiding authority for Deuteronomy’s audience. ments (e.g., Isa. 8:16, 20; Jer. 2:8; 6:19; Ezek. 7:26; 22:26;
Moses’s changes in Deut. 5:6–21 identify how he could Hosea 4:6; Hab. 1:4; Zeph. 3:4), cite Deuteronomy (e.g.,
curb potential misinterpretations or misapplications Isa. 6:10 [Deut. 29:4]; Jer. 3:1 [Deut. 24:1–4]; Ezek. 36:24
while retaining the same central thrust of the Ten [Deut. 30:4–5]; Hosea 13:5–6 [Deut. 8:12, 14]), and under-
Words. His minor additions in Deut. 16:16–17 to the stand Israel’s failure to keep the law as God’s reason for
instruction regarding the pilgrimage feasts apply the punishing them (e.g., Jer. 44:23; Ezek. 20:21; Hosea 8:1;
earlier law to the prospect of a decentralized people Amos 2:4). Additionally, the prophetic warnings of pun-
who will be dispersed throughout the promised land, ishment and promises of salvation often recast Moses’s
with some separated from the central sanctuary and old-covenant curses (e.g., Isa. 1:9–10 [Deut. 29:23]; Hab.
some living in urban rather than agrarian contexts. 1:8 [Deut. 28:49]; Zeph. 1:13 [Deut. 28:30]) and restora-
The law in Deut. 24:8–9 regarding how to treat skin tion blessings (e.g., Jer. 29:13–14; Ezek. 36:24–27; Zeph.
disease stresses the abiding authority of Leviticus’s 3:20 [Deut. 4:29–30; 30:2–5]). Until the end of the OT age,
instructions to the priests but now identifies their Yahweh urges the postexilic community, “Remember
lasting implications for the congregation at large. In the law of my servant Moses, the decrees and laws I gave
all, Deuteronomy supplements rather than replaces him at Horeb for all Israel” (Mal. 4:4; cf. 3:7).
or amends what comes before (see Kilchör, Mosetora; Finally, Deuteronomy shows close ties with Israel’s
“Reception”; Schnittjer, 73–153). wisdom tradition. The motif of fearing Yahweh that

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 Deuteronomy, Book of

gives rise to faithful ethics theologically grounds both One example: The testing of God’s Son in Luke 4:1–13.
Deuteronomy’s covenant piety and the wisdom books All three Synoptic Gospels include Jesus’s “temptation
of Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes (Deut. 5:29; Job 1:9; narrative” (Matt. 4:1–11; Mark 1:12–13; Luke 4:1–13),
Prov. 1:7; Eccles. 12:13; see Block, “Fear”). Other links wherein the devil operates as the agent of God’s testing
are evident, including their didactic style (Deut. 6:4; 9:1; his Son. In Luke, in each of his three encounters with
Prov. 4:7; 5:7), stress on teaching and learning (Deut. 4:1; the devil Jesus cites Deuteronomy as Scripture to which
5:1; Prov. 1:2–6), choice between two ways (Deut. 30:19; Satan himself is accountable.
Prov. 12:28), focus on God as a father disciplining his son At the first test, the devil wants Jesus to prove his
(Deut. 8:5–6; Prov. 3:11–12), promise of extended life for divine sonship by turning stones to bread to alleviate
keeping commands (Deut. 4:40; Prov. 3:1–2), and many his hunger from his extended fast (Luke 4:3). Jesus re-
others. The covenant relationship that Deuteronomy sponds by citing from Deut. 8 (“Man shall not live on
formalizes most likely provides the context out of which bread alone,” v. 3), wherein Moses urges the wilder-
Israel’s wisdom teaching grew (so, too, Grant; Block, ness generation to “remember” how Yahweh has tested
“Fear”). Wisdom seeks to live out the life framed by the them to demonstrate how his word rather than manna
law, as the various principles of godliness are applied sustains life (vv. 2–4; cf. 29:6), to “know” that Yahweh
in all of life’s circumstances. disciplines them as a father does a son (v. 5), and to “ob-
In sum, later OT authors cite Deuteronomy for various serve” God’s commands (v. 6). As God’s greater Son and
reasons. These include (1) to indicate the direct fulfill- Israel’s representative, Jesus learns from God, submits
ment of Deuteronomic curses (e.g., Deut. 28:22 in Amos to his Father’s discipline, and heeds his word.
4:9; Deut. 28:28–29 in Isa. 59:10); (2) to reassert predic- The devil then promises to grant Jesus authority over
tions about Israel and the broader world’s future that all the earth’s kingdoms if he would worship the devil
still await both typological (e.g., Deut. 30:2–4 in Neh. as the world’s ruler (Luke 4:5–7). Jesus would eventu-
1:9) and direct (e.g., Deut. 30:2–4 in Ezek. 36:24–28 and ally have “all authority in heaven and on earth” (Matt.
Zeph. 3:20) fulfillment; (3) to illustrate the application of 28:18; cf. Dan. 7:13–14; Phil. 2:9), but the devil pro-
Deuteronomy (e.g., Deut. 27:5 in Josh. 8:31; Deut. 24:16 poses a messianic triumph without tribulation. Jesus
in 2 Kings 14:6); and (4) to signal the abiding authority of responds by quoting Deut. 6:13: “Worship the Lord your
Moses’s law-covenant in the OT age (Mal. 4:4), often by God and serve him only” (Luke 4:8). Jesus slightly alters
noting its violation (e.g., Deut. 7:3–4 in Judg. 3:6; Deut. his citation of Deut. 6:13 while remaining true to the
8:11–16 in Hosea 13:5–6). verse’s original sense to counter the devil’s desire for
worship.
Deuteronomy and the NT For Luke, the climax of Jesus’s tests comes when the
An overview of NT uses of Deuteronomy. According to the devil cites Scripture. Bringing Jesus to the pinnacle of
index in UBS4, the NT quotes or alludes to Deuteronomy the temple, the devil again urges him to prove his di-
at least 194x, which ranks it fifth in frequency after Isaiah vine sonship, this time by casting himself down. The
(414x), Psalms (410x), Exodus (244x), and Genesis (236x). devil supports his charge by quoting Ps. 91:11–12, which
Among the frequent verbal parallels are numerous ref- promises that God will protect his own by intervening
erences to the Ten Words (e.g., Matt. 5:21; Rom. 13:9; with angels (Luke 4:10–11). Jesus opposes the devil by
James 2:11), the Shema (e.g., Mark 12:29–33), and various citing Moses’s words in Deut. 6:16: “It is said, ‘Do not
other legal declarations (e.g., Gal. 3:13 [Deut. 21:23]; 3:10 put the Lord your God to the test’” (Luke 4:12; cf. Exod.
[Deut. 27:26]), predictions (e.g., Acts 3:22; 7:37 [Deut. 17:1–7). Moses notes that Israel tested Yahweh in the
18:15]), and promises (e.g., Rom. 12:19; Heb. 10:30 [Deut. wilderness, but Jesus refuses to repeat Israel’s sin.
32:35]). Within Rom. 9–11, Paul notes that Israel’s spiri- For Jesus, the OT bears abiding canonical author-
tual disability continues “to this very day” (Rom. 11:8 ity, and the devil himself is subject to it. By narrat-
[Deut. 29:4]; cf. 2 Cor. 3:14), how God is fulfilling Moses’s ing Jesus’s victory over temptation, Luke vindicates
predictions of the nearness of the new-covenant word God’s claim that Jesus is his “Son” (Luke 3:22; cf. 1:32,
(Rom. 10:6–8 [Deut. 30:12–14]), and Israel’s jealousy over 35; 3:38). As God’s Son, Jesus stands as the antitypical
gentile salvation (Rom. 10:19; 11:13–14; 15:10 [Deut. 32:21, Adam/humanity (Gen. 5:1–3; Luke 3:38), obeying where
43]). We thus see the NT authors using Deuteronomy Adam had failed (cf. Osborne, 367–68). Jesus is also the
in numerous ways, including (1) direct prophetic ful- new Israel (Exod. 4:22–23; Jer. 31:9; Hosea 11:1), who
fillment (e.g., Deut. 30:6 in Rom. 2:29; Deut. 30:12–14 remains faithful in his wilderness temptation where
in Rom. 10:6–8); (2) typological fulfillment (e.g., Deut. Israel did not (see Pao and Schnabel, 286–87; Osborne,
18:15–19 in Acts 3:22–26 and 7:37, 52); (3) analogical use 369–70).
(e.g., Deut. 25:4 in 1 Cor. 9:9–10; 1 Tim. 5:17–18); and
(4) continued abiding authority (e.g., Deut. 5:16 in Eph. Bibliography. Arnold, B. T., “Reexamining the ‘Fa-
6:2–3; see below). (For an initial overview of how various thers’ in Deuteronomy’s Framework,” in Torah and
NT books use Deuteronomy, see Moyise and Menken; cf. Tradition, ed. K. Spronk and H. Barstad (Brill, 2017),
CNTUOT; Lincicum.). 10–41; Block, D. I., “The Fear of YHWH,” in The Triumph
192 (Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group)
 Divine Warrior

of Grace (Cascade, 2017), 283–311; Block, “‘You Shall Not Divine Warrior in the OT
Covet Your Neighbor’s Wife,’” JETS 53, no. 3 (2010): 449– The tripartite division of the Hebrew Bible offers a coor-
74; Braulik, G., and N. Lohfink, “Deuteronomium 1,5,” dinated witness to God as Divine Warrior and the people
in Textarbeit, ed. K. Kiesow and T. Meurer, AOAT 294 of God’s responses to their warrior God.
(Ugarit-Verlag, 2003), 34–51; DeRouchie, J. S., “Counting Torah. Where does the depiction of God as Divine
the Ten,” in DeRouchie, Gile, and Turner, For Our Good Warrior first appear within the OT story line? For some
Always, 93–125; DeRouchie, “Making the Ten Count,” (Levenson; Cross; contra Tsumura), it is when God de-
in DeRouchie, Gile, and Turner, For Our Good Always, feats forces of chaos, particularly the sea, to establish
415–40; DeRouchie, J. S., J. Gile, and K. J. Turner, eds., an ordered world in creation (Gen. 1:1–2:3; Ps. 74:12–17).
For Our Good Always (Eisenbrauns, 2013); Grant, J. A., All ambiguity subsides when we move forward to God’s
“Wisdom and Covenant,” in DOTWPW, 858–63; Hayes, deliverance of Israel from Egypt. After God parts the sea,
C. E., “Golden Calf Stories,” in The Idea of Biblical In- Israel crosses safely and the Egyptian hordes drown.
terpretation, ed. H. Najman and J. H. Newman, JSJSup Israel and Moses then sing, “The Lord is a warrior;
83 (Brill, 2004), 45–94; Huddleston, N. A., “Ancient the Lord is his name; Pharaoh’s chariots and his army
Near Eastern Treaty Traditions and Their Implica- he has hurled into the sea” (Exod. 15:3–4). Some schol-
tions for Interpreting Deuteronomy,” in Sepher Torath ars interpret this event in light of ancient myths where
Mosheh, ed. D. I. Block and R. L. Schultz (Hendrickson, Marduk and Baal conquer the dangerous gods of the
2017), 30–77; Hwang, J., The Rhetoric of Remembrance, sea—Tiamat and Yam—but Sa-Moon Kang (123–25) is
SLTHS 8 (Eisenbrauns, 2012); Hwang, “The Rhetoric correct that the sea is YHWH’s weapon, not his foe, in
of Theophany,” in DeRouchie, Gile, and Turner, For Exodus. As Moses’s song continues, an ancient Near
Our Good Always, 145–64; Kilchör, B., Mosetora und Jah- Eastern pattern unfolds where victorious sea battles
wetora, BZABR 21 (Harrassowitz, 2015); Kilchör, “The (Day, 97–101) result in temple building (“You will bring
Reception of Priestly Laws in Deuteronomy and Deu- them in and plant them on the mountain of your
teronomy’s Target Audience,” in Exploring the Composi- inheritance—the place, Lord, you made for your dwell-
tion of the Pentateuch, ed. L. S. Baker Jr., K. Bergland, ing, the sanctuary,” Exod. 15:17) and enthronement as
F. A. Masotti, and A. R. Wells, BBRSup 27 (Eisenbrauns, king (“The Lord reigns for ever and ever,” 15:18). What
2020), 213–25; Kitchen, K. A., On the Reliability of the Old the Israelites express in song about the Lord as a saving
Testament (Eerdmans, 2003); Lincicum, D., Paul and the warrior is on display across the narratives in Exod. 1–14
Early Jewish Encounter with Deuteronomy (Baker Aca- (Trimm). Israel’s God harnesses creation, causes panic,
demic, 2013); Moyise, S., and M. J. J. Menken, eds., Deu- and sends an angelic destroyer all with the purpose of
teronomy in the New Testament, LNTS 358 (T&T Clark, making himself known as the Lord, the saving warrior
2007); Osborne, G. R. “Testing God’s Son,” in DeRouchie, who fights for his people. This foundational moment in
Gile, and Turner, For Our Good Always, 365–87; Pao, Israel’s history offers a pattern that recurs throughout
D. W., and E. J. Schnabel, “Luke,” in CNTUOT, 251–414; the OT: “The Lord will fight for you; you need only to
Richter, S. L., “Deuteronomistic History,” in DOTHB, be still” (14:14).
219–30; Schnittjer, G. E., Old Testament Use of Old Tes- The emphasis upon the Lord fighting for Israel con-
tament (Zondervan, 2021); Tigay, J. H., Deuteronomy, tinues amid their journey to Sinai. When the Amalekites
JPSTC (Jewish Publication Society, 1996); Weinfeld, attack Israel, this is an attack against the Lord’s throne
M., Deuteronomy 1–11, AB (Doubleday, 1991); Weinfeld, (Exod. 17:16). Moses makes it clear that the Divine War-
Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomic School (Clarendon, rior is the one granting victory and that success against
1972). the Amalekites therefore waxes and wanes depending
Jason S. DeRouchie upon whether Moses’s arms are raised while holding the
staff of God (17:9–13). The pattern of divine intervention
Divine Commission See Adam, First continues in Israel’s journey to the edge of the prom-
and Last; Image of God ised land, where it is the Lord who gives Arad (Num.
21:1–3) and Bashan (21:34) into the hands of Israel. Deu-
teronomy 33, the final song in the Pentateuch (Miller),
Divine Warrior opens with a vision of the Lord coming from Sinai with
Among the many threads woven across the two- his army (v. 2) as their king (v. 5) and concludes by extol-
Testament canon, the concept of God as Divine War- ling him: “He is your shield and helper and your glori-
rior might pose the greatest challenge to the faith of the ous sword. Your enemies will cower before you, and
faithful. There is no getting away from the conviction you will tread on their heights” (33:29). In God’s saving
across both Testaments that God acts in both the earthly interventions in Egypt and in the journey to Sinai and
and heavenly spheres as Divine Warrior. The aim of this Canaan, the Divine Warrior motif in the Pentateuch
article is to survey the Divine Warrior thread from the shows that Israel should be ready to trust that the Lord
Pentateuch to Revelation. will go before them as they take the land of promise

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