Advanced Kotlin

Marcin Moskała
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This version was published on 2023-12-07

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© 2022 - 2023 Marcin Moskała

 For those who helped and inspired me on my path of learning
programming craftsmanship, especially Kamil Kędzia, Rafał
Trzeciak, Bartek Wilczyński, Michał Malanowicz, and Mateusz
Mikulski.
Contents

Introduction 1
Who is this book for? 1
That will be covered? 1
The structure of the book 3
The Kotlin for Developers series 3
Conventions 4
Code conventions 4
Acknowledgments 6
Generic variance modifiers 8
List variance 10
Consumer variance 12
Function types 15
The Covariant Nothing Object 17
The Covariant Nothing Class 23
Variance modifier limitations 25
UnsafeVariance annotation 31
Variance modifier positions 33
Star projection 35
Summary 35
Exercise: Generic types usage 37
Exercise: Generic Response 38
Exercise: Generic Consumer 39
Interface delegation 42
The delegation pattern 42
Delegation and inheritance 43
Kotlin interface delegation support 45
Wrapper classes 49
The decorator pattern 50
Intersection types 53
CONTENTS

Limitations 55
Conflicting elements from parents 56
Summary 57
Exercise: ApplicationScope 58
Property delegation 59
How property delegation works 60
Other getValue and setValue parameters 64
Implementing a custom property delegate 67
Provide a delegate 70
Property delegates in Kotlin stdlib 73
The notNull delegate 73
Exercise: Lateinit delegate 75
The lazy delegate 76
Exercise: Blog Post Properties 88
The observable delegate 89
The vetoable delegate 94
A map as a delegate 96
Review of how variables work 98
Summary 105
Exercise: Mutable lazy delegate 105
Kotlin Contracts 107
The meaning of a contract 108
How many times do we invoke a function from an
argument? 109
Implications of the fact that a function has re-
turned a value 113
Using contracts in practice 115
Summary 116
Exercise: Coroutine time measurement 117
Java interoperability 119
Nullable types 119
Kotlin type mapping 122
JVM primitives 123
Collection types 125
Annotation targets 129
Static elements 135
JvmField 137
Using Java accessors in Kotlin 139
JvmName 140
CONTENTS

JvmMultifileClass 144
JvmOverloads 145
Unit 148
Function types and function interfaces 149
Tricky names 152
Throws 153
JvmRecord 156
Summary 157
Exercise: Adjust Kotlin for Java usage 157
Using Kotlin Multiplatform 161
Multiplatform module configuration 161
Expect and actual elements 164
Possibilities 167
Multiplatform libraries 171
A multiplatform mobile application 179
Summary 185
Exercise: Multiplatform LocalDateTime 185
JavaScript interoperability 187
Setting up a project 188
Using libraries available for Kotlin/JS 190
Using Kotlin/JS 190
Building and linking a package 193
Distributing a package to npm 195
Exposing objects 195
Exposing Flow and StateFlow 200
Adding npm dependencies 205
Frameworks and libraries for Kotlin/JS 207
JavaScript and Kotlin/JS limitations 207
Summary 209
Exercise: Migrating a Kotlin/JVM project to KMP 209
Reflection 211
Hierarchy of classes 213
Function references 214
Parameter references 222
Property references 224
Class reference 227
Serialization example 236
Referencing types 242
Type reflection example: Random value 246
CONTENTS

Kotlin and Java reflection 252

Breaking encapsulation 253
Summary 254
Exercise: Function caller 254
Exercise: Object serialization to JSON 256
Exercise: Object serialization to XML 258
Exercise: DSL-based dependency injection library 262
Annotation processing 265
Your first annotation processor 265
Hiding generated classes 278
Summary 281
Exercise: Annotation Processing 281
Kotlin Symbol Processing 283
Your first KSP processor 284
Testing KSP 293
Dependencies and incremental processing 296
Multiple rounds processing 302
Using KSP on multiplatform projects 305
Summary 306
Exercise: Kotlin Symbol Processing 306
Kotlin Compiler Plugins 308
Compiler frontend and backend 308
Compiler extensions 310
Popular compiler plugins 314
Making all classes open 315
Changing a type 317
Generate function wrappers 319
Example plugin implementations 320
Summary 321
Static Code Analysers 322
What are Static Analysers? 323
Types of analysers 326
Kotlin Code Analysers 330
Setting up detekt 333
Writing your first detekt Rule 338
Conclusion 345
Ending 346
Exercise solutions 347
CONTENTS 1

Introduction

You can be a developer - even a good one - without understand-

ing the topics explained in this book, but at some point, you’ll
need it. You’re likely already using tools made using features
described in this book every day, such as libraries based on
annotation processing or compiler plugins, classes that use
variance modifiers, functions with contracts, or property
delegates, but do you understand these features? Would you
be able to implement similar tools yourself? Would you be
able to analyze and debug them? This book will make all this
possible for you. It focuses exclusively on the most advanced
Kotlin topics, which are often not well understood even by
senior Kotlin developers. It should equip you with the knowl-
edge you need and show you possibilities you never before
imagined. I hope you enjoy it as much as I enjoyed writing it.

Who is this book for?

This book is for experienced Kotlin developers. I assume that

readers understand topics like function types and lambda ex-
pressions, collection processing, creation and usage of DSLs,
and essential Kotlin types like Any? and Nothing. If you don’t
have enough experience, I recommend the previous books
from this series: Kotlin Essentials and Functional Kotlin.

That will be covered?

The chapter titles explain what will be covered quite well, but
here is a more detailed list:

• Generic variance modifiers

• The Covariant Nothing Object pattern
• Generic variance modifier limitations
• Interface delegation
• Implementing custom property delegates
• Property delegates from Kotlin stdlib
CONTENTS 2

• Kotlin Contracts
• Kotlin and Java type mapping
• Annotations for Kotlin and Java interoperability
• Multiplatform development structure, concepts and
possibilities
• Implementing multiplatform libraries
• Implementing Android and iOS applications with
shared modules
• Essentials of Kotlin/JS
• Reflecting Kotlin elements
• Reflecting Kotlin types
• Implementing custom Annotation Processors
• Implementing custom Kotlin Symbol Processors
• KSP incremental compilation and multiple-round pro-
cessing
• Defining Compiler Plugins
• Core Static Analysis concepts
• Overview of Kotlin static analyzers
• Defining custom Detekt rules

This book is full of example projects, including:

• A type-safe task update class using the Covariant Noth-

ing Object pattern (Generic variance modifiers chapter)
• Logging a property delegate (Property delegation chap-
ter)
• An object serializer (Reflection chapter)
• A random value generator for generic types (Reflection
chapter)
• An annotation processor that generates an interface for
a class (Annotation Processing chapter).
• A Kotlin symbol processor that generates an interface
for a class (Kotlin Symbol Processing chapter).
• A Detekt rule that finds System.out.println usage.
CONTENTS 3

The structure of the book

I decided that the chapters should have a flat structure; how-

ever, if you read the book from the beginning, you might
notice that the order is not accidental. The first four chap-
ters, Generic variance modifiers, Interface Delegation, Property
delegation and Kotlin Contracts, explain Kotlin features that
are commonly used yet are not well understood by most de-
velopers. The next three chapters, Java interoperability, Using
Kotlin Multiplatform and JavaScript interoperability, describe
the details of using different flavors of Kotlin. The rest of the
book, namely the chapters Reflection, Annotation Processing,
Kotlin Symbol Processing, Kotlin Compiler Plugins and Static
Code Analysers, are about meta-programming, and each of
these chapters builds on the previous ones.

The Kotlin for Developers series

This book is a part of a series of books called Kotlin for Develop-

ers, which includes the following books:

• Kotlin Essentials, which covers all the basic Kotlin fea-

tures.
• Functional Kotlin, which is dedicated to functional
Kotlin features, including function types, lambda
expressions, collection processing, DSLs, and scope
functions.
• Kotlin Coroutines: Deep Dive, which covers all the Kotlin
Coroutines features, including how to use and test them,
using flow, the best practices, and the most common
mistakes.
• Advanced Kotlin, which is dedicated to advanced Kotlin
features, including generic variance modifiers, delega-
tion, multiplatform programming, annotation process-
ing, KSP and compiler plugins.
• Effective Kotlin: Best Practices, which is dedicated to the
best practices of Kotlin programming.
CONTENTS 4

Do not worry, you do not need to read the previous books

in the series to understand this one. However, if you are
interested in learning more about Kotlin, I recommend con-
sidering the other books from this series.

Conventions

When I refer to a concrete element from code, I will use code-

font. To name a concept, I will capitalize the word. To refer-
ence an arbitrary element of some type, I will not capitalize
the word. For example:

• Flow is a type or an interface, so it’s printed in code-font

(as in “Function needs to return Flow”),
• Flow represents a concept, so it is capitalized (as in “This
explains the essential difference between Channel and
Flow”),
• a flow is an instance, like a list or a set, which is why it is
not capitalized (“Every flow consists of a few elements”).

Another example: List refers concretely to a list interface or

type (“The type of l is List”), while List represents a concept,
and a list is one of many lists (the list variable holds a list).

Code conventions

Most of the presented snippets are executable code with no

import statements. In the online version of this book on
the Kt. Academy website, most snippets can be executed so
readers can play with the code.
Snippet results are presented using the println function. The
result will often be placed in comments after the statement
that prints it.
CONTENTS 5

import kotlin.reflect.KType
import kotlin.reflect.typeOf

fun main() {
val t1: KType = typeOf<Int?>()
println(t1) // kotlin.Int?
val t2: KType = typeOf<List<Int?>>()
println(t2) // kotlin.collections.List<kotlin.Int?>
val t3: KType = typeOf<() -> Map<Int, Char?>>()
println(t3)
// () -> kotlin.collections.Map<kotlin.Int, kotlin.Char?>
}

In some snippets, you might notice strange formatting. This

is because the line length in this book is only 62 characters,
so I adjusted the formatting to fit the page width. This is, for
instance, why the result of println(t3) in the above example is
located on the next line.
Sometimes, some parts of code or results are shortened with
.... In such cases, you can read it as “there should be more
here, but the author decided to omit it”.

class A {
val b by lazy { B() }
val c by lazy { C() }
val d by lazy { D() }

// ...
}
CONTENTS 6

Acknowledgments

Owen Griffiths has been developing soft-

ware since the mid-1990s and remembers
the productivity of languages such as Clip-
per and Borland Delphi. Since 2001, he’s
focused on web, server-based Java, and
the open-source revolution. With many
years of commercial Java experience, he
picked up Kotlin in early 2015. After taking detours into Clo-
jure and Scala, he - like Goldilocks - thinks Kotlin is just
right and tastes the best. Owen enthusiastically helps Kotlin
developers continue to succeed.

Nicola Corti is a Google Developer Ex-

pert for Kotlin. He’s been working with
this language since before version 1.0
and is the maintainer of several open-
source libraries and tools for mobile devel-
opers (Detekt, Chucker, AppIntro). He’s
currently working in the React Native
core team at Meta, building one of the most popular cross-
platform mobile frameworks, and he’s an active member of
the developer community. His involvement goes from speak-
ing at international conferences to being a member of CFP
committees and supporting developer communities across
Europe. In his free time, he also loves baking, podcasting, and
running.

Matthias Schenk started his career with

Java over ten years ago, mainly in the
Spring/Spring Boot Ecosystem. Eighteen
months ago, he switched to Kotlin and has
since become a big fan of working with
native Kotlin frameworks like Koin, Ktor,
and Exposed.
CONTENTS 7

Jacek Kotorowicz graduated from UMCS and is now an An-

droid developer based in Lublin. He wrote his Master’s thesis
in C++ in Vim and LaTeX. Later, he found himself in a love-
hate relationship with JVM languages and the Android plat-
form. He first used Kotlin (or, at least, tried to) before version
1.0. He’s still learning how NOT to be a perfectionist and how
to find time for learning and hobbies.
Endre Deak is a software architect building AI infrastructure
at Disco, a market-leading legal tech company. He has 15
years of experience building complex scalable systems, and he
thinks Kotlin is one of the best programming languages ever
created.
I would also like to thank Michael Timberlake, our language
reviewer, for his excellent corrections to the whole book.
CONTENTS 8

Generic variance modifiers

Let’s say that Puppy is a subtype of Dog, and you have a generic
Box class to enclose them both. The question is: what is the
relation between the Box<Puppy> and Box<Dog> types? In other
words, can we use Box<Puppy> where Box<Dog> is expected, or
vice versa? To answer these questions, we need to know what
the variance modifier of this class type parameter is¹.
When a type parameter has no variance modifier (no out or in
modifier), we say it is invariant and thus expects an exact type.
So, if we have class Box<T>, then there is no relation between
Box<Puppy> and Box<Dog>.

class Box<T>
open class Dog
class Puppy : Dog()

fun main() {
val d: Dog = Puppy() // Puppy is a subtype of Dog

val bd: Box<Dog> = Box<Puppy>() // Error: Type mismatch

val bp: Box<Puppy> = Box<Dog>() // Error: Type mismatch

val bn: Box<Number> = Box<Int>() // Error: Type mismatch

val bi: Box<Int> = Box<Number>() // Error: Type mismatch
}

Variance modifiers determine what the relationship should

be between Box<Puppy> and Box<Dog>. When we use the out
¹In this chapter, I assume that you know what a type is and
understand the basics of generic classes and functions. As a
reminder, the type parameter is a placeholder for a type, e.g.,
T in class Box<T> or fun a<T>() {}. The type argument is the
actual type used when a class is created or a function is called,
e.g., Int in Box<Int>() or a<Int>(). A type is not the same as a
class. For a class User, there are at least two types: User and
User?. For a generic class, there are many types, like Box<Int>,
and Box<String>.
CONTENTS 9

modifier, we make a covariant type parameter. When A is a

subtype of B, the Box type parameter is covariant (out modifier)
and the Box<A> type is a subtype of Box<B>. So, in our example,
for class Box<out T>, the Box<Puppy> type is a subtype of
Box<Dog>.

class Box<out T>

open class Dog
class Puppy : Dog()

fun main() {
val d: Dog = Puppy() // Puppy is a subtype of Dog

val bd: Box<Dog> = Box<Puppy>() // OK

val bp: Box<Puppy> = Box<Dog>() // Error: Type mismatch

val bn: Box<Number> = Box<Int>() // OK

val bi: Box<Int> = Box<Number>() // Error: Type mismatch
}

When we use the in modifier, we make a contravariant type

parameter. When A is a subtype of B and the Box type parame-
ter is contravariant (in modifier), then type Box<B> is a subtype
of Box<A>. So, in our example, for class Box<in T> the Box<Dog>
type is a subtype of Box<Puppy>.

class Box<in T>

open class Dog
class Puppy : Dog()

fun main() {
val d: Dog = Puppy() // Puppy is a subtype of Dog

val bd: Box<Dog> = Box<Puppy>() // Error: Type mismatch

val bp: Box<Puppy> = Box<Dog>() // OK

val bn: Box<Number> = Box<Int>() // Error: Type mismatch

val bi: Box<Int> = Box<Number>() // OK
}
CONTENTS 10

These variance modifiers are illustrated in the diagram be-

low:

At this point, you might be wondering how these variance

modifiers are useful. In particular, contravariance might
sound strange to you, so let me show you some examples.

List variance

Let’s consider that you have the type Animal and its subclass
Cat. You also have the standalone function petAnimals, which
you use to pet all your animals when you get back home. You
also have a list of cats that is of type List<Cat>. The question
is: can you use your list of cats as an argument to the function
petAnimals, which expects a list of animals?

interface Animal {
fun pet()
}

class Cat(val name: String) : Animal {

override fun pet() {
println("$name says Meow")

}
}

fun petAnimals(animals: List<Animal>) {

for (animal in animals) {
animal.pet()
CONTENTS 11

}
}

fun main() {
val cats: List<Cat> =
listOf(Cat("Mruczek"), Cat("Puszek"))
petAnimals(cats) // Can I do that?
}

The answer is YES. Why? Because in Kotlin, the List interface

type parameter is covariant, so it has the out modifier, which
is why List<Cat> can be used where List<Animal> is expected.

Covariance (out) is a proper variance modifier because List

is read-only. Covariance can’t be used for a mutable data
structure. The MutableList interface has an invariant type
parameter, so it has no variance modifier.
CONTENTS 12

Thus, MutableList<Cat> cannot be used where

MutableList<Animal> is expected. There are good reasons
for this which we will explore when we discuss the safety of
variance modifiers. For now, I will just show you an example
of what might go wrong if MutableList were covariant: we
could use MutableList<Cat> where MutableList<Animal> is
expected and then use this reference to add Dog to our list of
cats. Someone would be really surprised to find a dog in a list
of cats.

interface Animal
class Cat(val name: String) : Animal
class Dog(val name: String) : Animal

fun addAnimal(animals: MutableList<Animal>) {

animals.add(Dog("Cookie"))
}

fun main() {
val cats: MutableList<Cat> =
mutableListOf(Cat("Mruczek"), Cat("Puszek"))
addAnimal(cats) // COMPILATION ERROR
val cat: Cat = cats.last()
// If code would compile, it would break here
}

This illustrates why covariance, as its name out suggests, is

appropriate for types that are only exposed and only go out of
an object but never go in. So, covariance should be used for
immutable classes.

Consumer variance

Let’s say that you have a class that can be used to send mes-
sages of a certain type.
CONTENTS 13

interface Sender<T : Message> {

fun send(message: T)
}

interface Message

interface OrderManagerMessage : Message

class AddOrder(val order: Order) : OrderManagerMessage
class CancelOrder(val orderId: String) : OrderManagerMessage

interface InvoiceManagerMessage : Message

class MakeInvoice(val order: Order) : OrderManagerMessage

Now, you’ve made a class called GeneralSender that is capable

of sending any kind of message. The question is: can you use
GeneralSender where a class for sending some specific kind of
messages is expected? You should be able to! If GeneralSender
can send all kinds of messages, it should be able to send
specific message types as well.

class GeneralSender(
serviceUrl: String
) : Sender<Message> {
private val connection = makeConnection(serviceUrl)

override fun send(message: Message) {

connection.send(message.toApi())
}
}

val orderManagerSender: Sender<OrderManagerMessage> =

GeneralSender(ORDER_MANAGER_URL)

val invoiceManagerSender: Sender<InvoiceManagerMessage> =

GeneralSender(INVOICE_MANAGER_URL)

For a sender of any message to be a sender of some specific

message type, we need the sender type to have a contravariant
parameter, therefore it needs the in modifier.
CONTENTS 14

interface Sender<in T : Message> {

fun send(message: T)
}

Let’s generalize this and consider a class that consumes ob-

jects of a certain type. If a class declares that it consumes
objects of type Number, we can assume it can consume objects
of type Int or Float. If a class consumes anything, it should
consume strings or chars, therefore its type parameter, which
represents the type this class consumes, must be contravari-
ant, so use the in modifier.

class Consumer<in T> {

fun consume(value: T) {
println("Consuming $value")
}
}

fun main() {
val numberConsumer: Consumer<Number> = Consumer()
numberConsumer.consume(2.71) // Consuming 2.71
val intConsumer: Consumer<Int> = numberConsumer
intConsumer.consume(42) // Consuming 42
val floatConsumer: Consumer<Float> = numberConsumer
floatConsumer.consume(3.14F) // Consuming 3.14

val anyConsumer: Consumer<Any> = Consumer()

anyConsumer.consume(123456789L) // Consuming 123456789
val stringConsumer: Consumer<String> = anyConsumer
stringConsumer.consume("ABC") // Consuming ABC
val charConsumer: Consumer<Char> = anyConsumer
charConsumer.consume('M') // Consuming M
}

It makes a lot of sense to use contravariance for the consumer

or sender values as both their type parameters are only used
in the in-position as argument types, so covariant type values
are only consumed. I hope you’re starting to see that the out
CONTENTS 15

modifier is only appropriate for type parameters that are in

the out-position and are thus used as a result type or a read-
only property type. On the other hand, the in modifier is only
appropriate for type parameters that are in the in-position
and are thus used as parameter types.

Function types

In function types, there are relations between function types

with different parameters and result types. To see this in
practice, think of a function that as an argument expects a
function that accepts an Int and returns an Any:

fun printProcessedNumber(transformation: (Int) -> Any) {

println(transformation(42))
}

Based on its definition, such a function can accept a func-

tion of type (Int)->Any, but it would work with (Int)->Number,
(Number)->Any, (Number)->Number, (Any)->Number, (Number)->Int,
etc.

val intToDouble: (Int) -> Number = { it.toDouble() }

val numberAsText: (Number) -> String = { it.toString() }
val identity: (Number) -> Number = { it }
val numberToInt: (Number) -> Int = { it.toInt() }
val numberHash: (Any) -> Number = { it.hashCode() }
printProcessedNumber(intToDouble)
printProcessedNumber(numberAsText)
printProcessedNumber(identity)
printProcessedNumber(numberToInt)
printProcessedNumber(numberHash)

This is because there is the following relation between all

these types:
CONTENTS 16

Notice that when we go down in this hierarchy, the parameter

type moves toward types that are higher in the typing system
hierarchy, and the return type moves toward lower types.

Kotlin type hierarchy

This is no coincidence. All parameter types in Kotlin function

types are contravariant, as the name of the in variance mod-
ifier suggests. All return types in Kotlin function types are
covariant, as the name of the out variance modifier suggests.
CONTENTS 17

In this case – as in many other cases – you don’t need to under-

stand variance modifiers to benefit from using them. You just
use the function you would like to use, and it works. People
rarely notice that this would not work in another language or
with another implementation. This makes a good developer
experience. People don’t attribute this good experience to
generic type modifiers, but they feel that using Kotlin or
some libraries is just easier. As library creators, we use type
modifiers to make a good developer experience.
The general rule for using variance modifiers is really simple:
type parameters that are only used for public out-positions
(function results and read-only property types) should be co-
variant so they have an out modifier. Type parameters that are
only used for public in-positions (function parameter types)
should be contravariant so they have an in modifier.

The Covariant Nothing Object

Consider that you need to define a linked list data structure,

which is a type of collection constructed by two types:

• node, which represents a linked list with at least one

element and includes a reference to the first element
(head) and a reference to the rest of the elements (tail).
• empty, which represents an empty linked list.

In Kotlin, we would represent such a data structure with a

sealed class.
CONTENTS 18

sealed class LinkedList<T>

data class Node<T>(
val head: T,
val tail: LinkedList<T>
) : LinkedList<T>()
class Empty<T> : LinkedList<T>()

fun main() {
val strs = Node("A", Node("B", Empty()))
val ints = Node(1, Node(2, Empty()))
val empty: LinkedList<Char> = Empty()
}

There is one problem though: for every linked list, we need

a new object to represent the empty list. Every time we use
Empty(), we create a new instance. We would prefer to have
only one instance that would serve wherever we need to
represent an empty linked list. For that, we use object dec-
laration in Kotlin, but object declarations cannot have type
parameters.

sealed class LinkedList<T>

data class Node<T>(
val head: T,
val tail: LinkedList<T>
) : LinkedList<T>()
object Empty<T> : LinkedList<T>() // Error

There is a solution to this problem. We can make the

LinkedList type parameter covariant (by adding the out
modifier’). This is perfectly fine for a type that is only
returned, i.e., for all type parameters in immutable
classes. Then, we should make our Empty object extend
LinkedList<Nothing>. The Nothing type is a subtype of all
types; so, if the LinkedList type parameter is covariant, then
LinkedList<Nothing> is a subtype of all linked lists.
CONTENTS 19

sealed class LinkedList<out T>

data class Node<T>(
val head: T,
val tail: LinkedList<T>
) : LinkedList<T>()
object Empty : LinkedList<Nothing>()

fun main() {
val strs = Node("A", Node("B", Empty))
val ints = Node(1, Node(2, Empty))
val empty: LinkedList<Char> = Empty
}

This pattern is used in many places, even in the Kotlin Stan-

dard Library. As you already know, List is covariant because
it is read-only. When you create a list using listOf or emptyList,
they both return the same object, EmptyList, which imple-
ments List<Nothing>, therefore EmptyList is a subtype of all
lists.
CONTENTS 20

Every empty list created with the listOf or emptyList functions from Kotlin stdlib
is actually the same object.

fun main() {
val empty: List<Nothing> = emptyList()
val strs: List<String> = empty
val ints: List<Int> = empty

val other: List<Char> = emptyList()

println(empty === other) // true
}

This pattern occurs in many places; for instance, when we

define generic messages and some of them don’t need to
include any parameters, we should make them objects.

sealed interface ChangesTrackerMessage<out T>

class Change<T>(val newValue: T) : ChangesTrackerMessage<T>
object Reset : ChangesTrackerMessage<Nothing>
object UndoChange : ChangesTrackerMessage<Nothing>

sealed interface TaskSchedulerMessage<out T>

class Schedule<T>(
val task: Task<T>
):TaskSchedulerMessage<T>
CONTENTS 21

class Update<T>(
val taskUpdate: TaskUpdate<T>
) : TaskSchedulerMessage<T>

class Delete(
val taskId: String
) : TaskSchedulerMessage<Nothing>

object StartScheduled : TaskSchedulerMessage<Nothing>

object Reset : TaskSchedulerMessage<Nothing>

Even though this pattern repeats in Kotlin projects, I couldn’t

find a name that would describe it. I decided to name it the
“Covariant Nothing Object”. This is not a precise name; a
precise description would be “pattern in which the object
declaration implements a generic class or interface with the
Nothing type argument used in the covariant type argument
position”. Nevertheless, the name needs to be short, and
“Covariant Nothing Object” is clear and catchy.
Another example of a Covariant Nothing Object comes from a
library my team co-created. It was used to schedule tasks in a
microservice environment. For simplicity, you could assume
that each task can be modeled as follows:

class Task<T>(
val id: String,
val scheduleAt: Instant,
val data: T,
val priority: Int,
val maxRetries: Int? = null
)

We needed to implement a mechanism to change scheduled

tasks. We also needed to represent change within a configura-
tion in order to define updates and pass them around conve-
niently. The old-school approach is to make a TaskUpdate class
CONTENTS 22

which uses null as a marker which indicates that a specific

property should not change.

class TaskUpdate<T>(
val id: String? = null,
val scheduleAt: Instant? = null,
val data: T? = null,
val priority: Int? = null,
val maxRetries: Int? = null
)

This approach is very limiting. Since the null value is inter-

preted as “do not change this property”, there is no way to
express that you want to set a particular value to null. Instead,
we used a Covariant Nothing Object in our project to repre-
sent a property change. Each property might be either kept
unchanged or changed to a new value. We can represent these
two options with a sealed hierarchy, and thanks to generic
types we might expect specific types of values.

class TaskUpdate<T>(
val id: TaskPropertyUpdate<String> = Keep,
val scheduleAt: TaskPropertyUpdate<Instant> = Keep,
val data: TaskPropertyUpdate<T> = Keep,
val priority: TaskPropertyUpdate<Int> = Keep,
val maxRetries: TaskPropertyUpdate<Int?> = Keep
)

sealed interface TaskPropertyUpdate<out T>

object Keep : TaskPropertyUpdate<Nothing>
class ChangeTo<T>(val newValue: T) : TaskPropertyUpdate<T>

val update = TaskUpdate<String>(

id = ChangeTo("456"),
maxRetries = ChangeTo(null), // we can change to null

data = ChangeTo(123), // COMPILATION ERROR

// type mismatch, expecting String
CONTENTS 23

priority = ChangeTo(null), // COMPILATION ERROR

// type mismatch, property is not nullable
)

This way, we achieved a type-safe and expressive way of repre-

senting task changes. What is more, when we use the Covari-
ant Nothing Object pattern, we can easily express other kinds
of changes as well. For instance, if our library supports default
values or allows a previous value to be restored, we could add
new objects to represent these property changes.

class TaskUpdate<T>(
val id: TaskPropertyUpdate<String> = Keep,
val scheduleAt: TaskPropertyUpdate<Instant> = Keep,
val data: TaskPropertyUpdate<T> = Keep,
val priority: TaskPropertyUpdate<Int> = Keep,
val maxRetries: TaskPropertyUpdate<Int?> = Keep
)

sealed interface TaskPropertyUpdate<out T>

object Keep : TaskPropertyUpdate<Nothing>
class ChangeTo<T>(val newValue: T) : TaskPropertyUpdate<T>
object RestorePrevious : TaskPropertyUpdate<Nothing>
object RestoreDefault : TaskPropertyUpdate<Nothing>

val update = TaskUpdate<String>(

data = ChangeTo("ABC"),

maxRetries = RestorePrevious,
priority = RestoreDefault,
)

The Covariant Nothing Class

There are also cases where we want a class to implement

a class or interface which uses the Nothing type argument
as a covariant type parameter. This is a pattern I call the
Covariant Nothing Class. For example, consider the Either
CONTENTS 24

class, which can be either Left or Right and must have two
type parameters that specify what data types it expects on the
Left and on the Right. However, both Left and Right should
each have only one type parameter to specify what type they
expect. To make this work, we need to fill the missing type
argument with Nothing.

sealed class Either<out L, out R>

class Left<out L>(val value: L) : Either<L, Nothing>()
class Right<out R>(val value: R) : Either<Nothing, R>()

With such definitions, we can create Left or Right without

specifying type arguments.

val left = Left(Error())

val right = Right("ABC")

Both Left and Right can be up-casted to Left and Right with
supertypes of the types of values they hold.

val leftError: Left<Error> = Left(Error())

val leftThrowable: Left<Throwable> = leftError
val leftAny: Left<Any> = leftThrowable

val rightInt = Right(123)

val rightNumber: Right<Number> = rightInt
val rightAny: Right<Any> = rightNumber

They can also be used wherever a result with the appropriate

Left or Right type is expected.
CONTENTS 25

val leftError: Left<Error> = Left(Error())

val rightInt = Right(123)

val el: Either<Error, Int> = leftError

val er: Either<Error, Int> = rightInt

val etnl: Either<Throwable, Number> = leftError

val etnr: Either<Throwable, Number> = rightInt

This, in simplification, is how Either is implemented in the

Arrow library.

Variance modifier limitations

In Java, arrays are reified and covariant. Some sources state

that the reason behind this decision was to make it possible
to create functions like Arrays::sort that make generic opera-
tions on arrays of every type.

Integer[] numbers= {1, 4, 2, 3};

Arrays.sort(numbers); // sorts numbers

String[] lettrs= {"B", "C", "A"};

Arrays.sort(lettrs); // sorts letters

However, there is a big problem with this decision. To under-

stand it, let’s analyze the following Java operations, which
produce no compilation time errors but throw runtime er-
rors:

// Java
Integer[] numbers= {1, 4, 2, 3};
Object[] objects = numbers;
objects[2] = "B"; // Runtime error: ArrayStoreException

As you can see, casting numbers to Object[] didn’t change the

actual type used inside the structure (it is still Integer); so,
CONTENTS 26

when we try to assign a value of type String to this array, an

error occurs. This is clearly a Java flaw, but Kotlin protects
us from it by making Array (as well as IntArray, CharArray, etc.)
invariant (so upcasting from Array<Int> to Array<Any> is not
possible).
To understand what went wrong in the above snippet, we
should understand what in-positions and out-positions are.
A type is used in an in-position when it is used as a parameter
type. In the example below, the Dog type is used in an in-
position. Note that every object type can be up-casted; so,
when we expect a Dog, we might actually receive any of its
subtypes, e.g., a Puppy or a Hound.

open class Dog

class Puppy : Dog()
class Hound : Dog()

fun takeDog(dog: Dog) {}

takeDog(Dog())
takeDog(Puppy())
takeDog(Hound())

In-positions work well with contravariant types, including

the in modifier, because they allow a type to be transferred to
a lower one, e.g., from Dog to Puppy or Hound. This only limits
class use, so it is a safe operation.

open class Dog

class Puppy : Dog()
class Hound : Dog()

class Box<in T> {

private var value: T? = null

fun put(value: T) {
this.value = value
CONTENTS 27

}
}

fun main() {
val dogBox = Box<Dog>()
dogBox.put(Dog())
dogBox.put(Puppy())
dogBox.put(Hound())

val puppyBox: Box<Puppy> = dogBox

puppyBox.put(Puppy())

val houndBox: Box<Hound> = dogBox

houndBox.put(Hound())
}

However, public in-positions cannot be used with covariance,

including the out modifier. Just think what would happen if
you could upcast Box<Dog> to Box<Any?>. If this were possible,
you could literally pass any object to the put method. Can
you see the implications of this? That is why it is prohibited
in Kotlin to use a covariant type (out modifier) in public in-
positions.

class Box<out T> {

private var value: T? = null

fun set(value: T) { // Compilation Error

this.value = value
}

fun get(): T = value ?: error("Value not set")

}

val dogHouse = Box<Dog>()

val box: Box<Any> = dogHouse
box.set("Some string")
// Is this were possible, we would have runtime error here
CONTENTS 28

This is actually the problem with Java arrays. They should not
be covariant because they have methods, like set, that allow
their modification.
Covariant type parameters can be safely used in private in-
positions.

class Box<out T> {

private var value: T? = null

private fun set(value: T) { // OK

this.value = value
}

fun get(): T = value ?: error("Value not set")

}

Covariance (out modifier) is perfectly safe with public out-

positions, therefore these positions are not limited. This is
why we use covariance (out modifier) for types that are pro-
duced or only exposed, and the out modifier is often used
for producers or immutable data holders. Thus, List has the
covariant type parameter, but MutableList must have the in-
variant type parameter.
There is also a symmetrical problem (or co-problem, as some
like to say) for contravariance and out-positions. Types in out-
positions are function result types and read-only property
types. These types can also be up-casted to any upper type;
however, since we are on the other side of an object, we can
expect types that are above the expected type. In the example
below, Amphibious is in an out-position; when we might expect
it to be Amphibious, we can also expect it to be Car or Boat.
CONTENTS 29

open class Car

interface Boat
class Amphibious : Car(), Boat

fun getAmphibious(): Amphibious = Amphibious()

val amphibious: Amphibious = getAmphibious()

val car: Car = getAmphibious()
val boat: Boat = getAmphibious()

Out positions work well with covariance, i.e., the out

modifier. Upcasting Producer<Amphibious> to Producer<Car>
or Producer<Boat> limits what we can expect from the produce
method, but the result is still correct.

open class Car

interface Boat
class Amphibious : Car(), Boat

class Producer<out T>(val factory: () -> T) {

fun produce(): T = factory()
}

fun main() {
val producer: Producer<Amphibious> =
Producer { Amphibious() }
val amphibious: Amphibious = producer.produce()
val boat: Boat = producer.produce()
val car: Car = producer.produce()

val boatProducer: Producer<Boat> = producer

val boat1: Boat = boatProducer.produce()

val carProducer: Producer<Car> = producer

val car2: Car = carProducer.produce()
}

Out-positions do not get along with contravariant type

parameters (in modifier). If Producer type parameters
CONTENTS 30

were contravariant, we could up-cast Producer<Amphibious>

to Producer<Nothing> and then expect produce to produce
literally anything, which this method cannot do. That is
why contravariant type parameters cannot be used in public
out-positions.

open class Car

interface Boat
class Amphibious : Car(), Boat

class Producer<in T>(val factory: () -> T) {

fun produce(): T = factory() // Compilation Error
}

fun main() {
val carProducer = Producer<Amphibious> { Car() }
val amphibiousProducer: Producer<Amphibious> = carProducer
val amphibious = amphibiousProducer.produce()
// If not compilation error, we would have runtime error

val producer = Producer<Amphibious> { Amphibious() }

val nothingProducer: Producer<Nothing> = producer
val str: String = nothingProducer.produce()
// If not compilation error, we would have runtime error
}

You cannot use contravariant type parameters (in modifier) in

public out-positions, such as a function result or a read-only
property type.

class Box<in T>(

val value: T // Compilation Error
) {

fun get(): T = value // Compilation Error

?: error("Value not set")
}

Again, it is fine when these elements are private:

CONTENTS 31

class Box<in T>(

private val value: T
) {

private fun get(): T = value

?: error("Value not set")
}

This way, we use contravariance (in modifier) for type pa-

rameters that are only consumed or accepted. A well-known
example is kotlin.coroutines.Continuation:

public interface Continuation<in T> {

public val context: CoroutineContext
public fun resumeWith(result: Result<T>)
}

Read-write property types are invariant, so public read-write

properties support neither covariant nor contravariant
types.

class Box<in T1, out T2> {

var v1: T1 // Compilation error
var v2: T2 // Compilation error
}

UnsafeVariance annotation

Every good rule must have some exceptions. In general, us-

ing covariant type parameters (out modifier) in public in-
positions is considered unsafe, therefore such a situation
blocks code compilation. Still, there are situations where we
would like to do this anyway because we know we will do it
safely. A good example is List.
As we have already explained, the type parameter in the List
interface is covariant (out modifier), and this is conceptually
correct because it is a read-only interface. However, it uses
CONTENTS 32

this type of parameter in some public in-positions. Just con-

sider the contains or indexOf methods: they use covariant type
parameters in a public in-position, which is a clear violation
of the rules we just explained.

How is that possible? According to the previous section, it

should not be possible. The answer is the UnsafeVariance an-
notation, which is used to turn off the aforementioned limi-
tations. It is like saying, “I know it is unsafe, but I know what
I’m doing and I will use this type safely”.

It is ok to use UnsafeVariance for methods like contains or

indexOf because their parameters are only used for compari-
son, and their arguments are not set anywhere or returned
by any public functions. They could also be of type Any?, and
CONTENTS 33

the type of those parameters is only specified so that a user of

these methods knows what kind of value should be used as an
argument.

Variance modifier positions

Variance modifiers can be used in two positions². The first

one, the declaration side, is more common and is a modifier
on the class or interface declaration. It will affect all the places
where the class or interface is used.

// Declaration-side variance modifier

class Box<out T>(val value: T)

val boxStr: Box<String> = Box("Str")

val boxAny: Box<Any> = boxStr

The other position is the use-site, which is a variance modifier

for a particular variable.

class Box<T>(val value: T)

val boxStr: Box<String> = Box("Str")

// Use-site variance modifier
val boxAny: Box<out Any> = boxStr

We use use-site variance when, for some reason, we cannot

provide variance modifiers for all the types generated by a
class or an interface, yet we need some variance for one spe-
cific type. For instance, MutableList cannot have the in modi-
fier because then its method’s result types would return Any?
instead of the actual element type. Still, for a single parameter
type we can make its type contravariant (in modifier) to allow
any collections that can accept a type:

²This is also called mixed-site variance.

CONTENTS 34

interface Dog
interface Pet
data class Puppy(val name: String) : Dog, Pet
data class Wolf(val name: String) : Dog
data class Cat(val name: String) : Pet

fun fillWithPuppies(list: MutableList<in Puppy>) {

list.add(Puppy("Jim"))
list.add(Puppy("Beam"))
}

fun main() {
val dogs = mutableListOf<Dog>(Wolf("Pluto"))
fillWithPuppies(dogs)
println(dogs)
// [Wolf(name=Pluto), Puppy(name=Jim), Puppy(name=Beam)]

val pets = mutableListOf<Pet>(Cat("Felix"))

fillWithPuppies(pets)
println(pets)
// [Cat(name=Felix), Puppy(name=Jim), Puppy(name=Beam)]
}

Note that some positions are limited when we use variance

modifiers. When we have MutableList<out T>, we can use get
to get elements, and we receive an instance typed as T, but
we cannot use set because it expects us to pass an argument
of type Nothing. This is because a list with any subtype of T
might be passed there, including the subtype of every type
that is Nothing. When we use MutableList<in T>, we can use
both get and set; however, when we use get, the returned type
is Any? because there might be a list with any supertype of T,
including the supertype of every type that is Any?. Therefore,
we can freely use out when we only read from a generic object,
and we can freely use in when we only modify that generic
object.
CONTENTS 35

Star projection

On the use-site, we can also use the star * instead of a type

argument to signal that it can be any type. This is known as
star projection.

if (value is List<*>) {
...
}

Star projection should not be confused with the Any? type.

It is true that List<*> effectively behaves like List<Any?>,
but this is only because the associated type parameter is
covariant. It might also be said that Consumer<*> behaves
like Consumer<Nothing> if the Consumer type parameter is
contravariant. However, the behavior of Consumer<*> is
nothing like Consumer<Any?>, and the behavior of List<*>
is nothing like List<Nothing>. The most interesting case is
MutableList. As you might guess, MutableList<Any?> returns
Any? as a result in methods like get or removeAt, but it also
expects Any? as an argument for methods like add or set. On the
other hand, MutableList<*> returns Any? as a result in methods
like get or removeAt, but it expects Nothing as an argument for
methods like add or set. This means MutableList<*> can return
anything but accepts (literally) nothing.

Use-site type In-position Out-position

type type
T T T

out T Nothing T

in T T Any?

* Nothing Any?

Summary

Every Kotlin type parameter has some variance:

CONTENTS 36

• The default variance behavior of a type parameter is

invariance. If, in Box<T>, type parameter T is invariant
and A is a subtype of B, then there is no relation between
Box<A> and Box<B>.
• The out modifier makes a type parameter covariant. If,
in Box<T>, type parameter T is covariant and A is a subtype
of B, then Box<A> is a subtype of Box<B>. Covariant types
can be used in public out-positions.
• The in modifier makes a type parameter contravariant.
If, in Box<T>, type parameter T is contravariant and A
is a subtype of B, then Cup<B> is a subtype of Cup<A>.
Contravariant types can be used in public in-positions.
CONTENTS 37

In Kotlin, it is also good to know that:

• Type parameters of List and Set are covariant (out

modifier). So, for instance, we can pass any list
where List<Any> is expected. Also, the type parameter
representing the value type in Map is covariant (out
modifier). Type parameters of Array, MutableList,
MutableSet, and MutableMap are invariant (no variance
modifier).
• In function types, parameter types are contravariant (in
modifier), and the return type is covariant (out modi-
fier).
• We use covariance (out modifier) for types that are only
returned (produced or exposed).
• We use contravariance (in modifier) for types that are
only accepted (consumed or set).

Exercise: Generic types usage

The below code will not compile due to the type mismatch.
Which lines will show compilation errors?

fun takeIntList(list: List<Int>) {}

takeIntList(listOf<Any>())
takeIntList(listOf<Nothing>())

fun takeIntMutableList(list: MutableList<Int>) {}

takeIntMutableList(mutableListOf<Any>())
takeIntMutableList(mutableListOf<Nothing>())

fun takeAnyList(list: List<Any>) {}

takeAnyList(listOf<Int>())
takeAnyList(listOf<Nothing>())

class BoxOut<out T>

fun takeBoxOutInt(box: BoxOut<Int>) {}
takeBoxOutInt(BoxOut<Int>())
takeBoxOutInt(BoxOut<Number>())
CONTENTS 38

takeBoxOutInt(BoxOut<Nothing>())

fun takeBoxOutNumber(box: BoxOut<Number>) {}

takeBoxOutNumber(BoxOut<Int>())
takeBoxOutNumber(BoxOut<Number>())
takeBoxOutNumber(BoxOut<Nothing>())

fun takeBoxOutNothing(box: BoxOut<Nothing>) {}

takeBoxOutNothing(BoxOut<Int>())
takeBoxOutNothing(BoxOut<Number>())
takeBoxOutNothing(BoxOut<Nothing>())

fun takeBoxOutStar(box: BoxOut<*>) {}

takeBoxOutStar(BoxOut<Int>())
takeBoxOutStar(BoxOut<Number>())
takeBoxOutStar(BoxOut<Nothing>())

class BoxIn<in T>

fun takeBoxInInt(box: BoxIn<Int>) {}
takeBoxInInt(BoxIn<Int>())
takeBoxInInt(BoxIn<Number>())
takeBoxInInt(BoxIn<Nothing>())
takeBoxInInt(BoxIn<Any>())

Exercise: Generic Response

You need to model a response from a server that can be repre-

sented as a success or a failure. Both those options can keep
data of a generic type. This is how you modelled it:

sealed class Response<R, E>

class Success<R, E>(val value: R) : Response<R, E>()
class Failure<R, E>(val error: E) : Response<R, E>()

However, you found that this implementation is problematic.

To create a Success object, you need to provide two generic
types, but you only need one. To create a Failure object, you
need to provide two generic types, but you only need one.
Your task is to fix this problem.
CONTENTS 39

val rs1 = Success(1) // Compilation error

val rs2 = Success("ABC") // Compilation error
val re1 = Failure(Error()) // Compilation error
val re2 = Failure("Error") // Compilation error

You need to define Success in a way that it can be created with

only one generic type, and Failure in a way that it can be
created with only one generic type. You want to be able to use
Success and Failure without specifying generic types, so you
can write Success(1).
You also want to allow upcasting Success<Int> to
Success<Number> or Success<Any>, and Failure<Error> to
Failure<Throwable> or Failure<Any>. You want to be able to
use Success<Int> as Response<Int, Throwable>.

val rs1 = Success(1)

val rs2 = Success("ABC")
val re1 = Failure(Error())
val re2 = Failure("Error")

val rs3: Success<Number> = rs1

val rs4: Success<Any> = rs1
val re3: Failure<Throwable> = re1
val re4: Failure<Any> = re1

val r1: Response<Int, Throwable> = rs1

val r2: Response<Int, Throwable> = re1

Starting code and usage examples can be found in the

MarcinMoskala/kotlin-exercises project on GitHub in the file
advanced/generics/Response.kt. You can clone this project and
solve this exercise locally.

Exercise: Generic Consumer

In your project, you use a class that represents a consumer

of some type. You have two implementations of this class:
CONTENTS 40

Printer and Sender. A printer that can accept Number, should

also accept Int and Double. A sender that can accept Int, should
also accept Number and Any. In general, a consumer that can
accept T, should also accept S if S is a subtype of T. Update
Consumber, Printer and Sender classes to achieve this.

Starting code:

abstract class Consumer<T> {

abstract fun consume(elem: T)
}

class Printer<T> : Consumer<T>() {

override fun consume(elem: T) {
// ...
}
}

class Sender<T> : Consumer<T>() {

override fun consume(elem: T) {
// ...
}
}

Usage example:

val p1 = Printer<Number>()
val p2: Printer<Int> = p1
val p3: Printer<Double> = p1

val s1 = Sender<Any>()
val s2: Sender<Int> = s1
val s3: Sender<String> = s1

val c1: Consumer<Number> = p1

val c2: Consumer<Int> = p1
val c3: Consumer<Double> = p1

Starting code and usage examples can be found in the

MarcinMoskala/kotlin-exercises project on GitHub in the file
CONTENTS 41

advanced/generics/Consumer.kt. You can clone this project and

solve this exercise locally.
CONTENTS 42

Interface delegation

Kotlin has a feature called interface delegation. This is special

support for the delegation pattern, so let’s discuss this first.

The delegation pattern

Imagine you have a class that implements an interface. In

the example below, this is the GenericCreature class, which
implements the Creature interface. If you want another class,
Goblin, to behave just like GenericCreature, you can achieve this
with composition by creating an instance of GenericCreature,
keeping it as a property, and using its methods. This new class
can also implement the Creature interface.

interface Creature {
val attackPower: Int
val defensePower: Int
fun attack()
}

class GenericCreature(
override val attackPower: Int,
override val defensePower: Int,
) : Creature {
override fun attack() {
println("Attacking with $attackPower")
}
}

class Goblin : Creature {

private val delegate = GenericCreature(2, 1)
override val attackPower: Int = delegate.attackPower
override val defensePower: Int = delegate.defensePower

override fun attack() {

delegate.attack()
CONTENTS 43

// ...
}

fun main() {
val goblin = Goblin()
println(goblin.defensePower) // 1
goblin.attack() // Attacking with 2
}

This is an example of a delegation pattern. The Goblin class del-

egates methods defined by the Creature interface to an object
of type GenericCreature. The delegate property in the example
above is a delegate, and the attack method and attackPower and
defensePower properties are delegated.

To reuse the same method implementation, it is enough to use

composition, which means keeping a property with an object
of another type and using it on its own methods. The delega-
tion pattern also involves implementing the same interface as
the class we delegate to, thus introducing polymorphic behav-
ior. TheGenericCreature and Goblin classes both implement the
Creature interface, therefore they can be used interchangeably
in some cases.

Delegation and inheritance

Delegation is an old pattern and has always been presented as

an alternative to inheritance. Truth be told, similar behavior
can be achieved if we make GenericCreature open and we make
Goblin extend it.
CONTENTS 44

interface Creature {
val attackPower: Int
val defensePower: Int
fun attack()
}

open class GenericCreature(

override val attackPower: Int,
override val defensePower: Int,
) : Creature {
override fun attack() {
println("Attacking with $attackPower")
}
}

class Goblin : GenericCreature(2, 1) {

// ...
}

fun main() {
val goblin = Goblin()
println(goblin.defensePower) // 1
goblin.attack() // Attacking with 2
}

Using inheritance seems easier, but it has some consequences

and limitations that make us choose delegation anyway:

• We can inherit from only one class, but we can delegate

to many objects.
• Inheritance is a very strong relationship, but this is
often not what we want. Maybe we don’t want Goblin to
be a GenericCreature because we are not able to guarantee
that the former will always behave exactly like the latter.
• Most classes are not designed for inheritance as they are
either closed or we just should not inherit from them.
• Inheritance breaks encapsulation, thus causing safety
threats (see Item 36: Prefer composition over inheritance
from Effective Kotlin).
CONTENTS 45

All in all, this is why we often prefer to use delegation instead

of inheritance. Fortunately, the creators of Kotlin introduced
special support to help us with this.

Kotlin interface delegation support

Kotlin introduced special support for the interface delegation

pattern, which makes it as easy to use as inheritance. After
specifying an interface you want your class to implement, you
can use the by keyword and specify the object that should be
used as a delegate. This removes the “writing additional code”
overhead. This is how this could be used in Goblin:

interface Creature {
val attackPower: Int
val defensePower: Int
fun attack()
}

class GenericCreature(
override val attackPower: Int,
override val defensePower: Int,
) : Creature {
override fun attack() {
println("Attacking with $attackPower")
}
}

class Goblin : Creature by GenericCreature(2, 1) {

// ...
}

fun main() {
val goblin = Goblin()
println(goblin.defensePower) // 1
goblin.attack() // Attacking with 2
}
CONTENTS 46

On the right side of the by keyword, there is a constructor

call that creates an instance of GenericCreature that is used as
a delegate. Under the hood, this delegate will be stored in a
property, and all methods from the Creature interface will be
implemented such that they call appropriate methods from
the delegate.

The object used as a delegate can be created using primary

constructor parameters, or we can use a primary constructor
parameter as a delegate. We can also use a variable from the
outer scope as a delegate.

class Goblin : Creature by GenericCreature(2, 1)

// or
class Goblin(
att: Int,
def: Int
) : Creature by GenericCreature(att, def)

// or
class Goblin(
creature: Creature
) : Creature by creature

// or
class Goblin(
val creature: Creature = GenericCreature(2, 1)
) : Creature by creature

// or
val creature = GenericCreature(2, 1)
CONTENTS 47

class Goblin : Creature by creature

We can use interface delegation multiple times in the same

class.

class Goblin : Attack by Dagger(), Defense by LeatherArmour()

class Amphibious : Car by SimpleCar(), Boat by MotorBoat()

When we use interface delegation, we can still override some

methods from the interface ourselves. In such cases, these
methods will not be generated automatically and will not call
delegates by themselves.

interface Creature {
val attackPower: Int
val defensePower: Int
fun attack()
}

class GenericCreature(
override val attackPower: Int,
override val defensePower: Int,
) : Creature {
override fun attack() {
println("Attacking with $attackPower")
}
}

class Goblin : Creature by GenericCreature(2, 1) {

override fun attack() {
println("Special Goblin attack $attackPower")
}
}

fun main() {
val goblin = Goblin()
CONTENTS 48

println(goblin.defensePower) // 1
goblin.attack() // Special Goblin attack 2
}

The problem is that there is currently no way to reference

the delegate’s implicit property. So, if we need to do this,
we typically make a primary constructor property that we
delegate to and that we use when we need to reference the
delegate.

interface Creature {
val attackPower: Int
val defensePower: Int
fun attack()
}

class GenericCreature(
override val attackPower: Int,
override val defensePower: Int,
) : Creature {
override fun attack() {
println("Attacking with $attackPower")
}
}

class Goblin(
private val creature: Creature = GenericCreature(2, 1)
) : Creature by creature {
override fun attack() {
println("It will be special Goblin attack!")
creature.attack()
}
}

fun main() {
val goblin = Goblin()
goblin.attack()
// It will be a special Goblin attack!
CONTENTS 49

// Attacking with 2
}

Wrapper classes

An interesting usage of interface delegation is to make a sim-

ple wrapper over an interface that adds something we could
not add otherwise. I don’t mean a method because this can
be added using an extension function. I mean an annotation
that might be needed by a library. Consider the following
example: for Jetpack Compose, you need to use an object
that has the Immutable and Keep annotations, but you want to
use the List interface, which is read-only but does not have
these annotations. The simplest solution is to make a simple
wrapper over List and use interface delegation to easily make
our wrapper class also implement the List interface. In this
way, all the methods that we can invoke on List can also be
invoked on the wrapper.

@Keep
@Immutable
data class ComposeImmutableList<T>(
val innerList: List<T>
) : List<T> by innerList

Another example of a wrapper class is something that is used

in some multiplatform mobile Kotlin projects. The problem
is that in View Model classes, we like to expose observable
properties of type StateFlow that can be observed easily in
Android but not so easily in iOS. To make it easier to observe
them, one solution is to define the following wrapper for
them that specifies the collect method, which can be used
easily from Swift. More about this case in the Using Kotlin
Multiplatform section.
CONTENTS 50

class StateFlow<T>(
source: StateFlow<T>,
private val scope: CoroutineScope
) : StateFlow<T> by source {
fun collect(onEach: (T) -> Unit) {
scope.launch {
collect { onEach(it) }
}
}
}

The decorator pattern

Beyond a simple wrapper, there is also the decorator

pattern, which uses a class to decorate another class with
new capabilities but still implements the same interface
(or extends the same class). So, for instance, when we
make a FileInputStream to read a file, we decorate it with
BufferedInputStream to add buffering, then we decorate it with
ZipInputStream to add unzipping capabilities, and finally we
decorate it with ObjectInputStream to read an object.

var fis: InputStream = FileInputStream("/someFile.gz")

var bis: InputStream = BufferedInputStream(fis)
var gis: InputStream = ZipInputStream(bis)
var ois = ObjectInputStream(gis)
var someObject = ois.readObject() as SomeObject

The decorator pattern is used by many libraries. Consider

how sequence or flow processing works: each transformation
decorates the previous sequence or flow with a new opera-
tion.
CONTENTS 51

fun <T> Sequence<T>.filter(

predicate: (T) -> Boolean
): Sequence<T> {
return FilteringSequence(this, true, predicate)
}

The decorator pattern uses delegation. Each decorator class

needs to access the decorated object, use it as a delegate, and
add behavior to some of its methods.

interface AdFilter {
fun showToPerson(user: User): Boolean
fun showOnPage(page: Page): Boolean
fun showOnArticle(article: Article): Boolean
}

class ShowOnPerson(
val authorKey: String,
val prevFilter: AdFilter = ShowAds
) : AdFilter {
override fun showToPerson(user: User): Boolean =
prevFilter.showToPerson(user)

override fun showOnPage(page: Page) =

page is ProfilePage &&
page.userKey == authorKey &&
prevFilter.showOnPage(page)

override fun showOnArticle(article: Article) =

article.authorKey == authorKey &&
prevFilter.showOnArticle(article)
}

class ShowToLoggedIn(
val prevFilter: AdFilter = ShowAds
) : AdFilter {
override fun showToPerson(user: User): Boolean =
user.isLoggedIn
CONTENTS 52

override fun showOnPage(page: Page) =

prevFilter.showOnPage(page)

override fun showOnArticle(article: Article) =

prevFilter.showOnArticle(article)
}

object ShowAds : AdFilter {

override fun showToPerson(user: User): Boolean = true
override fun showOnPage(page: Page): Boolean = true
override fun showOnArticle(article: Article): Boolean =
true
}

fun createWorkshopAdFilter(workshop: Workshop) =

ShowOnPerson(workshop.trainerKey)
.let(::ShowToLoggedIn)

Interface delegation can help us avoid implementing methods

that only call similar decorated object methods. This makes
our implementation clearer and lets a reader focus on what is
essential.

class Page
class Article(val authorKey: String)
class User(val isLoggedIn: Boolean)

interface AdFilter {
fun showToPerson(user: User): Boolean
fun showOnPage(page: Page): Boolean
fun showOnArticle(article: Article): Boolean
}

class ShowOnPerson(
val authorKey: String,
val prevFilter: AdFilter = ShowAds
) : AdFilter by prevFilter {
override fun showOnPage(page: Page) =
page is ProfilePage &&
CONTENTS 53

page.userKey == authorKey &&

prevFilter.showOnPage(page)

override fun showOnArticle(article: Article) =

article.authorKey == authorKey &&
prevFilter.showOnArticle(article)
}

class ShowToLoggedIn(
val prevFilter: AdFilter = ShowAds
) : AdFilter by prevFilter {
override fun showToPerson(user: User): Boolean =
user.isLoggedIn
}

object ShowAds : AdFilter {

override fun showToPerson(user: User): Boolean = true
override fun showOnPage(page: Page): Boolean = true
override fun showOnArticle(article: Article): Boolean =
true
}

fun createWorkshopAdFilter(workshop: Workshop) =

ShowOnPerson(workshop.trainerKey)
.let(::ShowToLoggedIn)

Intersection types

It is important to know that interface delegation can be used

multiple times in the same class. Thanks to this, you can
have a class that implements two interfaces, each of which is
delegated to a different delegate. Such a class can aggregate
the types and behavior of multiple other classes, so we call
such a class represents an “intersection type”. For example, in
the Arrow library there is a ScopedRaise class that is a decorator
for both EffectScope and CoroutineScope.
CONTENTS 54

public class ScopedRaise<E>(

raise: EffectScope<E>,
scope: CoroutineScope
) : CoroutineScope by scope, EffectScope<E> by raise

The ScopedRaise class can represent both interfaces it imple-

ments at the same time; so, when we use it as a receiver,
methods from both EffectScope and CoroutineScope can be used
implicitly.

public suspend fun <E, A, B> Iterable<A>.parMapOrAccumulate(

context: CoroutineContext = EmptyCoroutineContext,
transform: suspend ScopedRaise<E>.(A) -> B
): Either<NonEmptyList<E>, List<B>> =
coroutineScope {
map {
async(context) {
either {
val scope = this@coroutineScope
transform(ScopedRaise(this, scope), it)
}
}
}.awaitAll().flattenOrAccumulate()
}

suspend fun test() {

listOf("A", "B", "C")
.parMapOrAccumulate { v ->
this.launch { } // We can do that,
// because receiver is CoroutineContext
this.ensure(v in 'A'..'Z') { error("Not letter") }
// We can do that, because receiver is EffectScope
}
}

Another example comes from the Ktor framework’s

integration tests. In this framework, you can use the
testApplication function, which helps start a server for
CONTENTS 55

testing. It provides the ApplicationTestBuilder receiver,

which extends TestApplicationBuilder and implements
ClientProvider. For my integration tests, I define my own
function because I want to have a similar receiver, but I often
lack a couple of other properties. I would prefer to have a
receiver that aggregates methods from multiple classes or
interfaces, as well as useful properties like a background
scope or a created test application reference. I often define
such a receiver class using interface delegation.

class IntegrationTestScope(
applicationTestBuilder: ApplicationTestBuilder,
val application: Application,
val backgroundScope: CoroutineScope,
) : TestApplicationBuilder(),
ClientProvider by applicationTestBuilder

Limitations

The biggest limitation of the interface delegation pattern is

that objects we delegate to must have an interface, and only
methods from this interface will be delegated. You should also
note that - unlike when we use inheritance - the meaning of
the this reference does not change.

interface Creature {
fun attack()
}

class GenericCreature : Creature {

override fun attack() {
// this.javaClass.name is always GenericCreature
println("${this::class.simpleName} attacks")
}

fun walk() {}
}
CONTENTS 56

class Goblin : Creature by GenericCreature()

open class WildAnimal : Creature {

override fun attack() {
// this.javaClass.name depends on actual class
println("${this::class.simpleName} attacks")
}
}

class Wolf : WildAnimal()

fun main() {
GenericCreature().attack() // GenericCreature attacks
Goblin().attack() // GenericCreature attacks
WildAnimal().attack() // WildAnimal attacks
Wolf().attack() // Wolf attacks

// Goblin().walk() COMPILATION ERROR, no such method

}

Conflicting elements from parents

There might be a situation in which two interfaces that our

class uses for interface delegation define the same method
or property, so we must resolve this conflict by overriding
this element in the class. In the example below, both the
Attack and Defense interfaces define the defense property, so
we must override it in the Goblin class and specify how it
should behave.
CONTENTS 57

interface Attack {
val attack: Int
val defense: Int
}
interface Defense {
val defense: Int
}
class Dagger : Attack {
override val attack: Int = 1
override val defense: Int = -1
}
class LeatherArmour : Defense {
override val defense: Int = 2
}
class Goblin(
private val attackDelegate: Attack = Dagger(),
private val defenseDelegate: Defense = LeatherArmour(),
) : Attack by attackDelegate, Defense by defenseDelegate {
// We must override this property
override val defense: Int =
defenseDelegate.defense + attackDelegate.defense
}

Summary

Interface delegation is not a very popular Kotlin feature, but it

has use cases where it helps us avoid repetition of boilerplate
code. It is very simple: Kotlin implicitly generates methods
and properties defined in an interface, and their implemen-
tations call similar methods from the delegate objects. Nev-
ertheless, this feature can help us make our code more clear
and concise. Interface delegation can be used when we need
to make a simple wrapper over an interface, implement the
decorator pattern, or make a class that collects methods from
two interfaces. The biggest limitation of interface delegation
is that objects we delegate to must have an interface, and only
methods from this interface will be delegated.
CONTENTS 58

Exercise: ApplicationScope

You need to create a class ApplicationScope, that implements

interfaces CoroutineScope, ApplicationControlScope and
LoggingScope. It should expect primary constructor properties
of the same types, and use them as delegates. Use interface
delegation to implement that.
Starting code and unit tests can be found in the
MarcinMoskala/kotlin-exercises project on GitHub in the file
advanced/delegates/ApplicationScope.kt. You can clone this
project and solve this exercise locally.
CONTENTS 59

Property delegation

In programming, there are a number of patterns that use

properties, like lazy properties, property value injection,
property binding, etc. In most languages, there is no easy
way to extract such patterns, therefore developers tend to
repeat the same patterns again and again, or they need to
depend on complex libraries. In Kotlin, we extract repeatable
property patterns using a feature that is (currently) unique to
Kotlin: property delegation. This feature’s trademark is the
by keyword, which is used between a property definition and
a delegate specification. Together with some functions from
Kotlin stdlib, here is an example usage of property delegation
that we use to implement lazy or observable properties:

val value by lazy { createValue() }

var items: List<Item> by

Delegates.observable(listOf()) { _, _, _ ->
notifyDataSetChanged()
}

var key: String? by

Delegates.observable(null) { _, old, new ->
Log.e("key changed from $old to $new")
}

Later in this chapter, we will discuss both lazy and observable

functions in detail. For now, all you need to know is that
delegates are just functions; they are not Kotlin keywords
(just like lazy in Scala or Swift). We can implement our own
lazy function in a few simple lines of code. Just like many
Kotlin libraries, we can also implement our own property del-
egates. Some good examples are View and Resource Binding,
Dependency Injection³, and Data Binding.

³This example use of Koin formally presents service loca-

tion, not dependency injection.
CONTENTS 60

// View and resource binding example in Android

private val button: Button by bindView(R.id.button)
private val textSize by bindDimension(R.dimen.font_size)
private val doctor: Doctor by argExtra(DOCTOR_ARG)

// Dependency Injection using Koin

private val presenter: MainPresenter by inject()
private val repository: NetworkRepository by inject()
private val viewModel: MainViewModel by viewModel()

// Data binding
private val port by bindConfiguration("port")
private val token: String by preferences.bind(TOKEN_KEY)

How property delegation works

To understand how we can extract other common behaviors

using property delegation, let’s start with a very simple prop-
erty delegate. Let’s say we need to define properties with
custom getters and setters that print their value changes⁴:

var token: String? = null

get() {
println("token getter returned $field")
return field
}
set(value) {
println("token changed from $field to $value")
field = value
}

var attempts: Int = 0

get() {
println("attempts getter returned $field")

⁴I assume you are familiar with custom getters and setters.

I explain them in the previous book from this series, Kotlin
Essentials, in the Classes chapter.
CONTENTS 61

return field
}
set(value) {
println("attempts changed from $field to $value")
field = value
}

fun main() {
token = "AAA" // token changed from null to AAA
val res = token // token getter returned AAA
println(res) // AAA
attempts++
// attempts getter returned 0
// attempts changed from 0 to 1
}

Even though token and attempts are of different types, the

behavior of these two properties is nearly identical and can be
extracted using property delegation.
Property delegation is based on the idea that a property is
defined by its accessors: for val, it is a getter; for var, it is
a getter and a setter. These functions can be delegated to
another object’s methods:the getter will be delegated to the
getValue function, and the setter to the setValue function. An
object with these methods needs to be created and placed
on the right side of the by keyword. To make our properties
behave the same way as in the example above, we can create
the following delegate:

import kotlin.reflect.KProperty

private class LoggingProperty<T>(var value: T) {

operator fun getValue(
thisRef: Any?,
prop: KProperty<*>
): T {
println("${prop.name} getter returned $value")
return value
CONTENTS 62

operator fun setValue(

thisRef: Any?,
prop: KProperty<*>,
newValue: T
) {
val name = prop.name
println("$name changed from $value to $newValue")
value = newValue
}
}

var token: String? by LoggingProperty(null)

var attempts: Int by LoggingProperty(0)

fun main() {
token = "AAA" // token changed from null to AAA
val res = token // token getter returned AAA
println(res) // AAA
attempts++
// attempts getter returned 0
// attempts changed from 0 to 1
}

To fully understand how property delegation works, take a

look at what by is compiled to. The above token property will
be compiled to something similar to the following code:

// Code in Kotlin:
var token: String? by LoggingProperty(null)

// What it is compiled to when a property is top-level

@JvmField
private val `token$delegate` = LoggingProperty<String?>(null)
var token: String?
get() = `token$delegate`.getValue(null, ::token)
set(value) {
`token$delegate`.setValue(null, ::token, value)
CONTENTS 63

// What it is compiled to when a property is in a class

@JvmField
private val `token$delegate` = LoggingProperty<String?>(null)
var token: String?
get() = `token$delegate`.getValue(this, this::token)
set(value) {
`token$delegate`.setValue(this, this::token, value)
}

To make sure we understand this, let’s look under the hood

and check out what our Kotlin property delegate usage is
compiled to.

// Kotlin code:
var token: String? by LoggingProperty(null)

fun main() {
token = "AAA" // token changed from null to AAA
val res = token // token getter returned AAA
println(res) // AAA
}

// Java representation of this code:

@Nullable
private static final LoggingProperty token$delegate =
new LoggingProperty((Object)null);

@Nullable
public static final String getToken() {
return (String)token$delegate
.getValue((Object)null, $$delegatedProperties[0]);
}

public static final void setToken(@Nullable String var0) {

token$delegate
CONTENTS 64

.setValue((Object)null, $$delegatedProperties[0], var0);

}

public static final void main() {

setToken("AAA");
String res = getToken();
System.out.println(res);
}

Let’s analyze this step by step. When you get a property value,
you call this property’s getter; property delegation delegates
this getter to the getValue function. When you set a property
value, you are calling this property’s setter; property delega-
tion delegates this setter to the setValue function. This way,
each delegate fully controls this property’s behavior.

Other getValue and setValue parameters

You might also have noticed that the getValue and setValue
methods not only receive the value that was set to the prop-
erty and decide what its getter returns, but they also receive a
bounded reference to the property as well as a context (this).
The reference to the property is most often used to get its
name and sometimes to get information about annotations.
The parameter referencing the receiver gives us information
about where the function is used and who can use it.

The KProperty type will be better covered later in

the Reflection chapter.
CONTENTS 65

import kotlin.reflect.KProperty

private class LoggingProperty<T>(

var value: T
) {

operator fun getValue(

thisRef: Any?,
prop: KProperty<*>
): T {
println(
"${prop.name} in $thisRef " +
"getter returned $value"
)
return value
}

operator fun setValue(

thisRef: Any?,
prop: KProperty<*>,
newValue: T
) {
println(
"${prop.name} in $thisRef " +
"changed from $value to $newValue"
)
value = newValue
}
}

var token: String? by LoggingProperty(null)

object AttemptsCounter {
var attempts: Int by LoggingProperty(0)
}

fun main() {
token = "AAA" // token in null changed from null to AAA
val res = token // token in null getter returned AAA
CONTENTS 66

println(res) // AAA

AttemptsCounter.attempts = 1
// attempts in AttemptsCounter@XYZ changed from 0 to 1
val res2 = AttemptsCounter.attempts
// attempts in AttemptsCounter@XYZ getter returned 1
println(res2) // 1
}

When we have multiple getValue and setValue methods but

with different context types, different definitions of the same
method will be chosen in different situations. This fact can be
used in clever ways. For instance, we might need a delegate
that can be used in different kinds of views, but it should
behave differently with each of them based on what is offered
by the context:

class SwipeRefreshBinderDelegate(val id: Int) {

private var cache: SwipeRefreshLayout? = null

operator fun getValue(

activity: Activity,
prop: KProperty<*>
): SwipeRefreshLayout {
return cache ?: activity
.findViewById<SwipeRefreshLayout>(id)
.also { cache = it }
}

operator fun getValue(

fragment: Fragment,
prop: KProperty<*>
): SwipeRefreshLayout {
return cache ?: fragment.view
.findViewById<SwipeRefreshLayout>(id)
.also { cache = it }
}
}
CONTENTS 67

Implementing a custom property delegate

To make it possible to use an object as a property delegate,

all it needs is the getValue operator for val and the getValue
and setValue operators for var. Both getValue and setValue are
operators, so they need the operator modifier. They need pa-
rameters for thisRef of any type (most likely Any?) and property
of type KProperty<*>. setValue should additionally have a prop-
erty for a value whose type should be the same type or a super-
type of the type used by the property. The getValue result type
should be the same type or a subtype of the type used by the
property.

class EmptyPropertyDelegate {
operator fun getValue(
thisRef: Any?,
property: KProperty<*>
): String {
return ""
}
operator fun setValue(
thisRef: Any?,
property: KProperty<*>,
value: String
) {
// no-op
}
}

val p1: String by EmptyPropertyDelegate()

var p2: String by EmptyPropertyDelegate()

These methods can be member functions, but they can also be

extension functions. For instance, Map<String, *> can be used
as a property delegate thanks to the extension function below,
which is defined in the standard library. We will discuss using
Map<String, *> as a delegate later in this chapter.
CONTENTS 68

// Function from Kotlin stdlib

inline operator fun <V, V1 : V> Map<in String, V>
.getValue(thisRef: Any?, property: KProperty<*>): V1 =
getOrImplicitDefault(property.name) as V1

fun main() {
val map: Map<String, Any> = mapOf(
"name" to "Marcin",
"kotlinProgrammer" to true
)
val name: String by map
val kotlinProgrammer: Boolean by map
print(name) // Marcin
print(kotlinProgrammer) // true

val incorrectName by map

println(incorrectName) // Exception
}

When we define a delegate, it might be helpful to implement

the ReadOnlyProperty interface (when we define a property
delegate for val) or the ReadWriteProperty interface (when we
define a property delegate for var) from Kotlin stdlib. These
interfaces specify getValue and setValue with the correct pa-
rameters.

fun interface ReadOnlyProperty<in T, out V> {

operator fun getValue(
thisRef: T,
property: KProperty<*>
): V
}

interface ReadWriteProperty<in T, V>: ReadOnlyProperty<T,V>{

override operator fun getValue(
thisRef: T,
property: KProperty<*>
): V
operator fun setValue(
CONTENTS 69

thisRef: T,
property: KProperty<*>,
value: V
)
}

Notice how those interfaces use generic variance

modifiers. Type parameter T is only used in in-
positions, so it has the contravariant in modifier.
The ReadOnlyProperty interface uses the type param-
eter V only in out-positions, so it has the covariant
out modifier.

Both ReadOnlyProperty and ReadWriteProperty require two type

arguments. The first is for the receiver type and is typically
Any?, which allows our property delegate to be used in any
context. The second argument should be the property’s value
type. If we define a property delegate for properties of a
certain type, we set this type here. We can also use a generic
type parameter in this type argument position.

private class LoggingProperty<T>(

var value: T
) : ReadWriteProperty<Any?, T> {

override fun getValue(

thisRef: Any?,
property: KProperty<*>
): T {
println("${property.name} getter returned $value")
return value
}

override fun setValue(

thisRef: Any?,
property: KProperty<*>,
value: T
) {
CONTENTS 70

val name = property.name

println("$name changed from ${this.value} to $value")
this.value = value
}
}

Provide a delegate

This is a story as old as time. You delegate a task to another

person, who, instead of doing it, delegates it to someone else.
Objects in Kotlin can do the same. An object can define the
provideDelegate method, which returns another object that
will be used as a delegate.

import kotlin.reflect.KProperty

class LoggingProperty<T>(var value: T) {

operator fun getValue(
thisRef: Any?,
prop: KProperty<*>
): T {
println("${prop.name} getter returned $value")
return value
}
operator fun setValue(
thisRef: Any?,
prop: KProperty<*>,
newValue: T
) {
val name = prop.name
println("$name changed from $value to $newValue")
value = newValue
}
}

class LoggingPropertyProvider<T>(
private val value: T
) {
CONTENTS 71

operator fun provideDelegate(

thisRef: Any?,
property: KProperty<*>
): LoggingProperty<T> = LoggingProperty(value)
}

var token: String? by LoggingPropertyProvider(null)

var attempts: Int by LoggingPropertyProvider(0)

fun main() {
token = "AAA" // token changed from null to AAA
val res = token // token getter returned AAA
println(res) // AAA
}

The power of provideDelegate is that the object that is used on

the right side of the by keyword does not need to be used as a
delegate. So, for instance, an immutable object can provide a
mutable delegate.
Let’s see an example. Let’s say you implement a library to
make it easier to operate on values stored in preference files⁵.
This is how you want your library to be used:

object UserPref : PreferenceHolder() {

var splashScreenShown: Boolean by bindToPreference(true)
var loginAttempts: Int by bindToPreference(0)
}

The bindToPreference function returns an object that can be

used as a property delegate. But what if we want to make
it possible to use Int or Boolean as delegates in the scope of
PreferenceHolder?

⁵Before you do this, consider the fact that there are already
many similar libraries, such as PreferenceHolder, which I
published years ago.
CONTENTS 72

object UserPref : PreferenceHolder() {

var splashScreenShown: Boolean by true
var loginAttempts: Int by 0
}

This way, using delegates is similar to assigning some values;

however, because delegates are used, some additional oper-
ations might be performed, such as binding these property
values to preference file values.
It is problematic to use Int or Boolean as delegates because
they are not implemented to be used this way. We could im-
plement getValue and setValue to operate on preference files,
but it would be harder to cache values. The simple solution
is to define the provideDelegate extension function on Int and
Boolean. This way, Int or Boolean can be used on the right side
of by, but they can’t be used as delegates themselves.

abstract class PreferenceHolder {

operator fun Boolean.provideDelegate(
thisRef: Any?,
property: KProperty<*>
) = bindToPreference(this)

operator fun Int.provideDelegate(

thisRef: Any?,
property: KProperty<*>
) = bindToPreference(this)

inline fun <reified T : Any> bindToPreference(

default: T
): ReadWriteProperty<PreferenceHolder, T> = TODO()
}

We can also use the PropertyDelegateProvider interface, which

specifies the provideDelegate function with appropriate
arguments and result types. The two type parameters of
PropertyDelegateProvider represent the receiver reference
type and the type of the property we delegate.
CONTENTS 73

class LoggingPropertyProvider<T>(
private val value: T
) : PropertyDelegateProvider<Any?, LoggingProperty<T>> {

override fun provideDelegate(

thisRef: Any?,
property: KProperty<*>
): LoggingProperty<T> = LoggingProperty(value)
}

Personally, I am not a fan of using raw values as

delegates because I believe that additional function
names improve readability. However, this is the
best example of using provideDelegate I could find.

Property delegates in Kotlin stdlib

Kotlin provides the following standard property delegates:

• Delegates.notNull
• lazy
• Delegates.observable
• Delegates.vetoable
• Map<String, T> and MutableMap<String, T>

Let’s discuss them individually and present their use cases.

The notNull delegate

I will start with the simplest property delegate, which is cre-

ated using the notNull method from the Delegates object that is
defined in Kotlin stdlib. It is an alternative to lateinit, so the
property delegated to notNull behaves like a regular property
but has no initial value. Therefore, if you try to get a value
before setting it, this results in an exception.
CONTENTS 74

import kotlin.properties.Delegates

var a: Int by Delegates.notNull()

var b: String by Delegates.notNull()

fun main() {
a = 10
println(a) // 10
a = 20
println(a) // 20

println(b) // IllegalStateException:
// Property b should be initialized before getting.
}

Wherever possible, we should use the lateinit property in-

stead of the notNull delegate for better performance because
lateinit properties are faster. Currently, however, Kotlin does
not support lateinit properties with types that associate with
primitives, like Int or Boolean.

lateinit var i: Int // Compilation Error

lateinit var b: Boolean // Compilation Error

In such cases, we use the notNull delegate.

var i: Int by Delegates.notNull()

var b: Boolean by Delegates.notNull()

I often see this delegate used as part of DSL builders or for

properties whose values are injected.
CONTENTS 75

abstract class IntegrationTest {

@Value("${server.port}")
var serverPort: Int by Delegates.notNull()

// ...
}

// DSL builder
fun person(block: PersonBuilder.() -> Unit): Person =
PersonBuilder().apply(block).build()

class PersonBuilder() {
lateinit var name: String
var age: Int by Delegates.notNull()
fun build(): Person = Person(name, age)
}

// DSL use
val person = person {
name = "Marc"
age = 30
}

Exercise: Lateinit delegate

Implement Lateinit delegate that makes a property

behave like a lateinit property, so that should be able to
keep set values, but should not require an initial value.
If getter is called before the property is set, it should
throw IllegalStateException exception with the message
“Uninitialized lateinit property”.
CONTENTS 76

val a by Lateinit<Int>()
a = 1
println(a) // 1

val b by Lateinit<String>()
b = "ABC"
println(b) // ABC

val c by Lateinit<String>()
println(c) // IllegalStateException:
// Uninitialized lateinit property c

Property should support nullable types.

val a by Lateinit<Int?>()
a = 1
println(a) // 1
a = null
println(a) // null

Unit tests can be found in the MarcinMoskala/kotlin-

exercises project on GitHub in the file advanced/delegates/Lateinit.kt.
You can clone this project and solve this exercise locally.
Hint: You can make your class implement
ReadWriteProperty<Any?, T> interface to make it a property
delegate.

The lazy delegate

The most popular property delegate is lazy. It implements

the lazy property pattern, so it postpones read-only value
initialization until this value is needed for the first time. This
is what an example usage of lazy looks like, and this is what
we would need to implement if we didn’t have this delegate⁶:
⁶The actual lazy implementation is more complicated as it
has better synchronization, which secures it for concurrent
use.
CONTENTS 77

val userRepo by lazy { UserRepository() }

// Alternative code not using lazy

private var _userRepo: UserRepository? = null
private val userRepoLock = Any()
val userRepo: UserRepository
get() {
synchronized(userRepoLock) {
if (_userRepo == null) {
_userRepo = UserRepository()
}
return _userRepo!!
}
}

The lazy delegate is often used as a performance optimization

for objects that are expensive to calculate. Let’s start with an
abstract example. Consider class A, which composes classes B,
C, and D, each of which is heavy to initialize. This makes the
instance of A really heavy to initialize because it requires the
initialization of multiple heavy objects.

class A {
val b = B()
val c = C()
val d = D()

// ...
}

We can make the initialization of A lighter by making b, c,

and d lazy properties. Thanks to that, initialization of their
values is postponed until their first use; if these properties
are never used, the associated class instances will never be
initialized. Such an operation improves class creation time,
which benefits application startup time and test execution
time.
CONTENTS 78

class A {
val b by lazy { B() }
val c by lazy { C() }
val d by lazy { D() }

// ...
}

To make this example more practical, A might be

FlashcardsParser, which is used to parse files defined in a
language we have invented; B, C, and D might be some complex
regex parsers which are heavy to initialize.

class OurLanguageParser {
val cardRegex by lazy { Regex("...") }
val questionRegex by lazy { Regex("...") }
val answerRegex by lazy { Regex("...") }

// ...
}

Regex is a really useful notation when we need to process

text. However, regex definitions can be very complex, and
their parsing is a heavy operation. This reminds me of an-
other example I have famously shown in the Effective Kotlin
book. Consider a function in which we use regex to determine
whether a string contains a valid IP address:

fun String.isValidIpAddress(): Boolean {

return this.matches(
("\\A(?:(?:25[0-5]|2[0-4][0-9]|" +
"[01]?[0-9][0-9]?)\\.){3}(?:25[0-5]|2[0-4][0-9]|" +
"[01]?[0-9][0-9]?)\\z").toRegex()
)
}

// Usage
print("5.173.80.254".isValidIpAddress()) // true
CONTENTS 79

The problem with this function is that the Regex object needs
to be created every time we use it. This is a serious disadvan-
tage since regex pattern compilation is complex, therefore
this function is unsuitable for repeated use in performance-
constrained parts of our code. However, we can improve it by
lifting the regex up to the top level:

private val IS_VALID_IP_REGEX = "\\A(?:(?:25[0-5]|2[0-4]" +

"[0-9]|[01]?[0-9][0-9]?)\\.){3}(?:25[0-5]|2[0-4][0-9]|"+
"[01]?[0-9][0-9]?)\\z".toRegex()

fun String.isValidIpAddress(): Boolean =

matches(IS_VALID_IP_REGEX)

The problem now is that this regex is initialized whenever we

initialize this file for the first time; so, if this file contains
more elements (like other functions or properties), this regex
might slow down the usage of these elements for no good
reason. This is why it is better to make the IS_VALID_IP_REGEX
property lazy.

private val IS_VALID_IP_REGEX by lazy {

("\\A(?:(?:25[0-5]|2[0-4][0-9]|[01]?[0-9][0-9]?)\\.){3}" +
"(?:25[0-5]|2[0-4][0-9]|[01]?[0-9][0-9]?)\\z").toRegex()
}

fun String.isValidIpAddress(): Boolean =

matches(IS_VALID_IP_REGEX)

This technique⁷ can be used in a variety of situations. Con-

sider a data class that stores a computed property⁸ that is
not trivial to calculate. For example, consider the User class
with the fullDisplay property, which is calculated from other
properties but includes some significant logic as it depends
⁷Also known as memoization.
⁸By computed property, I meana property whose value is
determined by other properties and therefore can always be
recalculated.
CONTENTS 80

on multiple properties and project configurations. If we de-

fine fullDisplay as a regular property, it will be calculated
whenever a new instance of User is created, which might be
an unnecessary cost.

data class User(

val name: String,
val surname: String,
val pronouns: Pronouns,
val gender: Gender,
// ...
) {
val fullDisplay: String = produceFullDisplay()

fun produceFullDisplay(): String {

println("Calculating...")
// ...
return "XYZ"
}
}

fun test() {
val user = User(...) // Calculating...
val copy = user.copy() // Calculating...
println(copy.fullDisplay) // XYZ
println(copy.fullDisplay) // XYZ
}

If we define the fullDisplay property using a getter, it will

be re-calculated whenever it is used, which also might be an
unnecessary cost.
CONTENTS 81

data class User(

val name: String,
val surname: String,
val pronouns: Pronouns,
val gender: Gender,
// ...
) {
val fullDisplay: String
get() = produceFullDisplay()

fun produceFullDisplay(): String {

println("Calculating...")
// ...
return "XYZ"
}
}

fun test() {
val user = User(...)
val copy = user.copy()
println(copy.fullDisplay) // Calculating... XYZ
println(copy.fullDisplay) // Calculating... XYZ
}

Defining the fullDisplay property as lazy is a sweet spot for

properties that:

• are read-only (lazy can only be used for val),

• are non-trivial to calculate (otherwise, using lazy is not
worth the effort),
• might not be used for all instances (otherwise, use a
regular property),
• might be used more than once by one instance (other-
wise, define a property with a getter).
CONTENTS 82

data class User(

val name: String,
val surname: String,
val pronouns: Pronouns,
val gender: Gender,
// ...
) {
val fullDisplay: String by lazy { produceFullDisplay() }

fun produceFullDisplay() {
println("Calculating...")
// ...
}
}

fun test() {
val user = User(...)
val copy = user.copy()
println(copy.fullDisplay) // Calculating... XYZ
println(copy.fullDisplay) // XYZ
}

When we consider using a lazy delegate as a performance opti-

mization, we should also consider which thread safety mode
we want it to use. It can be specified in an additional mode func-
tion argument, which accepts the enum LazyThreadSafetyMode.
The following options are available:

• SYNCHRONIZED is the default and safest option and uses

locks to ensure that only a single thread can initialize
this delegate instance. This option is also the slowest
because synchronization mechanisms introduce some
performance costs.
• PUBLICATION means that the initializer function can be
called several times on concurrent access to an uninitial-
ized delegate instance value, but only the first returned
value will be used as the value of this delegate instance.
If a delegate is used only by a single thread, this option
will be slightly faster than SYNCHRONIZED; however, if a
CONTENTS 83

delegate is used by multiple threads, we need to cover the

possible cost of recalculation of the same value before
the value is initialized.
• NONE is the fastest option and uses no locks to synchronize
access to the delegate instance value; so, if the instance
is accessed from multiple threads, its behavior is unde-
fined. This mode should not be used unless this instance
is guaranteed to never be initialized from more than one
thread.

val v1 by lazy { calculate() }

val v2 by lazy(LazyThreadSafetyMode.PUBLICATION){calculate()}
val v3 by lazy(LazyThreadSafetyMode.NONE) { calculate() }

In all these examples, we used lazy as a performance optimiza-

tion, but there are other reasons to use it. In this context,
I’d like to share a story from my early days of using Kotlin
on Android. It was around 2015. Kotlin was still before the
stable release, and the Kotlin community was inventing ways
of using its features to help us with everyday tasks. You see, in
Android we have a concept of Activity, which is like a window
that defines its view, traditionally using XML files. Then,
the class representing an Activity often modifies this view
by programmatically changing text or some of its properties.
To change a particular view element, we need to reference
it, but we cannot reference it before the view is set with
the setContentView function. Back then, this is why it was
standard practice to define references to view elements as
lateinit properties and associate appropriate view elements
with them immediately after setting up the content view.
CONTENTS 84

class MainActivity : Activity() {

lateinit var questionLabelView: TextView
lateinit var answerLabelView: EditText
lateinit var confirmButtonView: Button

override fun onCreate(savedInstanceState: Bundle?) {

super.onCreate(savedInstanceState)
setContentView(R.layout.activity_main)

questionLabelView =
findViewById(R.id.main_question_label)
answerLabelView =
findViewById(R.id.main_answer_label)
confirmButtonView =
findViewById(R.id.main_button_confirm)
}
}

This pattern was used in nearly all Android applications (and I

can still see it nowadays in some projects), even though it is far
from perfect. We need to define multiple lateinit properties,
which are all read-write even though they are initialized only
once. Property definition and assignment are separated. If a
property is not used, it will not be marked by the IDE because
an assignment is considered a usage. Overall, there is a lot
of space for improvement. The solution turned out to be
extremely simple: we can define property initialization next
to its definition if we make it lazy.

class MainActivity : Activity() {

val questionLabelView: TextView by
lazy { findViewById(R.id.main_question_label) }
val answerLabelView: TextView by
lazy { findViewById(R.id.main_answer_label) }
val confirmButtonView: Button by
lazy { findViewById(R.id.main_button_confirm) }

override fun onCreate(savedInstanceState: Bundle) {

super.onCreate(savedInstanceState)
CONTENTS 85

setContentView(R.layout.main_activity)
}
}

Thanks to the lazy delegate, finding the view by id will be

postponed until the property is used for the first time, which
we can assume will happen after the content view is set. We
made such an assumption in the previous solution, so why
not make it in this one too? We also have some important
improvements: properties that keep view references are read-
only, initialization and definition are kept together, and un-
used properties will be marked. We also have performance
benefits: a view reference that is never used will never be
associated with the view element, which is good because the
findViewById execution can be expensive.

What is more, we can push this pattern further and extract

a function that will both define a lazy delegate and find a
view by id. In a project I co-created, we named this delegate
bindView, and it helped us make our view references really
clear, consistent, and readable.

class MainActivity : Activity() {

var questionLabelView: TextView by
bindView(R.id.main_question_label)
var answerLabelView: TextView by
bindView(R.id.main_answer_label)
var confirmButtonView: Button by
bindView(R.id.main_button_confirm)

override fun onCreate(savedInstanceState: Bundle) {

super.onCreate(savedInstanceState)
setContentView(R.layout.main_activity)
}
}

// ActivityExt.kt
fun <T : View> Activity.bindView(viewId: Int) =
lazy { this.findViewById<T>(viewId) }
CONTENTS 86

We started using this pattern to bind other references as well,

like strings or colors. But my favorite part was binding Activ-
ity arguments, which I still use today in some of my projects
because it’s very convenient to have all activity properties
defined together with their keys at the top of this activity
definition.

class SettingsActivity : Activity() {

private val titleString by bindString(R.string.title)
private val blueColor by bindColor(R.color.blue)

private val doctor by extra<Doctor>(DOCTOR_KEY)

private val title by extraString(TITLE_KEY)

override fun onCreate(savedInstanceState: Bundle?) {

super.onCreate(savedInstanceState)
setContentView(R.layout.settings_activity)
}
}

// ActivityExt.kt
fun <T> Activity.bindString(@IdRes id: Int): Lazy<T> =
lazy { this.getString(id) }
fun <T> Activity.bindColor(@IdRes id: Int): Lazy<T> =
lazy { this.getColour(id) }
fun <T : Parcelable> Activity.extra(key: String) =
lazy { this.intent.extras.getParcelable(key) }
fun Activity.extraString(key: String) =
lazy { this.intent.extras.getString(key) }

In the backend application, you can also find lazy delegates

that are used to initialize properties that should be initialized
when they are needed for the first time, but not during project
setup. A simple example is a connection to a local database.
As you can see, lazy is a powerful delegate that is mainly used
for performance optimization but can also be used to simplify
our code. I would like to finish this section with a small puzzle.
CONTENTS 87

Consider the following code⁹:

class Lazy {
var x = 0
val y by lazy { 1 / x }

fun hello() {
try {
print(y)
} catch (e: Exception) {
x = 1
print(y)
}
}
}

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

Lazy().hello()
}

What will be printed? Try to answer this question before

reading any further.
To understand the answer, we need to consider three things:

1. Delegate exceptions are propagated out of accessors.

2. A lazy delegate first tries to return a previously calcu-
lated value; if no value is already stored, it uses a lambda
expression to calculate it. If the calculation process is
disturbed with an exception, no value is stored; when
we ask for the lazy value the next time, processing starts
again.
3. Kotlin’s lambda expressions automatically capture vari-
able references; so, when we use x inside a lambda ex-
pression, every time we use its reference inside a lambda
⁹I first heard about this puzzle from Anton Keks’ presenta-
tion and it can be found in his repository, so I assume he is the
author.
CONTENTS 88

expression we will receive the current value of x; when

we call the lambda expression for the second time, x is 1,
so the result should be 1.

So, the answer to this puzzle is “1”.

Exercise: Blog Post Properties

In your project, you’re working with a BlogPost class that

represents a blog post, including its title, content, and author
details. Your task is to enhance the BlogPost class by adding
and implementing the following properties:

• authorName - a string that combines the author’s name

and surname. For example, if the author’s name is
“John” and surname is “Smith”, the value of this
property should be “John Smith”. You can assume that
you need to use this property many times per blog post
object.
• wordCount - an integer that represents the number of
words in the blog post. You can assume that you might
need this property more than once per blog post object,
and that it is expensive to calculate.
• isLongRead - a boolean that indicates whether the blog
post is longer than 1000 characters. You can assume that
you need to use this property at most once per blog post
object.
• summary - a string that is calculated using the
generateSummary function. This object is very heavy
to calculate, and you do not want to calculate it more
than once.

You need to decide how to implement each of these properties.

Your options are:

• val property defined by value

• val property defined by getter
• Lazy property

Starting code:
CONTENTS 89

data class BlogPost(

val title: String,
val content: String,
val author: Author,
) {
// TODO: Add properties here

private fun generateSummary(content: String): String =

content.take(100) + "..."
}

data class Author(

val key: String,
val name: String,
val surname: String,
)

Unit tests can be found in the MarcinMoskala/kotlin-

exercises project on GitHub in the file advanced/delegates/Lazy.kt.
You can clone this project and solve this exercise locally.

The observable delegate

The next important delegate from Kotlin stdlib is observable

from the Delegates object, which makes a property behave like
a regular property but also specifies a function that will be
executed whenever the property’s setter is called.

var name: String by

Delegates.observable("Empty") { prop, old, new ->
println("$old -> $new")
}

fun main() {
name = "Martin" // Empty -> Martin
name = "Igor" // Martin -> Igor
name = "Igor" // Igor -> Igor
}
CONTENTS 90

This lambda expression has three parameters: a reference to

the property, the value before the change, and the new value.
An observable delegate can be replaced with the following
setter¹⁰:

var prop: SomeType by Delegates.observable(initial, operation)

// Alternative to
var prop: SomeType = initial
set(newValue) {
field = newValue
operation(::prop, field, newValue)
}

Note that elements from object declarations can be imported

directly (known as a static import) and then used directly.

import kotlin.properties.Delegates.observable

val prop: SomeType by observable(initial, operation)

We use the observable delegate if we want to take some action

whenever a property value changes, e.g., when we want to log
each property change:

val status by observable(INITIAL) { _, old, new ->

log.info("Status changed from $old to $new")
}

This way, all property changes will be displayed in logs, and

we can easily track them. On Android, the observable delegate
is often used when a property change should lead to a view
update. For instance, when we implement a list adapter (a
class that decides how and what elements should be displayed
¹⁰Not in all cases because the observable delegate has better
synchronization, but this simplified code can help us under-
stand how observable works in general.
CONTENTS 91

in a list), we should redraw the view whenever the list of

elements changes. I often use an observable delegate to do this
automatically.

var elements by observable(elements) { _, old, new ->

if (new != old) notifyDataSetChanged()
}

We use an observable delegate to invoke some action when a

property changes. We might use it to implement a class that
invokes observers whenever an observable property changes.

import kotlin.properties.Delegates.observable

class ObservableProperty<T>(initial: T) {
private var observers: List<(T) -> Unit> = listOf()

var value: T by observable(initial) { _, _, new ->

observers.forEach { it(new) }
}

fun addObserver(observer: (T) -> Unit) {

observers += observer
}
}

fun main() {
val name = ObservableProperty("")
name.addObserver { println("Changed to $it") }
name.value = "A"
// Changed to A
name.addObserver { println("Now it is $it") }
name.value = "B"
// Changed to B
// Now it is B
}

Using an observable delegate, one property change can influ-

ence other properties or our application state. I’ve used this
CONTENTS 92

to implement unidirectional data binding when, for instance,

I wanted to define a property whose state change influenced
changes in a view. This is like the drawerOpen property in the
example below, which opens and closes the drawer when set
to true or false¹¹.

var drawerOpen by observable(false) { _, _, open ->

if (open) drawerLayout.openDrawer(GravityCompat.START)
else drawerLayout.closeDrawer(GravityCompat.START)
}

Note that a property delegate can be extracted into a separate

function that is reusable between components.

var drawerOpen by bindToDrawerOpen(false) { drawerLayout }

fun bindToDrawerOpen(
initial: Boolean,
lazyView: () -> DrawerLayout
) = observable(initial) { _, _, open ->
if (open) drawerLayout.openDrawer(GravityCompat.START)
else drawerLayout.closeDrawer(GravityCompat.START)
}

Another example might be when we write an application for

reading books, and we have properties to represent the book
id and page number. Let’s assume that changing the book the
user is reading means resetting the page number, which we
can do using an observable delegate.

¹¹I pushed this pattern further in the KotlinAndroidView-

Bindings library, which makes little sense in modern Android
development because it now has good support for LiveData and
StateFlow.
CONTENTS 93

import kotlin.properties.Delegates.observable

var book: String by observable("") { _, _, _ ->

page = 0
}
var page = 0

fun main() {
book = "TheWitcher"
repeat(69) { page++ }
println(book) // TheWitcher
println(page) // 69
book = "Ice"
println(book) // Ice
println(page) // 0
}

We can also use an observable delegate to interact with the

property value itself. For instance, for one project we de-
cided that a presenter should have sub-presenters, each of
which should have its own lifecycle, therefore the onCreate
and onDestroy methods should be called when a presenter is
added or removed. In order to never forget about these func-
tion calls, we can invoke them whenever the list of presenters
is changed. After each change, we call onCreate on the new
presenters (those that are now but were not before), and we
call onDestroy on the removed presenters (those that were
before and are not now).

var presenters: List<Presenter> by

observable(emptyList()) { _, old, new ->
(new - old).forEach { it.onCreate() }
(old - new).forEach { it.onDestroy() }
}

As you can see, there are many practical ways in which an

observable delegate can be used. Now, let’s talk about this
delegate’s brother, which also seems useful but is used much
less often in practice.
CONTENTS 94

The vetoable delegate

“Veto” is a Latin word meaning “I forbid”¹². The vetoable del-

egate is very similar to observable, but it can forbid property
value changes. That is why the vetoable lambda expression is
executed before the property value changes and returns the
Boolean type, which determines if the property value should
change or not. If this function returns true, the property value
will change; if it returns false, the value will not change.

var prop: SomeType by Delegates.vetoable(initial, operation)

// Alternative to
var prop: SomeType = initial
set(newValue) {
if (operation(::prop, field, newValue)) {
field = newValue
}
}

Here is a complete usage example:

import kotlin.properties.Delegates.vetoable

var smallList: List<String> by

vetoable(emptyList()) { _, _, new ->
println(new)
new.size <= 3
}

fun main() {
smallList = listOf("A", "B", "C") // [A, B, C]
println(smallList) // [A, B, C]
smallList = listOf("D", "E", "F", "G") // [D, E, F, G]
println(smallList) // [A, B, C]

¹²This word is well-known in Poland for historical reasons.

You can read about Liberum Veto.
CONTENTS 95

smallList = listOf("H") // [H]

println(smallList) // [H]
}

The vetoable delegate can be used when we have a property

with some requirements on its value; whenever someone tries
to modify this value, we first need to validate the new value.
We might also invoke some actions when a new value is valid
(like displaying it) or when it is not (like logging an error).
So, this is a conceptual presentation of how vetoable could be
used:

var name: String by vetoable("") { _, _, new ->

if (isValid(new)) {
showNewName(new)
true
} else {
showNameError()
false
}
}

In practice, the vetoable delegate is not used very often, but

some practical examples might include allowing only specific
state changes in an application, or requiring only valid values.

import kotlin.properties.Delegates.vetoable

val state by vetoable(Initial) { _, _, newState ->

if (newState is Initial) {
log.e("Cannot set initial state")
return@vetoable false
}
// ...
return@vetoable true
}

val email by vetoable(email) { _, _, newEmail ->

CONTENTS 96

emailRegex.matches(newEmail)
}

A map as a delegate

The last delegate from Kotlin standard library is Map, which

has keys of type String. When we use it as a delegate and we
ask for a property value, the result is the value associated with
this property name.

fun main() {
val map: Map<String, Any> = mapOf(
"name" to "Marcin",
"kotlinProgrammer" to true
)
val name: String by map
val kotlinProgrammer: Boolean by map
println(name) // Marcin
println(kotlinProgrammer) // true
}

How can Map be a delegate? To be able to use an object as a

read-only property delegate, this object must have a getValue
function. For Map, it is defined as an extension function in
Kotlin stdlib.

operator fun <V, V1 : V> Map<String, V>.getValue(

thisRef: Any?,
property: KProperty<*>
): V1 {
val key = property.name
val value = get(key)
if (value == null && !containsKey(key)) {
throw NoSuchElementException(
"Key ${property.name} is missing in the map."
)
} else {
return value as V1
CONTENTS 97

}
}

So what are some use cases for using Map as a delegate? In most
applications, you should not need it. However, you might be
forced by an API to treat objects as maps that have some ex-
pected keys and some that might be added dynamically in the
future. I mean situations like “This endpoint will return an
object representing a user, with properties id, displayName,
etc., and on the profile page you need to iterate over all these
properties, including those that are not known in advance,
and display an appropriate view for each of them”. For such
a requirement, we need to represent an object using Map, then
we can use this map as a delegate in order to more easily use
properties we know we can expect.

class User(val map: Map<String, Any>) {

val id: Long by map
val name: String by map
}

fun main() {
val user = User(
mapOf<String, Any>(
"id" to 1234L,
"name" to "Marcin"
)
)
println(user.name) // Marcin
println(user.id) // 1234
println(user.map) // {id=1234, name=Marcin}
}

Map can only be used for read-only properties because it is a

read-only interface. For read-write properties, use MutableMap.
Any delegated property change is a change in the map it
delegates to, and any change in this map leads to a different
property value. Delegating to a MutableMap map is like access-
ing the shared state of a read/write data source.
CONTENTS 98

class User(val map: MutableMap<String, Any>) {

var id: Long by map
var name: String by map
}

fun main() {
val user = User(
mutableMapOf(
"id" to 123L,
"name" to "Alek",
)
)

println(user.name) // Alek
println(user.id) // 123

user.name = "Bolek"
println(user.name) // Bolek
println(user.map) // {id=123, name=Bolek}

user.map["id"] = 456
println(user.id) // 456
println(user.map) // {id=456, name=Bolek}
}

Review of how variables work

A few years ago, the following puzzle was circulating in the

Kotlin community. A few people asked me to explain it before
I even included it in my Kotlin workshop.
CONTENTS 99

class Population(var cities: Map<String, Int>) {

val sanFrancisco by cities
val tallinn by cities
val kotlin by cities
}

val population = Population(

mapOf(
"sanFrancisco" to 864_816,
"tallinn" to 413_782,
"kotlin" to 43_005
)
)

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

// Years has passed,
// now we all live on Mars
population.cities = emptyMap()
println(population.sanFrancisco)
println(population.tallinn)
println(population.kotlin)
}

Before going any further, try to guess the answer.

The behavior presented by this puzzle might be counterintu-
itive, but it is certainly correct. I will present the answer after
I give a proper step-by-step rationale.
Let’s start with a simpler example. Take a look at the following
code.

fun main() {
var a = 10
var b = a
a = 20
println(b)
}

What will be printed? The answer is 10 because variables are

CONTENTS 100

always assigned to values, never other variables. First, a is

assigned to 10, then b is assigned to 10, then a changes and is
assigned to 20. This does not change the fact that b is assigned
to 10.

This picture gets more complicated when we introduce muta-

ble objects. Take a look at the following snippet.

fun main() {
val user1 = object {
var name: String = "Rafał"
}
val user2 = user1
user1.name = "Bartek"
println(user2.name)
}

What will be printed? The answer is “Bartek”. Here both

user1 and user2 reference the same object, and then this object
changes internally.
CONTENTS 101

The situation would be different if we changed what user1

references instead of changing the value of name.

interface Nameable {
val name: String
}

fun main() {
var user1: Namable = object : Nameable {
override var name: String = "Rafał"
}
val user2 = user1
user1 = object : Nameable {
override var name: String = "Bartek"
}
println(user2.name)
}

What is the answer? It is “Rafał”.

CONTENTS 102

This is particularly confusing if we compare mutable lists

with read-only lists referenced with var, especially since both
can be changed with the += sign. First, take a look at the
following snippet:

fun main() {
var list1 = listOf(1, 2, 3)
var list2 = list1
list1 += 4
println(list2)
}

What will be printed? The answer is [1, 2, 3]. It has to be this

way because list1 references a read-only list. This means that
list1 += 4 in this case means list1 = list1 + 4, and so a new
list object is returned. Now, let’s take a look at the following
snippet:
CONTENTS 103

fun main() {
val list1 = mutableListOf(1, 2, 3)
val list2 = list1
list1 += 4
println(list2)
}

What will be printed? The answer is [1, 2, 3, 4] because

list1 references a mutable list. This means that list1 += 4
in this case means list1.plusAssign(4), i.e., list1.add(4), and
the same list object is returned. Now, consider using Map as a
delegate:

fun main() {
var map = mapOf("a" to 10)
val a by map
map = mapOf("a" to 20)
println(a)
}

Can you see that the answer should be 10? On the other hand,
if the map were mutable, the answer would be different:

fun main() {
val mmap = mutableMapOf("a" to 10)
val a by mmap
mmap["a"] = 20
println(a)
}

Can you see that the answer should be 20? This is consistent
with the behavior of the other variables and with what prop-
erties are compiled to.
CONTENTS 104

var map = mapOf("a" to 10)

// val a by map
// is compiled to
val `a$delegate` = map
val a: Int
get() = `a$delegate`.getValue(null, ::a)

val mmap = mutableMapOf("b" to 10)

// val b by mmap
// is compiled to
val `b$delegate` = mmap
val b: Int
get() = `b$delegate`.getValue(null, ::b)

fun main() {
map = mapOf("a" to 20)
println(a) // 10

mmap["b"] = 20
println(b) // 20
}

Finally, let’s get back to our puzzle again. I hope you can see
now that changing the cities property should not influence
the value of sanFrancisco, tallinn, or kotlin. In Kotlin, we
delegate to a delegate, not to a property, just like we assign a
property to a value, not another property.

class Population(var cities: Map<String, Int>) {

val sanFrancisco by cities
val tallinn by cities
val kotlin by cities
}

val population = Population(

mapOf(
"sanFrancisco" to 864_816,
"tallinn" to 413_782,
"kotlin" to 43_005
CONTENTS 105

)
)

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

// Years has passed,
// now we all live on Mars
population.cities = emptyMap()
println(population.sanFrancisco)
println(population.tallinn)
println(population.kotlin)
}

To clear the populations, the cities map would have to be

mutable, and using population.cities.clear() would cause
population.sanFrancisco to fail.

Summary

In this chapter, you’ve learned how property delegation

works and how to define custom property delegates. You’ve
also learned about the most important property delegates
from the Kotlin standard library: Delegates.notNull, lazy,
Delegates.observable, Delegates.vetoable, Map<String, T> and
MutableMap<String, T>.
I hope you will find this knowledge useful in your
programming practice.

Exercise: Mutable lazy delegate

Delegate lazy can only be used to val variables. Implement

MutableLazy delegate that can be used to var variables. It should
behave like lazy delegate, but should allow to set the value. If
getter is called before the property is set, it should inilialize
the property using lambda expression. If getter is called after
the property is set, it should return the set value. If setter is
called, it should set the value.
CONTENTS 106

fun calculate(): Int {

print("Calculating... ")
return 42
}

var a by mutableLazy { calculate() }

println(a) // Calculating... 42
println(a) // 42
a = 1
println(a) // 1

var b by mutableLazy { calculate() }

b = 2
println(b) // 2

Starting code:

fun <T> mutableLazy(

initializer: () -> T
): ReadWriteProperty<Any?, T> = TODO()

Starting code and unit tests can be found in the

MarcinMoskala/kotlin-exercises project on GitHub in the file
advanced/delegates/MutableLazy.kt. You can clone this project
and solve this exercise locally.
CONTENTS 107

Kotlin Contracts

One of Kotlin’s most mysterious features is Kotlin Contracts.

Most developers use them without even knowing how they
work, or even how to define them. Kotlin Contracts make the
Kotlin compiler smarter and allow us to do things that would
otherwise be impossible. But before we see them in action,
let’s start with a contract definition which can be found in
some Kotlin stdlib functions.

@kotlin.internal.InlineOnly
public inline fun CharSequence?.isNullOrBlank(): Boolean {
contract {
returns(false) implies (this@isNullOrBlank != null)
}

return this == null || this.isBlank()

}

public inline fun measureTimeMillis(block: () -> Unit): Long {

contract {
callsInPlace(block, InvocationKind.EXACTLY_ONCE)
}
val start = System.currentTimeMillis()
block()
return System.currentTimeMillis() - start
}

A Kotlin Contract is defined using the contract function,

which for now can only be used as the start of the body of
a top-level function. The contract function starts the DSL
builder. This is a peculiar function because it is an inline
function with an empty body.
CONTENTS 108

@ContractsDsl
@ExperimentalContracts
@InlineOnly
@SinceKotlin("1.3")
@Suppress("UNUSED_PARAMETER")
inline fun contract(builder: ContractBuilder.() -> Unit) {
}

Inline function calls are replaced with the body of these func-
tions¹³. If this body is empty, it means that such a function
call is literally replaced with nothing, so it is gone. So, why
might we want to call a function if its call is gone during code
compilation? Kotlin Contracts are a way of communicating
with the compiler; therefore, it’s good that they are replaced
with nothing, otherwise they would only disturb and slow
down our code after compilation. Inside Kotlin Contracts,
we specify extra information that the compiler can utilize to
improve the Kotlin programming experience. In the above
example, the isNullOrBlank contract specifies when the func-
tion returns false, thus the Kotlin compiler can assume that
the receiver is not null. This information is used for smart-
casting. The contract of measureTimeMillis specifies that the
block function will be called in place exactly once. Let’s see
what this means and how exactly we can specify a contract.

The meaning of a contract

In the world of programming, a contract is a set of expecta-

tions on an element, library, or service. By “contract”, we
mean what is “promised” by the creators of this solution in
documentation, comments, or by explicit code structures¹⁴.
¹³I described inline functions in the Inline functions chapter
in Functional Kotlin.
¹⁴This is known as Design by contract, the advantage of
which is that it frees a function from having to handle cases
outside of the precondition. Bertrand Meyer coined this term
in connection with his design of the Eiffel programming lan-
guage.
CONTENTS 109

It’s no wonder that this name is also used to describe language

structures that are used to specify expectations on some code
elements. For instance, in C++ there is a structure known as
a contract that is used to demand certain conditions for the
execution of a function:

// C++
int mul(int x, int y)
[[expects: x > 0]]
[[expects: y > 0]]
[[ensures audit res: res > 0]]{
return x * y;
}

In Kotlin, we use the require and check functions to specify

expectations on arguments and states.

fun mul(x: Int, y: Int): Int {

require(x > 0)
require(y > 0)
return x * y
}

The problem is with expressing messages that are directed

to the compiler. For this, we could use annotations (which
was actually considered when Kotlin Contracts were being de-
signed), but their expressiveness is much more limited than
DSL. So, the creators of Kotlin defined a DSL that starts func-
tion definitions. Let’s see what we can express using Kotlin
Contracts.

How many times do we invoke a function from

an argument?

As part of a contract, we can use callsInPlace to guarantee that

a parameter with a functional type is called in place during
function execution. Using a value from the InvocationKind
enum, this structure can also be used to specify how many
times this function is executed.
CONTENTS 110

@kotlin.internal.InlineOnly
public inline fun <R> run(block: () -> R): R {
contract {
callsInPlace(block, InvocationKind.EXACTLY_ONCE)
}
return block()
}

There are four possible kinds of invocation:

• EXACTLY_ONCE - specifies that this function will be called

exactly once.
• AT_MOST_ONCE - specifies that this function will be called at
most once.
• AT_LEAST_ONCE - specifies that this function will be called
at least once.
• UNKNOWN - does not specify the number of function invoca-
tions.

Execution of callsInPlace is information to the compiler,

which can use this information in a range of situations. For
instance, a read-only variable cannot be reassigned, but it can
be initialized separately from the definition.

fun main() {
val i: Int
i = 42
println(i) // 42
}

When a functional parameter is specified to be called exactly

once, a read-only property can be defined outside a lambda
expression and initialized inside it.
CONTENTS 111

fun main() {
val i: Int
run {
i = 42
}
println(i) // 42
}

Consider the result variable, which is defined in the

forceExecutionTimeMillis function and initialized in the
lambda expression in the measureTimeMillis function. This is
possible only because the measureTimeMillis parameter block
is defined to be called in place exactly once.

suspend fun <T, R> forceExecutionTimeMillis(

timeMillis: Long, block: () -> R
): R {
val result: R
val timeTaken = measureTimeMillis {
result = block()
}
val timeLeft = timeMillis - timeTaken
delay(timeLeft)
return result
}

@OptIn(ExperimentalContracts::class)
inline fun measureTimeMillis(block: () -> Unit): Long {
contract {
callsInPlace(block, InvocationKind.EXACTLY_ONCE)
}
val start = System.currentTimeMillis()
block()
return System.currentTimeMillis() - start
}

Contracts are still an experimental feature. To de-

fine contracts in your own functions, you need to
CONTENTS 112

use OptIn annotation with ExperimentalContracts. It

is extremely unlikely Kotlin will drop this function-
ality, but its API might change.

The EXACTLY_ONCE invocation kind is the most popular because

it offers the most advantages. With this invocation kind, read-
only properties can only be initialized in blocks. Read-write
properties can also be initialized and re-initialized in blocks
whose invocation kind is AT_LEAST_ONCE.

@OptIn(ExperimentalContracts::class)
fun checkTextEverySecond(callback: (String) -> Unit) {
contract {
callsInPlace(callback, InvocationKind.AT_LEAST_ONCE)
}
val task = object : TimerTask() {
override fun run() {
callback(getCurrentText())
}
}
task.run()
Timer().schedule(task, 1000, 1000)
}

fun main() {
var text: String
checkTextEverySecond {
text = it
}
println(text)
}

In the above code, only the first call of callback is

called in place, so this contract is not completely
correct.

Another example of how the Kotlin Compiler uses the in-

formation specified by the callsInPlace function is when a
CONTENTS 113

statement inside a lambda is terminal for function execution

(declares the Nothing result type¹⁵), therefore everything after
it is unreachable. Thanks to the contract, this might include
statements outside this lambda.

fun main() {
run {
println("A")
return
println("B") // unreachable
}
println("C") // unreachable
}

I’ve seen this used in many projects to return from a lambda

expression.

fun makeDialog(): Dialog {

DialogBuilder().apply {
title = "Alert"
setPositiveButton("OK") { /*...*/ }
setNegativeButton("Cancel") { /*...*/ }
return create()
}
}

fun readFirstLine(): String? = File("XYZ")

.useLines {
return it.firstOrNull()
}

Implications of the fact that a function has

returned a value

Another kind of contract statement includes the returns func-

tion and the infix implies function to imply some value-type
¹⁵For details, see The beauty of the Kotlin type system chapter
in Kotlin Essentials.
CONTENTS 114

implications based on the result of the function. The compiler

uses this feature for smart-casting. Consider the isNullOrEmpty
function, which returns true if the receiver collection is null
or empty. Its contract states that if this function returns false,
the compiler can infer that the receiver is not null.

inline fun <T> Collection<T>?.isNullOrEmpty(): Boolean {

contract {
returns(false) implies (this@isNullOrEmpty != null)
}

return this == null || this.isEmpty()

}

fun printEachLine(list: List<String>?) {

if (!list.isNullOrEmpty()) {
for (e in list) { //list smart-casted to List<String>
println(e)
}
}
}

Here is a custom example in which the compiler can infer that

the receiver is of type Loading because startedLoading returns
true.

@OptIn(ExperimentalContracts::class)
fun VideoState.startedLoading(): Boolean {
contract {
returns(true) implies (this@startedLoading is Loading)
}
return this is Loading && this.progress > 0
}

Currently, the returns function can only use true, false, and
null as arguments. The implication must be either a parame-
ter (or receiver) that is of some type or is not null.
CONTENTS 115

Using contracts in practice

Some important functions from Kotlin stdlib define their con-

tract; we benefit from this as it makes the compiler smarter.
Some developers don’t even notice how they use contracts
and might be surprised to see how Kotlin allows something
that would not be allowed in other languages, like smart-
casting a variable in an unusual case. Having said that, you
don’t even need to know how a contract works in order to
benefit from it.
Defining contracts in our own top-level functions is extraor-
dinarily rare, even for library creators. I’ve seen it done in
some projects, but most projects don’t even have a single
custom function with a specified contract. However, it’s good
to understand contracts because they can be really helpful in
some situations. A good example is presented in the article
Slowing down your code with Coroutines by Jan Vladimir
Mostert, which presents a technique to make some requests
take a specific time. Consider the code below. The function
measureCoroutineTimedValue needs to return the measured time
as well as the value which is calculated during its execution.
To measure time, it uses measureCoroutineDuration, which re-
turns Duration. To store the result of the body, it needs to define
a variable. The body of measureCoroutineTimedValue only works
because measureCoroutineDuration is defined in its callsInPlace
contract
with InvocationKind.EXACTLY_ONCE.

@OptIn(ExperimentalContracts::class)
suspend fun measureCoroutineDuration(
body: suspend () -> Unit
): Duration {
contract {
callsInPlace(body, InvocationKind.EXACTLY_ONCE)
}
val dispatcher = coroutineContext[ContinuationInterceptor]
return if (dispatcher is TestDispatcher) {
val before = dispatcher.scheduler.currentTime
CONTENTS 116

body()
val after = dispatcher.scheduler.currentTime
after - before
} else {
measureTimeMillis {
body()
}
}.milliseconds
}

@OptIn(ExperimentalContracts::class)
suspend fun <T> measureCoroutineTimedValue(
body: suspend () -> T
): TimedValue<T> {
contract {
callsInPlace(body, InvocationKind.EXACTLY_ONCE)
}
var value: T
val duration = measureCoroutineDuration {
value = body()
}
return TimedValue(value, duration)
}

Summary

Kotlin Contracts let us specify information that is useful for

the compiler. They help us define functions that are more
convenient to use. Kotlin Contracts are defined in some
Kotlin stdlib functions, like run, let, also, use, measureTime,
isNullOrBlank, and many more; this makes their usage more
elastic and supports better smart-casting. We rarely define
contracts ourselves, but it’s good to know about them and
what they offer.
CONTENTS 117

Exercise: Coroutine time measurement

You defined a function to measure block execution time, that

works for virtual time as well:

suspend fun measureCoroutine(

body: suspend () -> Unit
): Duration {
val dispatcher = coroutineContext[ContinuationInterceptor]
return if (dispatcher is TestDispatcher) {
val before = dispatcher.scheduler.currentTime
body()
val after = dispatcher.scheduler.currentTime
after - before
} else {
measureTimeMillis {
body()
}
}.milliseconds
}

However, you found that it is not very convenient to use

because it lacks contract. Define it, to make the following
code compile:

suspend fun main() {

runTest {
val result: String
val duration = measureCoroutine {
delay(1000)
result = "OK"
}
println(duration) // 1000 ms
println(result) // OK
}

runBlocking {
val result: String
CONTENTS 118

val duration = measureCoroutine {

delay(1000)
result = "OK"
}
println(duration) // 1000 ms
println(result) // OK
}
}

Starting code and usage examples can be found in the

MarcinMoskala/kotlin-exercises project on GitHub in the file
advanced/contract/MesureCoroutineTime.kt. You can clone this
project and solve this exercise locally.
CONTENTS 119

Java interoperability

Kotlin is derived from the JVM platform, so Kotlin/JVM is its

most mature flavor, compared to, e.g., Kotlin/JS or Kotlin/-
Native. But Kotlin and other JVM languages, like Java, are
still different programming languages, therefore some chal-
lenges are inevitable when trying to get these languages to
cooperate. So, some extra effort might be needed to make
them work together as smoothly as possible. Let’s see some
examples.

Nullable types

Java cannot mark that a type is not nullable as all its types are
considered nullable (except for primitive types). In trying to
correct this flaw, Java developers started using Nullable and
NotNull annotations from a number of libraries that define
such annotations. These annotations are helpful but do not
offer the safety that Kotlin offers. Nevertheless, in order to
respect this convention, Kotlin also marks its types using
Nullable and NotNull annotations when compiled to JVM¹⁶.

class MessageSender {
fun sendMessage(title: String, content: String?) {}
}

¹⁶Kotlin, when compiled to JVM, uses Nullable and NotNull

annotations from the org.jetbrains.annotations package.
CONTENTS 120

// Compiles to the analog of the following Java code

final class MessageSender {
public void sendMessage(
@NotNull String title,
@Nullable String content
) {
Intrinsics.checkNotNullParameter(title, "title");
}
}

On the other hand, when Kotlin sees Java types with Nullable
and NotNull annotations, it treats these types accordingly as
nullable and non-nullable types¹⁷.

public class JavaClass {

public static @NotNull String produceNonNullable() {
return "ABC";
}

public static @Nullable String produceNullable() {

return null;
}
}

This makes interoperability between Kotlin and Java

automatic in most cases. The problem is that when a Java
type is not annotated, Kotlin does not know if it should
be considered nullable or not. One could assume that a
nullable type should be used in such a case, but this approach
does not work well. Just consider a Java function that
returns Observable<List<User>>, which in Kotlin is seen as
¹⁷Kotlin supports Nullable and NotNull annotations from a
variety of libraries, including JSR-305, Eclipse, and Android.
CONTENTS 121

Observable<List<User?>?>?.
There would be so many types to
unpack, even though we know none of them should actually
be nullable.

// Java
public class UserRepo {

public Observable<List<User>> fetchUsers() {

//***
}
}

// Kotlin, if unannotated types were considered nullable

val repo = UserRepo()
val users: Observable<List<User>> = repo.fetchUsers()!!
.map { it!!.map { it!! } }

This is why Kotlin introduced the concept of platform type,

which is a type that comes from another language and has
unknown nullability. Platform types are notated with a single
exclamation mark ! after the type name, such as String!, but
this notation cannot be used in code. Platform types are non-
denotable, meaning that they can’t be written explicitly in
code. When a platform value is assigned to a Kotlin variable
or property, it can be inferred, but it cannot be explicitly
set. Instead, we can choose the type that we expect: either a
nullable or a non-null type.

// Kotlin
val repo = UserRepo()
val user1 = repo.fetchUsers()
// The type of user1 is Observable<List<User!>!>!
val user2: Observable<List<User>> = repo.fetchUsers()
val user3: Observable<List<User?>?>? = repo.fetchUsers()

Casting platform types to non-nullable types is better than

not specifying a type at all, but it is still dangerous because
CONTENTS 122

something we assume is non-null might be null. This is why,

for safety reasons, I always suggest being very careful when
we get platform types from Java¹⁸.

Kotlin type mapping

Nullability is not the only source of differences between

Kotlin and Java types. Many basic Java types have Kotlin
alternatives. For instance, java.lang.String in Java maps to
kotlin.String in Kotlin. This means that when a Kotlin file
is compiled to Java, kotlin.String becomes java.lang.String.
This also means that java.lang.String in a Java file is treated
like it is kotlin.String. You could say that kotlin.String is type
aliased to java.lang.String. Here are a few other Kotlin types
with associated Java types:

¹⁸More about handling platform types in Effective Kotlin,

Item 3: Eliminate platform types as soon as possible.
CONTENTS 123

Kotlin type Java type

kotlin.Any java.lang.Object

kotlin.Cloneable java.lang.Cloneable

kotlin.Comparable java.lang.Comparable

kotlin.Enum java.lang.Enum

kotlin.Annotation java.lang.Annotation

kotlin.Deprecated java.lang.Deprecated

kotlin.CharSequence java.lang.CharSequence

kotlin.String java.lang.String

kotlin.Number java.lang.Number

kotlin.Throwable java.lang.Throwable

Type mapping is slightly more complicated for primitive

types and types that represent collections, so let’s discuss
them.

JVM primitives

Java has two kinds of values: objects and primitives. In Kotlin,

all values are objects, but the Byte, Short, Int, Long, Float, Double,
Char, and Boolean types use primitives under the hood. So, for
example, when you use Int as a parameter, it will be int under
the hood.

// KotlinFile.kt
fun multiply(a: Int, b: Int) = a * b

// Compiles to the analog of the following Java code

public final class KotlinFileKt {
public static final int multiply(int a, int b) {
return a * b;
}
}

Kotlin uses primitives whenever possible. Here is a table of all

types that are compiled into primitives.
CONTENTS 124

Kotlin type Java type

Byte byte

Short short

Int int

Long long

Float float

Double double

Char char

Boolean boolean

Primitives are not nullable on JVM, so nullable Kotlin types

are always compiled into non-primitive types. For types that
could be otherwise represented as primitives, we say these are
wrapped types. Classes like Integer or Boolean are just simple
wrappers over primitive values.

Kotlin type Java type

Byte? Byte

Short? Short

Int? Integer

Long? Long

Float? Float

Double? Double

Char? Char

Boolean? Boolean

Primitives cannot be used as generic type arguments, so col-

lections use wrapped types instead.

Kotlin type Java type

List<Int> List<Integer>

Set<Long> Set<Long>

Map<Float, Double> Map<Float, Double>

CONTENTS 125

Only arrays can store primitives, so Kotlin introduced spe-

cial types to represent arrays of primitives. For instance, to
represent an array of primitive ints, we use IntArray, where
Array<Int> represents an array of wrapped types.

Kotlin type Java type

Array<Int> Integer[]

IntArray int[]

Similar array types are defined for all primitive Java types.

Kotlin type Java type

ByteArray byte[]

ShortArray short[]

IntArray int[]

LongArray long[]

FloatArray float[]

DoubleArray double[]

CharArray char[]

BooleanArray boolean[]

Using these types as an array type argument makes an array

or arrays.

Kotlin type Java type

Array<IntArray> int[][]

Array<Array<LongArray>> long[][][]

Array<Array<Int>> Integer[][]

Array<Array<Array<Long>>> Long[][][]

Collection types

Kotlin introduced a distinction between read-only and muta-

ble collection types, but this distinction is missing in Java. For
instance, in Java we have the List interface, which includes
CONTENTS 126

methods that allow list modification. But in Java we also use

immutable collections, and they implement the same inter-
face. Their methods for collection modification, like add or
remove, throw UnsupportedOperationException if they are called.

// Java
public final class JavaClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
List<Integer> numbers = List.of(1, 2, 3);
numbers.add(4); // UnsupportedOperationException
}
}

This is a clear violation of the Interface Segregation Principle,

an important programming principle that states that no code
should be forced to depend on methods it does not use. This
is an essential Java flaw, but this is hard to change due to
backward compatibility.
Kotlin introduced a distinction between read-only and muta-
ble collection types, which works perfectly when we operate
purely on Kotlin projects. The problem arises when we need
to interoperate with Java. When Kotlin sees a non-Kotlin file
with an element expecting or returning the List interface, it
does not know if this list should be considered mutable or not,
so the result type is (Mutable)List, which can be used as both
List and MutableList.

On the other hand, when we use Kotlin code from Java, we

have the opposite problem: Java does not distinguish between
mutable and read-only lists at the interface level, so both these
types are treated as List.
CONTENTS 127

// KotlinFile.kt
fun readOnlyList(): List<Int> = listOf(1, 2, 3)
fun mutableList(): MutableList<Int> = mutableListOf(1, 2, 3)

// Compiles to analog of the following Java code

public final class KotlinFileKt {
@NotNull
public static final List readOnlyList() {
return CollectionsKt
.listOf(new Integer[]{1, 2, 3});
}

@NotNull
public static final List mutableList() {
return CollectionsKt
.mutableListOf(new Integer[]{1, 2, 3});
}
}

This interface has mutating methods like add or remove, so

using them in Java might lead to exceptions.
CONTENTS 128

// Java
public final class JavaClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
List<Integer> integers = KotlinFileKt.readOnlyList();
integers.add(20); // UnsupportedOperationException
}
}

This fact can be problematic. A read-only Kotlin list might

be mutated in Java because the transition to Java down-casts
it to mutable. This is a hack that breaks the Kotlin List type
contract¹⁹.
By default, all objects that implement a Kotlin List interface
on JVM implement Java List, so methods like add or remove are
generated for them. THe default implementations of these
methods throw UnsupportedOperationException. The same can
be said about Set and Map.

¹⁹See Effective Kotlin, Item 32: Respect abstraction contracts.

CONTENTS 129

Annotation targets

Kotlin introduced the property concept, which translates to

Java getters, optional setters, fields, and delegates.

import kotlin.properties.Delegates.notNull

class User {
var name = "ABC" // getter, setter, field
var surname: String by notNull()//getter, setter, delegate
val fullName: String // only getter
get() = "$name $surname"
}

// Compiles to the analog of the following Java code

public final class User {
// $FF: synthetic field
static final KProperty[] $$delegatedProperties = ...

@NotNull
private String name = "ABC";

@NotNull
private final ReadWriteProperty surname$delegate;

@NotNull
public final String getName() {
return this.name;
}

public final void setName(@NotNull String var1) {

Intrinsics.checkNotNullParameter(var1, "<set-?>");
this.name = var1;
}

@NotNull
public final String getSurname() {
return (String) this.surname$delegate
CONTENTS 130

.getValue(this, $$delegatedProperties[0]);
}

public final void setSurname(@NotNull String v) {

Intrinsics.checkNotNullParameter(v, "<set-?>");
this.surname$delegate
.setValue(this, $$delegatedProperties[0], v);
}

@NotNull
public final String getFullName() {
return this.name + ' ' + this.getSurname();
}

public User() {
this.surname$delegate = Delegates.INSTANCE.notNull();
}
}

This creates a problem when we annotate a property because

if a property translates to many elements under the hood, like
a getter or a field, how can we annotate a concrete one on
JVM? In other words, how can we annotate a getter or a field?

class User {
@SomeAnnotation
var name = "ABC"
}

When you annotate a Kotlin element that is used to

generate multiple Java elements, you can specify a use-
side target for an annotation. For instance, to mark that
SomeAnnotation should be used for a property field, we should
use @field:SomeAnnotation.
CONTENTS 131

class User {
@field:SomeAnnotation
var name = "ABC"
}

For a property, the following targets are supported:

• property (annotations with this target are not visible to

Java)
• field (property field)
• get (property getter)
• set (property setter)
• setparam (property setter parameter)
• delegate (the field storing the delegate instance for a
delegated property)

annotation class A
annotation class B
annotation class C
annotation class D
annotation class E

class User {
@property:A
@get:B
@set:C
@field:D
@setparam:E
var name = "ABC"
}
CONTENTS 132

// Compiles to the analog of the following Java code

public final class User {
@D
@NotNull
private String name = "ABC";

@A
public static void getName$annotations() {
}

@B
@NotNull
public final String getName() {
return this.name;
}

@C
public final void setName(@E @NotNull String var1) {
Intrinsics.checkNotNullParameter(var1, "<set-?>");
this.name = var1;
}
}

When a property is defined in a constructor, an additional

param target is used to annotate the constructor parameter.

class User(
@param:A val name: String
)

By default, the annotation target is chosen according to the

@Target annotation of the annotation being used. If there are
multiple applicable targets, the first applicable target from
the following list is used:

• param
• property
• field
CONTENTS 133

Note that property annotations without an annotation target

will by default use property, so they will not be visible from
Java reflection.

annotation class A

class User {
@A
val name = "ABC"
}

// Compiles to the analog of the following Java code

public final class User {
@NotNull
private String name = "ABC";

@A
public static void getName$annotations() {
}

@NotNull
public final String getName() {
return this.name;
}
}

An annotation in front of a class annotates this class. To anno-

tate the primary constructor, we need to use the constructor
keyword and place the annotation in front of it.
CONTENTS 134

annotation class A
annotation class B

@A
class User @B constructor(
val name: String
)

// Compiles to the analog of the following Java code

@A
public final class User {
@NotNull
private final String name;

@NotNull
public final String getName() {
return this.name;
}

@B
public User(@NotNull String name) {
Intrinsics.checkNotNullParameter(name, "name");
super();
this.name = name;
}
}

We can also annotate a file using the file target and place an
annotation at the beginning of the file (before the package).
An example will be shown in the JvmName section.
When you annotate an extension function or an extension
property, you can also use the receiver target to annotate the
receiver parameter.
CONTENTS 135

annotation class Positive

fun @receiver:Positive Double.log() = ln(this)

// Java alternative
public static final double log(@Positive double $this$log) {
return Math.log($this$log);
}

Static elements

In Kotlin, we don’t have the concept of static elements, so

use object declarations and companion objects instead. Using
them in Kotlin is just like using static elements in Java.

import java.math.BigDecimal

class Money(val amount: BigDecimal, val currency: String) {

companion object {
fun usd(amount: Double) =
Money(amount.toBigDecimal(), "PLN")
}
}

object MoneyUtils {
fun parseMoney(text: String): Money = TODO()
}

fun main() {
val m1 = Money.usd(10.0)
val m2 = MoneyUtils.parseMoney("10 EUR")
}

However, using these objects from Java is not very conve-

nient. To use an object declaration, we need to use the static
INSTANCE field, which is called Companion for companion objects.
CONTENTS 136

// Java
public class JavaClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Money m1 = Money.Companion.usd(10.0);
Money m2 = MoneyUtils.INSTANCE.parseMoney("10 EUR");
}
}

It’s important to know that to use any Kotlin ele-

ment in Java, a package must be specified. Kotlin
allows elements without packages, but Java does
not.

To simplify the use of these object declaration²⁰ methods, we

can annotate them with JvmStatic, which makes the compiler
generate an additional static method to support easier calls to
non-Kotlin JVM languages.

// Kotlin
class Money(val amount: BigDecimal, val currency: String) {
companion object {
@JvmStatic
fun usd(amount: Double) =
Money(amount.toBigDecimal(), "PLN")
}
}

object MoneyUtils {
@JvmStatic
fun parseMoney(text: String): Money = TODO()
}

fun main() {
val money1 = Money.usd(10.0)
val money2 = MoneyUtils.parseMoney("10 EUR")
}

²⁰A companion object is also an object declaration, as I

explained in the Kotlin Essentials book.
CONTENTS 137

// Java
public class JavaClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Money m1 = Money.usd(10.0);
Money m2 = MoneyUtils.parseMoney("10 EUR");
}
}

JvmField

As we’ve discussed already, each property is represented by

its accessors. This means that if you have a property name in
Kotlin, you need to use the getName getter to use it in Java; if a
property is read-write, you need to use the setNamesetter.

// Kotlin
class Box {
var name = ""
}

// Java
public class JavaClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Box box = new Box();
box.setName("ABC");
System.out.println(box.getName());
}
}

The name field is private in Box, so we can only access it using

accessors. However, some libraries that use reflection require
the use of public fields, which are provided using the JvmField
annotation for a property. Such properties cannot have cus-
tom accessors, use a delegate, be open, or override another
property.
CONTENTS 138

// Kotlin
class Box {
@JvmField
var name = ""
}

// Java
public class JavaClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Box box = new Box();
box.name = "ABC";
System.out.println(box.name);
}
}

When the JvmField annotation is used for an annotation in

an object declaration or a companion object, its field also
becomes static.

// Kotlin
object Box {
@JvmField
var name = ""
}

// Java
public class JavaClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Box.name = "ABC";
System.out.println(Box.name);
}
}

Constant variables do not need this annotation as they will

always be represented as static fields.
CONTENTS 139

// Kotlin
class MainWindow {
// ...

companion object {
const val SIZE = 10
}
}

// Java
public class JavaClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println(MainWindow.SIZE);
}
}

Using Java accessors in Kotlin

Kotlin properties are represented by Java accessors. A typical

accessor is just a property name capitalized with a get or set
prefix. The only exception is Boolean properties prefixed with
“is”, whose getter name is the same as the property name, and
its setter skips the “is” prefix.

class User {
var name = "ABC"
var isAdult = true
}
CONTENTS 140

// Java alternative
public final class User {
@NotNull
private String name = "ABC";
private boolean isAdult = true;

@NotNull
public final String getName() {
return this.name;
}

public final void setName(@NotNull String var1) {

Intrinsics.checkNotNullParameter(var1, "<set-?>");
this.name = var1;
}

public final boolean isAdult() {

return this.isAdult;
}

public final void setAdult(boolean var1) {

this.isAdult = var1;
}
}

Java getters and setters can be treated as properties in Kotlin.

A getter without a setter is treated like a val property. When
there is both a getter and a setter, they are treated together
like a var property. A setter without a getter cannot be inter-
preted as a property because every property needs a getter.

JvmName

JVM has some platform limitations that are a result of its

implementation. Consider the following two functions:
CONTENTS 141

fun List<Long>.average() = sum().toDouble() / size

fun List<Int>.average() = sum().toDouble() / size

Each of these functions is an extension on List with a different

type argument. This is perfectly fine for Kotlin, but not when
targeted for the JVM platform. Due to type erasure, both these
functions on JVM are considered methods called average with
a single parameter of type List. So, having them both defined
in the same file leads to a platform name clash.

A simple solution to this problem is to use the JvmName an-

notation, which changes the name that will be used for this
function under the hood on the JVM platform. Usage will
not change in Kotlin, but if you want to use these functions
from a non-Kotlin JVM language, you need to use the names
specified in the annotation.

@JvmName("averageLongList")
fun List<Long>.average() = sum().toDouble() / size

@JvmName("averageIntList")
fun List<Int>.average() = sum().toDouble() / size

fun main() {
val ints: List<Int> = List(10) { it }
println(ints.average()) // 4.5
val longs: List<Long> = List(10) { it.toLong() }
println(longs.average()) // 4.5
}
CONTENTS 142

// Java
public class JavaClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
List<Integer> ints = List.of(1, 2, 3);
double res1 = TestKt.averageIntList(ints);
System.out.println(res1); // 2.0
List<Long> longs = List.of(1L, 2L, 3L);
double res2 = TestKt.averageLongList(longs);
System.out.println(res2); // 2.0
}
}

The JvmName annotation is useful for resolving name conflicts,

but there is another case where it is used much more often. As
I explained in the Kotlin Essentials book, for all Kotlin top-level
functions and properties on JVM, a class is generated whose
name is the file name with the “Kt” suffix. Top-level functions
and properties are compiled to static JVM functions in this
class and thus can be used from Java.

package test

const val e = 2.71

fun add(a: Int, b: Int) = a + b

// Compiles to the analog of the following Java code

package test;

public final class TestKt {

public static final double e = 2.71;

public static final int add(int a, int b) {

return a + b;
}
}
CONTENTS 143

// Usage from Java

public class JavaClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println(TestKt.e); // 2.71
int res = TestKt.add(1, 2);
System.out.println(res); // 3
}
}

This auto-generated name is not always what we want to use.

Often we would prefer to specify a custom name, in which
case we should use the JvmName annotation for the file. As I
explained in the Annotation targets section, file annotations
must be placed at the beginning of the file, even before the
package definition, and they must use the file target. The
name that we will specify in the JvmName file annotation will
be used for the class that stores all the top-level functions and
properties.

@file:JvmName("Math")

package test

const val e = 2.71

fun add(a: Int, b: Int) = a + b

// Compiles to the analog of the following Java code

package test;

public final class Math {

public static final double e = 2.71;

public static final int add(int a, int b) {

return a + b;
}
}
CONTENTS 144

// Usage from Java

public class JavaClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println(Math.e); // 2.71
int res = Math.add(1, 2);
System.out.println(res); // 3
}
}

JvmMultifileClass

Because all functions or fields on JVM must be located in a

class, it is common practice in Java projects to make huge
classes like Math or Collections that are holders for static ele-
ments. In Kotlin, we use top-level functions instead, which
offers us the convenience that we don’t need to collect all
these functions and properties in the same file. However,
when we design Kotlin code for use from Java, we might want
to collect elements from multiple files that define the same
package in the same generated class. For that, we need to use
the JvmMultifileClass annotation next to JvmName.

// FooUtils.kt
@file:JvmName("Utils")
@file:JvmMultifileClass

package demo

fun foo() {
// ...
}
CONTENTS 145

// BarUtils.kt
@file:JvmName("Utils")
@file:JvmMultifileClass

package demo

fun bar() {
// ...
}

// Usage from Java

import demo.Utils;

public class JavaClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
Utils.foo();
Utils.bar();
}
}

JvmOverloads

Another inconsistency between Java and Kotlin is a result of

another Java limitation. Java, unlike most modern program-
ming languages, does not support named optional arguments,
therefore default Kotlin arguments cannot be used in Java.

class Pizza(
val tomatoSauce: Int = 1,
val cheese: Int = 0,
val ham: Int = 0,
val onion: Int = 0,
)

class EmailSender {
fun send(
CONTENTS 146

receiver: String,
title: String = "",
message: String = "",
) {
/*...*/
}
}

Note that when all constructor parameters are op-

tional, two constructors are generated: one with
all the parameters, and one that uses only default
values.

The best that can be offered for Java is an implementation of

the telescoping constructor pattern so that Kotlin can gener-
ate different variants of a constructor or function for a differ-
ent number of arguments. This is not done by default in order
to avoid generating methods that are not used. So, you need
to use the JvmOverloads annotation before a function to make
Kotlin generate different variants with different numbers of
expected arguments.
CONTENTS 147

class Pizza @JvmOverloads constructor(

val tomatoSauce: Int = 1,
val cheese: Int = 0,
val ham: Int = 0,
val onion: Int = 0,
)

class EmailSender {
@JvmOverloads
fun send(
receiver: String,
title: String = "",
message: String = "",
) {
/*...*/
}
}

Notice that Kotlin does not generate all possible combinations

of parameters; it only generates one additional variant for
each optional parameter.
CONTENTS 148

Do not confuse JvmOverloads with JVM overlords.

Unit

In Kotlin, every function declares a return type, so we return

Unit in Kotlin instead of the Java void keyword.

fun a() {}

fun main() {
println(a()) // kotlin.Unit
}

Of course, practically speaking it would be inefficient to al-

ways return Unit even when it’s not needed; so, functions with
the Unit result type are compiled to functions with no result.
When their result type is needed, it is injected on the use side.
CONTENTS 149

// Kotlin code
fun a(): Unit {
return Unit
}

fun main() {
println(a()) // kotlin.Unit
}

// Compiled to the equivalent of the following Java code

public static final void a() {
}

public static final void main() {

a();
Unit var0 = Unit.INSTANCE;
System.out.println(var0);
}

This is a performance optimization. The same process is used

for Java functions without a result type, therefore they can be
treated like they return Unit in Kotlin.

Function types and function interfaces

Using function types from Java can be problematic. Consider

the following setListItemListener function, which expects a
function type as an argument. Thanks to named arguments,
Kotlin will provide proper suggestions and the usage will be
convenient.
CONTENTS 150

class ListAdapter {

fun setListItemListener(
listener: (
position: Int,
id: Int,
child: View,
parent: View
) -> Unit
) {
// ...
}

// ...
}

// Usage
fun usage() {
val a = ListAdapter()
a.setListItemListener { position, id, child, parent ->
// ...
}
}

Using Kotlin function types from Java is more problematic.

Not only are named parameters lost, but also it is expected
that the Unit instance is returned.
CONTENTS 151

The solution to this problem is functional interfaces, i.e.,

interfaces with a single abstract method and the fun modifier.
After using functional interfaces instead of function types,
the usage of setListItemListener in Kotlin remains the same,
but in Java it is more convenient as named parameters are
understood and there is no need to return Unit.

fun interface ListItemListener {

fun handle(
position: Int,
id: Int,
child: View,
parent: View
)
}

class ListAdapter {

fun setListItemListener(listener: ListItemListener) {

// ...
}

// ...
}

fun usage() {
val a = ListAdapter()
a.setListItemListener { position, id, child, parent ->
// ...
}
}
CONTENTS 152

Tricky names

Keywords like when or object are reserved in Kotlin, so they

cannot be used as names for functions or variables. The prob-
lem is that some of these keywords are not reserved in Java, so
they might be used by Java libraries. A good example is Mock-
ito, which is a popular mocking library, but one of its most
important functions is named “when”. To use this function
in Kotlin, we need to surround its name with backticks (‘).

// Example Mockito usage

val mock = mock(UserService::class.java)
`when`(mock.getUser("1")).thenAnswer { aUser }

Backticks can also be used to define functions or variable

names that would otherwise be illegal in Kotlin. They are
most often used to define unit test names with spaces in
order to improve their readability in execution reports. Such
function names are legal only in Kotlin/JVM, and only if they
are not going to be used for code that runs on Android (unit
tests are executed locally, so they can be named this way).
CONTENTS 153

class MarkdownToHtmlTest {

@Test
fun `Simple text should remain unchanged`() {
val text = "Lorem ipsum"
val result = markdownToHtml(text)
assertEquals(text, result)
}
}

Throws

In Java, there are two types of exceptions:

• Checked exceptions, which need to be explicitly stated

and handled in code. Checked exceptions in Java must
be specified after the throws keyword in the declarations
of functions that can throw them. When we call such
functions from Java, we either need the current func-
tion to state that it might throw a specific exception
type as well, or this function might catch expected ex-
ceptions. In Java, except for RuntimeException and Error,
classes that directly inherit Throwable are checked excep-
tions.
• Unchecked exceptions, which can be thrown “at any time”
and don’t need to be stated in any way, therefore meth-
ods don’t have to catch or throw unchecked exceptions
explicitly. Classes that inherit Error or RuntimeException
are unchecked exceptions.
CONTENTS 154

public class JavaClass {

// IOException are checked exceptions,
// and they must be declared with throws
String readFirstLine(String fileName) throws IOException {
FileInputStream fis = new FileInputStream(fileName);
InputStreamReader reader = new InputStreamReader(fis);
BufferedReader bufferedReader =
new BufferedReader(reader);
return bufferedReader.readLine();
}

void checkFirstLine() {
String line;
try {
line = readFirstLine("number.txt");
// We must catch checked exceptions,
// or declare them with throws
} catch (IOException e) {
throw new RuntimeException(e);
}
// parseInt throws NumberFormatException,
// which is an unchecked exception
int number = Integer.parseInt(line);
// Dividing two numbers might throw
// ArithmeticException of number is 0,
// which is an unchecked exception
System.out.println(10 / number);
}
}

In Kotlin, all exceptions are considered unchecked. This leads

to a problem when we use Java to call Kotlin methods that
throw exceptions that are considered checked exceptions in
Java. In Java, such methods must have exceptions specified af-
ter the throws keyword. Kotlin does not generate these, there-
fore Java is confused. If you try to catch such an exception,
Java will prohibit it, explaining that such an exception is not
expected.
CONTENTS 155

// Kotlin
@file:JvmName("FileUtils")

package test

import java.io.*

fun readFirstLine(fileName: String): String =

File(fileName).useLines { it.first() }

To solve this issue, in all Kotlin functions that are intended

to be used from Java, we should use the Throws annotation to
specify all exceptions that are considered checked in Java.

// Kotlin
@file:JvmName("FileUtils")

package test

import java.io.*

@Throws(IOException::class)
fun readFirstLine(fileName: String): String =
File(fileName).useLines { it.first() }

When this annotation is used, the Kotlin Compiler will spec-

ify these exceptions in the throws block in the generated JVM
functions, therefore they are expected in Java.
CONTENTS 156

Using the Throws annotation is not only useful for Kotlin and
Java interoperability; it is also often used as a form of doc-
umentation that specifies which exceptions should be ex-
pected.

JvmRecord

Java 16 introduced records as immutable data carriers. In sim-

ple words, these are alternatives to Kotlin data classes. Java
records can be used in Kotlin just like any other kind of class.
To declare a record in Kotlin, we define a data class and use the
JvmRecord annotation.

@JvmRecord
data class Person(val name: String, val age: Int)

Records have more restrictive requirements than data classes.

Here are the requirements for the JvmRecord annotation to be
used for a class:

• The class must be in a module that targets JVM 16 byte-

code (or 15 if the -Xjvm-enable-preview compiler option is
enabled).
• The class cannot explicitly inherit any other class (in-
cluding Any) because all JVM records implicitly inherit
java.lang.Record. However, the class can implement in-
terfaces.
CONTENTS 157

• The class cannot declare any properties that have back-

ing fields, except these initialized from the correspond-
ing primary constructor parameters.
• The class cannot declare any mutable properties that
have backing fields.
• The class cannot be local.
• The class’s primary constructor must be as visible as the
class itself.

Summary

Kotlin and Java are two different languages, designed in two

different centuries²¹, which sometimes makes it challenging
when we interoperate between them. Most problems relate
to important Kotlin features, like eliminating the concept
of checked exceptions, or distinguishing between nullable
and non-nullable types, between interfaces for read-only and
mutable collections, or between shared types for primitives
and wrapped primitives. Kotlin does all it can to make in-
teroperability with Java as convenient as possible, but there
are some inevitable trade-offs. For example, both the List
and MutableList Kotlin types relate to the Java List interface.
Also, Kotlin relies on Java nullability annotations and uses
platform types when they are missing. We also need to know
and use some annotations that determine how our code will
behave when used from Java or another JVM language. These
are challenges for developers, but they’re definitely worth all
the amazing features that Kotlin offers.

Exercise: Adjust Kotlin for Java usage

Consider the following Kotlin elements:

²¹Java’s first stable release was in 1996, while Kotlin’s first

stable release was around 20 years later in 2016.
CONTENTS 158

package advanced.java

data class Money(

val amount: BigDecimal = BigDecimal.ZERO,
val currency: Currency = Currency.EUR,
) {
companion object {
fun eur(amount: String) =
Money(BigDecimal(amount), Currency.EUR)

fun usd(amount: String) =

Money(BigDecimal(amount), Currency.USD)

val ZERO_EUR = eur("0.00")

}
}

fun List<Money>.sum(): Money? {

if (isEmpty()) return null
val currency = this.map { it.currency }.toSet().single()
return Money(
amount = sumOf { it.amount },
currency = currency
)
}

operator fun Money.plus(other: Money): Money {

require(currency == other.currency)
return Money(amount + other.amount, currency)
}

enum class Currency {

EUR, USD
}

This is how they can be used in Kotlin:

CONTENTS 159

fun main() {
val money1 = Money.eur("10.00")
val money2 = Money.eur("29.99")

println(listOf(money1, money2, money1).sum())

// Money(amount=49.99, currency=EUR)

println(money1 + money2)
// Money(amount=39.99, currency=EUR)

val money3 = Money.usd("10.00")

val money4 = Money()
val money5 = Money(BigDecimal.ONE)
val money6 = Money.ZERO_EUR
}

However, Java usage is not that convenient. Your task it to

add appropriate annotations to make it more Java-friendly, so
that it can be used like this:

package advanced.java;

import java.math.BigDecimal;
import java.util.List;

public class JavaClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Money money1 = Money.eur("10.00");
Money money2 = Money.eur("29.99");

List<Money> moneyList =
List.of(money1, money2, money1);

System.out.println(MoneyUtils.plus(money1, money2));
// Money(amount=39.99, currency=EUR)

Money money3 = Money.usd("10.00");

Money money4 = new Money();
CONTENTS 160

Money money5 = new Money(BigDecimal.ONE);

Money money6 = Money.ZERO_EUR;
}
}
CONTENTS 161

Using Kotlin Multiplatform

Kotlin is a compiled programming language, which means

you can write some code in Kotlin and then use the Kotlin
compiler to produce code in another language. Kotlin can
currently be compiled into JVM bytecode (Kotlin/JVM),
JavaScript (Kotlin/JS), or machine code (Kotlin/Native). This
is why we say Kotlin is a multiplatform language: the same
Kotlin code can be compiled to multiple platforms.

This is a powerful feature. Not only can Kotlin be used to write

applications for multiple platforms, but we can also reuse the
same code between different platforms. For instance, you can
write code that will be used on a website, as well as on Android
and iOS-native clients. Let’s see how can we make our own
multiplatform module.

Multiplatform module configuration

Gradle projects are divided into modules. Many projects have

only one module, but they can have more than one. Each
module is a different folder with its own build.gradle(.kts)
file. Modules using Kotlin need to use the appropriate
Kotlin plugin. If we want a Kotlin/JVM module, we use the
CONTENTS 162

kotlin("jvm") plugin. To make a multiplatform plugin, we

use kotlin("multiplatform"). In multiplatform modules, we
define different source sets:

• Common source set, which contains Kotlin code that is

not specific to any platform, as well as declarations that
don’t implement platform-dependent APIs. Common
source sets can use multiplatform libraries as dependen-
cies. By default, the common source set is called “com-
monMain”, and its tests are located in “commonTest”.
• Target source sets, which are associated with
concrete Kotlin compilation targets. They contain
implementations of platform-dependent declarations
in the common source set for a specific platform, as
well as other platform-dependent code. They can use
platform-specific libraries, including standard libraries.
Platform source sets can represent the projects we
implement, like backend or Android applications, or
they can be compiled into libraries. Some example
target source sets are “jvmMain”, “androidMain” and
“jsTest”.

A multiplatform module that is used by multiple other mod-

ules is often referred to as a “shared module”²².
²²The term “shared module” is also used for single-platform
modules that are used by multiple other modules; however, in
this chapter I will use the term “shared module” to specifically
reference “shared multiplatform modules”.
CONTENTS 163

In build.gradle(.kts) of multiplatform modules, we define

source sets inside the kotlin block. We first configure each
compilation target, and then for each source set we define
dependencies inside the sourceSets block, as presented in
the example below. This example shows a possible complete
build.gradle.kts configuration, targeting JVM and JS.

plugins {
kotlin("multiplatform") version "1.8.21"
}

group = "com.marcinmoskala"
version = "0.0.1"

kotlin {
jvm {
withJava()
}
js(IR) {
browser()
binaries.library()
}
sourceSets {
val commonMain by getting {
dependencies {
implementation("org.jetbrains.kotlinx:
CONTENTS 164

kotlinx-coroutines-core:1.6.4")
}
}
val commonTest by getting {
dependencies {
implementation(kotlin("test"))
}
}
val jvmMain by getting
val jvmTest by getting
val jsMain by getting
val jsTest by getting
}
jvmToolchain(11)
}

We define source set files inside folders in src that have the
same name as the source set name. So, common files should
be inside the src/commonMain folder, and JVM test files should
be inside src/jvmTest.
This is how we configure common modules. Transforming
a project that uses no external libraries from Kotlin/JVM to
multiplatform is quite simple. The problem is that in the
common module, you cannot use platform-specific libraries,
so the Java stdlib and Java libraries cannot be used. You
can use only libraries that are multiplatform and support all
your targets, but it’s still an impressive list, including Kotlin
Coroutines, Kotlin Serialization, Ktor Client and many more.
To deal with other cases, it’s useful to define expected and
actual elements.

Expect and actual elements

The common source set (commonMain) needs to operate on

elements that, for each platform, have platform-specific
implementations. Consider the fact that in commonMain
you need to generate a random UUID string. For that,
different classes are used on different platforms. On JVM,
CONTENTS 165

we could use java.util.UUID, while on iOS we could use

platform.Foundation.NSUUID. To use these classes to generate a
UUID in the common module, we can specify the expected
randomUUID function in commonMain and specify its actual
implementations in each platform’s source set.

// commonMain
expect fun randomUUID(): String

// jvmMain
import java.util.*

actual fun randomUUID() = UUID.randomUUID().toString()

// One of iOS source sets

import platform.Foundation.NSUUID

actual fun randomUUID(): String = NSUUID().UUIDString()

The compiler ensures that every declaration marked with

the expected keyword in commonMain has the corresponding
declarations marked with the actual keyword in all platform
source sets.
All Kotlin essential elements can be expected in commonMain, so
we can define expected functions, classes, object declarations,
interfaces, enumerations, properties, and annotations.

// commonMain
expect object Platform {
val name: String
}

// jvmMain
actual object Platform {
actual val name: String = "JVM"
}

// jsMain
CONTENTS 166

actual object Platform {

actual val name: String = "JS"
}

Actual definitions can be type aliases that reference types that

fulfill expected declaration expectations.

// commonMain
expect class DateTime {
fun getHour(): Int
fun getMinute(): Int
fun getSecond(): Int
// ...
}

// jvmMain
actual typealias DateTime = LocalDateTime

// jsMain
import kotlin.js.Date

actual class DateTime(

val date: Date = Date()
) {
actual fun getHour(): Int = date.getHours()
actual fun getMinute(): Int = date.getMinutes()
actual fun getSecond(): Int = date.getSeconds()
}

More examples of expected and actual elements are presented

later in this chapter.
In many cases, we don’t need to define expected and actual el-
ements as we can just define interfaces in commonMain and inject
platform-specific classes that implement them. An example
will be shown later in this chapter.
Expected classes are essential for multiplatform development
because they specify elements with platform-specific imple-
CONTENTS 167

mentations that are used as foundations for elements’ imple-

mentations. Kotlin’s Standard Library is based on expected
elements, without which it would be hard to implement any
serious multiplatform library.
Now let’s review the possibilities that Kotlin’s multiplatform
capabilities offer us.

Possibilities

Companies rarely write applications for only a single plat-

form²³. They would rather develop a product for two or more
platforms because products often rely on several applications
running on different platforms. Think of client and server
applications communicating through network calls. As they
need to communicate, there are often similarities that can be
reused. Implementations of the same product for different
platforms generally have even more similarities, especially
their business logic, which is often nearly identical. Projects
like this can benefit significantly from sharing code.
Lots of companies are based on web development. Their prod-
ucts are websites, but in most cases these products need a
backend application (also called server-side). On websites,
JavaScript is king and practically has a monopoly. On the
backend, a very popular option is Java. Since these languages
are very different, it is common for backend and web de-
velopment to be separated, but this might change now that
Kotlin is becoming a popular alternative to Java for backend
development. For instance, Kotlin is a first-class citizen with
Spring, the most popular Java framework. Kotlin can be used
as an alternative to Java in every framework, and there are
also many Kotlin backend frameworks, such as Ktor. This is
why many backend projects are migrating from Java to Kotlin.
A great thing about Kotlin is that it can also be compiled into
JavaScript. There are already many Kotlin/JS libraries, and
²³In Kotlin, we view the JVM, Android, JavaScript, iOS,
Linux, Windows, Mac, and even embedded systems like
STM32 as separate platforms.
CONTENTS 168

we can use Kotlin to write different kinds of web applications.

For instance, we can write a web
frontend using the React framework and Kotlin/JS. This al-
lows us to write both the backend and the website in Kotlin.
Even better, we can have parts that compile to both JVM byte-
code and JavaScript. These are shared parts where we can
put, for instance, universal tools, API endpoint definitions,
common abstractions, etc.

This capability is even more important in the mobile world

as we rarely build only for Android. Sometimes we can live
without a server, but we generally also need to implement
an iOS application. Each application is written for a different
platform using different languages and tools. In the end, the
Android and iOS versions of the same application are very
similar. They might be designed differently, but they nearly
always have the same logic inside. Using Kotlin’s multiplat-
form capabilities, we can implement this logic only once and
reuse it between these two platforms. We can make a shared
module in which we implement business logic, which should
be independent of frameworks and platforms anyway (Clean
Architecture). Such common logic can be written in pure
CONTENTS 169

Kotlin or using other multiplatform modules, and it can then

be used on different platforms.
Shared modules can be used directly in Android. The expe-
rience of working with multiplatform and JVM modules is
great because both are built using Gradle. The experience is
similar to having these common parts in our Android project.
For iOS, we compile these common parts to an Objective-
C framework using Kotlin/Native, which is compiled into
native code²⁴ using LLVM²⁵. We can then use the resulting
code from Swift in Xcode or AppCode. Alternatively, we can
implement our whole application using Kotlin/Native.

We can use all these platforms together. Using Kotlin, we can

develop for nearly all kinds of popular devices and platforms,
²⁴Native code is code that is written to run on a specific
processor. Languages like C, C++, Swift, and Kotlin/Native
are native because they are compiled into machine code for
each processor they need to run on.
²⁵Like Swift or Rust.
CONTENTS 170

and code can be reused between them however we want. Here

are just a few examples of what we can write in Kotlin:

• Backend in Kotlin/JVM, for instance, in Spring or Ktor

• Website in Kotlin/JS, for instance, in React
• Android in Kotlin/JVM, using the Android SDK
• iOS Frameworks that can be used from Objective-C or
Swift using Kotlin/Native
• Desktop applications in Kotlin/JVM, for instance, in
TornadoFX
• Raspberry Pi, Linux, or macOS programs in Kotlin/Na-
tive

Here is a visualization of a typical application:

Defining shared modules is also a powerful tool for libraries.

In particular, libraries that are not highly platform-
dependent can easily be moved to a shared module, thus
developers can use them from all languages running on the
JVM, or from JavaScript, or natively (so from Java, Scala,
JavaScript, CoffeeScript, TypeScript, C, Objective-C, Swift,
Python, C#, etc.).
CONTENTS 171

Writing multiplatform libraries is harder than writing

libraries for just a single platform as they often require
platform-specific parts for all platforms. However, there
are already plenty of multiplatform libraries for network
communication (like Ktor client), serialization (like
kotlinx.serialization), date and time (like kotlinx-datetime),
database communication (like SQLDelight), dependency
injection (like Kodein-DI) and much more. Even more
importantly, there are already libraries that let us implement
UI elements in shared modules, like Jetpack Compose.
With all these, you can implement completely functional
applications for multiple platforms using only shared
modules.
This is the theory, but let’s get into the practice. Let’s see some
practical examples of multiplatform projects.

Multiplatform libraries

As a young and ambitious student, I started using the Anki

flashcards application for learning. I still use it from time
to time, but one of my biggest problems with it is the re-
dundancy between the flashcards I create and my notes. To
fix this, I started working on my AnkiMarkdown project. I
invented a syntax to mark specific kinds of flashcards in the
Markdown I use for making notes, then I implemented a
program that understands this syntax. It has two modes of
synchronization: update flashcards based on notes, or update
notes based on flashcards.
CONTENTS 172

Example of flashcards defined using Anki Markdown.

CONTENTS 173

Flashcard of type cloze in Anki.

I initially implemented this program in Kotlin/JVM and ran

it using the console, but then I started using the Obsidian
program to manage my notes. I realized that I could make
an Obsidian plugin for AnkiMarkdown synchronization that
would need to be implemented in JavaScript, but it turned
out to be really simple to turn my Kotlin/JVM module into a
multiplatform module because Kotlin is a multiplatform lan-
guage. I had already used the Ktor client for communication
with Anki, and the only significant change was that I needed
to move file management to multiplatform module platform
source sets.

Complete example can be found on GitHub under

the name MarcinMoskala/AnkiMarkdown.

Let’s see it in practice. Imagine you’ve decided to make a li-

brary for parsing and serializing YAML. You’ve implemented
all the parsing and serialization using Kotlin and provided the
following class with two exposed methods as your library API:
CONTENTS 174

class YamlParser {
fun parse(text: String): YamlObject {
/*...*/
}
fun serialize(obj: YamlObject): String {
/*...*/
}

// ...
}

sealed interface YamlElement

data class YamlObject(

val properties: Map<String, YamlElement>
) : YamlElement

data class YamlString(val value: String) : YamlElement

// ...

Since you only use Kotlin and the Kotlin Standard Library,
you can place this code in the common source set. For that,
we need to set up a multiplatform module in our project,
which entails defining the file where we will define our
common and platform modules. It needs to have its own
build.gradle(.kts) file with the Kotlin Multiplatform Gradle
plugin (kotlin("multiplatform") using kotlin dsl syntax), then
it needs to define the source sets configuration. This is where
we specify which platforms we want to compile this module
to, and we specify dependencies for each platform.
CONTENTS 175

// build.gradle.kts
plugins {
kotlin("multiplatform") version "1.8.10"
// ...
java
}

kotlin {
jvm {
compilations.all {
kotlinOptions.jvmTarget = "1.8"
}
withJava()
testRuns["test"].executionTask.configure {
useJUnitPlatform()
}
}
js(IR) {
browser()
binaries.library()
}
sourceSets {
val commonMain by getting {
dependencies {
// ...
}
}
val commonTest by getting {
dependencies {
// ...
}
}
val jvmMain by getting {
dependencies {
// ...
}
}
val jvmTest by getting
val jsMain by getting
CONTENTS 176

val jsTest by getting

}
}

Source sets’ names matter as they describe the corresponding

platform. Note that tests for each platform are separate
source sets with separate dependencies, therefore each
source set needs an appropriately named folder that includes
a “kotlin” subfolder for code and a “resources” folder for
other resources.

We should place our common source set files inside the “com-
monMain” folder. If we do not have any expected declara-
tions, we should now be able to generate a library in JVM
bytecode or JavaScript from our shared module.
This is how we could use it from Java:

// Java
YamlParser yaml = new YamlParser();
System.out.println(yaml.parse("someProp: ABC"));
// YamlObject(properties={someProp=YamlString(value=ABC)})

If you build this code using Kotlin/JS for the browser, this is
how you can use this class:
CONTENTS 177

// JavaScript
const parser = new YamlParser();
console.log(parser.parse("someProp: ABC"))
// {properties: {someprop: "ABC"}}

It is more challenging when you build a NodeJS package

because, in such packages, only exposed elements can be im-
ported. To make your class functional for this target, you need
to use the JsExport annotation for all elements that need to be
visible from JavaScript.

@JsExport
class YamlParser {
fun parse(text: String): YamlObject {
/*...*/
}
fun serialize(obj: YamlObject): String {
/*...*/
}

// ...
}

@JsExport
sealed interface YamlElement

@JsExport
data class YamlObject(
val properties: Map<String, YamlElement>
) : YamlElement

@JsExport
data class YamlString(val value: String) : YamlElement
// ...

This code can be used not only from JavaScript but also from
TypeScript, which should see proper types for classes and
interfaces.
CONTENTS 178

// TypeScript
const parser: YamlParser = new YamlParser();
const obj: YamlObject = parser.parse(text);

Now, let’s complicate this example a bit and assume that

you’ve decided to introduce a class in your library for reading
YAML from a file or a URL. Reading files and making network
requests are both platform specific, but you’ve already found
multiplatform libraries for that. Let’s say that you’ve decided
to use Okio to read a file and the Ktor client to fetch a file from
a URL.

// Using Okio to read file

class FileYamlReader {
private val parser = YamlParser()

fun read(filePath: String): YamlObject {

val source = FileSystem.SYSTEM
.source(filePath)
.let(Okio::buffer)
val fileContent = source.readUtf8()
source.close()
return parser.parse(fileContent)
}
}

// Using Ktor client to read URL

class NetworkYamlReader {
private val parser = YamlParser()

suspend fun read(url: String): YamlObject {

val resp = client.get(url) {
headers {
append(HttpHeaders.Accept, "text/yaml")
}
}.bodyAsText()
return parser.parse(resp)
}
}
CONTENTS 179

The second problem is that to use network requests we

needed to introduce a suspend function, but suspend
functions cannot be used by languages other than Kotlin.
To actually support using our class from other languages,
like Java or JavaScript, we need to add classes that will adapt
NetworkYamlReader for different platforms, like a blocking
variant for JVM, or a variant that exposes promises on JS.

// jsMain module
@JsExport
@JsName("NetworkYamlReader")
class NetworkYamlReaderJs {
private val reader = NetworkYamlReader()
private val scope = CoroutineScope(SupervisorJob())

fun read(url: String): Promise<YamlObject> =

scope.promise { reader.read(url) }
}

I hope you have a sense of the possibilities that multiplatform

modules offer, as well as the challenges that arise from these
possibilities. You will see more of them in the next example.

A multiplatform mobile application

Kotlin multiplatform mobile (KMM) capabilities are often

used to implement shared parts between Android and iOS.
The idea is simple: we define a shared module for Android,
and one for iOS; then, based on these modules, we gener-
ate Android and iOS libraries. In these libraries, thanks to
numerous libraries, we can use network clients, databases,
serialization, and much more, without writing any platform-
specific code ourselves.
Let’s see a concrete example of this in action. Let’s say you
implement an application for morning fitness routines on
Android and iOS. You decide to utilize multiplatform Kotlin
capabilities, so you define a shared module. Nowadays, it
is a common practice to extract application business logic
CONTENTS 180

into classes known as View Models, which include observ-

able properties. These properties are observed by views that
change when these properties change. You decide to define
your WorkoutViewModel in the shared module. As observable
properties, we can use MutableStateFlow from Kotlin Corou-
tines²⁶.

class WorkoutViewModel(
private val timer: TimerService,
private val speaker: SpeakerService,
private val loadTrainingUseCase: LoadTrainingUseCase
// ...
) : ViewModel() {
private var state: WorkoutState = ...

val title = MutableStateFlow("")

val imgUrl = MutableStateFlow("")
val progress = MutableStateFlow(0)
val timerText = MutableStateFlow("")

init {
loadTraining()
}

fun onNext() {
// ...
}

// ...
}

Let’s discuss some important aspects of the development of

such an application as this will teach us some important
lessons about KMP development in general.
²⁶It is a popular practice to hide this property behind
StateFlow to limit its methods’ visibility, but I decided not to
do this to simplify this example.
CONTENTS 181

ViewModel class

Let’s start with the ViewModel class. Android requires that

classes representing view models implement ViewModel from
androidx.lifecycle. iOS does not have such a requirement.
To satisfy both platforms, we need to specify the expected
class ViewModel, whose actual class on Android should extend
androidx.lifecycle.ViewModel. On iOS, these actual classes can
be empty.

// commonMain
expect abstract class ViewModel() {
open fun onCleared()
}

// androidMain
abstract class ViewModel : androidx.lifecycle.ViewModel() {
val scope = viewModelScope

override fun onCleared() {

super.onCleared()
}
}

// iOS source sets

actual abstract class ViewModel actual constructor() {
actual open fun onCleared() {
}
}

We might add some other capabilities to our ViewModel class.

For instance, we could use it to define coroutine scope. On
Android, we use viewModelScope. On iOS, we need to construct
the scope ourselves.
CONTENTS 182

// commonMain
expect abstract class ViewModel() {
val scope: CoroutineScope
open fun onCleared()
}

// androidMain
abstract class ViewModel : androidx.lifecycle.ViewModel() {
val scope = viewModelScope

override fun onCleared() {

super.onCleared()
}
}

// iOS source sets

actual abstract class ViewModel actual constructor() {
actual val scope: CoroutineScope = MainScope()

actual open fun onCleared() {

scope.cancel()
}
}

Platform-specific classes

Now consider the parameters of the WorkoutViewModel

constructor. Some of them can be implemented in our shared
module using common libraries. LoadTrainingUseCase is a
good example that only needs a network client. Some other
dependencies need to be implemented on each platform.
SpeakerService is a good example because I don’t know of
a library that would be able to use platform-specific TTS
(Text-to-Speech) classes from a shared module.
We could define SpeakerService as an expected class, but it
would be easier just to make it an interface in commonMain
and inject different classes that implement this interface in
platform source sets.
CONTENTS 183

// commonMain
interface SpeakerService {
fun speak(text: String)
}

// Android application
class AndroidSpeaker(context: Context) : SpeakerService {

private var tts = TextToSpeech(context, null)

override fun speak(text: String) {

tts.speak(text, TextToSpeech.QUEUE_FLUSH, null, null)
}
}

// Swift
class iOSSpeaker: Speaker {
private let synthesizer = AVSpeechSynthesizer()

func speak(text: String) {

synthesizer.stopSpeaking(at: .word)
let utterance = AVSpeechUtterance(string: text)
synthesizer.speak(utterance)
}
}

The biggest problem with classes like this is finding a com-

mon interface for both platforms. Even in this example, you
can see some inconsistencies between Android TextToSpeech
and iOS AVSpeechSynthesizer. On Android, we need to provide
Context. On iOS, we need to make sure the previous speech
request is stopped. What if one of these classes representing a
speech synthesizer needs to be initialized before its first use?
We would need to add an initialize method and implement it
for both platforms, even though one of them will be empty.
Common implementation aggregates specificities from all
platforms, which can make common classes complicated.
CONTENTS 184

Observing properties

Android has great support for observing StateFlow. On XML,

we can bind values; on Jetpack Compose, we can simply col-
lect these properties as a state:

val title: String by viewModel.title.collectAsState()

val imgUrl: String by viewModel.imgUrl.collectAsState()
val progress: Int by viewModel.progress.collectAsState()
val timerText: String by viewModel.timerText.collectAsState()

This is not so easy in Swift. There are already a few solutions

that could help us, but none of them seem to be standard;
hopefully, this will change over time. One solution is using a
library like MOKO that helps you turn your view model into
an observed object, but this approach needs some setup and
modifications in your view model.

// iOS Swift
struct LoginScreen: View {
@ObservedObject
var viewModel: WorkoutViewModel = WorkoutViewModel()

// ...
}

You can also turn StateFlow into an object that can be observed
with callback functions. There are also libraries for that, or
we can just define a simple wrapper class that will let you
collect StateFlow in Swift.
CONTENTS 185

// Swift
viewModel.title.collect(
onNext: { value in
// ...
},
onCompletion: { error in
// ...
}
)

I guess there might be more options in the future, but for now
this seems to be the best approach to multiplatform Kotlin
projects.

Summary

In Kotlin, we can implement code for multiple platforms,

which gives us amazing possibilities for code reuse. To sup-
port common code implementation, Kotlin offers a multi-
platform stdlib, and numerous libraries already support net-
work calls, serialization, dependency injection, database us-
age, and much more. As library creators, we can implement
libraries for multiple platforms at the same time with little
additional effort. As mobile developers, we can implement
the logic for Android and iOS only once and use it on both plat-
forms. Code can also be reused between different platforms
according to our needs. I hope you can see how powerful
Kotlin multiplatform is.

Exercise: Multiplatform LocalDateTime

In your multiplatform project, you need to define a common

type to represent time. You decided that you want it to behave
just like LocalDateTime from java.time library. In fact, you
decided that on Kotlin/JVM you want to use LocalDateTime di-
rectly as an actual type. Define a common type LocalDateTime,
and define actual typealias for Kotlin/JVM, and an actual
class for Kotlin/JS that wrapps over Date from JavaScript.
CONTENTS 186

Those are expected elements that you need to provide for each
platform:

expect class LocalDateTime {

fun getSecond(): Int
fun getMinute(): Int
fun getHour(): Int
fun plusSeconds(seconds: Long): LocalDateTime
}

expect fun now(): LocalDateTime

expect fun parseLocalDateTime(str: String): LocalDateTime

Starting code and unit tests for this exercise can be found in
the MarcinMoskala/kmp-exercise project on GitHub. You can
clone this project and solve this exercise locally.
CONTENTS 187

JavaScript interoperability

Let’s say you have a Kotlin/JVM project and realize you need
to use some parts of it on a website. This is not a problem: you
can migrate these parts to a common module that can be used
to build a package to be used from JavaScript or TypeScript²⁷.
You can also distribute this package to npm and expose it to
other developers.
The first time I encountered such a situation was with Anki-
Markdown²⁸, a library I built that lets me keep my flashcards
in a special kind of Markdown and synchronize it with Anki (a
popular program for flashcards). I initially implemented this
synchronization as a JVM application I ran in the terminal,
but this was inconvenient. Since I use Obsidian to manage my
notes, I realized using AnkiMarkdown as an Obsidian plugin
would be great. For that, I needed my synchronization code in
JS. Not a problem! It took only a couple of hours to move it to
the multiplatform module and distribute it to npm, and now
I can use it in Obsidian.
The second time I had a similar situation was when I worked
for Scanz. We had a desktop client for a complex application
implemented in Kotlin/JVM. Since we wanted to create a
new web-based client, we extracted common parts (services,
view models, repositories) into a shared module and reused it.
There were some trade-offs we needed to make, as I will show
in this chapter, but we succeeded, and not only was it much
faster than rewriting all these parts, but we could also use the
common module for Android and iOS applications.
The last story I want to share is my Sudoku problem generator
and solver²⁹. It implements all the basic sudoku techniques
and uses them to generate and solve sudoku puzzles. I needed
²⁷The current implementation of Kotlin/JS compiles Kotlin
code to ES5 or ES6.
²⁸Link to AnkiMarkdown repository:
github.com/MarcinMoskala/AnkiMarkdown
²⁹Link to the repository of this project:
github.com/MarcinMoskala/sudoku-generator-solver
CONTENTS 188

it for a book that teaches how to solve sudoku. To present

these sudoku problems and solve them myself conveniently, I
implemented a React application. Then, I turned my Sugoku
generator and solver into a common module and distributed
it to npm.
In this chapter, I would like to share everything I learned
along the way. I will show you the challenges when we trans-
form a Kotlin/JVM project to use it conveniently from Type-
Script and how to use the package produced this way in prac-
tice.

When I was writing this chapter, I was using Kotlin

version 1.8.21. Technically speaking, Kotlin/JS
should be stable since 1.8.0, but I would not be
surprised if some details of what I am explaining
in this chapter (like Gradle task names) change in
the next versions.

Setting up a project

The first thing we need to do is set up a multiplatform project.

We need a Gradle module using the Kotlin Multiplatform
plugin, with js configured in the kotlin block. To specify the
output format, we should call browser, nodejs or useEsModules
in the js block, depending on where we want to run our code.
If you want to run your code in browser applications, like
in the examples from the introduction to this chapter, use
the browser block. If you want to generate a NodeJS module,
use nodejs. To generate ES6 modules, use useEsModules. Finally,
you can call binaries.executable() in the js block, which ex-
plicitly instructs the Kotlin compiler to emit executable .js
files. We should also specify jsMain (and jsTest if we want to
write JS-specific tests) in the sourceSets block.
CONTENTS 189

plugins {
kotlin("multiplatform") version "1.8.21"
}

kotlin {
jvm {}
js(IR) {
browser() // use if you need to run code in a browser
nodejs() // use if you need to run code in a Node.js
useEsModules() // output .mjs ES6 modules
binaries.executable()
}
sourceSets {
val commonMain by getting {
dependencies {
// common dependencies
}
}
val commonTest by getting
val jvmMain by getting
val jvmTest by getting
val jsMain by getting
val jsTest by getting
}
}

The IR in the js block means that the Intermediate

Representation compiler will be used, which is a
modern standard because of its source map genera-
tion and the JS optimizations it introduces; more-
over, in the future it might help support Kotlin/JS
debugging.

Currently, the kotlin("js") plugin is deprecated, and we

should only use kotlin("multiplatform") to target JavaScript.
Now that we know how to set up a Kotlin/JS project let’s see
what it lets us do.
CONTENTS 190

Using libraries available for Kotlin/JS

Not all dependencies are multiplatform and have support

for Kotlin/JS. If a certain dependency is not multiplatform,
you must find an alternative or implement platform-specific
implementations yourself. To avoid this, it is best to use truly
multiplatform libraries in the first place, especially those pro-
vided by the Kotlin team, like Kotlinx Serialization, Corou-
tines, and Ktor Client.

Using Kotlin/JS

Using Kotlin/JS is very similar to using Kotlin/JVM as we can

use all Kotlin features, including standard library elements.
However, a standard Java library is not available, so we have
to use functions provided by JavaScript instead. For instance,
we can use console.log("Hello") to print a message to the
console.

fun printHello() {
console.log("Hello")
}

This is possible because Kotlin/JS provides a set of decla-

rations for JavaScript functions and objects. For instance,
console is declared as a top-level property of type Console. This
type has a log function that accepts any values as arguments.

@Suppress("NOT_DOCUMENTED")
public external interface Console {
public fun dir(o: Any): Unit
public fun error(vararg o: Any?): Unit
public fun info(vararg o: Any?): Unit
public fun log(vararg o: Any?): Unit
public fun warn(vararg o: Any?): Unit
}

public external val console: Console

CONTENTS 191

Both the console property and the Console interface are de-
clared as external, which means they are not implemented in
Kotlin, but JavaScript provides them. We can use them in our
Kotlin code but not implement them. If there is a JavaScript
element we want to use in Kotlin but don’t have a declaration
for, we can create it ourselves. For instance, if we want to use
the alert function, we can declare it as follows:

fun showAlert() {
alert("Hello")
}

@JsName("alert")
external fun alert(message: String)

Sometimes our external declarations need to be nested and

complex, as I will show in the Adding npm dependencies sec-
tion.
Using the js function, we can also call JavaScript elements
from Kotlin/JS without explicit declarations. It executes
JavaScript code defined as a string and returns its result. For
instance, we can use it to call the prompt function:

fun main() {
val message = js("prompt('Enter your name')")
println(message)
}

The string used as an argument for the js function must be

known at compile time and must be a raw string without
any operations. However, inside it we can use local variables
defined in Kotlin. For instance, we can use the user variable in
the following code:
CONTENTS 192

fun main() {
val user = "John"
val surname =
js("prompt('What is your surname ${user}?')")
println(surname)
}

The result of js is dynamic, which is a special type for Kotlin/JS

that is not checked by the compiler and represents any
JavaScript value. This means we can assign it to any variable,
call any function on it, and cast it to any type. If a cast is not
possible, it will throw an exception at runtime. For instance,
we can cast js("1") to Int.

fun main() {
val o: dynamic = js("{name: 'John', surname: 'Foo'}")
println(o.name) // John
println(o.surname) // Foo
println(o.toLocaleString()) // [object Object]
println(o.unknown) // undefined

val i: Int = js("1")

println(i) // 1
}

We can create JavaScript objects in Kotlin using the json

function, which expects a vararg of pairs of String and Any?
and returns an object of type Json. To create a nested object,
use the json function with arguments representing key-value
pairs.
CONTENTS 193

import kotlin.js.json

fun main() {
val o = json(
"name" to "John",
"age" to 42,
)
print(JSON.stringify(o)) // {"name":"John","age":42}
}

These are the essentials of Kotlin/JS-specific structures. Now,

let’s focus on what we can do with them.

Building and linking a package

We have our multiplatform module configured with a

Kotlin/JS target or just a Kotlin/JS module, and we
want to use it in a JavaScript or TypeScript project.
For that, we need to build a package. A production-
ready package for the browser can be built using the
jsBrowserProductionLibraryDistribution Gradle task, the
result of which is a .js file and a .d.ts file within your
common module’s build/productionLibrary directory. The
default name of these files is the name of the module, or it
can be specified using the moduleName property in the js block
inside the kotlin block.
For example, if your module is called common, you should use
the :common:jsBrowserProductionLibraryDistribution task, and
the result will be common.js and common.d.ts files inside the
common/build/productionLibrary directory.

If your project defines no modules and therefore only

has a top-level Gradle file, the module’s name will be the
project’s name. In the AnkiMarkdown project, for instance,
the result of the jsBrowserProductionLibraryDistribution
task is ankimarkdown.js and ankimarkdown.d.ts files inside
/build/productionLibrary directory.
CONTENTS 194

The next step is to link this package to your JavaScript or

TypeScript project. We could just copy-paste the generated
files, but this wouldn’t be very convenient because we would
need to repeat this process every time the common module
changed. A better way is to link the generated files.
I assume we’ll use npm or yarn to manage our JavaScript or
TypeScript project. In this case, we should define a depen-
dency on a common module package in the package.json file.
We can do this by adding a line to the dependencies section
that defines the path to the directory containing our package,
starting from “file:”. Use relative paths. This is what it might
look like in our example projects:

// A project where common module is called common

"dependencies": {
// ...
"common": "file:../common/build/productionLibrary"
}

// AnkiMarkdown project
"dependencies": {
// ...
"AnkiMarkdown": "file:../build/productionLibrary"
}

To avoid reinstalling our dependencies whenever we build

a new package from our common module, we should
now link our module using npm or yarn linking. To link
a module defined in a file, go to that file location first
(productionLibrary folder) and call npm link or yarn link. Then,
go to your JavaScript or TypeScript project and call npm
link <module-name> or yarn link <module-name>. When you
subsequently start your project, you should see changes in
the dependency immediately after building a new package
using the jsBrowserProductionLibraryDistribution task.
CONTENTS 195

Distributing a package to npm

We can also distribute our Kotlin module as a package

to npm. Currently, it seems to be standard to use the
dev.petuska.npm.publish³⁰ plugin for this. You need to
configure your npm package inside the npmPublish block,
set the name and version, and register the npm registry.
This is what it currently looks like in the AnkiMarkdown
project (before using this plugin, I recommend checking its
documentation and alternatives):

npmPublish {
packages {
named("js") {
packageName.set("anki-markdown")
version.set(libVersion)
}
}
registries {
register("npmjs") {
uri.set(uri("https://registry.npmjs.org"))
authToken.set(npmSecret)
}
}
}

npmSecret is a string containing the npm token needed to

publish your package. You can get it from your npm account.

Exposing objects

All public elements from a Kotlin/JS module can be used in

another Kotlin/JS module, but we need to expose them if
we want to use them in JavaScript or TypeScript. For that,
we need to use the @JsExport annotation, which can be used
³⁰Link to this plugin repository: github.com/mpetuska/npm-
publish
CONTENTS 196

on classes, objects, functions, properties, and top-level func-

tions and properties. Elements that are not exported will
not appear in the .d.ts file, and their methods and property
names will be mangled in the .js file.
Consider the following file in Kotlin/JS:

@JsExport
class A(
val b: Int
) {
fun c() { /*...*/ }
}

@JsExport
fun d() { /*...*/ }

class E(
val h: String
) {
fun g() { /*...*/ }
}

fun i() { /*...*/ }

The .d.ts result of the jsBrowserProductionLibraryDistribution

task will be:

type Nullable<T> = T | null | undefined

export class A {
constructor(b: number);
get b(): number;
c(): void;
}
export function d(): void;
export as namespace AnkiMarkdown;

There is no sign of class E or function i. If elements are used in

other parts of our code, they will be present in the .js file, but
CONTENTS 197

property and function names will be mangled³¹, so we cannot

use them in JavaScript or TypeScript.
This is a huge limitation because we cannot use any Kotlin
class that is not exported. The simplest solution would be to
mark our common module elements as @JsExport,but there
is a problem with this. We cannot use the Kotlin standard
library elements in JavaScript or TypeScript because many of
its classes are not exported, including kotlin.collections.List.
Instead, we should use arrays. Another problematic type is
Long because all other types of numbers are transformed to
JavaScript number type, but Long is non-exportable³².
As a consequence, we have two options:

1. Mark common module classes as JsExport and adjust

them to the limitations. This, for instance, means we
need to use arrays instead of lists, and we cannot use the
Long type. Such changes might not be acceptable when
JavaScript is not the primary target of our project.
2. Create wrappers for all classes we want to use in
JavaScript or TypeScript. This option is considered
better for projects that are not built primarily for
Kotlin/JS. This is what such wrappers could look like:

³¹By name mangling, I mean that these names are replaced

with some random characters in JS.
³²There are some discussions about making types like List,
Map, Set and Long exportable to JavaScript. I truly support this
with all my heart because interoperating between Kotlin and
JavaScript/TypeScript seems to be the biggest pain at the
moment.
CONTENTS 198

@JsExport
@JsName("SudokuGenerator")
class SudokuGeneratorJs {
private val sudokuGenerator = SudokuGenerator()

fun generate(): SudokuJs {

return SudokuJs(sudokuGenerator.generate())
}
}

@JsExport
@JsName("Sudoku")
class SudokuJs internal constructor(
private val sudoku: Sudoku
) {
fun valueAt(position: PositionJs): Int {
return sudoku.valueAt(position.toPosition())
}
fun possibilitiesAt(position: PositionJs): Array<Int> {
return sudoku.possibilitiesAt(position.toPosition())
.toTypedArray()
}

fun isSolved(): Boolean {

return sudoku.isSolved()
}
}

@JsExport
@JsName("Position")
class PositionJs(
val row: Int,
val column: Int
)

fun PositionJs.toPosition() = Position(

row = row,
column = column
CONTENTS 199

)
fun Position.toPositionJs() = PositionJs(
row = row,
column = column
)

JsName annotation is used to change the name of

an element in JavaScript. We often use JsName for
wrapper classes to give them the same name as the
original class, but without the JS suffix. We also
sometimes use it to prevent mangling of method or
property names.

This is how TypeScript declarations will look:

type Nullable<T> = T | null | undefined

export class SudokuGenerator {
constructor();
generate(): Sudoku;
}
export class Sudoku {
private constructor();
valueAt(position: Position): number;
possibilitiesAt(position: Position): Array<number>;
isSolved(): boolean;
}
export class Position {
constructor(row: number, column: number);
get row(): number;
get column(): number;
}
export as namespace Sudoku;

It is likely that, one day, there will be KSP or compiler plugin

libraries to generate such wrappers automatically, but right
now we need to create them manually.
CONTENTS 200

Exposing Flow and StateFlow

Another common problem with using Kotlin code from

JavaScript is that types from the Kotlin Coroutines library,
like Flow and StateFlow, which in MVVM architecture are
used to represent state and data streams, are not exported.
Consider that you have the following class in your common
module:

class UserListViewModel(
private val userRepository: UserRepository
) : ViewModel() {
private val _userList: MutableStateFlow<List<User>> =
MutableStateFlow(emptyList())
val userList: StateFlow<List<User>> = _userList

private val _error: MutableStateFlow<Throwable?> =

MutableSharedFlow()
val error: Flow<Throwable?> = _error

fun loadUsers() {
viewModelScope.launch {
userRepository.fetchUsers()
.onSuccess { _usersList.value = it }
.onFailure { _error.emit(it) }
}
}
}

This object could not be used in JavaScript even if it were

exported because it uses the StateFlow and Flow types, which
are not exported, so we need to make a wrapper for them.
The Flow type represents an observable source of values. A
value that wraps it could provide a startObserving method
to observe its events, and a stopObserving method to stop all
observers.
CONTENTS 201

@JsExport
interface FlowObserver<T> {
fun stopObserving()
fun startObserving(
onEach: (T) -> Unit,
onError: (Throwable) -> Unit = {},
onComplete: () -> Unit = {},
)
}

fun <T> FlowObserver(

delegate: Flow<T>,
coroutineScope: CoroutineScope
): FlowObserver<T> =
FlowObserverImpl(delegate, coroutineScope)

class FlowObserverImpl<T>(
private val delegate: Flow<T>,
private val coroutineScope: CoroutineScope
) : FlowObserver<T> {
private var observeJobs: List<Job> = emptyList()

override fun startObserving(

onEach: (T) -> Unit,
onError: (Throwable) -> Unit,
onComplete: () -> Unit,
) {
observeJobs += delegate
.onEach(onEach)
.onCompletion { onComplete() }
.catch { onError(it) }
.launchIn(coroutineScope)
}

override fun stopObserving() {

observeJobs.forEach { it.cancel() }
}
}
CONTENTS 202

The constructor must be internal because it requires the

CoroutineScope type, which is not exported. This means the
FlowObserver constructor can only be used in Kotlin/JS code.

The StateFlow type represents an observable source of values

that always has a value. A value that wraps it should provide
the value property to access the current state, a startObserving
method to observe state changes, and a stopObserving method
to stop all observers. Since StateFlow never completes, it
doesn’t call the onComplete or onError methods.

@JsExport
interface StateFlowObserver<T> : FlowObserver<T> {
val value: T
}

fun <T> StateFlowObserver(

delegate: StateFlow<T>,
coroutineScope: CoroutineScope
): StateFlowObserver<T> =
StateFlowObserverImpl(delegate, coroutineScope)

class StateFlowObserverImpl<T>(
private val delegate: StateFlow<T>,
private val coroutineScope: CoroutineScope
) : StateFlowObserver<T> {
private var jobs = mutableListOf<Job>()
override val value: T
get() = delegate.value

override fun startObserving(

onEach: (T) -> Unit,
onError: (Throwable) -> Unit = {},
onComplete: () -> Unit = {},
) {
jobs += delegate
.onEach(onEach)
.launchIn(coroutineScope)
}
CONTENTS 203

override fun stopObserving() {

jobs.forEach { it.cancel() }
jobs.clear()
}
}

Elements that are exposed in UserListViewModel, like List<User>

or Throwable?, might not be understood by JavaScript, so we
also need to create wrappers for them. For Flow this is a simple
task as we can map its values using the map method. For
StateFlow, we need to create a wrapper that maps objects.

fun <T, R> StateFlowObserver<T>.map(

transformation: (T) -> R
): StateFlowObserver<R> =
object : StateFlowObserver<R> {
override val value: R
get() = transformation(this@map.value)

override fun startObserving(

onEach: (T) -> Unit,
onError: (Throwable) -> Unit = {},
onComplete: () -> Unit = {},
) {
this@map.observe { onEach(transformation(it)) }
}

override fun stopObserving() {

this@map.stopObserving()
}
}

Now we can define the UserListViewModel class that can be used

in JavaScript or TypeScript:
CONTENTS 204

@JsExport("UserListViewModel")
class UserListViewModelJs internal constructor(
userRepository: UserRepository
) : ViewModelJs() {
val delegate = UserListViewModel(userRepository)

val userList: StateFlow<List<User>> = StateFlowObserver(

delegate.usersList,
viewModelScope
).map { it.map { it.asJsUser() }.toTypedArray() }

val error: Flow<Throwable?> = FlowObserver(

delegate.error.map { it?.asJsError() },
viewModelScope
)

fun loadUsers() {
delegate.loadUsers()
}
}

This is an example React hook that can simplify observing

flow state:

export function useFlowState<T>(

property: FlowObserver<T>,
): T | undefined {
const [state, setState] = useState<T>()
useEffect(() => {
property.startObserving((value: T)=>setState(value))
return () => property.stopObserving()
}, [property])
return state
}

// Usage
const SomeView = ({app}: { app: App }) => {
const viewModel = useMemo(() => {
app.createUserListViewModel()
CONTENTS 205

}, [])
const userList = useStateFlowState(viewModel.userList)
const error = useFlowState(viewModel.error)
// ...
}

All these wrappers add a lot of boilerplate code, so I’m still

hoping for a good KSP library or compiler plugin to generate
them automatically. These wrappers are also not very effi-
cient because they introduce additional objects, so it’s debat-
able whether making a common JavaScript module available
is worth it for a specific application. I would say that if com-
mon parts are heavy in logic, then it should be worth the
effort; on the other hand, if common parts are not logic-heavy,
it might be better to duplicate them in JavaScript.

Adding npm dependencies

Adding Kotlin/JS dependencies to a Kotlin/JS project is

easy: you just define them in the dependencies of this
target. However, adding npm dependencies is a bit more
demanding: you should also add them to the dependency list
in build.gradle.kts, but you need to wrap such dependencies
using the npm function.

// build.gradle.kts
kotlin {
// ...

sourceSets {
// ...
val jsMain by getting {
dependencies {
implementation(npm("@js-joda/timezone", "2.18.0"))
implementation(npm("@oneidentity/zstd-js", "1.0.3"))
implementation(npm("base-x", "4.0.0"))
}
}
CONTENTS 206

// ...
}
}

Kotlin’s dependencies have Kotlin types and can be used in

Kotlin directly. JavaScript elements are not visible in Kotlin
because they don’t have Kotlin types, so you need to define
them in Kotlin if you want to use them. For that, define an
external object, functions, classes, and interfaces. If these
classes need to be imported from a library, you need to use
the @JsModule annotation in front of the object representing
the whole dependency. Here is an example of such definitions
for the @oneidentity/zstd-js and base-x libraries:

@JsModule("@oneidentity/zstd-js")
external object zstd {
fun ZstdInit(): Promise<ZstdCodec>

object ZstdCodec {
val ZstdSimple: ZstdSimple
val ZstdStream: ZstdStream
}

class ZstdSimple {
fun decompress(input: Uint8Array): Uint8Array
}

class ZstdStream {
fun decompress(input: Uint8Array): Uint8Array
}
}

@JsModule("base-x")
external fun base(alphabet: String): BaseConverter

external interface BaseConverter {

fun encode(data: Uint8Array): String
fun decode(data: String): Uint8Array
}
CONTENTS 207

There is a library called Dukat³³ that generates

Kotlin declarations based on TypeScript definition
files.
The Kotlin/JS Gradle plugin includes a dead code
elimination tool that reduces the size of the result-
ing JavaScript code by removing unused proper-
ties, functions, and classes, including those from
external libraries.

Frameworks and libraries for Kotlin/JS

Most of the problems I’ve described in this book result from

interoperability between Kotlin and JavaScript, but most of
them disappear if you limit or eliminate this interoperabil-
ity. Instead of using an npm package, you can nearly always
find a Kotlin/JS or multiplatform library that is easier to
use and does not need any additional wrappers or special
kinds of dependency declaration. I recommend starting your
library search from the Kotlin Wrappers library, created by
JetBrains. It contains an astonishing number of wrappers for
different browser APIs and a variety of popular JavaScript
libraries.
Instead of exporting elements so they can be used in
JavaScript, you can write your client in pure Kotlin as well.
For instance, the Kotlin Wrappers library offers methods for
DOM manipulation or defining views using HTML DSL, or
React Kotlin can define complete React applications using
only Kotlin. There are also frameworks designed to be used
in Kotlin/JS, like KVision, and JetPack Compose can be used
to write websites.

JavaScript and Kotlin/JS limitations

When you consider targeting JavaScript, you should also con-

sider its general limitations. JavaScript is an essentially dif-
ferent platform than JVM, therefore it has different types, dif-
³³Dukat can be found at github.com/Kotlin/dukat
CONTENTS 208

ferent memory management, and different threading models.

JavaScript runs on a single thread, and it is impossible to
run blocking operations on JavaScript³⁴. This means that you
cannot use Dispatchers.IO in Kotlin/JS code.
You should also consider browser limitations. In one project,
we established a WebSocket connection with a specific header
in the handshake in our JVM client. However, it turned out
that it’s not possible to do this in browsers due to their limi-
tations. It’s a similar case with cookie headers: on JVM pro-
grams, this header can be set to whatever you want, but in
browsers, you can only send actual cookies that are set for a
specific domain.
The web is an extremely powerful platform and you would
likely be surprised by web browsers’ capabilities, which in-
clude using databases, offline mode, background sync, shared
workers and much more. However, the web also has its limits,
so if you write a common module that should be used in a
browser, you’d better know these limitations in advance.
On the other hand, it is also worth mentioning that Kotlin is
much more limited than TypeScript when it comes to type
systems: we cannot express type literals, union or intersec-
tion types, and much more. TypeScript is extremely expres-
sive, and JavaScript, as a dynamic language, allows much
more to be done with its objects than JVM, therefore Kotlin
is more limited in the area of TypeScript API design.

// Example type that cannot be expressed in Kotlin

type ProcessResult = number | "success” | Error

³⁴It is possible to start processes in other threads in

browsers that use Web Workers, and there is a KEEP (a docu-
ment evaluated as part of the Kotlin Evolution and Enhance-
ment Process) that proposes introducing support for a worker
block that behaves similarly to the thread block on JVM.
CONTENTS 209

Summary

As you can see, exposing Kotlin code to JavaScript is not that

simple, but it’s possible, and it makes a lot of sense in some
cases. In my AnkiMarkdown and SudokuSolver libraries, it
was practically effortless because these libraries are heavy in
logic and use very few platform-specific features. In the case
of reusing the common logic of a complex application, it is
much harder. We need additional wrappers, and we need to
adjust our code to the limitations of JavaScript. I think it’s
still worth it, but before you make a similar decision yourself,
you should first consider all the pros and cons.

Exercise: Migrating a Kotlin/JVM project to KMP

Clone the following project:

https://github.com/MarcinMoskala/sudoku-generator-
exercise
It is a Kotlin/JVM project implementing a logic of generating
and solving sudoku. However, you need to use those capabil-
ities in your React project written in TypeScript. Transform
your project to a Kotlin Multiplatform project, and generate a
JavaScript library named “sudoku-generator” from it. Then
use it in your React project.
In the folder web-client you can find a React project. It is
already set to use the generated library, assuming it is going to
be named “sudoku-generator” and located in the default path
“build/productionLibrary”. You can run it using npm start
command. It is a simple project that displays an unsolved and
solved sudoku. To make it work, you need to transform Kotlin
parts to Kotlin multiplatform, and define Kotlin/JS wrapper
over sudoku generator, that is exported to JavaScript, and
that exposes objects that can be used in TypeScript.
The exported class should be named SudokuGenerator, should
have no package, an empty constructor, and a single method
generateSudoku that takes no arguments and returns an
object Sudoku with a random sudoku and its solution. The
CONTENTS 210

Sudoku object should have two properties: sudoku and solved.

Both should be of type Array<Array<Int?>>. Sudoku should
be generated using SudokuGenerator and SudokuSolver. Both
those classes can be created using SudokuGenerator() and
SudokuSolver() constructors, and the sudoku should be
generated using generate method from SudokuGenerator class,
with solver from SudokuSolver class used as an argument.
Hint: IntelliJ often has troubles with recognizing change
from Kotlin/JVM to Kotlin Multiplatform. If you have
problems with it, try to invalidate cache and restart IntelliJ.
Also, give it a moment.
Hint: To set the name of the generated module, you need to
set moduleName property in js(IR) block.
Hint: If you have problems with generating TypeScript
definitions, try to call generateTypeScriptDefinitions in js(IR)
block.
Hint: Generate the library using Gradle task
jsBrowserProductionLibraryDistribution, then remember
to use npm install in web-client.
Hint: To transform SudokuState to Array<Array<Int?>> you can
use the following function:

fun SudokuState.toJs(): Array<Array<Int?>> = List(9) { row ->

List(9) { col ->
val cell = this.cells[SudokuState.Position(row, col)]
when (cell) {
is SudokuState.CellState.Filled -> cell.value
is SudokuState.CellState.Empty, null -> null
}
}.toTypedArray()
}.toTypedArray()
CONTENTS 211

Reflection

Reflection in programming is a program’s ability to intro-

spect its own source code symbols at runtime. For example, it
might be used to display all of a class’s properties, like in the
displayPropertiesAsList function below.

import kotlin.reflect.full.memberProperties

fun displayPropertiesAsList(value: Any) {

value::class.memberProperties
.sortedBy { it.name }
.map { p -> " * ${p.name}: ${p.call(value)}" }
.forEach(::println)
}

class Person(
val name: String,
val surname: String,
val children: Int,
val female: Boolean,
)

class Dog(
val name: String,
val age: Int,
)

enum class DogBreed {

HUSKY, LABRADOR, PUG, BORDER_COLLIE
}

fun main() {
val granny = Person("Esmeralda", "Weatherwax", 0, true)
displayPropertiesAsList(granny)
// * children: 0
// * female: true
// * name: Esmeralda
CONTENTS 212

// * surname: Weatherwax

val cookie = Dog("Cookie", 1)

displayPropertiesAsList(cookie)
// * age: 1
// * name: Cookie

displayPropertiesAsList(DogBreed.BORDER_COLLIE)
// * name: BORDER_COLLIE
// * ordinal: 3
}

Reflection is often used by libraries that analyze our code

and behave according to how it is constructed. Let’s see a few
examples.
Libraries like Gson use reflection to serialize and deserialize
objects. These libraries often reference classes to check which
properties they require and which constructors they offer in
order to then use these constructors. Later in this chapter, we
will implement our own serializer.

data class Car(val brand: String, val doors: Int)

fun main() {
val json = "{\"brand\":\"Jeep\", \"doors\": 3}"
val gson = Gson()
val car: Car = gson.fromJson(json, Car::class.java)
println(car) // Car(brand=Jeep, doors=3)
val newJson = gson.toJson(car)
println(newJson) // {"brand":"Jeep", "doors": 3}
}

As another example, we can see the Koin dependency injec-

tion framework, which uses reflection to identify the type
that should be injected and to create and inject an instance
appropriately.
CONTENTS 213

class MyActivity : Application() {

val myPresenter: MyPresenter by inject()
}

Reflection is extremely useful, so let’s start learning how we

can use it ourselves.

To use Kotlin reflection, we need to add the

kotlin-reflect dependency to our project. It is not
needed to reference an element, but we need it for
the majority of operations on element references.
If you see KotlinReflectionNotSupportedError, it
means the kotlin-reflect dependency is required.
In the code examples in this chapter, I assume this
dependency is included.

Hierarchy of classes

Before we get into the details, let’s first review the general
type hierarchy of element references.
CONTENTS 214

Notice that all the types in this hierarchy start with the K
prefix. This indicates that this type is part of Kotlin Reflection
and differentiates these classes from Java Reflection. The
type Class is part of Java Reflection, so Kotlin called its equiv-
alent KClass.
At the top of this hierarchy, you can find KAnnotatedElement.
Element is a term that includes classes, functions, and proper-
ties, so it includes everything we can reference. All elements
can be annotated, which is why this interface includes the
annotations property, which we can use to get element anno-
tations.

interface KAnnotatedElement {
val annotations: List<Annotation>
}

The next confusing thing you might have noticed is that there
is no type to represent interfaces. This is because interfaces in
reflection API nomenclature are also considered classes, so
their references are of type KClass. This might be confusing,
but it is really convenient.
Now we can get into the details, which is not easy because
everything is connected to nearly everything else. At the same
time, using the reflection API is really intuitive and easy to
learn. Nevertheless, I decided that to help you understand
this API better I’ll do something I generally avoid doing: we
will go through the essential classes and discuss their meth-
ods and properties. In between, I will show you some practi-
cal examples and explain some essential reflection concepts.

Function references

We reference functions using a double colon and a function

name. Member references start with the type specified before
colons.
CONTENTS 215

import kotlin.reflect.*

fun printABC() {
println("ABC")
}

fun double(i: Int): Int = i * 2

class Complex(val real: Double, val imaginary: Double) {

fun plus(number: Number): Complex = Complex(
real = real + number.toDouble(),
imaginary = imaginary
)
}

fun Complex.double(): Complex =

Complex(real * 2, imaginary * 2)

fun Complex?.isNullOrZero(): Boolean =

this == null ||
(this.real == 0.0 && this.imaginary == 0.0)

class Box<T>(var value: T) {

fun get(): T = value
}

fun <T> Box<T>.set(value: T) {

this.value = value
}

fun main() {
val f1 = ::printABC
val f2 = ::double
val f3 = Complex::plus
val f4 = Complex::double
val f5 = Complex?::isNullOrZero
val f6 = Box<Int>::get
val f7 = Box<String>::set
}
CONTENTS 216

The result type from the function reference is an appropri-

ate KFunctionX, where X indicates the number of parameters.
This type also includes type parameters for each function
parameter and the result. For instance, the printABC reference
type is KFunction0<Unit>. For method references, a receiver is
considered another parameter, so the Complex::double type is
KFunction1<Complex, Complex>.

// ...

fun main() {
val f1: KFunction0<Unit> =
::printABC
val f2: KFunction1<Int, Int> =
::double
val f3: KFunction2<Complex, Number, Complex> =
Complex::plus
val f4: KFunction1<Complex, Complex> =
Complex::double
val f5: KFunction1<Complex?, Boolean> =
Complex?::isNullOrZero
val f6: KFunction1<Box<Int>, Int> =
Box<Int>::get
val f7: KFunction2<Box<String>, String, Unit> =
Box<String>::set
}

Alternatively, you can reference methods on concrete

instances. These are so-called bounded function references,
and they are represented with the same type but without
additional parameters for the receiver.
CONTENTS 217

// ...

fun main() {
val c = Complex(1.0, 2.0)
val f3: KFunction1<Number, Complex> = c::plus
val f4: KFunction0<Complex> = c::double
val f5: KFunction0<Boolean> = c::isNullOrZero
val b = Box(123)
val f6: KFunction0<Int> = b::get
val f7: KFunction1<Int, Unit> = b::set
}

All the specific types representing function references im-

plement the KFunction type, with only one type parameter
representing the function result type (because every function
must have a result type in Kotlin).

// ...

fun main() {
val f1: KFunction<Unit> = ::printABC
val f2: KFunction<Int> = ::double
val f3: KFunction<Complex> = Complex::plus
val f4: KFunction<Complex> = Complex::double
val f5: KFunction<Boolean> = Complex?::isNullOrZero
val f6: KFunction<Int> = Box<Int>::get
val f7: KFunction<Unit> = Box<String>::set
val c = Complex(1.0, 2.0)
val f8: KFunction<Complex> = c::plus
val f9: KFunction<Complex> = c::double
val f10: KFunction<Boolean> = c::isNullOrZero
val b = Box(123)
val f11: KFunction<Int> = b::get
val f12: KFunction<Unit> = b::set
}

Now, what can we do with function references? In a previous

book from this series, Functional Kotlin, I showed that they
CONTENTS 218

can be used instead of lambda expressions where a function

type is expected, like in the example below, where function
references are used as arguments to filterNot, map, and reduce.

// ...

fun nonZeroDoubled(numbers: List<Complex?>): List<Complex?> =

numbers
.filterNot(Complex?::isNullOrZero)
.filterNotNull()
.map(Complex::double)

Using function references where a function type is expected

is not “real” reflection because, under the hood, Kotlin trans-
forms these references to lambda expressions. We use func-
tion references like this only for our own convenience.

fun nonZeroDoubled(numbers: List<Complex?>): List<Complex?> =

numbers
.filterNot { it.isNullOrZero() }
.filterNotNull()
.map { it.double() }

Formally, this is possible because types that represent func-

tion references, like KFunction2<Int, Int, Int>, implement
function types; in this example, the implemented type is (Int,
Int) -> Int. So, these types also include the invoke operator
function, which lets the reference be called like a function.

fun add(i: Int, j: Int) = i + j

fun main() {
val f: KFunction2<Int, Int, Int> = ::add
println(f(1, 2)) // 3
println(f.invoke(1, 2)) // 3
}

The KFunction by itself includes only a few properties that let

us check some function-specific characteristics:
CONTENTS 219

• isInline: Boolean - true if this function is inline.

• isExternal: Boolean - true if this function is external.
• isOperator: Boolean - true if this function is operator.
• isInfix: Boolean - true if this function is infix.
• isSuspend: Boolean - true if this is a suspending function.

import kotlin.reflect.KFunction

inline infix operator fun String.times(times: Int) =

this.repeat(times)

fun main() {
val f: KFunction<String> = String::times
println(f.isInline) // true
println(f.isExternal) // false
println(f.isOperator) // true
println(f.isInfix) // true
println(f.isSuspend) // false
}

KCallable has many more properties and a few functions. Let’s

start with the properties:

• name: String - The name of this callable as declared in

the source code. If the callable has no name, a special
invented name is created. Here are some atypical cases:
* constructors have the name “<init>”,
* property accessors: the getter for a property named
“foo” will have the name “<get-foo>”; similarly the setter
will have the name “<set-foo>”.
• parameters: List<KParameter> - a list of references to the
parameters of this callable. We will discuss parameter
references in a dedicated section.
• returnType: KType - the type that is expected as a result
of this callable call. We will discuss the KType type in a
dedicated section.
CONTENTS 220

• typeParameters: List<KTypeParameter> - a list of generic

type parameters of this callable. We will discuss the
KTypeParameter type in the section dedicated to class ref-
erences.
• visibility: KVisibility? - visibility of this callable,
or null if its visibility cannot be represented in Kotlin.
KVisibility is an enum class with values PUBLIC, PROTECTED,
INTERNAL, and PRIVATE.
• isFinal: Boolean - true if this callable is final.
• isOpen: Boolean - true if this function is open.
• isAbstract: Boolean - true if this function is abstract.
• isSuspend: Boolean - true if this is a suspending function
(it is defined in both KFunction and KCallable).

import kotlin.reflect.KCallable

operator fun String.times(times: Int) = this.repeat(times)

fun main() {
val f: KCallable<String> = String::times
println(f.name) // times
println(f.parameters.map { it.name }) // [null, times]
println(f.returnType) // kotlin.String
println(f.typeParameters) // []
println(f.visibility) // PUBLIC
println(f.isFinal) // true
println(f.isOpen) // false
println(f.isAbstract) // false
println(f.isSuspend) // false
}

KCallable also has two methods that can be used to call it. The
first one, call, accepts a vararg number of parameters of type
Any? and the result type R, which is the only KCallable type
parameter. When we call the call method, we need to provide
a proper number of values with appropriate types, otherwise,
it throws IllegalArgumentException. Optional arguments must
also have a value specified when we use the call function.
CONTENTS 221

import kotlin.reflect.KCallable

fun add(i: Int, j: Int) = i + j

fun main() {
val f: KCallable<Int> = ::add
println(f.call(1, 2)) // 3
println(f.call("A", "B")) // IllegalArgumentException
}

The second function, callBy, is used to call functions using

named arguments. As an argument, it expects a map from
KParameter to Any? that should include all non-optional argu-
ments.

import kotlin.reflect.KCallable

fun sendEmail(
email: String,
title: String = "",
message: String = ""
) {
println(
"""
Sending to $email
Title: $title
Message: $message
""".trimIndent()
)
}

fun main() {
val f: KCallable<Unit> = ::sendEmail

f.callBy(mapOf(f.parameters[0] to "ABC"))
// Sending to ABC
// Title:
// Message:
CONTENTS 222

val params = f.parameters.associateBy { it.name }

f.callBy(
mapOf(
params["title"]!! to "DEF",
params["message"]!! to "GFI",
params["email"]!! to "ABC",
)
)
// Sending to ABC
// Title: DEF
// Message: GFI

f.callBy(mapOf()) // throws IllegalArgumentException

}

Parameter references

The KCallable type has the parameters property, with a list of

references of type KParameter. This type includes the following
properties:

• index: Int - the index of this parameter.

• name: String? - a simple parameter name, or null if the pa-
rameter has no name or its name is not available at run-
time. Examples of nameless parameters include a this
instance for member functions, an extension receiver
for extension functions or properties, and parameters of
Java methods compiled without debug information.
• type: KType - the type of this parameter.
• kind: Kind - the kind of this parameter, which can be one
of the following:
* VALUE for regular parameters.
* EXTENSION_RECEIVER for extension receivers.
* INSTANCE for dispatch receivers, so instances needed to
make member callable calls.
• isOptional: Boolean - true if this parameter is optional,
therefore it has a default argument specified.
• isVararg: Boolean - true if this parameter is vararg.
CONTENTS 223

As an example of how the parameters property can be used, I

created the callWithFakeArgs function, which can be used to
call a function reference with some constant values for the
non-optional parameters of supported types. As you can see
in the code below, this function takes parameters; it uses
filterNot to keep only parameters that are not optional, and
it then associates a value with each of them . A constant value
is provided by the fakeValueFor function, which for Int always
returns 123; for String, it constructs a fake value that includes
a parameter name (the typeOf function will be described later
in this chapter). The resulting map of parameters with asso-
ciated values is used as an argument to callBy. You can see
how this callWithFakeArgs can be used to execute different
functions with the same arguments.

import kotlin.reflect.KCallable
import kotlin.reflect.KParameter
import kotlin.reflect.typeOf

fun callWithFakeArgs(callable: KCallable<*>) {

val arguments = callable.parameters
.filterNot { it.isOptional }
.associateWith { fakeValueFor(it) }
callable.callBy(arguments)
}

fun fakeValueFor(parameter: KParameter) =

when (parameter.type) {
typeOf<String>() -> "Fake ${parameter.name}"
typeOf<Int>() -> 123
else -> error("Unsupported type")
}

fun sendEmail(
email: String,
title: String,
message: String = ""
) {
println(
CONTENTS 224

"""
Sending to $email
Title: $title
Message: $message
""".trimIndent()
)
}
fun printSum(a: Int, b: Int) {
println(a + b)
}
fun Int.printProduct(b: Int) {
println(this * b)
}

fun main() {
callWithFakeArgs(::sendEmail)
// Sending to Fake email
// Title: Fake title
// Message:
callWithFakeArgs(::printSum) // 246
callWithFakeArgs(Int::printProduct) // 15129
}

Property references

Property references are similar to function references, but

they have a slightly more complicated type hierarchy.
CONTENTS 225

All property references implement KProperty, which imple-

ments KCallable. Calling a property means calling its getter.
Read-write property references implement KMutableProperty,
which implements KProperty. There are also specific types
like KProperty0 or KMutableProperty1, which specify how many
receivers property calls require:

• Read-only top-level properties implement KProperty0 be-

cause their getter can be called without any receiver.
• Read-only member or extension properties implement
KProperty1 because their getter needs a single receiver
object.
• Read-only member extension properties implement
KProperty2 because their getter needs two receivers: a
dispatch receiver and an extension receiver.
• Read-write top-level properties implement
KMutableProperty0 because their getter can be called
without any receiver.
• Read-write member or extension properties implement
KMutableProperty1 because their getter and setter need a
single receiver object.
• Read-write member extension properties implement
KMutableProperty2 because their getter and setter need
CONTENTS 226

two receivers: a dispatch receiver and an extension

receiver.

Properties are referenced just like functions: use two colons

before their name and an additional class name for member
properties. There is no syntax to reference member extension
functions or member extension properties; so, to show the
KProperty2 example in the example below, I needed to find
it in the class reference, which will be described in the next
section.

import kotlin.reflect.*
import kotlin.reflect.full.memberExtensionProperties

val lock: Any = Any()

var str: String = "ABC"

class Box(
var value: Int = 0
) {
val Int.addedToBox
get() = Box(value + this)
}

fun main() {
val p1: KProperty0<Any> = ::lock
println(p1) // val lock: kotlin.Any
val p2: KMutableProperty0<String> = ::str
println(p2) // var str: kotlin.String
val p3: KMutableProperty1<Box, Int> = Box::value
println(p3) // var Box.value: kotlin.Int
val p4: KProperty2<Box, *, *> = Box::class
.memberExtensionProperties
.first()
println(p4) // val Box.(kotlin.Int.)addedToBox: Box
}

The KProperty type has a few property-specific properties:

CONTENTS 227

• isLateinit: Boolean - true if this property is lateinit.

• isConst: Boolean - true if this property is const.
• getter: Getter<V> - a reference to an object representing
a property getter.

KMutableProperty only adds a single property:

• setter: Setter<V> - a reference to an object representing

a property setter.

Types representing properties with a specific number of re-

ceivers additionally provide this property getter’s get func-
tion, and mutable variants also provide the set function for
this property setter. Both get and set have an appropriate
number of additional parameters for receivers. For instance,
in KMutableProperty1, the get function expects a single argu-
ment for the receiver, and set expects one argument for the
receiver and one for a value. Additionally, more specific types
that represent properties provide more specific references to
getters and setters.

import kotlin.reflect.*

class Box(
var value: Int = 0
)

fun main() {
val box = Box()
val p: KMutableProperty1<Box, Int> = Box::value
println(p.get(box)) // 0
p.set(box, 999)
println(p.get(box)) // 999
}

Class reference

To reference a class, we use the class name or instance, the

double colon, and the class keyword. The result is KClass<T>,
CONTENTS 228

where T is the type representing a class.

import kotlin.reflect.KClass

class A

fun main() {
val class1: KClass<A> = A::class
println(class1) // class A

val a: A = A()
val class2: KClass<out A> = a::class
println(class2) // class A
}

Note that the reference on the variable is covariant because a

variable of type A might contain an object of type A or any of its
subtypes.

import kotlin.reflect.KClass

open class A
class B : A()

fun main() {
val a: A = B()
val clazz: KClass<out A> = a::class
println(clazz) // class B
}

Since class is a reserved keyword in Kotlin and

cannot be used as the variable name, it is a popular
practice to use “clazz” instead.

A class has two types of names:

• Simple name is just the name used after the class key-
word. We can read it using the simpleName property.
CONTENTS 229

• The fully qualified name is the name that includes the

package and the enclosing classes. We can read it using
the qualifiedName property.

package a.b.c

class D {
class E
}

fun main() {
val clazz = D.E::class
println(clazz.simpleName) // E
println(clazz.qualifiedName) // a.b.c.D.E
}

Both simpleName and qualifiedName return null when we refer-

ence an object expression or any other nameless object.

fun main() {
val o = object {}
val clazz = o::class
println(clazz.simpleName) // null
println(clazz.qualifiedName) // null
}

KClass has only a few properties that let us check some class-
specific characteristics:

• isFinal: Boolean - true if this class is final.

• isOpen: Boolean - true if this class has the open modifier.
Abstract and sealed classes, even though they are gener-
ally considered abstract, will return false.
• isAbstract: Boolean - true if this class has the abstract
modifier. Sealed classes, even though they are generally
considered abstract, will return false.
CONTENTS 230

• isSealed: Boolean - true if this class has the sealed modi-

fier.
• isData: Boolean - true if this class has the data modifier.
• isInner: Boolean - true if this class has the inner modifier.
• isCompanion: Boolean - true if this class is a companion
object.
• isFun: Boolean - true if this class is a Kotlin functional
interface and so has the fun modifier.
• isValue: Boolean - true if this class is a value class and so
has the value modifier.

Just like for functions, we can check classes’ visibility using

the visibility property.

sealed class UserMessages

private data class UserId(val id: String) {

companion object {
val ZERO = UserId("")
}
}

internal fun interface Filter<T> {

fun check(value: T): Boolean
}

fun main() {
println(UserMessages::class.visibility) // PUBLIC
println(UserMessages::class.isSealed) // true
println(UserMessages::class.isOpen) // false
println(UserMessages::class.isFinal) // false
println(UserMessages::class.isAbstract) // false

println(UserId::class.visibility) // PRIVATE
println(UserId::class.isData) // true
println(UserId::class.isFinal) // true

println(UserId.Companion::class.isCompanion) // true
CONTENTS 231

println(UserId.Companion::class.isInner) // false

println(Filter::class.visibility) // INTERNAL
println(Filter::class.isFun) // true
}

Functions and properties defined inside a class are known as

members. This category does not include extension functions
defined outside the class, but it does include elements defined
by parents. Members defined by a particular class are called
declared members. Since referencing a class to list its members
is quite popular, it is good to know the following properties we
can use:

• members: Collection<KCallable<*>> - returns all class mem-

bers, including those declared by parents of this class.
• functions: Collection<KFunction<*>> - returns all class
member functions, including those declared by parents
of this class.
• memberProperties: Collection<KProperty1<*>> - returns all
class member properties, including those declared by
parents of this class.
• declaredMembers: Collection<KCallable<*>> - returns
members declared by this class.
• declaredFunctions: Collection<KFunction<*>> - returns
functions declared by this class.
• declaredMemberProperties: Collection<KProperty1<*>> - re-
turns member properties declared by this class.
CONTENTS 232

import kotlin.reflect.full.*

open class Parent {

val a = 12
fun b() {}
}

class Child : Parent() {

val c = 12
fun d() {}
}

fun Child.e() {}

fun main() {
println(Child::class.members.map { it.name })
// [c, d, a, b, equals, hashCode, toString]
println(Child::class.functions.map { it.name })
// [d, b, equals, hashCode, toString]
println(Child::class.memberProperties.map { it.name })
// [c, a]

println(Child::class.declaredMembers.map { it.name })
// [c, d]
println(Child::class.declaredFunctions.map { it.name })
// [d]
println(
Child::class.declaredMemberProperties.map { it.name }
) // [c]
}

A class constructor is not a member, but it is not considered a

function either. We can get a list of all constructors using the
constructors property.
CONTENTS 233

package playground

import kotlin.reflect.KFunction

class User(val name: String) {

constructor(user: User) : this(user.name)
constructor(json: UserJson) : this(json.name)
}

class UserJson(val name: String)

fun main() {
val constructors: Collection<KFunction<User>> =
User::class.constructors

println(constructors.size) // 3
constructors.forEach(::println)
// fun <init>(playground.User): playground.User
// fun <init>(playground.UserJson): playground.User
// fun <init>(kotlin.String): playground.User
}

We can get superclass references using the superclasses prop-

erty, which returns List<KClass<*>>. In reflection API nomen-
clature, remember that interfaces are also considered classes,
so their references are of type KClass and they are returned
by the superclasses property. We can also get the types of the
same direct superclass and directly implemented interfaces
using the supertypes property, which returns List<KType>. This
property actually returns a list of superclasses, not super-
types, as it doesn’t include nullable types, but it includes Any
if there is no other direct superclass.
CONTENTS 234

import kotlin.reflect.KClass
import kotlin.reflect.full.superclasses

interface I1
interface I2
open class A : I1
class B : A(), I2

fun main() {
val a = A::class
val b = B::class
println(a.superclasses) // [class I1, class kotlin.Any]
println(b.superclasses) // [class A, class I2]
println(a.supertypes) // [I1, kotlin.Any]
println(b.supertypes) // [A, I2]
}

You can use a class reference to check if a specific object is a

subtype of this class (or interface).

interface I1
interface I2
open class A : I1
class B : A(), I2

fun main() {
val a = A()
val b = B()
println(A::class.isInstance(a)) // true
println(B::class.isInstance(a)) // false
println(I1::class.isInstance(a)) // true
println(I2::class.isInstance(a)) // false

println(A::class.isInstance(b)) // true
println(B::class.isInstance(b)) // true
println(I1::class.isInstance(b)) // true
println(I2::class.isInstance(b)) // true
}
CONTENTS 235

Generic classes have type parameters that are represented

with the KTypeParameter type. We can get a list of all type pa-
rameters defined by a class using the typeParameters property.

fun main() {
println(List::class.typeParameters) // [out E]
println(Map::class.typeParameters) // [K, out V]
}

If a class includes some nested classes, we can get a list of them

using the nestedClasses property.

class A {
class B
inner class C
}

fun main() {
println(A::class.nestedClasses) // [class A$B, class A$C]
}

If a class is a sealed class, we can get a list of its subclasses using

sealedSubclasses: List<KClass<out T>>.

sealed class LinkedList<out T>

class Node<out T>(

val head: T,
val next: LinkedList<T>
) : LinkedList<T>()

object Empty : LinkedList<Nothing>()

fun main() {
println(LinkedList::class.sealedSubclasses)
// [class Node, class Empty]
}
CONTENTS 236

An object declaration has only one instance, and we can get its
reference using the objectInstance property of type T?, where T
is the KClass type parameter. This property returns null when
a class does not represent an object declaration.

import kotlin.reflect.KClass

sealed class LinkedList<out T>

class Node<out T>(

val head: T,
val next: LinkedList<T>
) : LinkedList<T>()

object Empty : LinkedList<Nothing>()

fun printInstance(c: KClass<*>) {

println(c.objectInstance)
}

fun main() {
printInstance(Node::class) // null
printInstance(Empty::class) // Empty@XYZ
}

Serialization example

Let’s use our knowledge now on a practical example. Our goal

is to define a toJson function which will serialize objects into
JSON format.
CONTENTS 237

class Creature(
val name: String,
val attack: Int,
val defence: Int,
)

fun main() {
val creature = Creature(
name = "Cockatrice",
attack = 2,
defence = 4
)
println(creature.toJson())
// {"attack": 2, "defence": 4, "name": "Cockatrice"}
}

To help us implement toJson, I will define a couple of helper

functions, starting with objectToJson, which is responsible
for serializing objects to JSON and assumes that its argu-
ment is an object. Objects in JSON format are surrounded
by curly braces containing property-value pairs separated
with commas. In each pair, first there is a property name
in quotes, then a colon, and then a serialized value. To im-
plement objectToJson, we first need to have a list of object
properties. For that, we will reference this object, and then
we can either use memberProperties (including all properties
in this object, including those inherited from the parent)
or declaredMemberProperties (including properties declared by
the class constructing this object). Once we have a list of
properties, we can use joinToString to create a string with
property-value pairs. We specify prefix and postfix parame-
ters to surround the result string with curly brackets. We also
define transform to
specify how property-value pairs should be transformed to a
string. Inside them, we take property names using the name
property; we get property value by calling the call method
from this property reference, and we then transform the
result value to a string using the valueToJson function.
CONTENTS 238

fun Any.toJson(): String = objectToJson(this)

private fun objectToJson(any: Any) = any::class

.memberProperties
.joinToString(
prefix = "{",
postfix = "}",
transform = { prop ->
"\"${prop.name}\": ${valueToJson(prop.call(any))}"
}
)

The above code needs the ‘valueToJson function to serialize

JSON values. JSON format supports a number of values, but most
of them can just be serialized using the Kotlin string template.
This includes the null value, all numbers, and enums. An
important exception is strings, which need to be additionally
wrapped with quotes[^9_2]. All non-basic types will be treated
as objects and serialized with the objectToJson‘ function.

private fun valueToJson(value: Any?): String = when (value) {

null, is Number -> "$value"
is String, is Enum<*> -> "\"$value\""
// ...
else -> objectToJson(value)
}

This is all we need to make a simple JSON serialization func-

tion. To make it more functional, I also added some methods
to serialize collections.
CONTENTS 239

import kotlin.reflect.full.memberProperties

// Serialization function definition

fun Any.toJson(): String = objectToJson(this)

private fun objectToJson(any: Any) = any::class

.memberProperties
.joinToString(
prefix = "{",
postfix = "}",
transform = { prop ->
"\"${prop.name}\": ${valueToJson(prop.call(any))}"
}
)

private fun valueToJson(value: Any?): String = when (value) {

null, is Number, is Boolean -> "$value"
is String, is Enum<*> -> "\"$value\""
is Iterable<*> -> iterableToJson(value)
is Map<*, *> -> mapToJson(value)
else -> objectToJson(value)
}

private fun iterableToJson(any: Iterable<*>): String = any

.joinToString(
prefix = "[",
postfix = "]",
transform = ::valueToJson
)

private fun mapToJson(any: Map<*, *>) = any.toList()

.joinToString(
prefix = "{",
postfix = "}",
transform = {
"\"${it.first}\": ${valueToJson(it.second)}"
}
)
CONTENTS 240

// Example use
class Creature(
val name: String,
val attack: Int,
val defence: Int,
val traits: List<Trait>,
val cost: Map<Element, Int>
)
enum class Element {
FOREST, ANY,
}
enum class Trait {
FLYING
}

fun main() {
val creature = Creature(
name = "Cockatrice",
attack = 2,
defence = 4,
traits = listOf(Trait.FLYING),
cost = mapOf(
Element.ANY to 3,
Element.FOREST to 2
)
)
println(creature.toJson())
// {"attack": 2, "cost": {"ANY": 3, "FOREST": 2},
// "defence": 4, "name": "Cockatrice",
// "traits": ["FLYING"]}
}

Before we close this topic, we might also practice working

with annotations. We will define the JsonName annotation,
which should set a different name for the serialized form,
and JsonIgnore, which should make the serializer ignore the
annotated property.
CONTENTS 241

// Annotations
@Target(AnnotationTarget.PROPERTY)
annotation class JsonName(val name: String)

@Target(AnnotationTarget.PROPERTY)
annotation class JsonIgnore

// Example use
class Creature(
@JsonIgnore val name: String,
@JsonName("att") val attack: Int,
@JsonName("def") val defence: Int,
val traits: List<Trait>,
val cost: Map<Element, Int>
)
enum class Element {
FOREST, ANY,
}
enum class Trait {
FLYING
}

fun main() {
val creature = Creature(
name = "Cockatrice",
attack = 2,
defence = 4,
traits = listOf(Trait.FLYING),
cost = mapOf(
Element.ANY to 3,
Element.FOREST to 2
)
)
println(creature.toJson())
// {"att": 2, "cost": {"ANY": 3, "FOREST": 2},
// "def": 4, "traits": ["FLYING"]}
}

To respect these annotations, we need to modify our

CONTENTS 242

objectToJson function. To ignore properties, we will add

a filter on the properties list. For each property, we need
to check if it has the JsonIgnore annotation. To check if a
property has this annotation, we could use the annotations
property, but we can also use the hasAnnotation extension
function on KAnnotatedElement. To respect a name change, we
need to find the JsonName property annotation by using the
findAnnotation extension function on KAnnotatedElement. This
is how our function needs to be modified to respect both
annotations:

private fun objectToJson(any: Any) = any::class

.memberProperties
.filterNot { it.hasAnnotation<JsonIgnore>() }
.joinToString(
prefix = "{",
postfix = "}",
transform = { prop ->
val annotation = prop.findAnnotation<JsonName>()
val name = annotation?.name ?: prop.name
"\"${name}\": ${valueToJson(prop.call(any))}"
}
)

Referencing types

It’s time to discuss type references of type KType. Types should

not be confused with classes. Variables and parameters have
types, not classes. Types can be nullable and can have type
arguments³⁵.
³⁵I explained the differences between classes and types in
the The beauty of Kotlin’s type system chapter of Kotlin Essen-
tials.
CONTENTS 243

Examples of types and classes. This image was first published in my book Kotlin
Essentials.

Relations between classes, types and objects. This image was first published in my
book Kotlin Essentials.

To directly reference a type, we use the typeOf function. Note

that this function holds information about nullability and
type arguments.
CONTENTS 244

import kotlin.reflect.KType
import kotlin.reflect.typeOf

fun main() {
val t1: KType = typeOf<Int?>()
println(t1) // kotlin.Int?
val t2: KType = typeOf<List<Int?>>()
println(t2) // kotlin.collections.List<kotlin.Int?>
val t3: KType = typeOf<() -> Map<Int, Char?>>()
println(t3)
// () -> kotlin.collections.Map<kotlin.Int, kotlin.Char?>
}

KType is a simple class with only three properties:

isMarkedNullable, arguments, and classifier.

// Simplified KType definition

interface KType : KAnnotatedElement {
val isMarkedNullable: Boolean
val arguments: List<KTypeProjection>
val classifier: KClassifier?
}

The isMarkedNullable property is simplest; it returns true if

this type is marked as nullable in the source code.

import kotlin.reflect.typeOf

fun main() {
println(typeOf<Int>().isMarkedNullable) // false
println(typeOf<Int?>().isMarkedNullable) // true
}

Property arguments provide type arguments of this type, so the

List<Int> type will have a single argument of type Int, and
Map<Long, Char> will have two type arguments Long and Char.
The type of these type arguments is KTypeProjection, which
is a data class that includes type and a potential variance
modifier, therefore Box<out String> has one type argument:
out String.
CONTENTS 245

// Simplified KTypeProjection definition

data class KTypeProjection(
val variance: KVariance?,
val type: KType?
)

import kotlin.reflect.typeOf

class Box<T>

fun main() {
val t1 = typeOf<List<Int>>()
println(t1.arguments) // [kotlin.Int]
val t2 = typeOf<Map<Long, Char>>()
println(t2.arguments) // [kotlin.Long, kotlin.Char]
val t3 = typeOf<Box<out String>>()
println(t3.arguments) // [out kotlin.String]
}

Finally, we have theclassifier property, which is a way

for a type to reference the associated class. Its result type is
KClassifier?, which is a supertype of KClass and KTypeParameter.
KClass represents a class or an interface. KTypeParameter
represents a generic type parameter. The type classifier can
be KTypeParameter when we reference generic class members.
Also, classifier returns null when the type is not denotable
in Kotlin, e.g., an intersection type.

import kotlin.reflect.*

class Box<T>(val value: T) {

fun get(): T = value
}

fun main() {
val t1 = typeOf<List<Int>>()
println(t1.classifier) // class kotlin.collections.List
println(t1 is KType) // true
CONTENTS 246

println(t1 is KClass<*>) // false

val t2 = typeOf<Map<Long, Char>>()
println(t2.classifier) // class kotlin.collections.Map
println(t2.arguments[0].type?.classifier)
// class kotlin.Long

val t3 = Box<Int>::get.returnType.classifier
println(t3) // T
println(t3 is KTypeParameter) // true
}

// KTypeParameter definition
interface KTypeParameter : KClassifier {
val name: String
val upperBounds: List<KType>
val variance: KVariance
val isReified: Boolean
}

Type reflection example: Random value

To show how we can use type reference, we will implement

the ValueGenerator class with a randomValue method that gen-
erates a random value of a specific type. We will specify two
variants of this function: one expecting a type as a reified
type argument, and another that expects a type reference as
a regular argument.

class ValueGenerator(
private val random: Random = Random,
) {
inline fun <reified T> randomValue(): T =
randomValue(typeOf<T>()) as T

fun randomValue(type: KType): Any? = TODO()

}
CONTENTS 247

When implementing the randomValue function, a philosophi-

cal problem arises: if a type is nullable, what is the probability
that our random value is null? To solve this problem, I added
a configuration that specifies the probability of a null value.

import kotlin.random.Random
import kotlin.reflect.KType
import kotlin.reflect.typeOf

class RandomValueConfig(
val nullProbability: Double = 0.1,
)

class ValueGenerator(
private val random: Random = Random,
val config: RandomValueConfig = RandomValueConfig(),
) {

inline fun <reified T> randomValue(): T =

randomValue(typeOf<T>()) as T

fun randomValue(type: KType): Any? = when {

type.isMarkedNullable -> randomNullable(type)
// ...
else -> error("Type $type not supported")
}

private fun randomNullable(type: KType) =

if (randomBoolean(config.nullProbability)) null
else randomValue(type.withNullability(false))

private fun randomBoolean(probability: Double) =

random.nextDouble() < probability
}

Now we can add support for some other basic types. Boolean
is simplest because it can be generated using nextBoolean from
Random. The same can be said about Int, but 0 is a special value,
CONTENTS 248

so I decided to specify its probability in the configuration as

well.

import kotlin.math.ln
import kotlin.random.Random
import kotlin.reflect.KType
import kotlin.reflect.full.isSubtypeOf
import kotlin.reflect.typeOf

class RandomValueConfig(
val nullProbability: Double = 0.1,
val zeroProbability: Double = 0.1,
)

class ValueGenerator(
private val random: Random = Random,
val config: RandomValueConfig = RandomValueConfig(),
) {

inline fun <reified T> randomValue(): T =

randomValue(typeOf<T>()) as T

fun randomValue(type: KType): Any? = when {

type.isMarkedNullable &&
randomBoolean(config.nullProbability) -> null
type == typeOf<Boolean>() -> randomBoolean()
type == typeOf<Int>() -> randomInt()
// ...
else -> error("Type $type not supported")
}

private fun randomInt() =

if (randomBoolean(config.zeroProbability)) 0
else random.nextInt()

private fun randomBoolean() =

random.nextBoolean()

private fun randomBoolean(probability: Double) =

CONTENTS 249

random.nextDouble() < probability

}

Finally, we should generate strings and lists. The biggest prob-

lem here is size. If we used random numbers as a size for ran-
dom collections, these collections would be huge. A random
value for a type like List<List<List<String>>> could literally
consume all our memory, not to mention the fact that the
readability of such objects would be poor. But we should also
make it possible for our function to generate a big collection
or a string as this might be an edge case we need in some unit
tests. I believe that the sizes of the collections and strings we
use in real projects are described with exponential distribu-
tion: most of them are rather short, but some are huge. The
exponential distribution is parametrized with a lambda value.
I made this parameter configurable. By default, I decided to
specify the exponential distribution parameter for strings as
0.1, which makes our function generate an empty string with
around 10% probability, and a string longer than 5 characters
with around
55% probability. For lists, I specify the default parameter as
0.3, which means that lists will be empty with around 25%
probability, and they have only 16% probability of having a
size greater than 5.

import kotlin.math.ln
import kotlin.random.Random
import kotlin.reflect.KType
import kotlin.reflect.full.isSubtypeOf
import kotlin.reflect.full.withNullability
import kotlin.reflect.typeOf

class RandomValueConfig(
val nullProbability: Double = 0.1,
val zeroProbability: Double = 0.1,
val stringSizeParam: Double = 0.1,
val listSizeParam: Double = 0.3,
)
CONTENTS 250

class ValueGenerator(
private val random: Random = Random,
val config: RandomValueConfig = RandomValueConfig(),
) {

inline fun <reified T> randomValue(): T =

randomValue(typeOf<T>()) as T

fun randomValue(type: KType): Any? = when {

type.isMarkedNullable -> randomNullable(type)
type == typeOf<Boolean>() -> randomBoolean()
type == typeOf<Int>() -> randomInt()
type == typeOf<String>() -> randomString()
type.isSubtypeOf(typeOf<List<*>>()) ->
randomList(type)
// ...
else -> error("Type $type not supported")
}

private fun randomNullable(type: KType) =

if (randomBoolean(config.nullProbability)) null
else randomValue(type.withNullability(false))

private fun randomString(): String =

(1..random.exponential(config.stringSizeParam))
.map { CHARACTERS.random(random) }
.joinToString(separator = "")

private fun randomList(type: KType) =

List(random.exponential(config.listSizeParam)) {
randomValue(type.arguments[0].type!!)
}

private fun randomInt() =

if (randomBoolean(config.zeroProbability)) 0
else random.nextInt()

private fun randomBoolean() =

random.nextBoolean()
CONTENTS 251

private fun randomBoolean(probability: Double) =

random.nextDouble() < probability

companion object {
private val CHARACTERS =
('A'..'Z') + ('a'..'z') + ('0'..'9') + " "
}
}

private fun Random.exponential(f: Double): Int {

return (ln(1 - nextDouble()) / -f).toInt()
}

Let’s use what we’ve implemented so far to generate a bunch

of random values:

fun main() {
val r = Random(1)
val g = ValueGenerator(random = r)
println(g.randomValue<Int>()) // -527218591
println(g.randomValue<Int?>()) // -2022884062
println(g.randomValue<Int?>()) // null
println(g.randomValue<List<Int>>())
// [-1171478239]
println(g.randomValue<List<List<Boolean>>>())
// [[true, true, false], [], [], [false, false], [],
// [true, true, true, true, true, true, true, false]]
println(g.randomValue<List<Int?>?>())
// [-416634648, null, 382227801]
println(g.randomValue<String>()) // WjMNxTwDPrQ
println(g.randomValue<List<String?>>())
// [VAg, , null, AIKeGp9Q7, 1dqARHjUjee3i6XZzhQ02l, DlG, , ]
}

Added 1 as a seed value to Random to produce pre-

dictable pseudo-random values for demonstration
purposes.
CONTENTS 252

We could push this project much further and make it sup-

port many more types. We could also generate random class
instances thanks to the classifier property and constructors.
Nevertheless, let’s stop where we are.

Kotlin and Java reflection

On Kotlin/JVM, we can use the Java Reflection API, which is

similar to the Kotlin Reflection API but is primarily designed
to be used with Java, not Kotlin, but both type hierarchies
are similar. We can transform between these two hierarchies
using extension properties accessible on Kotlin/JVM. For ex-
ample, we can use the java property to transform KClass to
Java Class, or we can use javaMethod to transform KFunction
to Method. Similarly, we can transform Java Reflection classes
to Kotlin Reflection classes using extension properties which
start with the kotlin prefix. For example, we can use the kotlin
property to transform Class to KClass, and the kotlinFunction
property to transform Method to KFunction.

import java.lang.reflect.*
import kotlin.reflect.*
import kotlin.reflect.jvm.*

class A {
val a = 123
fun b() {}
}

fun main() {
val c1: Class<A> = A::class.java
val c2: Class<A> = A().javaClass

val f1: Field? = A::a.javaField

val f2: Method? = A::a.javaGetter
val f3: Method? = A::b.javaMethod

val kotlinClass: KClass<A> = c1.kotlin

CONTENTS 253

val kotlinProperty: KProperty<*>? = f1?.kotlinProperty

val kotlinFunction: KFunction<*>? = f3?.kotlinFunction
}

Breaking encapsulation

Using reflection, we can call elements we should not have

access to. Each element has a specified accessibility parame-
ter that we can check using the isAccessible property in the
Kotlin and Java Reflection APIs. The same property can be
used to change elements’ accessibility. When we do that, we
can call private functions or operate on private properties. Of
course, you should avoid doing this if not absolutely neces-
sary.

import kotlin.reflect.*
import kotlin.reflect.full.*
import kotlin.reflect.jvm.isAccessible

class A {
private var value = 0
private fun printValue() {
println(value)
}
override fun toString(): String =
"A(value=$value)"
}

fun main() {
val a = A()
val c = A::class

// We change value to 999

val prop: KMutableProperty1<A, Int>? =
c.declaredMemberProperties
.find { it.name == "value" }
as? KMutableProperty1<A, Int>
prop?.isAccessible = true
CONTENTS 254

prop?.set(a, 999)
println(a) // A(value=999)
println(prop?.get(a)) // 999

// We call printValue function

val func: KFunction<*>? =
c.declaredMemberFunctions
.find { it.name == "printValue" }
func?.isAccessible = true
func?.call(a) // 999
}

Summary

Reflection is a powerful tool used by many libraries to im-

plement functionalities specific to code elements’ definitions.
We shouldn’t use reflection too often in our applications as
it is considered heavy, but it is good to know how to use it
because it offers possibilities that cannot be substituted with
anything else.

Exercise: Function caller

Your task is to implement methods of a class that is used to call

function references with constant values specified by type.
This class should have the following methods:

• setConstant - sets a constant value for a given type.

• call - calls a function reference with constant values
specified by type.

If a constant value for a given type is not specified, an excep-

tion should be thrown. Unless it is an optional parameter,
then its default argument should be used.
Starting code:
CONTENTS 255

class FunctionCaller {
inline fun <reified T> setConstant(value: T) {
setConstant(typeOf<T>(), value)
}

fun setConstant(type: KType, value: Any?) {

TODO()
}

fun <T> call(function: KFunction<T>): T {

TODO()
}
}

Usage example:

fun printStrIntNum(str: String, int: Int, num: Number) {

println("str: $str, int: $int, num: $num")
}

fun printWithOptionals(l: Long = 999, s: String) {

println("l: $l, s: $s")
}

fun main() {
val caller = FunctionCaller()
caller.setConstant("ABC")
caller.setConstant(123)
caller.setConstant(typeOf<Number>(), 3.14)
caller.call(::printStrIntNum)
// str: ABC, int: 123, num: 3.14
caller.call(::printWithOptionals)
// l: 999, s: ABC
}

Starting code, usage examples and unit tests can be found in

the MarcinMoskala/kotlin-exercises project on GitHub in the
file advanced/reflection/FunctionCaller.kt. You can clone this
project and solve this exercise locally.
CONTENTS 256

Hint: To support optional parameters, you should use callBy

instead of call.

Exercise: Object serialization to JSON

Your task is to implement a function to serialize a Kotlin

object to JSON. The result text should include all class mem-
ber properties. You should support primitive types, iterables
(present as an array), and map type (present as an object). You
should also support nested objects. Do not use any external
libraries. Kotlin’s reflection is all you need.
You should support the following annotations:

• @SerializationName - can be applied to a property to

change its name in the resulting JSON.
• @SerializationIgnore - can be applied to a property to
ignore it in the resulting JSON.
• @SerializationNameMapper - can be applied to a class or a
property to specify a custom name mapper. The mapper
should implement NameMapper interface. This mapper can
be an object declaration, or a class with a no-arg con-
structor.
• @SerializationIgnoreNulls - can be applied to a class to
ignore all null properties in the resulting JSON.

@Target(AnnotationTarget.PROPERTY)
annotation class SerializationName(val name: String)

@Target(AnnotationTarget.PROPERTY)
annotation class SerializationIgnore

@Target(AnnotationTarget.PROPERTY, AnnotationTarget.CLASS)
annotation class SerializationNameMapper(
val mapper: KClass<out NameMapper>
)

@Target(AnnotationTarget.CLASS)
CONTENTS 257

annotation class SerializationIgnoreNulls

interface NameMapper {
fun map(name: String): String
}

Starting code:

fun serializeToJson(value: Any): String = TODO()

Usage example:

@SerializationNameMapper(SnakeCaseName::class)
@SerializationIgnoreNulls
class Creature(
val name: String,
@SerializationName("att")
val attack: Int,
@SerializationName("def")
val defence: Int,
val traits: List<Trait>,
val elementCost: Map<Element, Int>,
@SerializationNameMapper(LowerCaseName::class)
val isSpecial: Boolean,
@SerializationIgnore
var used: Boolean = false,
val extraDetails: String? = null,
)

object LowerCaseName : NameMapper {

override fun map(name: String): String = name.lowercase()
}

class SnakeCaseName : NameMapper {

val pattern = "(?<=.)[A-Z]".toRegex()

override fun map(name: String): String =

name.replace(pattern, "_$0").lowercase()
CONTENTS 258

enum class Element {

FOREST, ANY,
}

enum class Trait {

FLYING
}

fun main() {
val creature = Creature(
name = "Cockatrice",
attack = 2,
defence = 4,
traits = listOf(Trait.FLYING),
elementCost = mapOf(
Element.ANY to 3,
Element.FOREST to 2
),
isSpecial = true,
)
println(serializeToJson(creature))
// {"att": 2, "def": 4,
// "element_cost": {"ANY": 3, "FOREST": 2},
// "isspecial": true, "name": "Cockatrice",
// "traits": ["FLYING"]}
}

Starting code, usage examples and unit tests can be found in

the MarcinMoskala/kotlin-exercises project on GitHub in the
file advanced/reflection/JsonSerializer.kt. You can clone this
project and solve this exercise locally.

Exercise: Object serialization to XML

Your task is to implement a function to serialize a Kotlin

object to XML. The result text should include all class member
CONTENTS 259

properties. You should also support nested objects. Do not use

any external libraries. Kotlin’s reflection is all you need.
You should support the following annotations:

• @SerializationName - can be applied to a property to

change its name in the resulting XML.
• @SerializationIgnore - can be applied to a property to
ignore it in the resulting XML.
• @SerializationNameMapper - can be applied to a class or a
property to specify a custom name mapper. The mapper
should implement NameMapper interface. This mapper can
be an object declaration, or a class with a no-arg con-
structor.
• @SerializationIgnoreNulls - can be applied to a class to
ignore all null properties in the resulting XML.

@Target(AnnotationTarget.PROPERTY)
annotation class SerializationName(val name: String)

@Target(AnnotationTarget.PROPERTY)
annotation class SerializationIgnore

@Target(AnnotationTarget.PROPERTY, AnnotationTarget.CLASS)
annotation class SerializationNameMapper(
val mapper: KClass<out NameMapper>
)

@Target(AnnotationTarget.CLASS)
annotation class SerializationIgnoreNulls

interface NameMapper {
fun map(name: String): String
}

Starting code:
CONTENTS 260

fun serializeToXml(value: Any): String = TODO()

Usage example (result XML should not include indentation, it

was added here for readability):

fun main() {
data class SampleDataClass(
val externalTxnId: String,
val merchantTxnId: String,
val reference: String
)

val data = SampleDataClass(

externalTxnId = "07026984141550752666",
merchantTxnId = "07026984141550752666",
reference = "MERCHPAY"
)

println(serializeToXml(data))
// <SampleDataClass>
// <externalTxnId>07026984141550752666<externalTxnId>
// <merchantTxnId>07026984141550752666<merchantTxnId>
// <reference>MERCHPAY<reference>
// </SampleDataClass>

@SerializationNameMapper(UpperSnakeCaseName::class)
@SerializationIgnoreNulls
class Book(
val title: String,
val author: String,
@SerializationName("YEAR")
val publicationYear: Int,
val isbn: String?,
@SerializationIgnore
val price: Double,
)

@SerializationNameMapper(UpperSnakeCaseName::class)
class Library(
CONTENTS 261

val catalog: List<Book>

)

val library = Library(

catalog = listOf(
Book(
title = "The Hobbit",
author = "J. R. R. Tolkien",
publicationYear = 1937,
isbn = "978-0-261-10235-4",
price = 9.99,
),
Book(
title = "The Witcher",
author = "Andrzej Sapkowski",
publicationYear = 1993,
isbn = "978-0-575-09404-2",
price = 7.99,
),
Book(
title = "Antifragile",
author = "Nassim Nicholas Taleb",
publicationYear = 2012,
isbn = null,
price = 12.99,
)
)
)

println(serializeToXml(library))
// <LIBRARY>
// <CATALOG>
// <BOOK>
// <AUTHOR>J. R. R. Tolkien<AUTHOR>
// <ISBN>978-0-261-10235-4<ISBN>
// <YEAR>1937<YEAR>
// <TITLE>The Hobbit<TITLE>
// </BOOK>
// <BOOK>
CONTENTS 262

// <AUTHOR>Andrzej Sapkowski<AUTHOR>
// <ISBN>978-0-575-09404-2<ISBN>
// <YEAR>1993<YEAR>
// <TITLE>The Witcher<TITLE>
// </BOOK>
// <BOOK>
// <AUTHOR>Nassim Nicholas Taleb<AUTHOR>
// <YEAR>2012<YEAR>
// <TITLE>Antifragile<TITLE>
// </BOOK>
// <CATALOG>
// </LIBRARY>
}

Starting code, usage examples and unit tests can be found in

the MarcinMoskala/kotlin-exercises project on GitHub in the
file advanced/reflection/XmlSerializer.kt. You can clone this
project and solve this exercise locally.

Exercise: DSL-based dependency injection

library

Your task is to implement a simple dependency injection

library. It should be based on the Registry class, that should
be used to register dependencies. It should have the following
methods:

• register - registers a normal dependency, that is cre-

ated every time it is needed. It should take a type and
a lambda expression that returns an instance of that
type. In the scope of this lambda expression, you should
be able to use Registry to get other dependencies. This
function should have both an inline version with reified
type, and a non-inline version with KClass parameter.
• singletor - registers a singleton dependency, that is cre-
ated only once and then reused. It should take a type
and a lambda expression that returns an instance of that
type. In the scope of this lambda expression, you should
CONTENTS 263

be able to use Registry to get other dependencies. This

function should have both an inline version with reified
type, and a non-inline version with KClass parameter.
• get - returns an instance of a given type. If the type
is registered as a singleton, it should return the same
instance every time. If the type is registered as a normal
dependency, it should return a new instance every time.
This function should have both an inline version with
reified type, and a non-inline version with KClass param-
eter.
• exists - returns true if a given type is registered, false
otherwise. This function should have both an inline
version with reified type, and a non-inline version with
KClass parameter.

You should also implement registry function to create a

Registry instance in DSL style. It should take a lambda
expression with Registry as a receiver, and return a Registry
instance. In the scope of this lambda expression, you should
be able to use Registry to register dependencies.
Usage example:

data class UserConfiguration(val url: String)

interface UserRepository {
fun get(): String
}
class RealUserRepository(
private val userConfiguration: UserConfiguration,
) : UserRepository {
override fun get(): String =
"User from ${userConfiguration.url}"
}

class UserService(
private val userRepository: UserRepository,
private val userConfiguration: UserConfiguration,
) {
CONTENTS 264

fun get(): String = "Got ${userRepository.get()}"

}

fun main() {
val registry: Registry = registry {
singleton<UserConfiguration> {
UserConfiguration("http://localhost:8080")
}
normal<UserService> {
UserService(
userRepository = get(),
userConfiguration = get(),
)
}
singleton<UserRepository> {
RealUserRepository(
userConfiguration = get(),
)
}
}

val userService: UserService = registry.get()

println(userService.get())
// Got User from http://localhost:8080

val ur1 = registry.get<UserRepository>()

val ur2 = registry.get<UserRepository>()
println(ur1 === ur2) // true

val uc1 = registry.get<UserService>()

val uc2 = registry.get<UserService>()
println(uc1 === uc2) // false
}

Usage example and unit tests can be found in the

MarcinMoskala/kotlin-exercises project on GitHub in the
file advanced/reflection/DependencyInjection.kt. You can clone
this project and solve this exercise locally.
CONTENTS 265

Annotation processing

Java 5 introduced a new tool that completely changed how

Java development looks: annotation processing. Many impor-
tant Java libraries rely on annotation processing, including
Spring, Hibernate, Room, Dagger, and many more. One could
even say that annotation processing is essential for modern
Java development and, as a result, also Kotlin/JVM develop-
ment. Regardless of this, most Java and Kotlin/JVM develop-
ers don’t understand how it works. This is perfectly fine as a
driver doesn’t need to understand how a car works, but under-
standing annotation processing can help us debug libraries,
develop them, or implement our own tools. So, this chapter
will explain how annotation processing works and show how
a custom annotation processor can be implemented.
Before we start, I need to warn you that annotation process-
ing only works for Kotlin/JVM as it still needs javac and
cannot be used for other targets (Kotlin/JS or Kotlin/Native).
Additionally, javac Annotation processing is costly, so Kotlin
decided it needed its own annotation processor. As a result,
Google introduced Kotlin Symbol Processing (KSP), which is
a direct successor of annotation processing. We will discuss
KSP in the next chapter, and the current chapter can be
treated as an introduction or prerequisite to fully understand-
ing KSP.

Your first annotation processor

The idea behind annotation processing is quite simple: we

define classes called processors that analyze our source code
and generate additional files that typically also include code;
however, these processors themselves don’t modify existing
code. As an example, I will implement a simple library based
on the idea of a friend of mine. I’ve never used it in any
project, but it is simple enough to serve as a great exam-
ple. To understand the idea, let’s see the problem first. For
many classes, we define interfaces primarily to make it eas-
ier to define fake variants of these classes for unit testing.
CONTENTS 266

Consider the MongoUserRepository below, which implements

the UserRepository interface with a fake FakeUserRepository for
unit tests.

interface UserRepository {
fun findUser(userId: String): User?
fun findUsers(): List<User>
fun updateUser(user: User)
fun insertUser(user: User)
}

class MongoUserRepository : UserRepository {

override fun findUser(userId: String): User? = TODO()
override fun findUsers(): List<User> = TODO()
override fun updateUser(user: User) {
TODO()
}
override fun insertUser(user: User) {
TODO()
}
}

class FakeUserRepository : UserRepository {

private var users = listOf<User>()

override fun findUser(userId: String): User? =

users.find { it.id == userId }

override fun findUsers(): List<User> = users

override fun updateUser(user: User) {

val oldUsers = users.filter { it.id == user.id }
users = users - oldUsers + user
}

override fun insertUser(user: User) {

users = users + user
}
}
CONTENTS 267

The form of UserRepository is determined by the methods that

we want to expose by MongoUserRepository; therefore, this class
and interface often change together, so it might be simpler for
UserRepository to be automatically generated based on public
methods in MongoUserRepository³⁶. We can do this using anno-
tation processing.

@GenerateInterface("UserRepository")
class MongoUserRepository : UserRepository {
override fun findUser(userId: String): User? = TODO()
override fun findUsers(): List<User> = TODO()
override fun updateUser(user: User) {
TODO()
}
override fun insertUser(user: User) {
TODO()
}
}

class FakeUserRepository : UserRepository {

private var users = listOf<User>()

override fun findUser(userId: String): User? =

users.find { it.id == userId }

override fun findUsers(): List<User> = users

override fun updateUser(user: User) {

val oldUsers = users.filter { it.id == user.id }
users = users - oldUsers + user

³⁶This idea goes against the practices we use in modern JVM

development. Interfaces that define repositories (ports) are
typically part of the domain layer, where their implementa-
tions are part of the data layer. What’s more, at least in theory,
we should define our repositories based on the abstraction
we’ve specified by interfaces, not the other way around. That
is why the usefulness of this annotation processor is very
limited. Nevertheless, it will serve as a good example.
CONTENTS 268

override fun insertUser(user: User) {

users = users + user
}
}

The complete project can be found on GitHub un-

der the name MarcinMoskala/generateinterface-
ap.

For this, we need two things:

• Definition of the GenerateInterface annotation.

• Definition of the processor that generates the appropri-
ate interfaces based on annotations.

The processor needs to be defined in a separate module be-

cause its code is not added to our source code and shipped to
production; instead, it is used during compilation. An anno-
tation is just a simple declaration and needs to be accessible
in both your project and the annotation processor, so it also
needs to be located in a separate module. This is why I will
define two additional modules:

• generateinterface-annotations - which is just a regular

module that includes GenerateInterface.
• generateinterface-processor - where I will define my an-
notation processor.

For our own convenience, I will use Kotlin in both these

modules, but they could also be implemented in any other
JVM language, like Java or Groovy.
We need to use these modules in our main module configura-
tion³⁷. The module that contains your annotation should be
³⁷By “main module” I mean the module that will use anno-
tation processing.
CONTENTS 269

attached like any other dependency. To use annotation pro-

cessing in Kotlin, we should use the kapt plugin³⁸. Assuming
we use Gradle³⁹ in our project, this is how we might define our
main module dependency in newly created modules.

// build.gradle.kts
plugins {
kotlin("kapt") version "<your_kotlin_version>"
}

dependencies {
implementation(project(":generateinterface-annotations"))
kapt(project(":generateinterface-processor"))
// ...
}

If we distribute our solution as a library, we need to publish

both the annotations and the processor as separate packages.
All we need in the generateinterface-annotations module is a
simple file with the following annotation:

package academy.kt

import kotlin.annotation.AnnotationTarget.CLASS

@Target(CLASS)
annotation class GenerateInterface(val name: String)

In the generateinterface-processor module, we need to specify

the annotation processor. All annotation processors must
extend the AbstractProcessor class.
³⁸As its documentation specifies, kapt is in maintenance
mode, which means its creators are keeping it up-to-date
with recent Kotlin and Java releases but have no plans to
implement new features.
³⁹IDEA’s built-in compiler does not directly support kapt
and annotation processing.
CONTENTS 270

package academy.kt

class GenerateInterfaceProcessor : AbstractProcessor() {

// ...
}

There must also be a document that specifies that this class

will be used as an annotation processor. We must create a file
named javax.annotation.processing.Processor under the path
src/main/resources/META-INF/services. Inside this file, you
need to specify the processor using a fully qualified name:

academy.kt.GenerateInterfaceProcessor

Alternatively, one might use the Google AutoSer-

vice library and just annotate the processor with
@AutoService(Processor::class.java).

Inside our processor, we should override the following meth-

ods:

• getSupportedAnnotationTypes - specifies a set of

annotations our processor responds to. Should
return Set<String>, where each value is a fully qualified
annotation name (qualifiedName property). If this set
includes "*", it means that the processor is interested in
all annotations.
• getSupportedSourceVersion - specifies the latest
Java source version this processor supports.
To support the latest possible version, use
SourceVersion.latestSupported().
• process - this is where our processing and code
generation will be implemented. It receives as an
argument a set of annotations that are chosen based on
getSupportedAnnotationTypes. It also receives a reference
to RoundEnvironment, which lets us analyze the source
code of the project where the processor is running. In
every round, the compiler looks for more annotated
CONTENTS 271

elements that could have been generated by a previous

round until there are no more inputs. It returns a
Boolean that determines if the annotations from
the argument should be considered claimed by this
processor. So, if we return true, other processors will
not receive these annotations. Since we operate on
custom annotations, we will return true. In our case, we
will only need the RoundEnvironment reference, and I will
make a separate method, generateInterfaces, which will
generate interfaces.

class GenerateInterfaceProcessor : AbstractProcessor() {

override fun getSupportedAnnotationTypes(): Set<String> =

setOf(GenerateInterface::class.qualifiedName!!)

override fun getSupportedSourceVersion(): SourceVersion =

SourceVersion.latestSupported()

override fun process(

annotations: Set<TypeElement>,
roundEnv: RoundEnvironment
): Boolean {
generateInterfaces(roundEnv)
return true
}

private fun generateInterfaces(

roundEnv: RoundEnvironment
) {
// ...
}
}

Note that when we implement our annotation processor, we

don’t have access to typical class or function references from
the project where the processor is running. To have these ref-
erences, the project needs to be compiled, and our processor
CONTENTS 272

runs before the compilation phase. The annotation processor

operates on a separate type hierarchy that represents declared
code elements and has some essential limitations. The anno-
tation processor has the capability to introspect the types of
your code but it cannot actually run functions or instantiate
classes.
So, now let’s focus on the generateInterfaces method
implementation. We first need to find all the elements
that are annotated with GenerateInterface. For that, we can
use getElementsAnnotatedWith from RoundEnvironment, which
should produce a set of element references of type Element.
Since our annotation can only be used for classes (this is
specified using the Target meta-annotation), we can expect
that all these elements are of type TypeElement. To safely cast
our set, I will use the filterIsInstance method; then, we can
iterate over the result using the forEach method.

private fun generateInterfaces(roundEnv: RoundEnvironment) {

roundEnv
.getElementsAnnotatedWith(
GenerateInterface::class.java
)
.filterIsInstance<TypeElement>()
.forEach(::generateInterface)
}

private fun generateInterface(annotatedClass: TypeElement) {

// ...
}

Now, for each annotated element, we should generate an

interface in the generateInterface function. I will start by find-
ing the expected interface name, which should be specified
in the annotation. We can get the annotation reference by
finding it in the annotatedClass parameter, and then we can
use this value to read the annotated class name. All annota-
tion properties must be static, therefore they are exposed in
annotation references on annotation processors.
CONTENTS 273

val interfaceName = annotatedClass

.getAnnotation(GenerateInterface::class.java)
.name

We also need to establish the package in which our interface

should be located. I decided to just use the same package
as the package of the annotated class. To find this package,
we can use the getPackageOf method from elementUtils from
processingEnv of our AbstractProcessor.

val interfacePackage = processingEnv

.elementUtils
.getPackageOf(annotatedClass)
.qualifiedName
.toString()

Finally, we need to find the public methods from our anno-

tated class. For that, we will use the enclosedElements prop-
erty to get all the enclosed elements and find those that are
methods and have the public modifier. All methods should
implement the ExecutableElement interface; so, to safely cast
our elements we can use the filterIsInstance again.

val publicMethods = annotatedClass.enclosedElements

.filter { it.kind == ElementKind.METHOD }
.filter { Modifier.PUBLIC in it.modifiers }
.filterIsInstance<ExecutableElement>()

Based on these values, I will build a file representation for

our interface, and I will use the processingEnv.filer property
to actually write a file. There are a number of libraries that
can help us construct a file, but I decided to use JavaPoet
(created and open-sourced by Square), which is both popular
and simple to use. I extracted the method buildInterfaceFile
to a Java file and used writeTo on its result to write the file.
CONTENTS 274

private fun generateInterface(annotatedClass: TypeElement) {

val interfaceName = annotatedClass
.getAnnotation(GenerateInterface::class.java)
.name
val interfacePackage = processingEnv
.elementUtils
.getPackageOf(annotatedClass)
.qualifiedName
.toString()

val publicMethods = annotatedClass.enclosedElements

.filter { it.kind == ElementKind.METHOD }
.filter { Modifier.PUBLIC in it.modifiers }
.filterIsInstance<ExecutableElement>()

buildInterfaceFile(
interfacePackage,
interfaceName,
publicMethods
).writeTo(processingEnv.filer)
}

Note that you can also use a library like KotlinPoet and gener-
ate a Kotlin file instead of a Java file. I decided to generate a
Java file for two reasons:

1. If we generate a Kotlin file, such a processor can only be

used in projects using Kotlin/JVM⁴⁰. When we generate
Java files, such processors can be used on Kotlin/JVM as
well as by Java, Scala, Groovy, etc⁴¹.
2. Java element references are not always suitable
for Kotlin code generation. For instance, Java
java.lang.String translates to Kotlin kotlin.String. If we
rely on Java references, we will use java.lang.String for
⁴⁰In this project, the Kotlin compiler must be used in the
project build process.
⁴¹In this project, the Java compiler must be used in the
project build process.
CONTENTS 275

parameters in generated Kotlin code, which might not

work correctly. Such problems can be overcome, but
let’s keep our example simple.

So, let’s start building our elements. JavaPoet is based on the

builder pattern that we need to use to construct elements on
all levels. We will first build the file with the package and the
built interface.

private fun buildInterfaceFile(

interfacePackage: String,
interfaceName: String,
publicMethods: List<ExecutableElement>
): JavaFile = JavaFile.builder(
interfacePackage,
buildInterface(interfaceName, publicMethods)
).build()

To build the interface, we need to specify the name and then

the build methods.

private fun buildInterface(

interfaceName: String,
publicMethods: List<ExecutableElement>
): TypeSpec = TypeSpec
.interfaceBuilder(interfaceName)
.addMethods(publicMethods.map(::buildInterfaceMethod))
.build()

To build a method, we need to specify a name based on a

method reference, use the same modifiers plus abstract, and
add the same parameters (with the same annotations and the
same result types). Note that we can find the annotationMirrors
property in ExecutableElement, and it can be transformed to
AnnotationSpec using the static get method.
CONTENTS 276

private fun buildInterfaceMethod(

method: ExecutableElement
): MethodSpec = MethodSpec
.methodBuilder(method.simpleName.toString())
.addModifiers(method.modifiers)
.addModifiers(Modifier.ABSTRACT)
.addParameters(
method.parameters
.map(::buildInterfaceMethodParameter)
)
.addAnnotations(
method.annotationMirrors
.map(AnnotationSpec::get)
)
.returns(method.returnType.toTypeSpec())
.build()

Inside this method, I used two helpful extension functions,

toTypeSpec and getAnnotationSpecs, which I defined outside our
processor class:

private fun TypeMirror.toTypeSpec() = TypeName.get(this)

.annotated(this.getAnnotationSpecs())

private fun AnnotatedConstruct.getAnnotationSpecs() =

annotationMirrors.map(AnnotationSpec::get)

To build method parameters, I start from a parameter ref-

erence whose type is VariableElement. I use it to make type
specs and to find out the parameter names. I also use the same
annotations as used for this parameter.
CONTENTS 277

private fun buildInterfaceMethodParameter(

variableElement: VariableElement
): ParameterSpec = ParameterSpec
.builder(
variableElement.asType().toTypeSpec(),
variableElement.simpleName.toString()
)
.addAnnotations(variableElement.getAnnotationSpecs())
.build()

That is all we need. If you build your main module again, the
code using the GenerateInterface annotation should compile.

You can also jump to the implementation of

UserRepository and see the Java code that our processor
generated. The default location of generated code is
“build/generated/source/kapt/main”. Intellij’s Gradle plugin
will mark this location as a source code folder, thus making it
navigable in IDEA.
CONTENTS 278

Hiding generated classes

Note that for our UserRepository to work, the project needs

to be built. In a newly opened project, or immediately after
adding the GenerateInterface annotation, the interface will
not yet have been generated and our code will look like it is
not correct.
CONTENTS 279

This is a significant inconvenience, but many libraries over-

come it by hiding generated classes behind reflection. For ex-
ample, a popular Mocking library, Mockito, uses annotation
processing to create and inject mocks. For that, we use anno-
tations like Mock and InjectMocks in test suites. Based on these
annotations, the Mockito annotation processor generates a
file that has a method that creates desired mocks and objects
with injected mocks. To make it work, we need to call this
method before each test by using Mockito’s static initMocks
method, which finds the appropriate generated class that
injects mocks and calls its method. We do not even need to
know what this class is called, and our project does not show
any errors even before it is built.

class MockitoInjectMocksExamples {

@Mock
lateinit var emailService: EmailService

@Mock
lateinit var smsService: SMSService

@InjectMocks
lateinit var notificationSender: NotificationSender

@BeforeEach
fun setup() {
MockitoAnnotations.initMocks(this)
}

// ...
}

Some other frameworks, like Spring, use a simpler approach.

Spring generates a complete backend application based on the
annotated elements defined by developers using this frame-
work to define how this application should behave. When
we use Spring, we don’t need to call generated code because
it calls the definitions we’ve made. We only need to specify
CONTENTS 280

our application such that it uses a Spring class to start this

application.

@RestController
class WelcomeResource {

@Value("\${welcome.message}")
private lateinit var welcomeMessage: String

@Autowired
private lateinit var configuration: BasicConfiguration

@GetMapping("/welcome")
fun retrieveWelcomeMessage(): String = welcomeMessage

@RequestMapping("/dynamic-configuration")
fun dynamicConfiguration(): Map<String, Any?> = mapOf(
"message" to configuration.message,
"number" to configuration.number,
"key" to configuration.isValue,
)
}

We can also define our custom entry point. In such cases, we

also use reflection to run generated classes.

@SpringBootApplication
open class MyApp {
companion object {
@JvmStatic
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
SpringApplication.run(MyApp::class.java, *args)
}
}
}

The process of hiding generated classes behind functions that

reference them with reflection is very popular and is used in
numerous libraries.
CONTENTS 281

Summary

Annotation processing is a really powerful JVM tool that is

used by many Java libraries. It generates files based on an-
notations used by library users. The idea behind annotation
processing is relatively simple, but implementing it might
be challenging as we need to operate on element references
and implement code generation. Generated elements are only
accessible once the processed project is built, which is an in-
convenience to annotation processor users. This is why many
libraries provide an API with functions that use reflection to
reference generated classes at runtime.
From Kotlin’s perspective, the biggest Annotation processing
limitation is that it works only on Kotlin/JVM, therefore
we can’t use it on other Kotlin flavors or on multiplatform
modules. To get around this, Google created an alternative
called Kotlin Symbol Processor.

Exercise: Annotation Processing

Your task is to implement a custom annotation processor. It

is your decision what do you want it do, but here are a few
good choices:
* Builder Pattern Generator: Write an annotation processor
that automatically generates a Builder class for a given class.
* DSL Builder Pattern Generator: Write an annotation
processor that automatically generates a DSL Builder class
for a given class.
* Immutable Objects Checker: Develop an annotation to
mark a class as immutable. The annotation processor should
generate one class that starts checks for all classes marked
with this annotation.
* Dependency Injection Framework: Create a mini-
framework for dependency injection using annotations.
* Custom Serialization/Deserialization: Implement an
annotation processor that generates code for serializing and
deserializing objects to and from a specific format (like JSON,
XML, etc.) in a way we do not need to use runtime reflection.
CONTENTS 282

* Code Metrics and Analysis: Build an annotation processor

that calculates and reports various code metrics (like number
of methods, lines of code, etc.).
* Database Access: Write an annotation processor that
generates code for database access. It should generate code
for creating tables, inserting, updating, and deleting rows,
and for querying data.
CONTENTS 283

Kotlin Symbol Processing

As a substitute for Java Annotation Processing, Kotlin

Foundation introduced the Kotlin Symbol Processing (KSP⁴²)
tool⁴³, which works in a similar way but is faster, more
modern, and is designed specifically for Kotlin. It makes it
possible to define processors that analyze project code and
generate files during project compilation. The key advantage
of KSP is that it is native to Kotlin and works on all platforms
and shared modules.
Kotlin Symbol Processing is similar in many ways to Java
Annotation processing, but it offers many advantages and im-
portant improvements, including a more modern API. First
of all, KSP understands Kotlin code, so we can properly im-
plement support for Kotlin-specific features, like extensions
or suspend functions, and it can also be used to process Java
code. It can also freely use KotlinPoet instead of JavaPoet to
generate Kotlin code. KSP references to code elements are
more convenient to use, and their API is more modern and
has more consistent naming. We rarely need to do dangerous
down-castings; instead, we can rely on methods and proper-
ties. Finally, the KSP API is lazy⁴⁴, which makes it generally
faster than Annotation Processing. Compared to kapt, anno-
tation processors that use KSP can run up to twice as fast
because KSP is not slowed down by creating intermediate stub
classes and Gradle javac tasks⁴⁵.
The same as with Annotation Processing, we will explore KSP
by implementing an example project.
⁴²Not to be confused with Kerbal Space Program.
⁴³KSP has been developed since 2021 by Google, which is a
Kotlin Foundation member.
⁴⁴For KSP, lazy means the API is designed to initially pro-
vide references instead of concrete types. These references
are resolved to a code element when actually needed.
⁴⁵According to KSP documentation.
CONTENTS 284

Your first KSP processor

To bring our discussion about KSP into the real world, let’s
implement the same library as in the previous chapter, but
using KSP instead of Java Annotation Processing. So, we will
generate an interface for a class that includes all the public
methods of this class. This is the code we will use to test our
solution:

@GenerateInterface("UserRepository")
class MongoUserRepository<T> : UserRepository {

override suspend fun findUser(userId: String): User? =

TODO()

override suspend fun findUsers(): List<User> = TODO()

override suspend fun updateUser(user: User) {

TODO()
}

@Throws(DuplicatedUserId::class)
override suspend fun insertUser(user: User) {
TODO()
}
}

class FakeUserRepository : UserRepository {

private var users = listOf<User>()

override suspend fun findUser(userId: String): User? =

users.find { it.id == userId }

override suspend fun findUsers(): List<User> = users

override suspend fun updateUser(user: User) {

val oldUsers = users.filter { it.id == user.id }
users = users - oldUsers + user
}
CONTENTS 285

override suspend fun insertUser(user: User) {

if (users.any { it.id == user.id }) {
throw DuplicatedUserId
}
users = users + user
}
}

We want KSP to generate the following interface:

interface UserRepository {
suspend fun findUser(userId: String): User?

suspend fun findUsers(): List<User>

suspend fun updateUser(user: User)

@Throws(DuplicatedUserId::class)
suspend fun insertUser(user: User)
}

The complete project can be found on GitHub un-

der the name MarcinMoskala/generateinterface-
ksp.

To achieve this, in a separate module we need to define the

KSP processor, which we’ll call generateinterface-processor.
We also need a module where we will define the annotation,
which we’ll call generateinterface-annotations.
We need to use these modules in the main module configura-
tion⁴⁶. The module with annotation should be attached like
any other dependency. To use KSP in Kotlin, we should use
the ksp plugin. Assuming we use Gradle in our project, this is
how we might define our main module dependency in newly
created modules.
⁴⁶By “main module”, I mean the module that will use KSP
processing.
CONTENTS 286

// build.gradle.kts
plugins {
id("com.google.devtools.ksp")
// …
}

dependencies {
implementation(project(":annotations"))
ksp(project(":processor"))
// ...
}

If we distribute our solution as a library, we need to publish

annotations and processors as separate packages.
Notice that, in the example above, KSP will not be used to test
sources. For that, we also need to add the kspTest configura-
tion.

// build.gradle.kts
plugins {
id("com.google.devtools.ksp")
}

dependencies {
implementation(project(":annotations"))
ksp(project(":processor"))
kspTest(project(":processor"))
// ...
}

In the generateinterface-annotations module, all we need is a

file with our annotation definition:
CONTENTS 287

package academy.kt

import kotlin.annotation.AnnotationTarget.CLASS

@Target(CLASS)
annotation class GenerateInterface(val name: String)

In the generateinterface-processor module below, we need

to specify two classes. We need to specify the processor
provider, a class that implements SymbolProcessorProvider and
overrides the create function, which produces an instance
of SymbolProcessor. Inside this method, we have access to
the environment, which can be used to inject different
tools into our processor. Both SymbolProcessorProvider and
SymbolProcessor are represented as interfaces, which makes
our processor simpler to unit test.

class GenerateInterfaceProcessorProvider
: SymbolProcessorProvider {

override fun create(

environment: SymbolProcessorEnvironment
): SymbolProcessor =
GenerateInterfaceProcessor(
codeGenerator = environment.codeGenerator,
)
}

The processor provider needs to be specified in a special file

called com.google.devtools.ksp.processing.SymbolProcessorProvider,
under the path src/main/resources/META-INF/services. Inside
this file, you need to specify the processor provider using its
fully qualified name:

academy.kt.GenerateInterfaceProcessorProvider

Finally, we can implement our processor. The class represent-

ing the symbol processor must implement the SymbolProcessor
CONTENTS 288

interface and override the single process function. The pro-

cessor does not need to specify annotations or the language
versions it supports. The process function needs to return
a list of annotated elements, which I will explain later in
this chapter in the Multiple round processing section. In this
example, we will return an empty list.

class GenerateInterfaceProcessor(
private val codeGenerator: CodeGenerator,
) : SymbolProcessor {

override fun process(

resolver: Resolver
): List<KSAnnotated> {
// ...
return emptyList()
}
}

The essential part of our processing is generating Kotlin files

based on project analysis, for which we’ll use the KSP API and
KotlinPoet. So, to find annotated classes and start interface
generation for each of them, we first use a resolver, which is
the entrypoint to the KSP API.

override fun process(resolver: Resolver): List<KSAnnotated> {

resolver
.getSymbolsWithAnnotation(
GenerateInterface::class.qualifiedName!!
)
.filterIsInstance<KSClassDeclaration>()
.forEach(::generateInterface)

return emptyList()
}

private fun generateInterface(

annotatedClass: KSClassDeclaration
CONTENTS 289

) {
// ...
}

In generateInterface, we first establish our interface name by

finding the interface reference and reading its name.

val interfaceName = annotatedClass

.getAnnotationsByType(GenerateInterface::class)
.single()
.name

getAnnotationsByType needs @OptIn(KspExperimental::class)

annotation to work.

We use an annotated class package as our interface package.

val interfacePackage = annotatedClass

.qualifiedName
?.getQualifier()
.orEmpty()

In this chapter, I won’t explain how KSP models

Kotlin because it is quite intuitive to those who
understand programming nomenclature. It is also
quite similar to how Kotlin Reflect models code
elements. I could write a long section explaining
all the classes, functions, and properties, but this
would be useless. Who would want to remember
all that? We only need knowledge about an API
when we use it, and in this case it is much more
convenient to read docs or to look for answers on
Google. I believe that books should explain possibil-
ities, potential traps, and ideas that are not easy to
deduce.

To find public methods of a class reference, I needed to use

the getDeclaredFunctions method. The getAllFunctions method
CONTENTS 290

is not appropriate because we don’t want to include methods

from class parents (like hashCode and equals from Any). I also
needed to filter out constructors that are considered methods
in Kotlinwell.

val publicMethods = annotatedClass

.getDeclaredFunctions()
.filter { it.isPublic() && !it.isConstructor() }

Then I’ll use already defined variables to generate the inter-

face and write it to a file using KotlinPoet. The dependencies
object will be explained later in this chapter, in the Dependen-
cies and incremental processing part.

val fileSpec = buildInterfaceFile(

interfacePackage,
interfaceName,
publicMethods
)
val dependencies = Dependencies(
aggregating = false,
annotatedClass.containingFile!!
)
fileSpec.writeTo(codeGenerator, dependencies)

So, now let’s implement methods to build our interface. First,

we define the buildInterfaceFile method for building a file.

private fun buildInterfaceFile(

interfacePackage: String,
interfaceName: String,
publicMethods: Sequence<KSFunctionDeclaration>,
): FileSpec = FileSpec
.builder(interfacePackage, interfaceName)
.addType(buildInterface(interfaceName, publicMethods))
.build()
CONTENTS 291

When we build an interface, we only need to specify its name

and build functions. Note that the parameter representing
public methods is a sequence, which is typical of KSP (most
elements are lazy for efficiency), so we need to transform it to
a list after we transform these methods.

private fun buildInterface(

interfaceName: String,
publicMethods: Sequence<KSFunctionDeclaration>,
): TypeSpec = TypeSpec
.interfaceBuilder(interfaceName)
.addFunctions(
publicMethods
.map(::buildInterfaceMethod).toList()
)
.build()

The method for building methods’ definitions is a bit more

complicated. To specify the function name, we need to use
getShortName. We’ll separately establish function modifiers,
and we also have a separate function to map parameters. We
use the same result type and the same annotations, but both
need to be mapped to KotlinPoet objects.

private fun buildInterfaceMethod(

function: KSFunctionDeclaration,
): FunSpec = FunSpec
.builder(function.simpleName.getShortName())
.addModifiers(buildFunctionModifiers(function.modifiers))
.addParameters(
function.parameters
.map(::buildInterfaceMethodParameter)
)
.returns(function.returnType!!.toTypeName())
.addAnnotations(
function.annotations
.map { it.toAnnotationSpec() }
.toList()
CONTENTS 292

)
.build()

There is no easy way to map the KSP value parameter to

the KotlinPoet parameter specification, so we can specify a
custom function that builds parameters with the same name,
the same type, and the same annotations as the parameter
reference.

private fun buildInterfaceMethodParameter(

variableElement: KSValueParameter,
): ParameterSpec = ParameterSpec
.builder(
variableElement.name!!.getShortName(),
variableElement.type.toTypeName(),
)
.addAnnotations(
variableElement.annotations
.map { it.toAnnotationSpec() }.toList()
)
.build()

Regarding modifiers, mapping them is easy but we need to

add the abstract modifier, and we should ignore the override
and open parameters as the former is not allowed in interfaces,
while the latter is simply redundant in interfaces.

private fun buildFunctionModifiers(

modifiers: Set<Modifier>
) = modifiers
.filterNot { it in IGNORED_MODIFIERS }
.plus(Modifier.ABSTRACT)
.mapNotNull { it.toKModifier() }

companion object {
val IGNORED_MODIFIERS =
listOf(Modifier.OPEN, Modifier.OVERRIDE)
}
CONTENTS 293

The files generated as a result of KSP processing can be found

under the path “build/generated/ksp/main/kotlin”. These
files will be packed and distributed with the build result
(like jar or apk). Since KSP version 1.8.10-1.0.9, generated
Kotlin code is treated like a part of our project source set, so
generated elements are visible in IntelliJ and can be directly
used in our project code.

Testing KSP

Thanks to the fact that classes like CodeGenerator are repre-

sented with interfaces in KSP, we can easily make their fakes
and implement unit tests for our processors. However, there
are also ways to verify the complete compilation result, to-
gether with logged messages and generated files.
Currently, the most popular library for verifying KSP com-
pilation results is Kotlin Compile Testing, which is used by
many popular libraries, like Room, Dagger or Moshi. We use
this library to set up a compilation environment, compile the
code, and verify the results of this process. To this compila-
tion environment, we can attach any number of annotation
processors, KSP providers, or compiler plugins.
For our example project, I will set up a compilation with
our GenerateInterfaceProcessorProvider provider and test the
source code, compile it, and confirm that it is as expected.
This is the function I defined for that:
CONTENTS 294

private fun assertGeneratedFile(

sourceFileName: String,
@Language("kotlin") source: String,
generatedResultFileName: String,
@Language("kotlin") generatedSource: String
) {
val compilation = KotlinCompilation().apply {
inheritClassPath = true
kspWithCompilation = true

sources = listOf(
SourceFile.kotlin(sourceFileName, source)
)
symbolProcessorProviders = listOf(
GenerateInterfaceProcessorProvider()
)
}
val result = compilation.compile()
assertEquals(OK, result.exitCode)

val generated = File(

compilation.kspSourcesDir,
"kotlin/$generatedResultFileName"
)
assertEquals(
generatedSource.trimIndent(),
generated.readText().trimIndent()
)
}

With such a function, I can easily verify that the code I expect
to be generated for a specific annotated class is correct:
CONTENTS 295

class GenerateInterfaceProcessorTest {

@Test
fun `should generate interface for simple class`() {
assertGeneratedFile(
sourceFileName = "RealTestRepository.kt",
source = """
import academy.kt.GenerateInterface

@GenerateInterface("TestRepository")
class RealTestRepository {
fun a(i: Int): String = TODO()
private fun b() {}
}
""",
generatedResultFileName = "TestRepository.kt",
generatedSource = """
import kotlin.Int
import kotlin.String

public interface TestRepository {

public fun a(i: Int): String
}
"""
)
}

// ...
}

Instead of reading the result file and comparing its content,

we could also load the generated class and analyze it using
reflection.
Kotlin’s Compile Testing library is also used to verify that
code that incorrectly uses annotations fails with a specific
message.
CONTENTS 296

class GenerateInterfaceProcessorTest {
// ...

@Test
fun `should fail when incorrect name`() {
assertFailsWithMessage(
sourceFileName = "RealTestRepository.kt",
source = """
import academy.kt.GenerateInterface

@GenerateInterface("")
class RealTestRepository {
fun a(i: Int): String = TODO()
private fun b() {}
}
""",
message = "Interface name cannot be empty"
)
}

// ...
}

Dependencies and incremental processing

File generation takes time, so various mechanisms have been

introduced to improve the efficiency of this process. A very
important one is incremental processing, which is based on a
simple idea. When our project is compiled for the first time, it
should process elements from all files. If we compile it again,
it should only process elements from files that have changed.
So, in our GenerateInterface example, consider that you have
class A in file A.kt and class B in file B.kt, both annotated with
GenerateInterface.
CONTENTS 297

// A.kt
@GenerateInterface("IA")
class A {
fun a()
}

// B.kt
@GenerateInterface("IB")
class B {
fun b()
}

Incremental processing is enabled by default, so

when you compile your project for the first time,
GenerateInterfaceProcessor will generate both IA.kt and
IB.kt. When you compile your project again without making
any changes in A.kt or B.kt, GenerateInterfaceProcessor will
not generate any files. If you make a small change in A.kt,
like adding a space, and you compile your project again, only
IA.kt will be generated again and will replace the previous
IA.kt.

Incremental processing is a very powerful mechanism that

works nearly effortlessly, but we should understand it if we
want to avoid mistakes that could make our libraries work
incorrectly.
To know which files need to be reprocessed, KSP introduced
the concept of dirtiness. A dirty file is a file that needs to be
reprocessed. When a processor is started, the resolver meth-
ods getSymbolsWithAnnotation and getAllFiles will only return
files and elements from files that are considered dirty.

• Resolver::getAllFiles - returns only dirty file references.

• Resolver::getSymbolsWithAnnotation - returns only sym-
bols from dirty files.

Most other resolver methods, like getDeclarationsFromPackage

or getClassDeclarationByName, will still return all files; how-
ever, when we determine which symbols to process, we typ-
ically base them on getAllFiles and getSymbolsWithAnnotation.
CONTENTS 298

So now, how does a file become dirty, and how does it become
clean? The situation is simple in our project: for each input
file, we generate one output file. So, when the input file is
changed, it becomes dirty. When the corresponding output
file is generated for it, the input file becomes clean. However,
things can get much more complex. We can generate multiple
output files from one input file, or multiple input files might
be used to generate one output file, or one output file might
depend on other output files.
Consider a situation where a generated file is based not only
on the annotated element but also on its parent. So, if this
parent changes, the file should be reprocessed.

// A.kt
@GenerateInterface
open class A {
// ...
}

// B.kt
class B : A() {
// ...
}

To determine which sources need to be reprocessed, KSP

needs help from processors to identify which input sources
correspond to which generated outputs. More concretely,
whenever a new file is created, we must specify dependencies.
For this, we use the Dependencies class, which lets us specify
the aggregating parameter and then any number of file
dependencies. In our example processor, we specified that
the generated file depends only on the file containing the
annotated class used to generate this file.
CONTENTS 299

val dependencies = Dependencies(

aggregating = false,
annotatedClass.containingFile!!
)
val file = codeGenerator.createNewFile(
dependencies,
packageName,
fileName
)

If we want to make this file depend on other files as well, such

as the files containing the parents of the annotated class, we
would need to define them explicitly. The Dependencies class
allows vararg arguments of type KSFile.

fun classWithParents(
classDeclaration: KSClassDeclaration
): List<KSClassDeclaration> =
classDeclaration.superTypes
.map { it.resolve().declaration }
.filterIsInstance<KSClassDeclaration>()
.flatMap { classWithParents(it) }
.toList()
.plus(classDeclaration)

val dependencies = Dependencies(

aggregating = ann.dependsOn.isNotEmpty(),
*classWithParents(annotatedClass)
.mapNotNull { it.containingFile }
.toTypedArray()
)

File dependencies are used to:

• Determine that a file not associated with any existing file

should be removed.
• Determine which files should be considered dirty.
CONTENTS 300

By rule, if any input file of an output file becomes dirty, all the
other dependencies of this output file become dirty too. This
relationship is transitive. Consider the following scenario:
If the output file OA.kt depends on A.kt and B.kt, then:

• A change in A.kt makes A.kt and B.kt dirty.

• A change in B.kt makes B.kt and A.kt dirty.

If we change A.kt , then both A.kt and B.kt become dirty.

If OA.kt depends on A.kt and B.kt, and OB.kt depends on B.kt

and C.kt, and OD.kt depends on D.kt and E.kt, then:

• A change in A.kt makes A.kt, B.kt, and C.kt dirty.

• A change in B.kt makes A.kt, B.kt, and C.kt dirty.
• A change in C.kt makes A.kt, B.kt, and C.kt dirty.
• A change in D.kt makes D.kt and E.kt dirty.
• A change in E.kt makes D.kt and E.kt dirty.

A change in A.kt makes A.kt, B.kt, and C.kt dirty.

CONTENTS 301

A change in D.kt makes D.kt and E.kt dirty.

As you can see, making dependencies leads to more files being

considered dirty; as a result, more files are reprocessed. How-
ever, consider files that use all other processing results or col-
lect all annotated elements. Such files are called aggregating
and set the aggregating flag to true in their dependency. An
aggregating output can potentially be affected by any input
changes. All input files that are associated with aggregating
outputs will be reprocessed. Consider the following scenario:
If OA.kt depends on A.kt, and OB.kt depends on B.kt, and OC.kt
is aggregating and depends on C.kt and D.kt, then:

• A change in A.kt makes A.kt, C.kt, and D.kt dirty.

• A change in B.kt makes B.kt, C.kt, and D.kt dirty.
• A change in C.kt makes C.kt and D.kt dirty.
• A change in D.kt makes C.kt and D.kt dirty.

A change in A.kt makes A.kt, C.kt and D.kt dirty.

It might seem complicated, but using incremental processing

is quite simple. In most cases, we set aggregating to false (so
CONTENTS 302

we set this file as isolating), and we depend on the file used

to generate this output file, which is typically the file that
includes this annotated element.

val dependencies = Dependencies(

aggregating = false,
annotatedClass.containingFile!!
)
val file = codeGenerator.createNewFile(
dependencies,
packageName,
fileName
)

If we base our file generation on other files, we should also

list them as dependencies. Files that depend on multiple other
files should be set as aggregating, but remember that de-
pendencies of aggregating files become dirty when any file
changes.

Multiple rounds processing

KSP supports multiple rounds processing mode, which

means that the same process function can be called multiple
times if needed. For instance, let’s say that you implement a
simple Dependency Injection Framework and you use KSP to
generate classes that create objects. Consider that you have
the following classes:

@Single
class UserRepository {
// ...
}

@Provide
class UserService(
val userRepository: UserRepository
) {
CONTENTS 303

// ...
}

You want your KSP processor to generate the following

providers:

class UserRepositoryProvider :
SingleProvider<UserRepository>() {

private val instance = UserRepository()

override fun single(): UserRepository = instance

}

class UserServiceProvider : Provider<UserService>() {

private val userRepositoryProvider =
UserRepositoryProvider()

override fun provide(): UserService =

UserService(userRepositoryProvider.single())
}

The problem is that UserServiceProvider depends on

UserRepositoryProvider, which is also created using our
processor. To generate UserServiceProvider, we need to
reference the class generated for UserRepositoryProvider;
for that, we need to generate UserRepositoryProvider in the
first round, and UserServiceProvider in the second round.
How do we achieve that? From process, we need to return a
list of annotated elements that could not be generated but
that we want to try to generate in the next round. In the
next round, getSymbolsWithAnnotation from Resolver will only
return elements that were not generated in the previous
round. This way, we can have multiple rounds of processing
to resolve deferred symbols.
CONTENTS 304

class ProviderGenerator(
private val codeGenerator: CodeGenerator,
) : SymbolProcessor {

override fun process(

resolver: Resolver
): List<KSAnnotated> {
val provideSymbols = resolver
.getSymbolsWithAnnotation(
Provide::class.qualifiedName!!
)
val singleSymbols = resolver
.getSymbolsWithAnnotation(
Single::class.qualifiedName!!
)
val symbols = (singleSymbols + provideSymbols)
.filterIsInstance<KSClassDeclaration>()

val notProcessed = symbols

.filterNot(::generateProvider)

return notProcessed.toList()
}

// ...
}

In our example, we cannot generate both classes during the

first round because UserRepositoryProvider is not available
then. Instead, we should first generate UserServiceProvider
and then UserRepositoryProvider in the second round. Multiple
rounds of processing are useful when processor execution
depends on elements that might be generated by this or
another processor.

A simplified example of this use-case

is presented on my GitHub repository
MarcinMoskala/DependencyInjection-KSP.
CONTENTS 305

Using KSP on multiplatform projects

We can use KSP on multiplatform projects, but the build con-

figuration is different. Instead of using ksp in the dependencies
block for a specific compilation target, we define a special
dependencies block at the top-level. Inside it, we specify which
targets we should use a specific processor for.

plugins {
kotlin("multiplatform")
id("com.google.devtools.ksp")
}

kotlin {
jvm {
withJava()
}
linuxX64() {
binaries {
executable()
}
}
sourceSets {
val commonMain by getting
val linuxX64Main by getting
val linuxX64Test by getting
}
}

dependencies {
add("kspCommonMainMetadata", project(":test-processor"))
add("kspJvm", project(":test-processor"))
add("kspJvmTest", project(":test-processor"))
// Doing nothing, because there's no such test source set
add("kspLinuxX64Test", project(":test-processor"))
// kspLinuxX64 source set will not be processed
}
CONTENTS 306

Summary

KSP is a powerful tool that programming libraries can use to

generate code based on annotations or our own definitions.
This capability is already used by many libraries that make
our life easier, like Room or Dagger. KSP is faster than Java
Annotation Processing, it understands Kotlin better, and it
can be used on multiplatform projects. You will find this
knowledge useful to implement some amazing libraries, or it
will help you better understand and work with the libraries
you use.
The biggest limitation of KSP is that it can only generate files
and cannot change how existing code behaves, but in the next
chapter, you will learn about Kotlin’s Compiler Plugin, which
can change how your code behaves.

Exercise: Kotlin Symbol Processing

Your task is to implement a custom KSP processor. It is your

decision what do you want it do, but here are a few good
choices:
* Coroutine Wrapper Generator: Write an annotation
processor that automatically generates a wrapper class for
a given class, that transforms all suspending methods to
blocking methods, or to callback methods, or to RxJava
methods, or to methods returning Promise, or vice versa.
* Kotlin/JS Wrapper Generator: Wrtie an annotation
processor that automatically generates a wrapper class
for a given class, that is exported in JS, and that exposes
objects that can be used in TypeScript. For instance, that
transforms List<T> to Array<T>, or Flow to a special Flow class
that can be used in TypeScript.
* Builder Pattern Generator: Write an annotation processor
that automatically generates a Builder class for a given class.
* DSL Builder Pattern Generator: Write an annotation
processor that automatically generates a DSL Builder class
for a given class.
* Immutable Objects Checker: Develop an annotation to
CONTENTS 307

mark a class as immutable. The annotation processor should

generate one class that starts checks for all classes marked
with this annotation.
* Dependency Injection Framework: Create a mini-
framework for dependency injection using annotations.
* Custom Serialization/Deserialization: Implement an
annotation processor that generates code for serializing and
deserializing objects to and from a specific format (like JSON,
XML, etc.) in a way we do not need to use runtime reflection.
* Code Metrics and Analysis: Build an annotation processor
that calculates and reports various code metrics (like number
of methods, lines of code, etc.).
* Database Access: Write an annotation processor that
generates code for database access. It should generate code
for creating tables, inserting, updating, and deleting rows,
and for querying data.
You can use the following project as a starting point:
https://github.com/MarcinMoskala/ksp-template
As a very simple inspiration of how KSP project can be imple-
mented, you can look at the following projects:

• https://github.com/MarcinMoskala/generateinterface-
ksp - generates interfaces for classes
• https://github.com/MarcinMoskala/DependencyInjection-
KSP - generates class for simple dependency injection
CONTENTS 308

Kotlin Compiler Plugins

The Kotlin Compiler is a program that compiles Kotlin code

but is also used by the IDE to provide analytics for code com-
pletion, warnings, and much more. Like many programs, the
Kotlin Compiler can use plugins that change its behavior. We
define a Kotlin Compiler plugin by extending a special class,
called an extension, and then register it using a registrar.
Each extension is called by the compiler in a certain phase of
its work, thereby potentially changing the result of this phase.
For example, you can register a plugin that will be called when
the compiler generates supertypes for a class, thus adding
additional supertypes to the result. When we write a compiler
plugin, we are limited to what the supported extensions allow
us to do. We will discuss the currently available extensions
soon, but let’s start with some essential knowledge about how
the compiler works.

Compiler frontend and backend

Kotlin is a multiplatform language, which means the same

code can be used to generate low-level code for different plat-
forms. It is reasonable that Kotlin Compiler is divided into
two big parts:

• Frontend, responsible for parsing and transforming

Kotlin code into a representation that can be interpreted
by the backend and used for Kotlin code analysis.
• Backend, responsible for generating actual low-level
code based on the representation received from the
frontend.

The compiler frontend is independent of the target, and its

results can be reused when we compile a multiplatform mod-
ule. However, there is a revolution going on at the moment
because a new K2 frontend is replacing the older K1 frontend.
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The compiler backend is specific to your compilation target,

so there is a separate backend for JVM, JS, Native, and WASM.
They have some shared parts, but they are essentially differ-
ent.

Compiler frontend is responsible for parsing and analyzing Kotlin code and
transforming it into a representation that is sent to the backend, on the basis
of which the backend generates platform-specific files. The frontend is target-
independent, but there are two frontends: older K1, and newer K2. The backend
is target-specific.

When you use Kotlin in an IDE like IntelliJ, the IDE shows you
warnings, errors, component usages, code completions, etc.,
but IntelliJ itself doesn’t analyze Kotlin: all these features are
based on communication with the Kotlin Compiler, which
has a special API for IDEs, and the frontend is responsible for
this communication.
Each backend variant shares a part that generates Kotlin
intermediate representation from the representation provided
by the frontend (in the case of K2, it is FIR, which means
frontend intermediate representation). Platform-specific files
are generated based on this representation.
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Each backend shares a part that transforms the representation provided by the
frontend into Kotlin intermediate representation, which is used to generate target-
specific files.

You can find detailed descriptions of how the compiler fron-

tend and the compiler backend work in many presentations
and articles, like those by Amanda Hinchman-Dominguez or
Mikhail Glukhikh. I won’t go into detail here because we’ve
already covered everything we need in order to talk about
compiler plugins.

Compiler extensions

Kotlin Compiler extensions are also divided into those for the
frontend or the backend. All the frontend extensions start
with the Fir prefix and end with the Extension suffix. Here is
the complete list of the currently supported K2 extensions⁴⁷:
⁴⁷K1 extensions are deprecated, so I will just skip them.
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• FirStatusTransformerExtension - called when an element

status (visibility, modifiers, etc.) is established and al-
lows it to be changed. The All-open compiler plugin uses
it to make all classes with appropriate annotations open
by default (e.g., used by Spring Framework).
• FirDeclarationGenerationExtension - can specify
additional declarations to be generated for a Kotlin
file. Its different methods are called at different phases
of compilation and allow the generation of different
kinds of elements, like classes or methods. Used by
many plugins, including the Kotlin Serialization plugin,
to generate serialization methods.
• FirAdditionalCheckersExtension - allows the specification
of additional checkers that will be called when the com-
piler checks the code; it can also report additional errors
or warnings that can be visualized by IntelliJ.
• FirSupertypeGenerationExtension - called when the com-
piler generates supertypes for a class and allows addi-
tional supertypes to be added. For instance, if the class
A inherits from B and implements C, and the extension
decides it should also have supertypes D and F, then the
compiler will consider A to have supertypes B, C, D and
F. Used by many plugins, including the Kotlin Serial-
ization plugin, which uses it to make all classes anno-
tated with the Serializer annotation have an implicit
KSerializer supertype with appropriate type arguments.
• FirTypeAttributeExtension - allows an attribute to be
added to a type based on an annotation or determines
an annotation based on an attribute. Used by the
experimental Kotlin Assignment plugin, which allows
a number type to be annotated as either positive or
negative and then uses this information to throw an
error if this contract is broken. Works with the code of
libraries used by our project.
• FirExpressionResolutionExtension - can be used to add
an implicit extension receiver when a function is
called. Used by the experimental Kotlin Assignment
plugin, which injects Algebra<T> as an implicit receiver
if injectAlgebra<T>() is called.
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• FirSamConversionTransformerExtension - called when the

compiler converts a Java SAM interface to a Kotlin func-
tion type and allows the result type to be changed. Used
by the SAM-with-receiver compiler plugin to generate a
function type with a receiver instead of a regular func-
tion type for SAM interfaces with appropriate annota-
tion.
• FirAssignExpressionAltererExtension - allows a variable
assignment to be transformed into any kind of state-
ment. Used by the experimental Kotlin Assignment plu-
gin, which allows the assignment operator to be over-
loaded.
• FirFunctionTypeKindExtension - allows additional
function types to be registered. Works with the code of
libraries used by our project.
• FirDeclarationsForMetadataProviderExtension - currently
allows additional declarations to be added in Kotlin
metadata. Used by the Kotlin Serialization plugin to
generate a deserialization constructor or a method to
write itself. Its behavior might change in the future.
• FirScriptConfiguratorExtension - currently called when
the compiler processes a script; it also allows the script
configuration to be changed. Its behavior might change
in the future.
• FirExtensionSessionComponent - currently allows
additional extension session components to be added
for a session. In other words, it allows a component
to be registered so that it can be reused by different
extensions. Used by many plugins. For instance,
the Kotlin Serialization plugin uses it to register a
component that keeps a cache of serializers in a file or
KClass first from file annotation. Its behavior might
change in the future.

Beware! In this chapter we only discuss K2

frontend extensions because the K1 frontend
is deprecated and will be removed in the future.
However, the K2 compiler frontend is currently
not used by default. To use it, you need to have
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at least Kotlin version 1.9.0-Beta and add the

-Pkotlin.experimental.tryK2=true compiler option.

As you can see, these plugins allow us to apply changes to

compilation and analysis. They can be used to show a warning
or break compilation with an error. They can also be used
to change the visibility of specific elements, thus influencing
the behavior of the resulting code and suggestions in IDE.
Regarding the backend, there is only one extension:
IrGenerationExtension. It is used after IR (Kotlin intermediate
representation) is generated from the FIR (frontend
intermediate representation) but before it is used to generate
platform-specific files. IrGenerationExtension is used to
modify the IR tree. This means that IrGenerationExtension
can change absolutely anything in the generated code, but
using it is hard as we can easily introduce breaking changes,
so it must be used with great care. Also, IrGenerationExtension
cannot influence code analysis, so it cannot impact IDE
suggestions, warnings, etc.

Backend plugin extensions are used after IR (Kotlin Intermediate Representation)

is generated from the FIR (frontend intermediate representation), but before it is
used to generate platform-specific files.
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I want to make it clear that the backend cannot influence IDE

analysis. If you use IrGenerationExtension to add a method to
a class, you won’t be able to call it directly in IntelliJ because
it won’t recognize such a method, so you will only be able to
call it using reflection. In contrast, a method added to a class
using the frontend FirDeclarationGenerationExtension can be
used directly because the IDE knows about its existence.
The majority of popular Kotlin plugins require multiple ex-
tensions, both frontend and backend. For instance, Kotlin
Serialization uses backend extensions to generate all the func-
tions for serialization and deserialization; on the other hand,
it uses frontend extensions to add implicit supertypes, checks
and declarations.
This is the essential knowledge about Kotlin Compiler plugins.
To make it a bit more practical, let’s take a look at a couple of
examples.

Popular compiler plugins

Many compiler plugins and libraries that use compiler plug-

ins are already available. The most popular ones are:

• Kotlin Serialization - a plugin that generates serializa-

tion methods for Kotlin classes. It’s multiplatform and
very efficient because it uses a compiler plugin instead
of reflection.
• Jetpack Compose - a popular UI framework that uses a
compiler plugin to support its view element definitions.
All the composable functions are transformed into a spe-
cial representation that is then used by the framework to
generate the UI.
• Arrow Meta - a powerful plugin introducing support
for features known from functional programming lan-
guages, like optics or refined types. It also supports As-
pect Oriented Programming.
• Parcelize - a plugin that generates Parcelable implemen-
tations for Kotlin classes. It uses a compiler plugin to add
appropriate methods to existing classes.
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• All-open - a plugin that makes all classes with appropri-

ate annotations open by default. The Spring Framework
uses it to make all classes with @Component annotation
open by default (to be able to create proxies for them).

The majority of plugins use more than one extension, so let’s

consider the simple Parcelize plugin, which uses only the
following extensions:

• IrGenerationExtension to generate functions and proper-

ties that are used under the hood.
• FirDeclarationGenerationExtension to generate the func-
tions required for the project to compile.
• FirAdditionalCheckersExtension to show errors and warn-
ings.

Kotlin compiler plugins are defined in build.gradle(.kts) in

the plugins section:

plugins {
id("kotlin-parcelize")
}

Some plugins are distributed as part of individual Gradle

plugins.

Making all classes open

We’ll start our journey with a simple task: make all classes
open. This behavior is inspired by the AllOpen plugin, which
opens all classes annotated with one of the specified annota-
tions. However, our example will be simpler as we will just
open all classes.
As a dependency, we only need kotlin-compiler-embeddable
that offers us the classes we can use for defining plugins.
Just like in KSP or Annotation Processing, we need
to add a file to resources/META-INF/services with the
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registrar’s name. The name of this file should be

org.jetbrains.kotlin.compiler.plugin.CompilerPluginRegistrar,
which is the fully qualified name of the CompilerPluginRegistrar
class. Inside it, you should place the fully qualified
name of your registrar class. In our case, this will be
com.marcinmoskala.AllOpenComponentRegistrar.

// org.jetbrains.kotlin.compiler.plugin.
// CompilerPluginRegistrar
com.marcinmoskala.AllOpenComponentRegistrar

Our AllOpenComponentRegistrar registrar needs to register an

extension registrar (we’ll call it FirAllOpenExtensionRegistrar),
which registers our extension. Note that the registrar has ac-
cess to the configuration so that we can pass parameters to our
plugin, but we don’t need this configuration now. Our exten-
sion is just a class that extends FirStatusTransformerExtension;
it has two methods: needTransformStatus and transformStatus.
The former determines whether the transformation should
be applied; the latter applies it. In our case, we apply our
extension to all classes, and we change their status to open,
regardless of what this status was before.

@file:OptIn(ExperimentalCompilerApi::class)

class AllOpenComponentRegistrar : CompilerPluginRegistrar() {

override fun ExtensionStorage.registerExtensions(
configuration: CompilerConfiguration
) {
FirExtensionRegistrarAdapter
.registerExtension(FirAllOpenExtensionRegistrar())
}

override val supportsK2: Boolean

get() = true
}

class FirAllOpenExtensionRegistrar : FirExtensionRegistrar(){

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override fun ExtensionRegistrarContext.configurePlugin() {

+::FirAllOpenStatusTransformer
}
}

class FirAllOpenStatusTransformer(
session: FirSession
) : FirStatusTransformerExtension(session) {
override fun needTransformStatus(
declaration: FirDeclaration
): Boolean = declaration is FirRegularClass

override fun transformStatus(

status: FirDeclarationStatus,
declaration: FirDeclaration
): FirDeclarationStatus =
status.transform(modality = Modality.OPEN)
}

This is just a simplified version, but the actual AllOpen plugin

is slightly more complicated as it only opens classes that are
annotated with one of the specified annotations. For that,
FirAllOpenExtensionRegistrar registers a plugin that is used
by FirAllOpenStatusTransformer to determine if a specific class
should be opened or not. If you are interested in the details,
see the AllOpen plugin in the plugins folder in the Kotlin
repository.

Changing a type

Our following example will be the SAM-with-receiver

compiler plugin, which changes the type of function
types generated from SAM interfaces with appropriate
annotations to function types with a receiver. It uses
the FirSamConversionTransformerExtension, which is quite
specific to this plugin because it is only called when a SAM
interface is converted to a function type, and it allows the
type that will be generated to be changed. This example is
CONTENTS 318

interesting because it adds a type that will be recognized

by the IDE and can be used directly in code. The complete
implementation can be found in the Kotlin repository in the
plugins/sam-with-receiver folder, but here I only want to show
a simplified implementation of this extension:

class FirScriptSamWithReceiverConventionTransformer(
session: FirSession
) : FirSamConversionTransformerExtension(session) {
override fun getCustomFunctionTypeForSamConversion(
function: FirSimpleFunction
): ConeLookupTagBasedType? {
val containingClassSymbol = function
.containingClassLookupTag()
?.toFirRegularClassSymbol(session)
?: return null

return if (shouldTransform(it)) {
val parameterTypes = function.valueParameters
.map { it.returnTypeRef.coneType }
if (parameterTypes.isEmpty()) return null
createFunctionType(
getFunctionType(it),
parameters = parameterTypes.drop(1),
receiverType = parameterTypes[0],
rawReturnType = function.returnTypeRef
.coneType
)
} else null
}

// ...
}

If the getCustomFunctionTypeForSamConversion function doesn’t

return null, it overrides the type that will be generated for
a SAM interface. In our case, we determine whether the
function should be transformed; if so, we create a function
type with a receiver by using the createFunctionType function.
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There are builder functions that help us to create many

elements that are represented in FIR. Examples include
buildSimpleFunction or buildRegularClass, and most of them
offer a simple DSL. Here, the createFunctionType function
creates a function type with a receiver representation of
type ConeLookupTagBasedType, which will replace automatically
generated types from a SAM interface. In essence, this is how
this plugin works.

Generate function wrappers

Let’s consider the following problem: Kotlin suspend func-

tions can only be called in Kotlin code. This means that if you
want to call a suspend function from Java, you can use, for
example, runBlocking to wrap it in a regular function that calls
the suspend function in a coroutine.

suspend fun suspendFunction() = ...

fun blockingFunction() = runBlocking { suspendFunction() }

We might use a plugin to generate such wrappers over sus-

pend functions automatically using either a backend or a
frontend plugin.
A backend plugin would require an extension for
IrGenerationExtension that generates an additional wrapper
function in IR for the appropriate function. These wrapper
functions will be present in the generated platform-specific
code and are therefore available for Java, Groovy, and other
languages. The problem is that these wrapper classes will not
be visible in Kotlin code. This is fine if our wrapper functions
are meant to be used from other languages anyway, but
we need to know about this serious limitation. There is an
open-source plugin called kotlin-jvm-blocking-bridge that
generates blocking wrappers for suspend functions using a
backend plugin; you can find its source code under the link
github.com/Him188/kotlin-jvm-blocking-bridge.
CONTENTS 320

A frontend plugin would require an extension for

FirDeclarationGenerationExtension to generate wrapper
functions for the appropriate suspend functions in FIR.
These additional functions would then be used to generate
IR and finally platform-specific code. Those functions would
also be visible in IntelliJ, so we would be able to use them
in both Kotlin and Java. However, such a plugin would only
work with the K2 compiler, so since Kotlin 2.0. To support the
previous language version, we need to define an additional
extension that supports K1.

Example plugin implementations

Kotlin Compiler Plugins are currently not documented, and

generated elements must respect many restrictions for our
code to not break, so defining custom plugins is quite hard. If
you want to define your own plugin, my recommendation is
to first get the Kotlin Compiler sources and then analyze the
existing plugins in the plugins folder.

This folder includes not only K2 plugins but also K1 and KSP-
based plugins. We are only interested in K2 plugins, so you can
CONTENTS 321

ignore the rest.

A list of all the supported extensions can be found in the
FirExtensionRegistrar class. To analyze how the compiler uses
an extension, you can search for the usage of its open methods.
To do this, hit command/Ctrl and click on a method name
to jump to its usage. This should show you where the Kotlin
Compiler uses this extension. Beware, though, that all the
knowledge that is not documented is more likely to change in
the future.

Summary

As you can see, the capabilities of Kotlin Compiler Plugins

are determined by the extensions supported by the Kotlin
Compiler. On the compiler’s frontend, these extension capa-
bilities are limited, so there is currently only a specific set of
things that can be done on the frontend with Kotlin Compiler
Plugins. On the compiler backend, you can change generated
IR representation in any way; this offers many possibilities
but can also easily cause breaking changes in your code.
Kotlin Compiler Plugins technology is still young, undocu-
mented, and changing. It should be used with great care as it
can easily break your code, but it is also extremely powerful
and offers possibilities beyond comprehension. Jetpack Com-
pose is a great example. I have only been able to share with
you the general idea of how Kotlin Compiler Plugins work and
what they can do, but I hope it is enough for you to understand
the key concept and possibilities.
In the next chapter, we will talk about another tool that helps
with code development: static code analyzers. On the one
hand, it is more limited than KSP or Compiler Plugins because
it cannot generate any code; on the other hand, static code
analyzers are also extremely powerful as they can seriously
influence our development process and help us improve our
actual code.
CONTENTS 322

Static Code Analysers

This chapter was written by Nicola Corti, who is

the best person I could ask to write about Static
Code Analysers. He is one of the maintainers of
detekt and the author of many of its rules; he is also
a well-known speaker and a true programming
practitioner.

One could argue that what distinguishes a novice Kotlin de-

veloper from a senior one is their mastery of recognizing and
appropriately using idiomatic patterns.
Learning how to write a “Hello, world!” or a simple for loop
takes no longer than a couple of hours, but learning how to
use advanced techniques such as generics, delegation, and
reflection can take much longer. Some of these patterns re-
quire years of experience to be fully mastered. After all, you
don’t expect a junior Kotlin engineer to write an annotation
processor.
Discovering recurring patterns and applying them has always
been a problem in the field of computer science.
That’s why engineers who work on programming language
tools, such as compilers, have also developed tools to help
engineers identify recurrent patterns: these are called static
analysers. While you’re already taking a step toward master-
ing these patterns by reading this book, having a tool that
automatically discovers and applies them will take you to the
next level.
For example, several of the patterns that are described in the
“Effective Kotlin” book can be automated with the help of
static analysers.
However, the real power of static analysers lies in the fact
that they can be customized, therefore you can discover and
enforce your own patterns. When working on bigger code-
bases with hundreds of contributors, you can’t really rely
only on code reviews. It’s crucial to have tools that automate
CONTENTS 323

and help you bring consensus and arbitrate conflict between

developers. That’s why static analysers are tools that should
never be missing in the advanced Kotlin developer’s toolbox.
In this chapter, we’ll walk through the basics of static analy-
sis, and we’ll learn how to use one of the most popular static
analysers for Kotlin: detekt.

What are Static Analysers?

As the name suggests, static analysers are tools that spot bugs
and recurrent patterns by analysing your code statically, i.e.,
without running it⁴⁸.
Running your code is generally considered an expensive op-
eration. Think about Kotlin/JVM, where you need to start a
Java Virtual Machine, or Android, where you need an emu-
lator or a physical device to run your code. One technique
that can be used to protect your code from bugs is writing
tests! They’re a great tool to prevent bugs from reaching
production, but they require a runtime and are an expensive
operation that becomes more and more expensive as your
codebase grows.
On the other hand, static analysers look at your code without
executing it at all, so there is no need to start a runtime
environment at all.
For example, there is no need to execute your code to warn you
that you’ve declared a variable that you’re not using. A static
analyser can keep track of all the variables you’ve declared
and those you access. The ones you declare but never access
⁴⁸A common example of static analysers is spellcheckers.
You probably use one daily when you write documents or
emails. Similarly, a compiler also is a form of static analyser
as it exposes warnings while it compiles your code.
CONTENTS 324

are most likely⁴⁹ unused and can be removed.

Static analysers can leverage language-specific properties to
determine the correctness of your code. For instance, the
Kotlin type system can be used to infer types and use type in-
formation to do further analysis, similarly to how the Kotlin
compiler does. Let’s take a look at this simple example:

fun getTheAnswer(answer: String = "24"): String {

return answer?.reversed()!!
}

This code behaves correctly in the sense that it correctly

returns “42” when getTheAnswer is invoked. You could write a
unit test for it and confirm that the result is as expected, but
we could immediately spot a couple of potential problems just
by looking at it: as the type of answer is a non-nullable String,
there is no need to use either the ?. (safe call) or the !! (not-
null assert) operator. Instead, the return expression can be
simplified to just return answer.reversed()⁵⁰.
A static analyser can help you with this and other types of
inspection, which could be helpful to enforce a style guide
across your codebase (e.g., all unnecessary usages of import
should be removed). Other types could help prevent potential
bugs ending up in your codebase (e.g., when an expression’s
return value is ignored and never used).
Static analysers are often referred to as ‘linters’, a term which
comes from ‘lint’, the first static analyser for C, developed
⁴⁹Here we oversimplify the unused variable inspection.
There are a variety of cases where you need to keep a vari-
able even if it’s not accessed; for instance, public definitions
in a library module can’t be removed if never accessed. If
you’re keen to learn more about this inspection, check the
UnusedPrivateMember inspection page.
⁵⁰Please consider this simplified snippet as an example. In
reality, even if you don’t simplify this snippet, the compiler
will do so for you during compilation.
CONTENTS 325

in the 70s⁵¹. Lint itself takes its name from the tiny bits of
fabric that appear on your clothes as you wear them. A linter
should inspect your codebase and capture all these small
imperfections and potential problems.

A real-world linter. Similarly, a static analyser inspects your codebase and cap-
tures potential bugs and problems before they hit production. Photo is licensed un-
der Creative Commons - Source https://www.pexels.com/photo/woman-in-black-
long-sleeve-shirt-holding-a-lint-roller-6865186/

Now, you might think that a static analyser’s goal is really

similar to another popular process in IT: code reviews.
When you review another engineer’s code, you look at it and
try to spot potential bugs. I like to think of static analysers and
code reviews as complementary, but there is a difference: the
former help you spot and automate a lot of recurring coding
issues, while the latter are crucial to ensure high code quality
and share responsibility for shipped changes. Unfortunately,
static analysers can’t currently fully understand a developer’s
intent. You could potentially ship malicious code or “beauti-
fully broken code” that is fully compliant with static analy-
sers as it passes all the checks.
Perhaps, in a not too distant future, advanced AI models
could power static analysers to fully automate the code review
process. At the time of writing, this is not the case, so code
reviews are still considered a fundamental process and are
⁵¹You can read more about the history of the Lint tool on the
Lint (software) Wikipedia page
CONTENTS 326

widely adopted in the IT sector.

In academia, static analysers are a vast subject of study and
research. Researchers have developed numerous techniques
to formally verify that code satisfies requirements and be-
haves as expected. Formally verifying code behavior can be
business-critical in various sectors (think about software in
the medical or aerospace industries).
It’s outside the scope of this chapter to present all the formal
methods of inspecting and verifying your code, but you can
find plenty of literature on this. However, to better under-
stand the tools available in the Kotlin ecosystem, we’ll walk
through some of the various types of static analysers for
Kotlin.

Types of analysers

It’s hard to make a neat division in the ecosystem of static

analysers, as you’ll find a plethora of tools doing all sorts of
inspection and automation. Here we present some of the most
popular families of analysers. Beware that this categorization
is not exhaustive, and there are tools that fit in multiple
categories.

Formatters

If you’ve written any code, you’ve probably already interacted

with formatters, which are responsible for making sure your
code follows a coding convention⁵². They can help you with
simple tasks such as removing unnecessary white spaces and
making sure your files have the correct copyright headers.
Most of the time, formatters are embedded inside your IDEs
and auto-format your code when you save your files. Format-
ters are typically referred to as pretty-printers or beautifiers.
Each popular programming language has a set of formatters
in its ecosystem. Popular formatters in the industry are tools
⁵²Kotlin has two popular guidelines, JetBrain’s Coding Con-
vention and Google’s Kotlin style guide.
CONTENTS 327

like Prettier for Web, the various *fmt tools like gofmt for Go,
and rustfmt for Rust.
Kotlin has various formatters to pick from:
IntelliJ’s built-in formatter
ktlint
ktfmt
diktat
Enforcing coding conventions and reducing bikeshedding is a
common challenge for large engineering teams.
You probably don’t want to manually read every line of code
change to evaluate whether it conforms to the common pat-
terns. You may also not want to waste a significant amount of
time with your colleagues arguing over whether curly braces
should be put on a newline or not.
Formatters increase productivity by allowing you to have
such discussions once during the initial configuration and
objectively apply your preferred style to every code change.

Code Quality Analysers

Code quality analysers perform more advanced inspections

than formatters. Generally, they operate on a tree-like repre-
sentation of your code called an Abstract Syntax Tree (AST).
With an Abstract Syntax Tree, analysers can inspect specific
nodes of the tree to perform inspections. Static analysers
generally use the visitor pattern to register inspection on
specific nodes of an AST.
Say, for example, you want to prevent usage of the println
function in your codebase as you have a dedicated logger and
want to ensure all logging goes through it.
Your inspector can ask to visit all the nodes in your AST that
are of type “function call”. On these nodes, the inspector will
report a finding whenever the caller function is println⁵³.
⁵³If you’re curious about this type of inspection, check the
ForbiddenMethodCalls inspection source code.
CONTENTS 328

An example of an Abstract Syntax Tree: on the left, a

simple Kotlin file; on the right, PSI-Viewer shows the PSI
representation of your code ([Program Structure Inter-
face](https://plugins.jetbrains.com/docs/intellij/psi.html)).
The caret is on the println function invocation, which
corresponds to the CALL_EXPRESSION node in the tree.
The amount of information available in an AST might vary
depending on different tools and the type of inspection that
you’re interested in doing. Sometimes, it is sufficient to have
only syntactic information in the AST (e.g., the name of the
parameters), but for more advanced inspections you might
need an AST which has type information linked to it (e.g., the
return type of a function invoked from a third-party library).
Popular code quality analysers in the industry are tools like
Checkstyle for Java or ESlint for JavaScript.

Data-Flow Analysers

Data-flow analysers operate by building a model that can

determine at a particular point where values are coming from
and what possible values can be produced.
As mentioned before, running your code is an expensive oper-
ation.
By looking at the expressions inside your code, a data-flow
analyser can infer conditions and execution state without
running your code.
Let’s take a look at the following code:

val answer : String? = maybeGetTheAnswer()

if (answer != null) {
println("The answer is $answer")
}

Reading this code, we know that the type of answer inside the
if block is smart-casted to String and is not a String? anymore.
The != null check is effectively a type restriction on the set
CONTENTS 329

of possible values of answer and removes null from that set.

Similarly, in a potential else branch or after the if, the set of
possible values would be restricted to just null.
Data-flow analysers use the rules of the relevant program-
ming language to compute the set of possible values of your
identifier at each statement. With this information, you can
perform more advanced analysis. For instance, you can in-
form the users of types that are too broad and can be re-
stricted (e.g., an analyser could tell you to use List instead of
Collection if the set of values is restricted to List only).

Kotlin uses data-flow analysis inside the compiler⁵⁴ to power

some of its popular features, such as smart-casting.
Most code quality analysers in the industry also do data-flow
analysis but are just marketed as “static analysers”. Typically,
they use AST analysis or data-flow analysis based on the type
of inspection they need to run.

Code Manipulation

All the previously mentioned tools inspect your code and raise
warnings whenever they discover something untoward.
However, some tools can go one step further and manipulate
your code if they find a violation.
Formatters manipulate your code as they usually provide a
mechanism to “reformat” your codebase so that you don’t
have to edit the code manually.
Code quality analysers can also manipulate your code, but
this isn’t always the case with formatters. For example, if
an analyser discovers an unused variable, the manipulation
would be to entirely remove the line where this variable is
declared.
However, this is often considered an invasive operation as
analysers generally need to perform substantial modification
⁵⁴An interesting read is the Control- and data-flow analysis
chapter of the Kotlin language spec.
CONTENTS 330

to make code conform to their rules. Sometimes, removing

a line or an annotation is sufficient; other times, there are
multiple solutions to a violation but the analyser can’t pick
one without a human decision.
On top of this, newly created code could raise other violations
or might be improperly formatted.
For this reason, static analysers tend to not manipulate code
automatically; instead, they raise a violation warning and
suggest one or more alternatives to resolve it.

Embedded vs Standalone

Finally, it is worth noting that some static analysers are em-

bedded in tools we use daily, while others are distributed as
standalone software.
For instance, the Kotlin Compiler has a static analyser built-
in that raises warnings while it compiles code. IntelliJ IDEA
also has a built-in static analyser which offers inspections as
you type, with code suggestions in the contextual menu.
On the other hand, tools like detekt, ktlint, and others are
standalone. You can typically execute them from the com-
mand line by specifying your source files. These standalone
static analysers offer plugins and integrations for the most
popular developer environments (IntelliJ IDEA, Gradle, Vi-
sual Studio Code and so on). On top of this, standalone static
analysers are generally better suited to be integrated with
continuous integration servers or pre-commit hooks.

Kotlin Code Analysers

Let’s now walk through the various static analysers available

for Kotlin in order to discover what they offer and understand
how you can integrate them in your projects.

Kotlin Compiler

As mentioned above, the Kotlin Compiler ships an embedded

static analyser, which is already a great starting point for
CONTENTS 331

analyzing your Kotlin code.

Sadly, the Kotlin Compiler offers no easy way to write a cus-
tom inspection, so you’ll have to resort to writing a custom
Kotlin Compiler plugin. Moreover, the compiler doesn’t offer
an easy way to selectively toggle its inspections, so you’ll
always get all the warnings the compiler finds, and you won’t
be able to enable/disable some⁵⁵.
The Kotlin Compiler also doesn’t ship with an embedded
formatter, so you’ll need to resort to other tools for code
formatting.

IntelliJ IDEA

Alongside the Kotlin Compiler, JetBrains also ships a static

analyser as part of IntelliJ IDEA.
This static analyser is user-friendly as it has a UI to configure
it and offers suggestions inline. On the other hand, these
inspections require an IntelliJ installation to run, therefore
they’re less portable and less suitable for continuous integra-
tion servers.
IntelliJ IDEA also offers an embedded formatter, making it a
great companion for the Kotlin Compiler.

ktlint

ktlint is a standalone formatter for Kotlin which offers great

configurability and allows you to easily reformat your code.
Ktlint is well established in the Kotlin community and has
been maintained in open-source. It can be extended with
custom rules and integrated with Gradle, Maven, IntelliJ, or
even Vim via third-party plugins.

ktfmt

ktfmt is another standalone formatter for Kotlin, but it has

a more opinionated take on code-formatting. ktfmt is non-
⁵⁵There is an open issue on JetBrains Issue Tracker about
this specific problem.
CONTENTS 332

configurable and less extensible than ktlint, with the inten-

tion to reformat code in a stricter manner. Thanks to third-
party plugins, ktfmt can be easily integrated with IntelliJ,
Gradle or Maven.

Android Lint

Android Lint is a static analyser for Android. It offers

inspections which are Android specific, so it can inspect
not only Java and Kotlin files, but also Gradle files and
XML files (and other Android-related files). Android Lint is
integrated inside Android Studio and it’s probably the best
pick for developers looking to integrate static analysis in
their Android projects.
The Android Studio integration allows Android Lint to also
act as a code manipulator by offering quick fixes: small
tooltips on top of the inspection that allow the user to
selectively apply the suggested changes.
Android Lint is also extensible with custom detectors and
can be executed via Gradle or as a standalone tool, without
needing to have Android Studio installed.

detekt

detekt is a standalone static-analyser for Kotlin. Unlike An-

droid Lint, it’s general purpose and focuses only on Kotlin
code. It can’t inspect Java code, but it’s easier to integrate in
any Kotlin project.
detekt is community developed and, at the time of writing,
offers more than 300 inspections. It primarily offers a Gradle
plugin and a Kotlin Compiler plugin to integrate with existing
projects. Moreover, detekt can be integrated with IntelliJ
IDEA, Maven, Bazel and much more.
One key feature of detekt is its extensibility, which makes it
easier to write custom rules to achieve your desired inspec-
tions. Let’s take a closer look at how you can configure and
customize it.
CONTENTS 333

Setting up detekt

Over the rest of this chapter, we’ll look at practical examples

of how to use detekt inside your projects. We chose detekt as
the preferred tool because of its great flexibility, and we will
learn how you can write a custom rule for it.
Let’s start by configuring detekt as part of your Gradle project.
For the sake of brevity, we’ll assume you already have a single-
module Gradle setup which builds properly.
To set up detekt, you just need to edit your build.gradle.kts file
as follows:

plugins {
kotlin("jvm") version "..."
// Add this line
id("io.gitlab.arturbosch.detekt") version "..."
}

This line adds the Detekt Gradle Plugin to your project and
is sufficient to set up detekt in your project with the default
configuration.
You can see it in action by invoking the build Gradle task from
the command-line:

$ ./gradlew build

BUILD SUCCESSFUL in 549ms

As an alternative, you can also invoke the detekt task directly

with ./gradlew detekt
Now, if we try to run detekt on a simple file that contains the
following:
CONTENTS 334

fun main() {
println(42)
}

we will receive the following output:

$ ./gradlew build

> Task :example:detekt FAILED

/tmp/example/src/main/java/Main.kt:2:11:
This expression contains a magic number. Consider
defining it to a well named constant. [MagicNumber]

[...]
BUILD FAILED in 470ms

Here, detekt is flagging the number 42 as it’s considered a

“Magic Number”, a number without a clear semantic which
should be extracted as a well-named constant.
The ID of this violation is inside the square brackets
(MagicNumber) and is important for several reasons:

• It is the name of the rule that generated this inspection.

You can use it to search for documentation about this
inspection on the detekt website.
• It can be used to suppress the inspection locally with
a @Suppress("MagicNumber") annotation just above the of-
fending statement.
• It can be used in the configuration file (see following
sections) to configure the rule to adapt detekt to the style
of your codebase.

This is just one very simple example of the various inspections

that detekt offers, so let’s take a closer look at some more of
them.
CONTENTS 335

detekt Rules and Rulesets

The 200 inspections that detekt offers out of the box are called
rules. Remembering all of them is hard, which is why they’re
organized in rulesets, collections of rules that serve the same
purposes.
Let’s take a brief look at them:

• comments: rules that help enforce good documentation of

your functions and classes.
• complexity: rules that report unnecessary statements
or complex code, like methods and interfaces that are
larger than usual.
• coroutines: rules that report potential problems with
Coroutines, such as usage of GlobalScope or other antipat-
terns.
• empty-blocks: rules that flag empty blocks and function
bodies.
• exceptions: rules that inspect how your code throws and
catches exceptions.
• libraries: rules that help library authors write good
APIs.
• naming: rules that help you enforce naming conventions
across your codebase.
• performance: rules that flag potential performance regres-
sions in your code.
• potential-bugs: rules that flag code that could lead to
potential bugs or crashes.
• ruleauthors: rules that help you write good external de-
tekt rules.
• style: rules that check the style and formatting of your
code and flag unnecessary code.

potential-bugs is one of detekt’s biggest rulesets and contains

some of the most popular rules. An honorable mention goes to
DontDowncastCollectionTypes, which was inspired by Effective
Kotlin: Item 1 - Limit Mutability⁵⁶
⁵⁶You can find more information on the
DontDowncastCollectionTypes rule on its dedicated page
CONTENTS 336

On top of these rulesets, the community has developed a

variety of third-party rules that serve specific purposes. For
instance, a collection of rules that offer inspections specific
to JetPack Compose is available. These and other rules are
shared in the detekt Marketplace.

Configuring detekt

By default, detekt comes with a sensible default configuration.

For example, not all the rules are enabled, while some rules
are configured to suit a wide range of users.
However, you might want to enable/disable or customize
some rules. To do so, you need to provide a YAML
configuration file that lets you customize detekt as you
prefer.
The easiest way to do this is to ask detekt to create one for you
by invoking the detektGenerateConfig task as follows:

$ ./gradlew detektGenerateConfig

> Task :example:detektGenerateConfig

Successfully copied default config to
/tmp/example/config/detekt/detekt.yml

BUILD SUCCESSFUL in 473ms

1 actionable task: 1 executed

This will create a config file at the path shown in the console
by copying the default detekt config file. The configuration
file looks as follows:
CONTENTS 337

...
comments:
active: true
AbsentOrWrongFileLicense:
active: false
licenseTemplateFile: 'license.template'
licenseTemplateIsRegex: false
style:
active: true
MagicNumber:
ignorePropertyDeclaration: true
ignoreAnnotation: true
ignoreEnums: true
ignoreNumbers:
- '-1'
- '0'
- '1'
...

Rules are grouped by ruleset, and you can toggle each rule via
the active key. For instance, the AbsentOrWrongFileLicense
rule is disabled by default as you need to provide a
licenseTemplateFile to enable it.

Incremental Adoption

When running detekt on a big codebase for the first time, you
could be overwhelmed by the number of findings that detekt
reports. Fixing them all at once could be unfeasible, so you
should probably take an incremental approach to adopting
detekt.
You could use the config file to disable some rules. This has the
side effect of also turning off the inspection entirely for newer
code added to your codebase.
A smarter approach is to use a baseline, which is a snapshot
of a detekt run that can be used to suppress a group of inspec-
tions for future runs of detekt. Using a baseline is a two-step
process:
CONTENTS 338

Create the baseline with the detektBaseline task. detekt will

run and then store all its findings in a baseline file in XML
format, with the filename and line of each finding.
You can then subsequently run detekt as usual with the detekt
command. detekt will not report any issues which are listed
in the baseline.
Here is an example of how a baseline file looks for a simple
project with a couple of findings:

<SmellBaseline>
<ManuallySuppressedIssues/>
<CurrentIssues>
<ID>ImplicitUnitReturnType:HelloWorld.kt$Hello$fun
aFunctionWithImplicitUnitReturnType()</ID>
</CurrentIssues>
</SmellBaseline>

Baselines are also common in other static analysers and are

a great tool to incrementally introduce and enable new rules
to your codebase. They can also be useful when dealing with
legacy code or massive codebases contributed to by multiple
developers.

Writing your first detekt Rule

Now that you know the basics of how to use detekt, it’s time to
learn how to write a custom rule to run your own inspection.

Setting up your rule project

To get you up to speed with new detekt rules, you

can use the official template for custom rules:
https://github.com/detekt/detekt-custom-rule-template
This will scaffold a new project for you with all the files
needed to create a new rule. The crucial files to look into are:
src/main/kotlin/org/example/detekt/MyRule.kt - the code of
your rule. This is where your inspection logic will live.
CONTENTS 339

src/main/kotlin/org/example/detekt/MyRuleSetProvider.kt - the
code of your ruleset. In order to be used, your rule needs to
live inside a ruleset, which allows you to add multiple custom
rules and distribute all of them together.
src/main/resources/config/config.yml - the default config file
for your rule. This is used to offer the default configuration
for your rules.
Please note that detekt uses the Java Service Provider API,
so the file inside src/main/resources/META-INF/services is also
needed to properly discover your ruleset. The template also
comes with two tests that can help you write your rule.

Coding your rule

When writing custom rules, the best approach to follow is

Test-driven Development (TDD).
Let’s write a rule that flags usages of System.out.println()
and suggests replacing them with Kotlin’s println(). So, the
following code will flag the first statement but not the second:

fun main() {
// Non compliant
System.out.print("Hello")

// Compliant
println("World!")
}

Let’s open the src/test/kotlin/org/example/detekt/MyRuleTest.kt

and code our intention. A rule test looks as follows:
CONTENTS 340

@KotlinCoreEnvironmentTest
internal class MyRuleTest(
private val env: KotlinCoreEnvironment
) {
@Test
fun `reports usages of System_out_println`() {
val code = """
fun main() {
System.out.println("Hello")
}
""".trimIndent()

val findings = MyRule(Config.empty)

.compileAndLintWithContext(env, code)
findings shouldHaveSize 1
}

@Test
fun `does not report usages Kotlin's println`() {
val code = """
fun main() {
println("Hello")
}
""".trimIndent()

val findings = MyRule(Config.empty)

.compileAndLintWithContext(env, code)
findings shouldHaveSize 0
}
}

This test allows us to follow a declarative approach for our

rule and define all of its requirements. Moreover, it is a great
source of documentation for our rule, as other developers
can immediately see which code triggers this inspection and
which should not.
If we try to run these tests, they will both fail. Let’s open the
MyRule.kt and code our rule.
CONTENTS 341

The MyRule.kt file created by the template looks like this:

class MyRule(config: Config) : Rule(config) {

override val issue = Issue(
javaClass.simpleName,
Severity.CodeSmell,
"Custom Rule",
Debt.FIVE_MINS,
)

override fun visitClass(klass: KtClass) {

// ...
}
}

Let’s walk through the code. We start by extending an exter-

nal class provided by detekt: our rule is a class called MyRule,
which extends detekt’s Rule class. The Config parameter we
pass to the constructor is what we can use to access the con-
figuration file.
Rule is actually an abstract class and requires us to implement
the issue property, which is a representation of the issue this
rule is currently reporting; it contains the error message and
information about the severity of the issue. Each rule can
report one or more of these issues.
detekt performs code quality analysis and allows the Abstract
Syntax Tree to be visited by overriding one of the various
visit* methods. In the template, we implement the visitClass
method that will allow each class declaration to be inspected.
As our rule is designed to inspect expressions, we need to
CONTENTS 342

implement the visitDotQualifiedExpression instead⁵⁷. To im-

plement our rule, we’ll have to implement the method as
follows:

class MyRule(config: Config) : Rule(config) {

override val issue = //...

override fun visitDotQualifiedExpression(

expression: KtDotQualifiedExpression
) {
super.visitDotQualifiedExpression(expression)
if (expression.text.startsWith("System.out.println")) {
report(CodeSmell(
issue,
Entity.from(expression),
"Use Kotlin stdlib's println instead.",
))
}
}
}

This implementation of visitDotQualifiedExpression checks

if the expression starts with System.out.println; if it does, it
reports an issue for it and invokes the report function from
detekt. This also allows you to attach an error message and
information on the relevant line and column.
It’s worth noting that the first statement of visit… is a call
to the superclass implementation of this method. This is
⁵⁷For the sake of brevity, we won’t explain every API
that PSI and detekt expose for running inspections, but
let’s clarify the visitDotQualifiedExpression method. A dot-
qualified expression is, as the name suggests, an expres-
sion which has a dot in it (e.g.., a fully qualified method
call). We’re interested in finding System.out.println calls,
which are not fully qualified method calls (as they would be
java.lang.System.out.println) but they have a dot in them, so
they are treated as dot-qualified expressions in the AST.
CONTENTS 343

needed to make sure we don’t break the visitor pattern and

is generally good practice when using inheritance.
If you try to run all tests again, you will see that they pass the
tests, thus verifying that our rule implementation is correct.
Once you get more experienced with writing rules, you’ll
probably notice how using TDD (Test-driven Development)
is a great approach. You can declare the snippets of code you
wish to be flagged and then code your rule so that all your tests
are green.

Using your rule

Now that you’ve written and tested your rule, the last part is
distributing it and letting others use it.
Your rule should be published to a Maven Repository⁵⁸ and
consumed like any other dependency in a Gradle project,
but you’ll be using a detektPlugin dependency instead of an
implementation dependency.

plugins {
kotlin("jvm") version "..."
id("io.gitlab.arturbosch.detekt") version "..."
}

dependencies {
detektPlugin("org.example:detekt-custom-rule:...")
}

Users will then have to activate your rule in their config file:

⁵⁸You don’t necessarily need to publish to a remote repos-

itory like Maven Central. While testing, you can use Maven
Local, which publishes the rule on your local computer, or
you can use an internal repository for your organization.
CONTENTS 344

...
MyRuleSet:
MyRule:
active: true
...

And they’ll start seeing findings when they run detekt nor-
mally:

$ ./gradlew build

> Task :example:detekt FAILED

/tmp/example/src/main/java/Main.kt:2:11:
Use Kotlin stdlib's println instead. [MyRule]

[...]
BUILD FAILED in 470ms

Rules with type resolution

This is a really simple rule that relies only on syntactic in-

formation as we treat code as just text. It’s a good start and
will cover most use cases, but a more precise way to perform
these inspections would be to have a richer Abstract Syntax
Tree which has type information. The current implementa-
tion does not ensure that the System.out.println you’re invok-
ing comes from the java.lang package and not from another
System class the user created in their project.

To have access to richer Abstract Syntax trees, we would need

to use a more advanced type of rule. These rules rely not on a
single file but on the compile-time information for the entire
project so that they can retrieve type information computed
by the Kotlin compiler for every declaration and identifier.
It’s outside the scope of this book to deep dive into compiler
topics or the PSI API as these are quite extensive and would
probably require their own book to cover in detail.
You can find plenty of examples of more advanced rules in the
detekt codebase, which can be used as a source of inspiration
for your custom rules.
CONTENTS 345

Conclusion

In this chapter, we’ve discovered what static analysers are

and which types of analyses they can perform. We’ve learned
what the differences are between formatters, code quality
analysers, data-flow analysers, and other types of analysers.
The Kotlin ecosystem is bursting with tools which offer all
sorts of capabilities and can be integrated in the vast majority
of projects. Some of these are first-party tools, like the Kotlin
Compiler or IntelliJ IDEA, while others are community con-
tributions, like detekt.
We’ve also learned how you can easily integrate detekt as part
of your project, and how you can use the detekt config file and
the baseline feature to incrementally adopt it in your projects.
But the real power of static analysers comes from their exten-
sibility, which is why this chapter has shown you how to write
your own custom detekt rules.
CONTENTS 346

Ending

Congratulations, you’ve reached the end of this book. I must

say I’m impressed! I was worried that only reviewers and I
would reach this point, but, well, you give me hope for the
future of the programming community. It’s time, though, to
do something with the knowledge you’ve acquired. Maybe
you’ll write a useful library or an amazing application, or
maybe you’ll share this knowledge with others. Whatever you
do, I wish you good luck and a lot of fun.
If you’re thinking about the next book to read, consider Effec-
tive Kotlin, which explains the best practices in Kotlin. Or you
might just take a break from books, you deserve it.
CONTENTS 347

Exercise solutions

Solution: Generic types usage

The failing lines are marked with X:

fun takeIntList(list: List<Int>) {}

takeIntList(listOf<Any>()) X
takeIntList(listOf<Nothing>())

fun takeIntMutableList(list: MutableList<Int>) {}

takeIntMutableList(mutableListOf<Any>()) X
takeIntMutableList(mutableListOf<Nothing>()) X

fun takeAnyList(list: List<Any>) {}

takeAnyList(listOf<Int>())
takeAnyList(listOf<Nothing>())

class BoxOut<out T>

fun takeBoxOutInt(box: BoxOut<Int>) {}
takeBoxOutInt(BoxOut<Int>())
takeBoxOutInt(BoxOut<Number>()) X
takeBoxOutInt(BoxOut<Nothing>())

fun takeBoxOutNumber(box: BoxOut<Number>) {}

takeBoxOutNumber(BoxOut<Int>())
takeBoxOutNumber(BoxOut<Number>())
takeBoxOutNumber(BoxOut<Nothing>())

fun takeBoxOutNothing(box: BoxOut<Nothing>) {}

takeBoxOutNothing(BoxOut<Int>()) X
takeBoxOutNothing(BoxOut<Number>()) X
takeBoxOutNothing(BoxOut<Nothing>())

fun takeBoxOutStar(box: BoxOut<*>) {}

takeBoxOutStar(BoxOut<Int>())
takeBoxOutStar(BoxOut<Number>())
takeBoxOutStar(BoxOut<Nothing>())
CONTENTS 348

class BoxIn<in T>

fun takeBoxInInt(box: BoxIn<Int>) {}
takeBoxInInt(BoxIn<Int>())
takeBoxInInt(BoxIn<Number>())
takeBoxInInt(BoxIn<Nothing>()) X
takeBoxInInt(BoxIn<Any>())

Solution: Generic Response

sealed class Response<out R, out E>

class Success<out R>(val value: R) : Response<R, Nothing>()
class Failure<out E>(val error: E) : Response<Nothing, E>()

Solution: Generic Consumer

abstract class Consumer<in T> {

abstract fun consume(elem: T)
}

class Printer<in T> : Consumer<T>() {

override fun consume(elem: T) {
// ...
}
}

class Sender<in T> : Consumer<T>() {

override fun consume(elem: T) {
// ...
}
}
CONTENTS 349

Solution: ApplicationScope

class ApplicationScope(
private val scope: CoroutineScope,
private val applicationScope: ApplicationControlScope,
private val loggingScope: LoggingScope,
) : CoroutineScope by scope,
ApplicationControlScope by applicationScope,
LoggingScope by loggingScope

Solution: Lateinit delegate

We need to define a class Lateinit with functions getValue and

setValue that will be called when we get or set the property.
We can also make it implement ReadWriteProperty<Any?, T>
interface. Inside of it, we need to store the value. The naive
solution to this problem is using null as a marker for value
not being initialized. This solution will not work correctly for
nullable types.

// Solution that does not work correctly for nullable types

class Lateinit<T>: ReadWriteProperty<Any?, T> {
var value: T? = null

override fun getValue(

thisRef: Any?,
property: KProperty<*>
): T =
value ?: error("... property ${property.name}")

override fun setValue(

thisRef: Any?,
property: KProperty<*>,
value: T
) {
this.value = value
}
}
CONTENTS 350

You should replace “…” with “Uninitialized

lateinit”.

Correct solutions require a different (than null value) way to

keep information about value not being initialized. It can be
another property, a special flag, or an object.

class Lateinit<T>: ReadWriteProperty<Any?, T> {

var value: T? = null
var isInitialized = false

override fun getValue(

thisRef: Any?,
property: KProperty<*>
): T {
if (!isInitialized) {
error("... property ${property.name}" )
}
return value as T
}

override fun setValue(

thisRef: Any?,
property: KProperty<*>,
value: T
) {
this.value = value
this.isInitialized = true
}
}

This solution is not thread safe. If two threads try

to set the value at the same time, it might happen
that one thread will overwrite the value set by the
other thread. To make it thread safe, we can use
synchronized block.
CONTENTS 351

class Lateinit<T>: ReadWriteProperty<Any?, T> {

var value: Any? = NOT_INITIALIZED

override fun getValue(

thisRef: Any?,
property: KProperty<*>
): T {
if (value == NOT_INITIALIZED) {
error("... property ${property.name}" )
}
return value as T
}

override fun setValue(

thisRef: Any?,
property: KProperty<*>,
value: T
) {
this.value = value
}

companion object {
val NOT_INITIALIZED = Any()
}
}

class Lateinit<T> : ReadWriteProperty<Any?, T> {

var value: ValueHolder<T> = NotInitialized

override fun getValue(

thisRef: Any?,
property: KProperty<*>
): T = when (val v = value) {
NotInitialized ->
error("... property ${property.name}" )
is Value -> v.value
}
CONTENTS 352

override fun setValue(

thisRef: Any?,
property: KProperty<*>,
value: T
) {
this.value = Value(value)
}

sealed interface ValueHolder<out T>

class Value<T>(val value: T) : ValueHolder<T>
object NotInitialized : ValueHolder<Nothing>
}

Solution: Blog Post Properties

data class BlogPost(

val title: String,
val content: String,
val author: Author,
) {
// Since this property is needed on average more than
// once per blog post, and it is not expensive to
// calculate, it is best to define it as a value.
val authorName: String =
"${author.name} ${author.surname}"

// Since this property is needed on average more than

// once per blog post, and it is expensive to
// calculate, it is best to define it as a lazy
val wordCount: Int by lazy {
content.split("\\s+").size
}

// Since this property is needed on average less than

// once per blog post, and it is not expensive to
// calculate, it is best to define it as a getter.
val isLongRead: Boolean
get() = content.length > 1000
CONTENTS 353

// Since this property is very expensive to calculate,

// it is best to define it as a lazy
val summary: String by lazy {
generateSummary(content)
}

private fun generateSummary(content: String): String =

content.take(100) + "..."
}

data class Author(

val key: String,
val name: String,
val surname: String,
)

Solution: Mutable lazy delegate

fun <T> mutableLazy(

initializer: () -> T
): ReadWriteProperty<Any?, T> = MutableLazy(initializer)

private class MutableLazy<T>(

private var initializer: (() -> Any?)? = null,
): ReadWriteProperty<Any?, T> {
private var value: Any? = null

override fun getValue(

thisRef: Any?,
property: KProperty<*>
): T {
if (initializer != null) {
value = initializer?.invoke()
initializer = null
}
return value as T
}

override fun setValue(

CONTENTS 354

thisRef: Any?,
property: KProperty<*>,
value: T
) {
this.value = value
this.initializer = null
}
}

This solution lacks thread safety. The simplest way

to make it thread safe is to use synchronized block. A
more efficient solution is to use AtomicReference and
compareAndSet function.

Solution: Coroutine time measurement

@OptIn(ExperimentalContracts::class)
suspend fun measureCoroutine(
body: suspend () -> Unit
): Duration {
contract {
callsInPlace(body, InvocationKind.EXACTLY_ONCE)
}
val dispatcher = coroutineContext[ContinuationInterceptor]
return if (dispatcher is TestDispatcher) {
val before = dispatcher.scheduler.currentTime
body()
val after = dispatcher.scheduler.currentTime
after - before
} else {
measureTimeMillis {
body()
}
}.milliseconds
}
CONTENTS 355

Solution: Adjust Kotlin for Java usage

@file:JvmName("MoneyUtils")
package advanced.java

import java.math.BigDecimal

data class Money @JvmOverloads constructor(

val amount: BigDecimal = BigDecimal.ZERO,
val currency: Currency = Currency.EUR,
) {
companion object {
@JvmStatic
fun eur(amount: String) =
Money(BigDecimal(amount), Currency.EUR)

@JvmStatic
fun usd(amount: String) =
Money(BigDecimal(amount), Currency.USD)

@JvmField
val ZERO_EUR = eur("0.00")
}
}

@JvmName("sumMoney")
fun List<Money>.sum(): Money? {
if (isEmpty()) return null
val currency = this.map { it.currency }.toSet().single()
return Money(
amount = sumOf { it.amount },
currency = currency
)
}

operator fun Money.plus(other: Money): Money {

require(currency == other.currency)
return Money(amount + other.amount, currency)
}
CONTENTS 356

enum class Currency {

EUR, USD
}

Solution: Multiplatform LocalDateTime

Kotlin/JVM code:

import java.time.LocalDateTime as JavaLocalDateTime

actual typealias LocalDateTime = java.time.LocalDateTime

actual fun now(): LocalDateTime = JavaLocalDateTime.now()

actual fun parseLocalDateTime(str: String): LocalDateTime =

JavaLocalDateTime.parse(str)

Kotlin/JS code:

import kotlin.js.Date

actual class LocalDateTime(

val date: Date = Date(),
) {
actual fun getSecond(): Int = date.getSeconds()

actual fun getMinute(): Int = date.getMinutes()

actual fun getHour(): Int = date.getHours()

actual fun plusSeconds(seconds: Long): LocalDateTime =

LocalDateTime(Date(date.getTime() + seconds * 1000))
}

actual fun now(): LocalDateTime = LocalDateTime()

actual fun parseLocalDateTime(str: String): LocalDateTime =

LocalDateTime(Date(Date.parse(str)))
CONTENTS 357

Solution: Migrating a Kotlin/JVM project to KMP

First, you need to transform build.gralde.kts configuration

to Kotlin Multiplatform. You need to change the plugin
“kotlin(“jvm”)” to “kotlin(“multiplatform”)”. Then you need
to configure targets. This is what this configuration might
look like:

plugins {
kotlin("multiplatform") version "1.8.0"
application
}

group = "org.example"
version = "1.0-SNAPSHOT"

repositories {
mavenCentral()
}

kotlin {
jvm {
withJava()
}
js(IR) {
moduleName = "sudoku-generator"
browser()
binaries.library()
}
sourceSets {
val commonMain by getting {
dependencies {
implementation(
"org.jetbrains.kotlinx:kotlinx-coroutines-core:1.6.4")
}
}
val commonTest by getting {
dependencies {
implementation(kotlin("test"))
CONTENTS 358

}
}
val jvmMain by getting
val jvmTest by getting
val jsMain by getting
val jsTest by getting
}
}

Now move all your code from src/main/kotlinto

src/commonMain/kotlin. Then move all your tests from
src/test/kotlin to src/commonTest/kotlin.

In tests, you need to replace test annotations with those from

kotlin-test library.
You need to add src/jsMain/kotlin folder, and create a file
SudokuGeneratorJs.kt in it. It could contain the following code:

@file:OptIn(ExperimentalJsExport::class)

import generator.SudokuGenerator
import solver.SudokuSolver

@JsExport
@JsName("SudokuSolver")
class SudokuSolverJs {
private val generator = SudokuGenerator()
private val solver = SudokuSolver()

fun generateSudoku() = generator

.generate(solver)
.let {
Sudoku(it.solved.toJs(), it.sudoku.toJs())
}
}

@JsExport
class Sudoku(
val solved: Array<Array<Int?>>,
CONTENTS 359

val sudoku: Array<Array<Int?>>

)

fun SudokuState.toJs(): Array<Array<Int?>> = List(9) { row ->

List(9) { col ->
val cell = this.cells[SudokuState.Position(row, col)]
when (cell) {
is SudokuState.CellState.Filled -> cell.value
is SudokuState.CellState.Empty, null -> null
}
}.toTypedArray()
}.toTypedArray()

Solution: Function caller

class FunctionCaller {
private var values: MutableMap<KType, Any?> =
mutableMapOf()

inline fun <reified T> setConstant(value: T) {

setConstant(typeOf<T>(), value)
}

fun setConstant(type: KType, value: Any?) {

values[type] = value
}

fun <T> call(function: KFunction<T>): T {

val args = function.parameters
.filter { param ->
values.containsKey(param.type)
}
.associateWith { param ->
val type = param.type
val value = values[type]
require(param.isOptional || value != null) {
"No value for $type"
}
value
CONTENTS 360

}
return function.callBy(args)
}
}

Solution: Object serialization to JSON

fun serializeToJson(value: Any): String = valueToJson(value)

private fun objectToJson(any: Any): String {

val reference = any::class
val classNameMapper = reference
.findAnnotation<SerializationNameMapper>()
?.let(::createMapper)
val ignoreNulls = reference
.hasAnnotation<SerializationIgnoreNulls>()

return reference
.memberProperties
.filterNot { it.hasAnnotation<SerializationIgnore>()}
.mapNotNull { prop ->
val annotationName = prop
.findAnnotation<SerializationName>()
val mapper = prop
.findAnnotation<SerializationNameMapper>()
?.let(::createMapper)
val name = annotationName?.name
?: mapper?.map(prop.name)
?: classNameMapper?.map(prop.name)
?: prop.name
val value = prop.call(any)
if (ignoreNulls && value == null) {
return@mapNotNull null
}
"\"${name}\": ${valueToJson(value)}"
}
.joinToString(
prefix = "{",
postfix = "}",
CONTENTS 361

)
}

private fun valueToJson(value: Any?): String = when (value) {

null, is Number, is Boolean -> "$value"
is String, is Char, is Enum<*> -> "\"$value\""
is Iterable<*> -> iterableToJson(value)
is Map<*, *> -> mapToJson(value)
else -> objectToJson(value)
}

private fun iterableToJson(any: Iterable<*>): String = any

.joinToString(
prefix = "[",
postfix = "]",
transform = ::valueToJson
)

private fun mapToJson(any: Map<*, *>) = any.toList()

.joinToString(
prefix = "{",
postfix = "}",
transform = {
"\"${it.first}\": ${valueToJson(it.second)}"
}
)

private fun createMapper(

annotation: SerializationNameMapper
): NameMapper =
annotation.mapper.objectInstance
?: createWithNoargConstructor(annotation)
?: error("Cannot create mapper")

private fun createWithNoargConstructor(

annotation: SerializationNameMapper
): NameMapper? =
annotation.mapper
.constructors
CONTENTS 362

.find { it.parameters.isEmpty() }
?.call()

Solution: Object serialization to XML

fun serializeToXml(value: Any): String = valueToXml(value)

private fun objectToXml(any: Any): String {

val reference = any::class
val classNameMapper = reference
.findAnnotation<SerializationNameMapper>()
?.let(::createMapper)
val simpleName = reference.simpleName.orEmpty()
val className = classNameMapper?.map(simpleName)
?: simpleName
val ignoreNulls = reference
.hasAnnotation<SerializationIgnoreNulls>()

return reference
.memberProperties
.filterNot { it.hasAnnotation<SerializationIgnore>()}
.mapNotNull { prop ->
val annotationName = prop
.findAnnotation<SerializationName>()
val mapper = prop
.findAnnotation<SerializationNameMapper>()
?.let(::createMapper)
val name = annotationName?.name
?: mapper?.map(prop.name)
?: classNameMapper?.map(prop.name)
?: prop.name
val value = prop.call(any)
if (ignoreNulls && value == null) {
return@mapNotNull null
}
"<$name>${valueToXml(value)}</$name>"
}
.joinToString(
separator = "",
CONTENTS 363

prefix = "<$className>",
postfix = "</$className>",
)
}

private fun valueToXml(value: Any?): String = when (value) {

null, is Number, is Boolean, is String,
is Char, is Enum<*> -> "$value"
is Iterable<*> -> iterableToJson(value)
is Map<*, *> -> mapToJson(value)
else -> objectToXml(value)
}

private fun iterableToJson(any: Iterable<*>): String = any

.joinToString(
separator = "",
transform = ::valueToXml
)

private fun mapToJson(any: Map<*, *>) = any.toList()

.joinToString(
separator = "",
transform = { (name, value) ->
"<$name>${valueToXml(value)}</$name>"
}
)

private fun createMapper(

annotation: SerializationNameMapper
): NameMapper =
annotation.mapper.objectInstance
?: createWithNoargConstructor(annotation)
?: error("Cannot create mapper")

private fun createWithNoargConstructor(

annotation: SerializationNameMapper
): NameMapper? =
annotation.mapper
.constructors
CONTENTS 364

.find { it.parameters.isEmpty() }
?.call()

Solution: DSL-based dependency injection library

class Registry {
private val creatorsRegistry =
mutableMapOf<KType, () -> Any?>()
private val instances =
mutableMapOf<KType, Any?>()

inline fun <reified T> singleton(

noinline creator: Registry.() -> T
) {
singleton(typeOf<T>(), creator)
}

fun singleton(type: KType, creator: Registry.() -> Any?){

creatorsRegistry[type] = {
instances.getOrPut(type) { creator.invoke(this) }
}
}

inline fun <reified T> register(

noinline creator: Registry.() -> T
) {
register(typeOf<T>(), creator)
}

fun register(type: KType, creator: Registry.() -> Any?) {

creatorsRegistry[type] = { creator(this) }
}

inline fun <reified T> get(): T = get(typeOf<T>()) as T

fun get(key: KType): Any? {

require(exists(key)) { "The $key not in registry." }
return creatorsRegistry[key]?.invoke()
}
CONTENTS 365

fun exists(key: KType) =

creatorsRegistry.containsKey(key)

inline fun <reified T> exists(): Boolean =

exists(typeOf<T>())
}

fun registry(init: Registry.() -> Unit) = Registry()

.apply(init)