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Undergraduate Topics in Computer Science

John Hunt

Advanced Guide
to Python 3
Programming
Undergraduate Topics in Computer Science

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John Hunt

Advanced Guide to Python 3

Programming

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John Hunt
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Midmarsh Technology Ltd.
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Undergraduate Topics in Computer Science
ISBN 978-3-030-25942-6 ISBN 978-3-030-25943-3 (eBook)
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© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019
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book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained
herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard
to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
For Denise, my wife.
Preface

Some of the key aspects of this book are:

1. It assumes knowledge of Python 3 and of concepts such as functions, classes,
protocols, Abstract Base Classes, decorators, iterables, collection types (such as
List and Tuple) etc.
2. However, the book assumes very little knowledge or experience of the topics
presented.
3. The book is divided into eight topic areas; Computer graphics, Games, Testing,
File Input/Output, Database Access, Logging, Concurrency and Parallelism and
Network Programming.
4. Each topic in the book has an introductory chapter followed by chapters that
delve into that topic.
5. The book includes exercises at the end of most chapters.
6. All code examples (and exercise solutions) are provided on line in a GitHub
repository.

Chapter Organisation

Each chapter has a brief introduction, the main body of the chapter, followed by a
list of online references that can be used for further reading.
Following this there is typically an Exercises section that lists one or more
exercises that build on the skills you will have learnt in that chapter.
Sample solutions to the exercises are available in a GitHub repository that
supports this book.

vii
viii Preface

What You Need

You can of course just read this book; however following the examples in this book
will ensure that you get as much as possible out of the content.
For this you will need a computer.
Python is a cross platform programming language and as such you can use Python
on a Windows PC, a Linux Box or an Apple Mac etc. This means that you are not tied
to a particular type of operating system; you can use whatever you have available.
However you will need to install some software on your computer. At a mini-
mum you will need Python. The focus of this book is Python 3 so that is the version
that is assumed for all examples and exercises. As Python is available for a wide
range of platforms from Windows, to Mac OS and Linux; you will need to ensure
that you download the version for your operating system.
Python can be downloaded from the main Python web site which can be found at
http://www.python.org.

You will also need some form of editor in which to write your programs. There
are numerous generic programming editors available for different operating systems
with VIM on Linux, Notepad++ on Windows and Sublime Text on Windows and
Macs being popular choices.
Preface ix

However, using a IDE (Integrated Development Environment) editor such as

PyCharm can make writing and running your programs much easier.
However, this book doesn’t assume any particular editor, IDE or environment
(other than Python 3 itself).

Python Versions

Currently there are two main versions of Python called Python 2 and Python 3.
• Python 2 was launched in October 2000 and has been, and still is, very widely used.
• Python 3 was launched in December 2008 and is a major revision to the lan-
guage that is not backward compatible.
The issues between the two versions can be highlighted by the simple print
facility:
• In Python 2 this is written as print ‘Hello World’
• In Python 3 this is written as print (‘Hello World’)
It may not look like much of a difference but the inclusion of the ‘()’ marks a
major change and means that any code written for one version of Python will
probably not run on the other version. There are tools available, such as the 2to3
utility, that will (partially) automate translation from Python 2 to Python 3 but in
general you are still left with significant work to do.
This then raises the question which version to use?
Although interest in Python 3 is steadily increasing there are many organisations
that are still using Python 2. Choosing which version to use is a constant concern
for many companies.
However, the Python 2 end of life plan was initially announced back in 2015 and
although it has been postponed to 2020 out of concern that a large body of existing
code could not easily be forward-ported to Python 3, it is still living on borrowed
time. Python 3 is the future of the Python language and it is this version that has
introduced many of the new and improved language and library features (that have
admittedly been back ported to Python 2 in many cases). This book is solely
focussed on Python 3.

Useful Python Resources

There are a wide range of resources on the web for Python; we will highlight a few
here that you should bookmark. We will not keep referring to these to avoid
repetition but you can refer back to this section whenever you need to:
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_Software_Foundation Python Software
Foundation.
x Preface

• https://docs.python.org/3/ The main Python 3 documentation site. It contains

tutorials, library references, set up and installation guides as well as Python
how-tos.
• https://docs.python.org/3/library/index.html A list of all the builtin features for
the Python language—this is where you can find online documentation for the
various class and functions that we will be using throughout this book.
• https://pymotw.com/3/ the Python 3 Module of the week site. This site contains
many, many Python modules with short examples and explanations of what the
modules do. A Python module is a library of features that build on and expand
the core Python language. For example, if you are interested in building games
using Python then pygame is a module specifically designed to make this easier.
• https://www.fullstackpython.com/email.html is a monthly newsletter that
focusses on a single Python topic each month, such as a new library or module.
• http://www.pythonweekly.com/ is a free weekly summary of the latest Python
articles, projects, videos and upcoming events.
Each section of the book will provide additional online references relevant to the
topic being discussed.

Conventions

Throughout this book you will find a number of conventions used for text styles.
These text styles distinguish between different kinds of information.
Code words, variable and Python values, used within the main body of the text,
are shown using a Courier font. For example:

This program creates a top level window (the wx.Frame) and gives it a title. It also creates
a label (a wx.StaticText object) to be displayed within the frame.

In the above paragraph wx.Frame and wx.StaticText are classes available in a

Python graphical user interface library.
A block of Python code is set out as shown here:
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Preface xi

Note that keywords are shown in bold font.

In some cases something of particular interest may be highlighted with colour:

Any command line or user input is shown in italics and coloured purple; for
example:

Or

Example Code and Sample Solutions

The examples used in this book (along with sample solutions for the exercises at the
end of most chapters) are available in a GitHub repository. GitHub provides a web
interface to Git, as well as a server environment hosting Git.
Git is a version control system typically used to manage source code files (such
as those used to create systems in programming languages such as Python but also
Java, C#, C++, Scala etc.). Systems such as Git are very useful for collaborative
development as they allow multiple people to work on an implementation and to
merge their work together. They also provide a useful historical view of the code
(which also allows developers to roll back changes if modifications prove to be
unsuitable).
If you already have Git installed on your computer then you can clone (obtain a
copy of) the repository locally using:
xii Preface

If you do not have Git then you can obtain a zip file of the examples using

You can of course install Git yourself if you wish. To do this see https://git-scm.
com/downloads. Versions of the Git client for Mac OS, Windows and Linux/Unix
are available here.
However, many IDEs such as PyCharm come with Git support and so offer
another approach to obtaining a Git repository.
For more information on Git see http://git-scm.com/doc. This Git guide provides
a very good primer and is highly recommended.

Acknowledgements I would like to thank Phoebe Hunt for creating the pixel images used for the
StarshipMeteors game in Chap. 8.
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Part I Computer Graphics

2 Introduction to Computer Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 The Graphical Computer Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.4 Interactive and Non Interactive Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.5 Pixels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.6 Bit Map Versus Vector Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.7 Buffering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.8 Python and Computer Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.10 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3 Python Turtle Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2 The Turtle Graphics Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2.1 The Turtle Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2.2 Basic Turtle Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2.3 Drawing Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2.4 Filling Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.3 Other Graphics Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.4 3D Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.4.1 PyOpenGL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.5 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

xiii
xiv Contents

4 Computer Generated Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

4.1 Creating Computer Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.2 A Computer Art Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.3 Fractals in Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.3.1 The Koch Snowflake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.3.2 Mandelbrot Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.4 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5 Introduction to Matplotlib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.2 Matplotlib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.3 Plot Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.4 Matplotlib Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.4.1 Backend Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.4.2 The Artist Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.4.3 The Scripting Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.5 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6 Graphing with Matplotlib pyplot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.2 The pyplot API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.3 Line Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.3.1 Coded Format Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.4 Scatter Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.4.1 When to Use Scatter Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.5 Pie Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.5.1 Expanding Segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.5.2 When to Use Pie Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.6 Bar Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.6.1 Horizontal Bar Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.6.2 Coloured Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.6.3 Stacked Bar Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.6.4 Grouped Bar Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.7 Figures and Subplots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.8 3D Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
7 Graphical User Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.2 GUIs and WIMPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Contents xv

7.3 Windowing Frameworks for Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

7.3.1 Platform-Independent GUI Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7.3.2 Platform-Specific GUI Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7.4 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8 The wxPython GUI Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
8.1 The wxPython Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
8.1.1 wxPython Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
8.1.2 Windows as Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
8.1.3 A Simple Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
8.2 The wx.App Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
8.3 Window Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
8.4 Widget/Control Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
8.5 Dialogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
8.6 Arranging Widgets Within a Container . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
8.7 Drawing Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
8.8 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
8.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
8.9.1 Simple GUI Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
9 Events in wxPython User Interfaces . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
9.1 Event Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
9.2 Event Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
9.3 Types of Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
9.4 Binding an Event to an Event Handler . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
9.5 Implementing Event Handling . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
9.6 An Interactive wxPython GUI . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
9.7 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
9.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
9.8.1 Simple GUI Application . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
9.8.2 GUI Interface to a Tic Tac Toe Game . . . . . . . . . . . 98
10 PyDraw wxPython Example Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
10.2 The PyDraw Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
10.3 The Structure of the Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
10.3.1 Model, View and Controller Architecture . . . . . . . . . 101
10.3.2 PyDraw MVC Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
10.3.3 Additional Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
10.3.4 Object Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
10.4 The Interactions Between Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
10.4.1 The PyDrawApp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
10.4.2 The PyDrawFrame Constructor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
xvi Contents

10.4.3 Changing the Application Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

10.4.4 Adding a Graphic Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
10.5 The Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
10.5.1 The PyDrawConstants Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
10.5.2 The PyDrawFrame Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
10.5.3 The PyDrawMenuBar Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
10.5.4 The PyDrawToolBar Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
10.5.5 The PyDrawController Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
10.5.6 The DrawingModel Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
10.5.7 The DrawingPanel Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
10.5.8 The DrawingController Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
10.5.9 The Figure Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
10.5.10 The Square Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
10.5.11 The Circle Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
10.5.12 The Line Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
10.5.13 The Text Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
10.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
10.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Part II Computer Games

11 Introduction to Games Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
11.2 Games Frameworks and Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
11.3 Python Games Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
11.4 Using Pygame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
11.5 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
12 Building Games with pygame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
12.2 The Display Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
12.3 Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
12.3.1 Event Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
12.3.2 Event Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
12.3.3 The Event Queue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
12.4 A First pygame Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
12.5 Further Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
12.6 A More Interactive pygame Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
12.7 Alternative Approach to Processing Input Devices . . . . . . . . . 138
12.8 pygame Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
12.9 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
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13 StarshipMeteors pygame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

13.1 Creating a Spaceship Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
13.2 The Main Game Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
13.3 The GameObject Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
13.4 Displaying the Starship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
13.5 Moving the Spaceship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
13.6 Adding a Meteor Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
13.7 Moving the Meteors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
13.8 Identifying a Collision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
13.9 Identifying a Win . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
13.10 Increasing the Number of Meteors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
13.11 Pausing the Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
13.12 Displaying the Game Over Message . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
13.13 The StarshipMeteors Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
13.14 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
13.15 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

Part III Testing

14 Introduction to Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
14.2 Types of Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
14.3 What Should Be Tested? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
14.4 Testing Software Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
14.4.1 Unit Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
14.4.2 Integration Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
14.4.3 System Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
14.4.4 Installation/Upgrade Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
14.4.5 Smoke Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
14.5 Automating Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
14.6 Test Driven Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
14.6.1 The TDD Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
14.6.2 Test Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
14.6.3 Refactoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
14.7 Design for Testability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
14.7.1 Testability Rules of Thumb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
14.8 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
14.9 Book Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
15 PyTest Testing Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
15.2 What Is PyTest? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
15.3 Setting Up PyTest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
15.4 A Simple PyTest Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
xviii Contents

15.5 Working with PyTest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

15.6 Parameterised Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
15.7 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
15.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
16 Mocking for Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
16.2 Why Mock? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
16.3 What Is Mocking? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
16.4 Common Mocking Framework Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
16.5 Mocking Frameworks for Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
16.6 The unittest.mock Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
16.6.1 Mock and Magic Mock Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
16.6.2 The Patchers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
16.6.3 Mocking Returned Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
16.6.4 Validating Mocks Have Been Called . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
16.7 Mock and MagicMock Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
16.7.1 Naming Your Mocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
16.7.2 Mock Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
16.7.3 Attributes on Mock Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
16.7.4 Mocking Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
16.7.5 Mocking Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
16.7.6 Raising Exceptions with Mocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
16.7.7 Applying Patch to Every Test Method . . . . . . . . . . . 200
16.7.8 Using Patch as a Context Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
16.8 Mock Where You Use It . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
16.9 Patch Order Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
16.10 How Many Mocks? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
16.11 Mocking Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
16.12 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
16.13 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

Part IV File Input/Output

17 Introduction to Files, Paths and IO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
17.2 File Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
17.3 Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
17.4 File Input/Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
17.5 Sequential Access Versus Random Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
17.6 Files and I/O in Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
17.7 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Contents xix

18 Reading and Writing Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
18.2 Obtaining References to Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
18.3 Reading Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
18.4 File Contents Iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
18.5 Writing Data to Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
18.6 Using Files and with Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
18.7 The Fileinput Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
18.8 Renaming Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
18.9 Deleting Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
18.10 Random Access Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
18.11 Directories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
18.12 Temporary Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
18.13 Working with Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
18.14 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
18.15 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
19 Stream IO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
19.2 What is a Stream? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
19.3 Python Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
19.4 IOBase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
19.5 Raw IO/UnBuffered IO Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
19.6 Binary IO/Buffered IO Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
19.7 Text Stream Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
19.8 Stream Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
19.9 Closing Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
19.10 Returning to the open() Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
19.11 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
19.12 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
20 Working with CSV Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
20.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
20.2 CSV Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
20.2.1 The CSV Writer Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
20.2.2 The CSV Reader Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
20.2.3 The CSV DictWriter Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
20.2.4 The CSV DictReader Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
20.3 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
20.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
21 Working with Excel Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
21.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
21.2 Excel Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
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21.3 The Openpyxl. Workbook Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

21.4 The Openpyxl. WorkSheet Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
21.5 Working with Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
21.6 Sample Excel File Creation Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
21.7 Loading a Workbook from an Excel File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
21.8 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
21.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
22 Regular Expressions in Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
22.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
22.2 What Are Regular Expressions? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
22.3 Regular Expression Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
22.3.1 Pattern Metacharacters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
22.3.2 Special Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
22.3.3 Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
22.4 The Python re Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
22.5 Working with Python Regular Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
22.5.1 Using Raw Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
22.5.2 Simple Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
22.5.3 The Match Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
22.5.4 The search() Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
22.5.5 The match() Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
22.5.6 The Difference Between Matching and Searching . . . 265
22.5.7 The findall() Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
22.5.8 The finditer() Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
22.5.9 The split() Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
22.5.10 The sub() Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
22.5.11 The compile() Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
22.6 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
22.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

Part V Database Access

23 Introduction to Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
23.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
23.2 What Is a Database? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
23.2.1 Data Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
23.2.2 The Database Schema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
23.3 SQL and Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
23.4 Data Manipulation Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
23.5 Transactions in Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
23.6 Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
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Contents xxi

24 Python DB-API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

24.1 Accessing a Database from Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
24.2 The DB-API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
24.2.1 The Connect Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
24.2.2 The Connection Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
24.2.3 The Cursor Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
24.2.4 Mappings from Database Types to Python Types . . . 286
24.2.5 Generating Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
24.2.6 Row Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
24.3 Transactions in PyMySQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
24.4 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
25 PyMySQL Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
25.1 The PyMySQL Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
25.2 Working with the PyMySQL Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
25.2.1 Importing the Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
25.2.2 Connect to the Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
25.2.3 Obtaining the Cursor Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
25.2.4 Using the Cursor Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
25.2.5 Obtaining Information About the Results . . . . . . . . . 294
25.2.6 Fetching Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
25.2.7 Close the Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
25.3 Complete PyMySQL Query Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
25.4 Inserting Data to the Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
25.5 Updating Data in the Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
25.6 Deleting Data in the Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
25.7 Creating Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
25.8 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
25.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

Part VI Logging
26 Introduction to Logging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
26.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
26.2 Why Log? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
26.3 What Is the Purpose of Logging? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
26.4 What Should You Log? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
26.5 What Not to Log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
26.6 Why Not Just Use Print? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
26.7 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
27 Logging in Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
27.1 The Logging Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
27.2 The Logger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
xxii Contents

27.3 Controlling the Amount of Information Logged . . . . . . . . . . . 313

27.4 Logger Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
27.5 Default Logger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
27.6 Module Level Loggers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
27.7 Logger Hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
27.8 Formatters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
27.8.1 Formatting Log Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
27.8.2 Formatting Log Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
27.9 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
27.10 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
28 Advanced Logging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
28.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
28.2 Handlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
28.2.1 Setting the Root Output Handler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
28.2.2 Programmatically Setting the Handler . . . . . . . . . . . 326
28.2.3 Multiple Handlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
28.3 Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
28.4 Logger Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
28.5 Performance Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
28.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334

Part VII Concurrency and Parallelism

29 Introduction to Concurrency and Parallelism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
29.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
29.2 Concurrency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
29.3 Parallelism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
29.4 Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
29.5 Grid Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
29.6 Concurrency and Synchronisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
29.7 Object Orientation and Concurrency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
29.8 Threads V Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
29.9 Some Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
29.10 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
30 Threading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
30.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
30.2 Threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
30.3 Thread States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
30.4 Creating a Thread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
30.5 Instantiating the Thread Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
30.6 The Thread Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Contents xxiii

30.7 The Threading Module Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352

30.8 Passing Arguments to a Thread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
30.9 Extending the Thread Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
30.10 Daemon Threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
30.11 Naming Threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
30.12 Thread Local Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
30.13 Timers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
30.14 The Global Interpreter Lock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
30.15 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
30.16 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
31 Multiprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
31.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
31.2 The Process Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
31.3 Working with the Process Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
31.4 Alternative Ways to Start a Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
31.5 Using a Pool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
31.6 Exchanging Data Between Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
31.7 Sharing State Between Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
31.7.1 Process Shared Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
31.8 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
31.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
32 Inter Thread/Process Synchronisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
32.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
32.2 Using a Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
32.3 Event Signalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
32.4 Synchronising Concurrent Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
32.5 Python Locks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
32.6 Python Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
32.7 Python Semaphores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
32.8 The Concurrent Queue Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
32.9 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
32.10 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
33 Futures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
33.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
33.2 The Need for a Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
33.3 Futures in Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
33.3.1 Future Creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
33.3.2 Simple Example Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
33.4 Running Multiple Futures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
33.4.1 Waiting for All Futures to Complete . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
33.4.2 Processing Results as Completed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
xxiv Contents

33.5 Processing Future Results Using a Callback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403

33.6 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
33.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
34 Concurrency with AsyncIO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
34.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
34.2 Asynchronous IO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
34.3 Async IO Event Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
34.4 The Async and Await Keywords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
34.4.1 Using Async and Await . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
34.5 Async IO Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
34.6 Running Multiple Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
34.6.1 Collating Results from Multiple Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . 414
34.6.2 Handling Task Results as They Are Made
Available . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
34.7 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
34.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417

Part VIII Reactive Programming

35 Reactive Programming Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
35.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
35.2 What Is a Reactive Application? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
35.3 The ReactiveX Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
35.4 The Observer Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
35.5 Hot and Cold Observables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
35.5.1 Cold Observables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
35.5.2 Hot Observables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
35.5.3 Implications of Hot and Cold Observables . . . . . . . . 424
35.6 Differences Between Event Driven Programming and
Reactive Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
35.7 Advantages of Reactive Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
35.8 Disadvantages of Reactive Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
35.9 The RxPy Reactive Programming Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
35.10 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
35.11 Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
36 RxPy Observables, Observers and Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
36.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
36.2 Observables in RxPy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
36.3 Observers in RxPy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
36.4 Multiple Subscribers/Observers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
36.5 Subjects in RxPy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Contents xxv

36.6 Observer Concurrency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435

36.6.1 Available Schedulers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
36.7 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
36.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
37 RxPy Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
37.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
37.2 Reactive Programming Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
37.3 Piping Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
37.4 Creational Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
37.5 Transformational Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
37.6 Combinatorial Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
37.7 Filtering Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
37.8 Mathematical Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
37.9 Chaining Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
37.10 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
37.11 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448

Part IX Network Programming

38 Introduction to Sockets and Web Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
38.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
38.2 Sockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
38.3 Web Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
38.4 Addressing Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
38.5 Localhost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
38.6 Port Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
38.7 IPv4 Versus IPv6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
38.8 Sockets and Web Services in Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
38.9 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
39 Sockets in Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
39.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
39.2 Socket to Socket Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
39.3 Setting Up a Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
39.4 An Example Client Server Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
39.4.1 The System Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
39.4.2 Implementing the Server Application . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
39.5 Socket Types and Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
39.6 Implementing the Client Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
39.7 The Socketserver Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
39.8 HTTP Server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
39.9 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
39.10 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
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