UNIVERSITE DE LOME ANNEE ACADEMIQUE : 2023-2024

FACULTE DES SCIENCES DE SANTE

DEPARTEMENT DE LA MEDECINE

MEDICAL ENGLISH
SEMESTER 4

Dr Avafia KPOBLAHOUN

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 Tables of contents

Text 1. Sir Alexander Fleming and exercises Pg 3

Text 2. Doctors and exercises Pg. 5

Text 3. What are good bacteria and exercises Pg. 8

Text 4. Additional units and services and exercises Pg. 11

Text 5. Blood Plasma Pg. 13

Text 6. Bacteriology Pg. 15

Text 7. Immunology Pg. 17

Text 8. Antibiotic susceptibility testing Pg. 19

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Text 1: Sir Alexander Fleming (1881-1955)

Alexander Fleming was a British bacteriologist and Nobel laureate. He is known for his discovery of the
antibiotic, penicillin. He was born near Darvel, Scotland, and educated at Saint Mary's Hospital Medical
School of the University of London. He served as professor of bacteriology at St. Mary's Hospital
Medical School from 1928 to 1948.

Fleming conducted research in bacteriology, chemotherapy, and immunology. In 1922 he discovered

lysozyme, an antiseptic found in tears, body secretions, albumen (egg white), and certain fish plants.
His discovery of penicillin came about accidentally in 1928 while researching on influenza. He observed
that the mold in one of his culture plates had destroyed the bacteria. This observation helped him
develop penicillin therapy. Penicillin is an antibiotic derived from the fungus Penicillium. It can also be
created by using artificial processes.

It took Alexander Fleming another ten years before penicillin was concentrated. It was studied by
German-British biochemist Ernst Chain, Australian pathologist Sir Howard Florey, and other scientists.

In 1945 he shared the Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine with German-British biochemist Ernst
Boris Chain and Australian pathologist Howard Walter Florey for their contributions to the
development of penicillin.

Comprehension Questions:

1. Where was Alexander Flemming from? 2. Where did Alexander Fleming study?

3. What did he discover? 4. What did he teach in St. Mary's Hospital Medical School?

5. When did he teach in St. Mary's Hospital Medical School?

6. What did he conduct research in? 7. What is lysozyme?

8. What was he doing when he accidentally discovered penicillin?

9. What did the mold do to the bacteria? 10. Where does penicillin come from?

11. How long did Fleming take to make concentrated penicillin?

12. Who were the two scientists who helped him develop penicillin?

13. What award did they receive?

Exercise

The following quotes have been removed from the passage below. Decide where each of them
should be fitted

A. can live only in association with a host B. which live inside the body are termed

C. Parasites that cause harm to the host are pathogenic D. living on or within another organism

Parasitology

Parasites are organisms that obtain food and shelter by …1… The parasite derives all benefits from
association and the host may either not be harmed or may suffer the consequences of this association,
a parasite disease. The parasite is termed obligate when it …2… or it is classified as facultative when it

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can live both in or on a host as well as in a free form. Parasites …3… endoparasites whereas those
which exist on the body surface are called ectoparasites. …4… parasites while those that benefit from
the host without causing it any harm are known as commensals. Diseases caused by these organisms
include amebic dysentary, sleeping sickness, malaria, river-blindness and elephantiasis.

Questions: 1. What is a parasite? 2. When is a parasite termed obligate? 3. How are parasites which
live inside a body called? What about those living on the body surface?

4. What is a pathogenic parasite? 5. Give some illnesses caused by parasites.

Exercise

The words in this list are all verbs. What are the noun forms? Write them in the second column. The
first one has been done for you as an example.

1. diagnose - diagnosis

2. examine ______________

3. prescribe ______________

4. suffer ______________

5. operate ______________

6. cure ______________

7. recover ______________

8. analyse ________________

9. infect ______________

10. carry ______________

11. replace ______________

12. degenerate ______________

13. refer ______________

14. paralyse ______________

15. obstruct ______________

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Text 2: Doctors

The doctors of medicine or physician, is the most familiar professional working in the health field. Most
people turn to a doctor for advice when they are sick or injured. It is the doctor’s responsibility to
diagnose the patient’s illness or other ailment and propose treatment.

A doctor’s profession provides many rewards but the physician must be willing to accept the
responsibility of making life-and-death decisions. Doctors are also very busy. They sacrifice much of
their privacy in order to be on call. Illness does not wait until office hours to strike.

In the United States, to become a licensed physician it is necessary to complete at least four years of
undergraduate studies and four years of training in medical school, including the study of such subjects
such as anatomy, biochemistry, pathology and histology. Following this training, the M.D. degree is
awarded. The physician then becomes an intern in an accredited hospital for one year. The intern
rotates throughout the various medical departments in the hospital to become familiar with all aspects
of the medical profession.

A doctor who chooses to become a general practitioner may seek to become licensed to practice at
the end of this period of internship. In the United States, each state sets certain standards which a
doctor must meet before being allowed to treat patients in that state. This is done in order to
discourage persons, known as quacks, who pretends to be professionally qualified without actually
having the proper training and knowledge.

A doctor who opens a general practice treats patients with variety of medical problems. One day he or
she may deliver a baby and the next morning set a broken leg. He or she may have one patient with
heart disease and another who suffers from diabetics. General practitioners often work in small towns
where they provide all the medical services, even making house calls to see sick patients. They may
also work on the staff of a hospital in the department of general medicine.

Comprehension Questions: 1. Whom do most people turn to for advice when they are sick? 2. Why
is so much dedication demanded from a doctor? 3. Who specializes in the treatment of children? 4.
Describe the training needed to become a doctor? What are some of the subjects studied? What is
meant by internship? 5. What is the difference between a licensed doctor and a quack? 6. If you
were a general practitioner, what kinds of patients would you see?

Exercise

Match each of the medical specialties in the left column with the part of the body or the problem
treated in the right column.

1. Ophthalmology

2. Dermatology

3. Orthopedic surgery

4. Cardiology

5. Gynecology

6. Pediatrics

7. Dentistry

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8. Psychiatry

9. Endocrinology

10. Pathology

a. skin

b. children

c. glands

d. bones

e. eyes

f. heart

g. mind

h. teeth

i. disease

j. female genitalia

Exercise

First, check your answers to the exercise above. Then rewrite the sentences below, changing the verbs
(which are in bold) to nouns. Do not change the meaning of the sentences, but be prepared to make
grammatical changes if necessary. The first one has been done for you as an example.

1. I diagnosed that the patient had a heart condition.

My diagnosis was that the patient had a heart condition.

2. I examined the patient fully.

I made a full _____________

3. I prescribed a course of antibiotics.

I wrote a ____________

4. He suffered very little.

He experienced very little ________

5. We operated immediately.

The _________________

6. This disease cannot be cured.

There is no _______________

7. He has recovered fully.

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He has made a full __________

8. The lab analysed the blood sample.

The lab made an ________________

9. We found that the tissue was infected.

We found an ____________________

10. Ten per cent of the population are thought to carry the bacteria.

Ten per cent of the population are thought to be __________

11. We replaced the patient's hip.

The patient was given a hip _______________

12. His condition has degenerated.

There has been a _________________

13. The patient was referred to a specialist.

The patient was given a _______________

14. His arm was paralysed after the stroke.

He suffered _____________________

15. The artery was obstructed by a blood clot.

The blood clot was forming an ______________

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Text 3: What are Good Bacteria?

More than 400 types of bacteria live in the human digestive system. Many of these bacteria types are
good bacteria — they help the digestive system to do its job. Beneficial bacteria, like acidophilus and
bifidobacterium, may also prevent disease by making an unfavorable environment for less desirable
bacteria.

Good bacteria can do several things to promote health. It helps to break down plant starches and other
foods that the human body has difficulty digesting. This allows the body to convert more food into
energy. Beneficial bacteria also help the body to turn extra calories into fat. This may lead to the idea
that a person's inclination towards obesity may be partially due to the type of bacteria in his or her
digestive tract.

The human body does not make vitamin K by itself. Bacteria create this, and other essential vitamins,
as by-products of the food and other digestive materials they ingest. They also help our bodies to break
down drugs and carcinogens, which can cause cancer. This is not the only way that bacteria help to
prevent cancer, however. They also help the walls of the digestive tract to renew themselves. This
regular renewal gets rid of damaged cells that could lead to cancer.

Although good bacteria find their way into the human digestive system naturally, they don't always
remain there. Antibiotics, used for treating illnesses, wipe almost all of the bacteria out of the body,
not just the bad stuff. A stomach virus can also drastically reduce the amount of bacterium in the
digestive system. The body will build up its supply of good bacteria naturally, but it is also possible to
introduce the bacteria through probiotics.

Probiotics are available as nutritional supplements. They are also in yogurt, infants' formula, and some
other foods. They are a substance that contains live bacteria, most commonly lactobacillus. When the
foods are ingested, the bacteria are deposited into the digestive tract. Probiotics are most beneficial
when they are found in yogurt and other products that are kept cold. Heat, too much or too little
moisture, or oxygen may destroy active bacteria cultures, making the product less effective.

Good bacteria are essential for good health. They can help to prevent cancer and stomach bugs, and
increase digestive times. There have even been studies that prove that regularly consuming probiotics
can reduce a person's risk for developing the common cold and respiratory illnesses. Research is being
aimed at the possibility of developing probiotics to target specific diseases in the future, perhaps even
a cure for the common cold.

Comprehension Questions:

1. What use are good bacteria? 2. Describe some of the functions of beneficial bacteria.

3. Does the human body create vitamin K? 4. How can bacteria help human body prevent cancer?
5. How are bacteria introduced in the human body? 6. What can destroy active bacteria culture?
7. Why is it important to consume regularly probiotics?

Exercise

The following quotes have been removed from the passage below. Decide where each of them
should be fitted: A. the normal flora B. brain, muscle

C. the most numerous and obvious microbial components D. one per cent of the total species
found have E. are constantly in contact with environmental organisms

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The Normal Bacterial Flora of Humans

In a healthy animal, the internal tissues, e.g. blood, …1…, etc., are normally free of microorganisms.
However, the surface tissues, i.e., skin and mucous membranes, …2… and become readily colonized by
various microbial species. The mixture of organisms regularly found at any anatomical site is referred
to as …3…, except by researchers in the field who prefer the term "indigenous microbiota". The normal
flora of humans consists of a few eucaryotic fungi and protists, but bacteria are …4… of the normal
flora. A recent experiment that used 16S RNA probes to survey the diversity of bacteria in dental plaque
revealed that only …5… ever been cultivated. Similar observations have been made with the intestinal
flora.

Exercise

There are 20 nouns connected with medicine below. Use them to complete the sentences - in some
cases you will need to make them plural. The first one has been done for you as an example.

accident allergy ambulance biopsy consent course examination excess exercise

injection intake overdose paroxysm progress rash recurrence surgery tendency
treatment vaccination

1. He developed an allergy to penicillin.

2. He suffered _______________ of coughing in the night.

3. She went into a coma after an _______________ of heroin.

4. The patient will need plastic _______________ to remove the scars he received in the accident.

5. She took a _______________ of steroid treatment.

6. He had a _______________ of a fever which he had caught in the tropics.

7. There is a _______________ to obesity in her family.

8. From the _______________ of the X-ray photographs, it seems that the tumour has not spread.

9. The doctor gave him an _______________ to relieve the pain.

10. He doesn't take enough _______________: that's why he's fat.

11. The injured man was taken away in an _______________.

12. She was advised to reduce her _______________ of sugar.

13. The _______________ of the tissue from the growth showed that it was benign.

14. The parents gave their _______________ for their son's heart to be used in the transplant
operation.

15. The doctors seem pleased that she has made such good _______________ since her operation.

16. This is a new _______________ for heart disease.

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17. Her body could not cope with an _______________ of blood sugar.

18. Three people were injured in the _______________ on the motorway.

19. _______________ is mainly given against cholera, diphtheria, rabies, smallpox, tuberculosis and

typhoid.

20. She had a high temperature and then broke out in a _______________

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Text 4: Additional units and services

A hospital cannot function without physicians and nurses to provide medical care. An extensive
administrative and institutional staff is also necessary to run the hospital. But this is still not enough.
Other staff members and facilities must be available to support the medical staff. The anaesthesiologist
or anaesthetist prepares patients for surgery by making them insensitive to pain. The radiologist or x-
ray technician takes x-rays and interprets them. A staff of laboratory technicians analyses specimens
of blood, urine, and tissues taken from patients. A pharmacist prepares medication and dispenses it
from the hospital pharmacy. Some of these services and others like them are called paramedical
because they require some medical training. Those people who provide administrative and
institutional services do not need medical training.

An anaesthesiologist is trained in the administration of anaesthetics, which are drugs or gases that
render a patient insensitive to pain. There are two kinds of anaesthesia. One is general, affecting the
entire body; the other is local, temporarily deadening just the relevant area. Anaesthetics are used
most commonly in the operating room. Until recently, the surgeon used to administer the drug or gas
himself. But the science of anaesthesia is very complex, so an anaesthesiologist or anaesthetist is
nearly always required today. An anaesthetist is not a medical doctor, but he must be trained in his
specialty and licensed before he can be hired. This is true of all of the paramedical technician.

A hospital’s department of radiology or x-ray department is supervised by a radiologist. With the

assistance of paramedical x-ray technicians, bones and inner organs of the human body are
photographed. This technique is extremely helpful in diagnosis. The x-ray can also be used
therapeutically. However, x-rays are extremely potent, and people must be exposed to them too often
or for too long. Everyone who works closely with them must take precautions to avoid overexposure.

Comprehension Questions:

1. Explain the difference between a paramedical and an administrative service?

2. What is the purpose of anesthetics? 3. What do you think are the dangers in administrating
anesthetics? 4. What does an x-ray photograph?

5. Can a person be exposed to an unlimited number of x-rays?

6. Are x-rays only used for diagnosis?

Exercise

Complete the following statements with an appropriate word or expression from the list: x-ray,
microscope, pain, laboratory technician, centrifuge, urinalysis

1. The analysis of urine performed by a laboratory technician is called …….

2. Prior to surgery, an ……… administers a drug to a patient to render him insensitive to …….

3. A ……. and a ……. are used by a pathologist.

4. A picture taken of a patient’s bones is called an …..

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Exercise

Complete the sentences using the adjectives in the box. Use each adjective once only. The first one
has been done for you as an example.

aware compatible confused delicate depressed hoarse hygienic

inactive inborn incipient infectious inoperable insanitary lethal

motionless poisonous predisposed regular safe severe

1. This is a safe painkiller, with no harmful side-effects.

2. Some mushrooms are good to eat and some are ______________ .

3. The surgeons are trying to find a donor with a ______________ blood group.

4. The surgeon decided that the cancer was ______________ .

5. These fumes are ______________ if inhaled.

6. The body has an ______________ tendency to reject transplanted organs.

7. The tests detected ______________ diabetes mellitus.

8. The serum makes the poison ______________.

9. A ______________ outbreak of whooping cough occurred during the winter.

10. Old people can easily become ______________ if they are moved from their homes.

11. Catatonic patients can sit ______________ for hours.

12. Don't touch food with dirty hands: it isn't ______________.

13. All the members of the family are ______________ to vascular diseases.

14. She is not ______________ of what is happening around her.

15. The bones of a baby's skull are very ______________.

16. Cholera spread rapidly because of the ______________ conditions in the town.

17. He was ______________ after his exam results.

18. He was advised to make ______________ visits to the dentist.

19. This strain of flu is highly ______________.

20. He became ______________ after shouting too much.

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Text 5: Blood Plasma

Blood plasma is the liquid component of blood, consisting of around half of the total blood volume.
Plasma itself is around 90% water, with the 10% remainder including proteins, minerals, waste
products, clotting factors, hormones, and immunoglobins. Without plasma, blood cells would have no
medium to travel on as they moved through the body, and plasma also performs a number of other
useful functions in the body.

Separating blood plasma from the blood itself is very easy. Blood can be drawn from the patient and
then run in a centrifuge. As the blood spins, the heavier blood cells settle to the bottom, and the plasma
rises to the top. Plasma is usually straw coloured, although it can be cloudy or greyish, depending on
the health and diet of the plasma's host. Tests can be performed on the plasma to learn more about
the health of the donor, and the blood cells can also be analysed for information.

As plasma circulates through the body, it acts like a milkman making deliveries. The plasma drops off
various substances to the cells of the body, and collects waste products for processing. Blood plasma
flows constantly, and the components of plasma are constantly being renewed. In addition to providing
nutrition and waste clean-up, blood plasma also harbours immune system cells which attack infections
in the body, and it is used to deliver hormones and clotting factors to areas where they are needed.

Doctors sometimes use infusions of plasma to treat a variety of medical conditions. Pure plasma
contains clotting factors which increase the rate at which blood clots, making it useful in surgery and
in the treatment of haemophilia. Frozen, plasma can keep for up to 10 years, making it an extremely
stable blood product, and plasma can also be packaged in dried form for reconstitution, a technique
which was developed for military applications. For haemophiliacs, packages of plasma combining
clotting products from hundreds or thousands of donors are used to compensate for the clotting
factors that the haemophiliac lacks.

In a medical process called plasmapheresis, plasma can be pulled out of the blood, treated, and
returned to the patient to treat certain medical conditions. Plasmapheresis can also be used in plasma
donation, allowing people to donate just plasma, without any blood cells. Since plasma is often in high
demand, plasma donation is an excellent donation option for people who wish to contribute blood
products to people in need. Plasma donation takes a little bit longer than regular blood donation, but
the blood plasma replenishes itself within 48 hours, making for a very rapid recovery.

Comprehension Questions:

1. What is blood plasma? 2. What are the different components of plasma?

3. What would happen to blood cell if there were no plasma?

4. Why does the colour of plasma vary? 5. Give some roles of plasma in the human body?

6. How do you explain the acting of plasma like a milkman?

7. How is plasma kept for a long period? 8. What is meant by plasmapheresis?

Exercise

The following quotes have been removed from the passage below. Decide where each of them
should be fitted: A. made many foods unfit to eat B. drugs administered to animals are not

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for medical C. these carcinogenic additives remain in our food D. cent of cancer is related
to the diet as well E. the food that is characteristic in these cultures

The food we eat seems to have profound effects on our health. Although science has made enormous
steps in making food more fit to eat, it has, at the same time, …1… Some research has shown that
perhaps eighty per cent of all human illness are related to diet and forty per ….2…, especially cancer of
the colon.

Different cultures are more prone to contact certain illness because of …3… . That food is related to
illness is not a new discovery. In 1945, government used to preserve colour in meats, and other food
additives, caused cancer. Yet, …4… , and it becomes more difficult all the time to know which things
on the packaging labels of processed food are helpful or harmful. The additives which we eat are not
all direct. Farmers often give penicillin that has been found in the milk of treated cows. Sometimes
similar …5… purposes, but for financial reasons.

Comprehension

1. Give two examples to show the effect of food on our health. 2. Give two concrete examples to
show how science has made food more fit to eat. 3. Show with two examples how culture and illness
are related. 4. Why do you think governments still allow carcinogenic additives in food?

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Text 6: Bacteriology

Bacteria, along with blue-green algae, are prokaryotic cells. That is, in contrast to eukaryotic cells, they
have no nucleus; rather the genetic material is restricted to an area of the cytoplasm called the
nucleoid. Prokaryotic cells also do not have cytoplasmic compartment such as mitochondria and
lysosomes that are found in eukaryotes.

However, a structure that is found in prokaryotes but not in eukaryotic animal cells is the cell wall
which allows bacteria to resist osmotic stress. These cell walls differ in complexity and bacteria are
usually divided into two major groups, the gram-positive and gram-negative organisms, which reflect
their cell wall structure. The possession of this cell wall, which is not a constituent of animal cells, gives
rise to the different antibiotic sensitivities of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotes and
eukaryotes also differ in some important metabolic pathways, particularly in their energy metabolism
and many bacterial species can adopt an anaerobic existence.

Various aspects of bacterial structure and metabolism are the basis of bacterial identification and
taxonomy. Bacteria are constantly accumulating mutational changes and their environment imposes
a strong selective pressure on them. Thus, they constantly and rapidly evolve. In addition, they
exchange genetic information, usually between members of the same species but occasionally
between members of different species. We shall see how this occurs.

Bacteria have parasites, the viruses called bacteriophages which are obligate intracellular parasites
that multiply inside bacteria by making use of some or all of the host biosynthetic machinery.

Comprehension Questions:

1. What is the difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

2. Why are bacteria said to be prokaryotic cells?

3. In how many groups are bacteria divided? What are they?

4. What is meant by anaerobic? 5. How are parasites of bacteria called?

Exercise

The following quotes have been removed from the passage below. Decide where each of them should
be fitted: A. to be familiar with the first aid procedures B. then cardiac massage will also be necessary
C. written down with the time administrated D. it is not always possible to get professional medical
help E. asphyxiation, electrocution, drowning

Medical emergencies

Medical problems do not always develop slowly. Sometimes there are emergency situations. An
emergency can happen at any time. An emergency requires immediate care. However, …1… right away.
Thus, it is important for everyone, not only the medically trained, …2… used in emergencies.

The primary objective of first aid is to save life. Fortunately, most first aid procedures are not
complicated. In all cases a doctor should be called and usually an ambulance. Whatever treatment is
offered should be …3… for these facts will be important when medical help does arrive.

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One of the most serious emergencies occurs when an individual has stopped breathing. This may be
the result of …4… , a heart attack or another type of accident. A person cannot live long without oxygen.
In fact, after only four minutes without it, an individual will almost certainly suffer brain damage even
if he or she lives. Artificial respiration must be started immediately. If the heart has stopped beating
as well, …5…. .

Questions

1. Why is it necessary to act quickly in an emergency? 2. What is the primary objective of first aid?
3. Who should be contacted in all medical emergencies? 4. What is one of the most serious medical
emergencies? 5. What must be started immediately if a victim has stopped breathing? What if the
heart has stopped beating? 6. What is an ambulance? 7. When is an artificial respiration applied?

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Text 7: Immunology

Immunology is the study of our protection from foreign macromolecules or invading organisms and
our responses to them. These invaders include viruses, bacteria, protozoa or even larger parasites. In
addition, we develop immune responses against our own proteins (and other molecules) in
autoimmunity and against our own aberrant cells in tumour immunity.

Our first line of defence against foreign organisms is barrier tissues such as the skin that stop the entry
of organism into our bodies. If, however, these barrier layers are penetrated, the body contains cells
that respond rapidly to the presence of the invader. These cells include macrophages and neutrophils
that engulf foreign organisms and kill them without the need for antibodies.

Immediate challenge also comes from soluble molecules that deprive the invading organism of
essential nutrients (such as iron) and from certain molecules that are found on the surfaces of
epithelia, in secretions (such as tears and saliva) and in the blood stream. This form of immunity is the
innate or non-specific immune system that is continually ready to respond to invasion.

A second line of defence is the specific or adaptive immune system which may take days to respond to
a primary invasion (that is infection by an organism that has not hitherto been seen). In the specific
immune system, we see the production of antibodies (soluble proteins that bind to foreign antigens)
and cell-mediated responses in which specific cells recognize foreign pathogens and destroy them.

In the case of viruses or tumours, this response is also vital to the recognition and destruction of virally-
infected or tumorigenic cells. The response to a second round of infection is often more rapid than to
the primary infection because of the activation of memory B and T cells. These signals may be proteins
such as lymphokines which are produced by cells of the lymphoid system, cytokines and chemokines
that are produced by other cells in an immune response, and which stimulate cells of the immune
system.

Comprehension Questions:

1. What is immunology? 2. What are the invaders of the human organism? 3. What is the first line
of defence against foreign organisms? 4. Which cells are responsible for responding to barrier
tissues’ penetration? 5. What do antibodies do in the immune system?

Exercise

The following quotes have been removed from the passage below. Decide where each of them should
be fitted: A. cough may be dry or it may produce a lot of phlegm B. a congested feeling can be a
symptom of heart trouble while itching, and rashes C. most clear recognisable symptom D. on
the Fahrenheit scale or 37 Centigrade on the E. the flu, and head injuries while a pain in the chest
F. a condition known as anaemia, or they may be

Symptoms of diseases

People notice changes in their bodies which they associate with illness. These are called symptoms.
The …1… is pain. A pain in the stomach may indicate simple indigestion or a more serious ailment such
as an ulcer or dysentery. A headache is associated with colds, …2… may be a heart attack or lung
trouble.

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Fever is another symptom of disease of ill health. Normal body temperature is 98.6 when measured
…3… Celsius thermometer. A temperature higher than normal indicates that the body is fighting
disease.

Other symptoms of disease include coughing and bleeding. A …4… or sputum. It is associated with
ailments of the throat, chest, and lungs. Bleeding may be severe as in a haemorrhage or minimal as
with a small abrasion or cut.

Fainting and dizziness are other symptoms that something is wrong. They may indicate a low red blood
cell count, …5… a symptom of a concussion or other injury to the brain.

Nausea and vomiting are associated with stomach and intestinal disorders such as the flu, food
poisoning, or dysentery. Chest pain or …6… are skin manifestations of problems such as allergies, or
even cancer.

Questions

1. Name several symptoms of ill health 2. What problem can a stomach ache indicate? 3.
What instrument is used to measure body temperature? Name the two temperature scale. 4.
What are the two causes of a brain concussion? 5. What diseases is a cough usually associated
with? 6. What may cause nausea? 7. Fever, coughs, and sore throats are symptoms of disease.
8. What is meant by fever?

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Text 8: Antibiotic susceptibility testing

The basic quantitative measures of the in vitro activity of antibiotics are the minimum
inhibitory concentration (MIC) and the minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC). The MIC is the
lowest concentration of the antibiotic that results in inhibition of visible growth (i.e. colonies on a plate
or turbidity in broth culture) under standard conditions. The MBC is the lowest concentration of the
antibiotic that kills 99.9% of the original inoculum in a given time.

For an antibiotic to be effective the MIC or MBC must be able to be achieved at the site of the infection.
The pharmacological absorption and distribution of the antibiotic will influence the dose, route and
frequency of administration of the antibiotic in order to achieve an effective dose at the site of
infection.

In clinical laboratories, a more common test for antibiotic susceptibility is a disk diffusion test. In this
test the bacterial isolate is inoculated uniformly onto the surface of an agar plate. A filter disk
impregnated with a standard amount of an antibiotic is applied to the surface of the plate and the
antibiotic is allowed to diffuse into the adjacent medium. The result is a gradient of antibiotic
surrounding the disk. Following incubation, a bacterial lawn appears on the plate. Zones of inhibition
of bacterial growth may be present around the antibiotic disk. The size of the zone of inhibition is
dependent on the diffusion rate of the antibiotic, the degree of sensitivity of the microorganism, and
the growth rate of the bacterium. The zone of inhibition in the disk diffusion test is inversely related
to the MIC.

The test is performed under standardized conditions and standard zones of inhibition have been
established for each antibiotic. If the zone of inhibition is equal to or greater than the standard, the
organism is considered to be sensitive to the antibiotic. If the zone of inhibition is less than the
standard, the organism is considered to be resistant.

Comprehension Questions:

1. What do MIC and MBC stand for? What are they? What is the difference between them? 2. What
can make an antibiotic effective? 3. Which test for antibiotic is the most common in clinical
laboratories? 4. On what depends the size of the zone of inhibition? 5. When is the organism
considered to be sensitive to the antibiotic?

Exercise

The following quotes have been removed from the passage below. Decide where each of them
should be fitted:

A. their knowledge of microbes to produce biotechnologically important enzymes

B. agricultural and industrial wastes and subsurface pollution

C. the most effective approach to microbial biodegradation

D. also responsible for numerous beneficial processes

E. most important bacterial species with an annual production

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Microbiology

While some fear microbes due to the association of some microbes with various human illnesses, many
microbes are ……1…. such as industrial fermentation (e.g. the production of alcohol, vinegar and dairy
products), antibiotic production and as vehicles for cloning in more complex organisms such as plants.
Scientists have also exploited …2…. such as Taq polymerase, reporter genes for use in other genetic
systems and novel molecular biology techniques such as the yeast two-hybrid system.

Bacteria can be used for the industrial production of amino acids. Corynebacterium glutamicum is one
of the …..3…. of more than two million tons of amino acids, mainly L-glutamate and L-lysine.

Microorganisms are beneficial for microbial biodegradation or bioremediation of domestic, ….4…. in

soils, sediments and marine environments. The ability of each microorganism to degrade toxic waste
depends on the nature of each contaminant. Since sites typically have multiple pollutant types, ….5….
is to use a mixture of bacterial and fungal species and strains, each specific to the biodegradation of
one or more types of contaminants.

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Text 9: Signs from your car, Signs from your body

You know your car better than anyone else does because you drive it every day. You know how it acts
when it's running right. You also know when something is not quite right. When something is not right
with your car, it sends you a signal. In the same way, you know what feels right with your body.

When something is not right with your body, it sends you a signal, just like a car does. The medical
word for these signals is symptoms. A symptom is the way your body lets you know that something is
not normal. A symptom may be a sharp pain or shortness of breath or a lack of energy.

Talking to a mechanic about problems with your car is a lot like talking to your doctor about problems
with your health. A mechanic will ask you many questions to find out what is wrong with the car. If you
say, “My car doesn’t work,” the mechanic will have to ask you many questions to figure out the
problem. But, if you say, “My car makes a loud noise when I drive fast on the highway,” this helps the
mechanic find the problem faster.

In the same way, your doctor can more easily figure out a health problem if you are CLEAR and
SPECIFIC. If you say, “I feel sick,” the doctor will have to ask you many questions to find out what is
wrong. But, if you say, “I have a sharp pain in my arm when I try to write,” you can help the doctor
figure out the problem faster.

Discussion Questions

1. Think of a time when you or someone you know (a member of your family or a friend) was sick.
What were the symptoms?

2. What can be difficult about talking to a doctor about your symptoms?

3. Why do you think it’s important to clearly explain your symptoms to a doctor?

4. What are ways that you can be CLEAR and SPECIFIC when you talk to a doctor about your
symptoms?

Exercise

Complete the sentences using the adjectives in the box. Use each adjective once only. The first one
has been done for you as an example.

acute bedridden critical deaf depressed excessive harmful infirm inflamed latent
lethal mobile obsessive painful persistent premature severed subjective tender
viable

1. These fumes are lethal if inhaled.

2. The report was _______________ of the state of aftercare provision.

3. She had a _______________ cough.

4. The psychiatrist gave a _______________ opinion on the patient's problem.

5. My grandfather is quite _______________ now.

6. The skin has become _______________ around the sore.

7. It is important for elderly patients to remain _______________.

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8. His foot is so _______________ he can hardly walk.

9. A fetus is _______________ by about the 28th week of the pregnancy.

10. You have to speak slowly and clearly when you speak to Mr Jones because he's quite ________ .

11. The baby was born five weeks _______________ .

12. The patient was passing _______________ quantities of urine.

13. He felt _______________ chest pains.

14. He is _______________ and has to be looked after by a nurse.

15. The children were tested for _______________ viral infection.

16. He has an _______________ desire to steal small objects.

17. Her shoulders are still _______________ where she got sunburnt.

18. Surgeons tried to sew the _______________ finger back onto the patient's hand.

19. She was _______________ for weeks after the death of her husband.

20. Bright light can be _______________ to your eyes.

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 References

Yelou Komi. Anglais médical, sem 4. FSS, Université de Lomé

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