‘C’ IS A MIDDLE LEVEL LANGUAGE

 Low level language:

o Low level language is in terms of 0’s and 1’s.
o ‘C’ language has the certain features of “low-level language” that allows the
programmer to carry out operations on bits that are normally available in assembly or
machine language.
 High level language:
o High level language looks like normal English, whose instruction set is more
compatible with human languages.
o These languages are machine independent. Ex are FORTRAN, PASCAL, COBOL,
BASIC, C, C++,…..etc
 C stands in between these two categories. It is neither a low level language nor a high level
language. It is a middle level language.
 It means it performs the task of low level language as well as high level language.
 We can write the codes for operating system, application programs, and assembly language
programs in ‘C’ language.
 UNIX operating system is written in ‘C’ language.

FEATURES AND APPLICATIONS OF ‘C’ LANGUAGE:

1. ‘C’ is a general purpose, structured programming language.
2. ‘C’ is powerful, efficient, compact, portable and flexible.
3. ‘C’ is well suited for writing system software as well as application software.
4. ‘C’ program can be run on different operating systems of the different computers with little
or no alteration.
5. ‘C’ is a middle level language, i.e, it supports both the low level and high level language
features.
6. ‘C’ language allows manipulation of data at the lowest level i.e bit level manipulation. This
feature is extensively useful in writing system software program.
7. ‘C’ is a widely available, commercial ‘C’ compilers are available on most PC’s.
8. ‘C’ programs are fast and efficient.
9. ‘C’ has got rich set of operators.
10. ‘C’ can be applied in systems programming areas like compilers, Interpreters and Assemblers
etc.

STRUCTURE OF A ‘C’ PROGRAM

Documentation section
Preprocessor section
Definition section
Global declaration section
Void Main()
{
Declaration part;
Executable part;
}
Sub program section
{
Body of the sub program;
}
Documentation section:
 It contains a set of comment
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lines used to specify the name of program the author and
other details etc.,
Comments:
  Comments are very helpful in identifying the program features and underlying logic of
the program.
 The single line comments using “\\”.
 The lines begins with ‘/*’ and ending with ‘*/’ are known as comment lines. These are
not executable, the compiler is ignored anything in between /* and */.
Preprocessor section:
 It is used to link system library files for defining the macros and for defining the
conditional inclusion.
Eg: #include<stdio.h>, #define A 10, #if def, #endif….etc.
Global declaration section:
 The variables that are used in more than one function throughout the program are called
global variables and declared outside of all the function i.e., before main().
 Every ‘C’ program must have one main() function, which specify the starting of ‘C’
program. It contains the following two parts.
Various elements of ‘C’ program:
Comment: /* program for temperature conversion */
Header file: #include<stdio.h>
Preprocessor directories: #define con 1.8 //Constant
Reserved words: int main ()
{
Variable type: float c,f //Standard identifiers
printf(“enter the Celsius values…….”);
Control string: scanf(“%f”, &c);
Special character: f = (con * c)+32;
Execution character: printf(“\n Fahrenheit value of the given %f Celsius value is
%f”, c,f);
Reserved word: return(0);
}
Declaration part:
 This part is used to declare all the variables that are used in the executable part of the
program and these are called local variables.
Executable part:
 It contains atleast one valid ‘C’ statement.
 The execution of a program begins with opening brace ‘{‘and ends with closing brace
‘}’.
 The closing brace of the main function is the logical end of the program.
 All the statements in the program ends with a semicolon(;) except conditional and control
statements.

PROGRAMMING RULES:
 All statements in ‘C’ program should be written in lower case letters.
 Blank spaces may be inserted between the words. It is not used while declaring a variable,
keyword, constant and function.
 The program statement can write anywhere between the two braces following the declaration
part.
 The user can also write one or more statements in one line separating them with a
semicolon(;).

EXECUTING A ‘C’ PROGRAM

 Execution is the process of running the program, to execute a ‘C’ program we need to
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follow the steps given below.
1. Creating the program.
2. Compiling the program.
 3. Linking the program with system library.
4. Executing the program.
Creating the program:
 It means entering and editing the program in standard ‘C’ editor and save the program with
.C as an extension.
Compiling the program:
 This is the process of converting the high level language program into machine
understandable form(Machine language). For this purpose compiler is used.
 Usually this can be done in ‘C’ language by pressing ALT+F9 or choose compile option in
the menu system.
 Here there is a possibility to show errors i.e., syntax errors, means the statements written in
program are not in proper syntax.
Linking the program with system library:
 ‘C’ language program is the collection of predefined functions. These functions are already
written in some standard ‘C’ header files. Therefore before executing a ‘C’ program, we
need to link with system library. This can be done automatically at the time of execution.
Executing the program:
 This is the process of running and testing the program with sample data. At this time there
is a possibility to show two types of errors given below.
Logical errors: these are the errors, in which the conditional and control statements cannot end
their match after some sequential execution.
Data errors: these are the errors, in which the input data given, is not in a proper syntax as
specified in input statements.
 Usually executing the program can be done by pressing CTRL+F9 or choose run option
from the menu system.

‘C’s CHARACTER SET

 The character set is the any language and they are used to represent information.
 Like natural languages, computer language will also have well defined character set, which
is useful to build the programs.
 Thus learn to combine these alphabets to plan for words which in turn are combined to
form sentences and sentences are combined to form paragraphs.
 Similarly the characters used to write ‘C’ program are basically of two types, namely
i. Source character set
ii. Execution character set
Source character set
 These are used to construct the statements in the source program.
 These are of four types
Source character Notation
set
Alphabets A to Z and a to z
Decimal digits 0 to 9
White spaces Blank space, horizontal tabs, vertical tab, new line, form feed.
Special characters +, -, *, /, ;, ~, < , > , {, }, =, @, % .

Execution character set:

 These are employed at the time of execution. This set of characters are also called as non
graphic characters because, these characters are invisible and cannot be printed or
displayed directly.
 These characters will have effect only when the program is being executed.
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 Execution characters set are always represented by a backslash(\) followed by a character.
 These are also called as ‘escape sequences’.
Character Escape sequence Result
 Bell(Alert) \a Beep sound
Backspace \b Moves previous position
Horizontal tab \t Moves next horizontal tab
Vertical tab \v Moves next vertical tab
New line \n Moves next line
Form feed \f Moves initial position of next page
Carriage return \r Moves beginning of the line

C TOKENS:
 The tokens are usually referred as individual text and punctuation in a passage of text.
 The ‘C’ language program can contain the individual units called the C tokens and has
the following types.
1. Identifiers
2. Keywords
3. Constants
4. Strings
5. Operators
6. Special symbols

1. IDENTIFIERS
 Identifiers are names given to various program elements, such as variables, functions and
arrays etc.
Rules:
 Identifiers consist of letters and digits in any order.
 The first character must be a letter/character or may begin with underscore( _ ).
 Both upper/lower cases are permitted although uppercase character is not equivalent to
corresponding lowercase character.
 The underscore ‘ _’ can also be used and is considered as a letter.
 An identifier can be of any length while most of the ‘C’ compiler recognizes only the first
31 characters.
 No space and special symbols are allowed between the identifier.
 The identifier cannot be a keyword.
Valid identifiers:
STDNAME, SUB, Y2K.
Invalid identifiers:
STD NAME, Return, $stay, 7rno.

2. KEYWORDS:
 There are certain reserved words called keywords that have standard and predefined
meaning in ‘C’ language which cannot be changed and they are the basic building blocks
for program statements.
 Keywords are must written in lower case.
 The ‘C’ keywords are listed below.
1. auto 9. double 17. int 25. struct
2. break 10. else 18. long 26. switch
3. case 11. enum 19. register 27. typedef
4. char 12. extern 20. return 28. union
5. const 13. float 21. short 29. unsigned
6. continue 14. for 22. signed 30. void
7. default 15. goto 23. sizeof 31. volatile
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8. do 16. if 24. static 32. while
Data types:
 Data type is the type of the data, that are going to access within the program.
  Each data type may have predefined memory requirement and storage representation.
Primary User defined Derived Empty
char Arrays
int pointer void
float typedef structures
double union
The bytes occupied by each of the primary data types are
Data type Description Memory Control Ex
string
int Integer quantity 2 bytes %d int a=39;
char Single character 1 byte %c char s = ‘n’;
float Floating pointing no’s. 4 bytes %f float f=29.77
double Double floating pointing 8 bytes %lf double d=
no’s. 29771770776
 All C compilers supports the five fundamental data types called int, char, float, double
and void.
 The primary data types are divided into the following.
INTEGER TYPE
 Integers are the numbers with the supported range.
 Usually the integers occupy one word of storage typically 16 or 32 bits.
 The size of the integer depends upon the system.
signed unsigned
int unsigned int
short int unsigned short int
long int unsigned long int
CHARACTER TYPE
 Characters are generally stored in 8 bits and a single character can be defined as char data
type.
char signed char unsigned
FLOAT TYPE char
 The floating point numbers are generally stored in 32 bits with the 6 digits of precision.
 The double datatype uses the 64bits with the 14 digits of precision.
float double long double
EMPTY DATA TYPE
 The void is the null data type in ‘C’ language.
 This is generally specified with the function which has no arguments.
void
VARIABLES:
 A variable is an identifier that is used to represent some specified type of information.
 Variable name give to relate the program.
i) Variable declaration:
 We must declare them in a program, and this declaration tells the compiler what the
variable name and type of the data that the variable will hold.
Syntax: datatype variable-1,variable-2,…,variable-n;
Example: int code; char sex; float price;
ii) Initializing variables:
 Initialization of variables can be done using the assignment operator ( = ).
Syntax: Datatype Variable = value;
Example: int i=29;
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SCOPE OF VARIABLES:
 Local variables:
 The variables which are defined inside a main function block or inside a function are
called local variables.
 It is declared within blocks.
Example:
void main()
{
int i,j;
/* body of the function */
}
Global variables:
 The variables that are declared before the function main() are called the global variables.
Example:
int a=5,b=2;
void main()
{
fun();
}
void fun()
{
int sum;
sum = a+b;
}

STORAGE CLASSES:
1. Auto:
 They are called as the automatic because their memory space is automatically allocated
as the variable is declared.
 It is optional keyword.
Syntax: Storage_class_type data_type var1, var2……var n;
Example: auto int a,b;
2. Static:
 The static variables are the variables for which the contents of the variables will be
retained throughout the program.
 These are permanent within the function in which they are declared.
Syntax: Storage_class_type data_type var1, var2,…….varn;
Example: static int a,b;
3. Extern:
 The external variables are declared out of the main() function the availability of these
variables are throughout the program and that is both in main program and inside the user
defined functions.
Syntax: Storage_class_type data_type var1, var2,……var n;
Example: extern int a, b;
4. Register:
 Registers are special storage areas within a computer’s central processing unit.
 The actual arithmetic and logical operation that comprise a program are carried out
within these registers.
Syntax: Storage_class_type data_type var1, var2, ………..var n;
Example: register int a,g;

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CONSTANTS:
  The item whose values cannot be changed during the execution of program are called
constants.
a) Numeric constants:
i) Integer constants:
 An integer constant formed with the sequence of digits.
 There are three types of integer constants which forms different number system.
Syntax: const datatype identifier=value;
Example: const int M = 95;
Rules:
 It must have atleast one value.
 Decimal point is not allowed.
 It can be either positive or negative.
ii) Real constants:
 A real constant is made up of a sequence of numeric digits with presence of a decimal
point.
 Real constants serve as represent quantities such as distance, heights, temperatures, etc.
Syntax: const datatype identifier=value;
Example: const float distance =126.5;
Rules:
 A real constant must have one digit.
 A real constant must have decimal point.
 No commas or blank spaces are allowed.
b) Character constants:
i) Single character constants:
 The character constant contains a single character enclosed within pair of single inverted
commas(‘) both pointing to the left.
Syntax: const datatype identifier= value;
Example: const char c=’s’,gender=’F’;
ii) String constants:
 A string constant is a sequence of characters enclosed in double quotes the characters
may be letters, numbers, special characters and blank spaces etc.
Syntax: const datatype identifier= value;
Example: const char c[10]=”senthil”;

Delimiters:
These are the symbols, which has some syntactic meaning and has got significance.
Symbol Name Meaning
# Hash Pre-processor directive
, Comma separate list of variables
: Colon Label
; Semi colon Statement end
() Parenthesis Function and Expression
{} Braces Creating blocks
[] Square bracket Arrays

Statements:
 Statements can be defined as set of declaration or sequence of action. Statement causes
the computer to perform some action.
1. Assignment statements:
 Assignment operator used for assigning values to the variables.
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Example: basic =3890;
2. Null statements:
 A statement without any characters and it has only semicolon is called null statement.
Example: ; (null statement)
3. Block of statements:
 Block contains several statements that are enclosed within a pair of braces {}.
 These can be any of expression, assignments and keywords etc.
Example:
{
int a=890;
float b= 89.9;
printf(“%d%f”, a, b);
}
4. Expression statements:
 These consist of expressions and can be arithmetic, relational or logical.
Example:
a= 29
B=a+77;
fun(a,b);

OPERATORS
 An operator is as symbol that specifies an operation to be performed on the operands.
 The data items are called operands.
Example: a+b
‘+’ operator and a, b are the operands.
Types of operators:
1) Arithmetic Operator (+, -,*,/,%,)
2) Relational Operator (<,>,<=,>=,!=,==)
3) Logical Operators (&&.||,!)
4) Assignment Operator ( = )
5) Increment & decrement Operator (++,--)
6) Conditional (or) Ternary Operator (? , : )
7) Bitwise Operator (&,!,|,^)
8) Special Operator (, sizeof,&&*, .&->)
1) Arithmetic operators:
 Basic arithmetic operation like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
Operator Meaning Example A=9, B=5
+ addition C=a+b C=14
- subtraction C=a-b C=4
* multiplication C=a*b C=45
/ division C=a/b C=1
% Modulo C=a%b C=4

Example:
//Arithmetic Operators
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,c,d;
clrscr();
printf("Arithmetic Operators");
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printf("\nEnter the A & B Value:");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
printf("A=%d\nB=%d",a,b);
c=a+b;
printf("\nAddition = %d",c);
c=a-b;
printf("\nSubtraction = %d",c);
c=a*b;
printf("\nMultiplication = %d",c);
c=a/b;
printf("\nDivision = %d",c);
c=a%b;
printf("\nModulo = %d",c);
getch();
}
OUTPUT:
Arithmetic Operators
Enter the A & B Value:9
5
A=9
B=5
Addition = 14
Subtraction = 4
Multiplication = 45
Division = 1
Modulo = 4

Unary arithmetic: it requires only one operand.

Ex: +x
Binary arithmetic: it requires two operands.
Ex: a+b

2) Relational operators:
 Relational operators are used to compare two or more operands.
 Operands may be variables, constants or expression.
 The value of relational expression is either one or zero.
 Relational operators are used in decision making process.
Operator Meaning Example A=9, B=5
< Less than C=a<b C=0
> Greater than C=a>b C=1
<= Less than or Equal to C=a<=b C=0
>= Greater than or equal to C=a>=b C=1
== Equal to C=a==b C=0
!= Not equal to C=a!=b C=1
Example:
//Relational Operators
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,c;
clrscr();
printf("Relational Operators");
printf("\nEnter the A & B Value:");
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scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
printf("A=%d\nB=%d",a,b);
c=a>b;
printf("\nGreaterthan (>)= %d",c);
c=a<b;
printf("\nLessthan (<)= %d",c);
c=a>=b;
printf("\nGreaterthan or equal (>=)= %d",c);
c=a<=b;
printf("\nLessthan or equal (<=)= %d",c);
c=a==b;
printf("\nEqual to (==)= %d",c);
getch();
}
OUTPUT:
Relational Operators
Enter the A & B Value:9
5
A=9
B=5
Greaterthan (>)= 1
Lessthan (<)= 0
Greaterthan or equal (>=)= 1
Lessthan or equal (<=)= 0
Equal to (==)= 0

3) Logical operators:
 Logical operators are used to combine the results of two or more conditions.
 The logical operators are &&, ||,!
Syntax: (exp1)&&(exp2)
Operator Meaning Example A=9, B=5, C=2
&& Logical AND d=(a>b)&&(a>c) d=1
|| Logical OR d=(a>b)||(a>c) d=1
! Logical NOT d=!(a>=b) d=0
Example:
//Logic Operators
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,c,d;
clrscr();
printf("Logic Operators");
printf("\nEnter the A,B,C Value:");
scanf("%d%d%d",&a,&b,&c);
printf("A=%d\nB=%d\nC=%d",a,b,c);
d=(a>b)&&(a>c);
printf("\nLogic AND\n((a>b)&&(a>c)) = %d",d);
d=(a>b)||(a>c);
printf("\nLogic OR\n((a>b)||(a>c)) = %d",d);
d=!(a>=b);
printf("\nLogic NOT\n(!(a>=b)) = %d",d);
getch(); www.annauniversityplus.com
}
OUTPUT:
Logic Operators
Enter the A,B,C Value:9
5
2
A=9
B=5
C=2
Logic AND
((a>b)&&(a>c)) = 1
Logic OR
((a>b)||(a>c)) = 1
Logic NOT
(!(a>=b)) = 0

4) Assignment operators:
 Assignment operators are used to assign a value or an expression or a value of a variable
to another variable.
Example: x=5;
i) Compound assignment:
 Compound assignment operators to assign a value to a variable in order to assign a new
value to a variable after performing a specified operation.
Example: x+ = y
ii) Nested assignments:
 ‘C’ language has got distinct features in assignment called nested assignment.
Syntax:
var1=var2=…………..var-n= single variable or expression or value;
Example: i=j=k=l;
x=y=z=(i+j+k);

5) Increment or decrement operators:

 ++ and -- are the increment and decrement operator.
 These operators are called unary operators.
 Pre increment or pre decrement: First increment or decrement the value after assign or
operate.
 post increment or post decrement: Assign or operate after increment or decrement
Operator Meaning Example A=5
++a Pre increment printf(“A=%d”,++a) A=6
--a Pre decrement printf(“A=%d”,--a) A=5
a++ Post increment printf(“A=%d”,a++) A=5
a-- Post decrement printf(“A= %d”,a--) A=5

6) Conditional operator:
 It checks the condition and executes the statement depending on the condition.
 It is like as if…else statement.
Syntax:
Condition?exp1:exp2;
Example:
int a=5,b=3,big;
big=a>b?a:b;
printf(“%d is big”,big);

7) Bitwise operators: www.annauniversityplus.com

 It is used to manipulate the data at bit level.
 It operates on integer only.
  It may not be applied to float or real.
a) Bitwise AND(&):
 This operator is represented as ‘&’ and operates on two operands of integer type.
 Truth table for &:
A B A&B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
b) Bitwise OR(|):
 This operator gives if either of the operand bit is ‘|’ then result is ‘1’ or both operands are
1’s then also given ‘1’.
A B A|B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
c) Bitwise exclusive OR(^):
 Similar to AND operator in all aspects but integer gives if either of the operand bit is
high(1) then it gives high(1) result.
 If both operand bits are same then it gives
low(0) result.

For all the above operators in all possible combinations of bits as shown below.
A B A|B A&B A^B ~A
0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 0 0
Example:
//Bitwise OPerators
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,c;
clrscr();
printf("Bitwise Operators");
printf("\nEnter the A & B Value:");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
printf("A=%d\nB=%d",a,b);
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c=a&b;
printf("\nBitwise AND (&) = %d",c);
c=a|b;
printf("\nBitwise OR (|) = %d",c);
c=a^b;
printf("\nBitwise EX-OR (^) = %d",c);
c=~a;
printf("\nOne's Complement or Bitwise NOT (~) = %d",c);
c=a<<2;
printf("\nLeft Shift (<<)= %d",c);
c=a>>2;
printf("\nRight Shift (>>)= %d",c);
getch();
}
OUTPUT:
Bitwise Operators
Enter the A & B Value:7
3
A=7
B=3
Bitwise AND (&) = 3
Bitwise OR (|) = 7
Bitwise EX-OR (^) = 4
One's Complement or Bitwise NOT (~) = -8
Left Shift (<<)= 28
Right Shift (>>)= 1
8) The special operator:
1. Comma operator(,):
 It is used to separate the statement elements such as variables, constants or expression
etc.
Example: val = (a=3, b=9, c=77, a+c);
2. Sizeof() operator:
 it is a unary operator, that returns the length in bytes of the specified variable, and it is
very useful to find the bytes occupied by the specified variable in the memory.
 It is a compile time operator.
Syntax:
sizeof(var);
Ex:
void main()
{
int a;
printf(“size of variable a is……..%d”, sizeof(a));
}
Output:
size of variable a is…………2
3. Pointer operators:
&---This symbol specifies the address of the variable.
* --- This symbol specifies the value of the variable.
4. Member selection operators:
. and -- > : These symbols used to access the elements from a structure.

EXPRESSIONS:
 An expression represents data item such as variables, constants and are interconnected
with operators as per thewww.annauniversityplus.com
syntax of the language.
 An expression is evaluated using assignment operator.
Syntax: variable = expression;
Example: x=a*b-c;
Arithmetic operator’s precedence:
 Arithmetic operators are evaluated from the left to right using the precedence of operators
when the expression is written without the parameters.
High:* / %
Low: + -
 First phase: the highest priority operators are evaluated in the expression.
 Second phase: the lowest priority operators are evaluated in the expression.

Type conversion:
 It refers to the process of changing an entity of one data type into another.
i) Implicit conversion:
 It is an automatic type conversion. In a mixed type expression data of one or more subtypes
can be converted to a super type as needed at runtime so that the program will run correctly.
Example:
int c;
float f=3.5;
c=f;
printf(“%d”,c);
OUTPUT:
3
ii) Explicit conversion:
 The explicit conversion can be made possible to convert one data type to another by
forcefully and it is different from the implicit conversion.
Syntax: var1=(datatype)var2;
Ex: int a=10;
float(a);
Where a=10;
float (a) will contain 10.000000

MANAGING INPUT AND OUTPUT OPERATIONS

INPUT OUTPUT STATEMENTS
 We know that input, process, output are the three essential features of computer program.
 The program takes some input data processes it and gives the output.
 We have two methods for providing data to the program.
o Assigning the data to the variables in a program.
o By using the Input/Output statements.
 In ‘C’ language, two types of Input/Output statements are available, and all input and output
operations are carried out through function calls.
 Several functions are available for input/output operations in ‘C’.
 These functions are collectively known as the standard I/O library.
i) Unformatted Input/Output statements
ii) Formatted Input/Output statements
Input / Output

Unformatted I/O Formatted I/O

Input www.annauniversityplus.com
Output Input Output
getchar() putchar() scanf() printf()
getc() putc() fscanf() fprintf()
gets() puts()
getch()
UNFORMATTED INPUT/OUTPUT STATEMENTS
1) getchar() function:
 A single character can be given to the computer using ‘C’ input library function getchar().
Syntax: char variable = getchar();
Example: char x;
x= getchar();
 The getchar() function is written in standard I/O library.
 It reads a single character from a standard input device.
 This function do not require any arguments, through a pair of empty parenthesis, must follow
the statement getchar().
2) putchar() function:
 The putchar() function is used to display one character at a time on the standard output
device.
Syntax: putchar(char variable);
Example: char x;
putchar(x);
3) getc() function:
 This is used to accept a single character from the standard input to a character variable.
Syntax: char variable = getc();
Example: char c;
c= getc();
4) putc() function:
 This is used to display a single character in a character variable to standard output device.
Syntax: putc(char variable);
Example: char c;
putc(c);
5) gets() function:
 The gets() function is used to read the string from the standard input device.
Syntax: gets(char type of array variable);
Example: gets(s);
6) puts() function:
 The puts() function is used to display/write the string to the standard output device(Monitor).
Syntax: puts(char type of array variable);
Example: puts(s);
7) getch() function:
 The getch reads a single character directly from the keyboard without echoing to the screen.
Syntax: int getch(void);
8) getche() function:
 The getche reads a single character from the keyboard and echoes it to the current text
window.
Syntax: int getche(void);

Character test functions:

Function Test
isalnum(ch) Is ch an alphanumeric character?
isalpha(ch) www.annauniversityplus.com
Is ch an alphabetic character?
isdigit(ch) Is ch a digit?
islower(ch) Is ch a lowercase letter?
toupper(ch) Convert ch to uppercase.
isupper(ch) Is ch a uppercase letter?
isspace(ch) Is ch a blank space character?
tolower(ch) Convert ch to lowercase.

FORMATTED INPUT/OUTPUT STATEMENTS:

 Formatted input/output refers to input and output, that has been arranged in a particular
format.
INPUT OUTPUT
scanf() printf()
fscanf() fprintf()
a) scanf() function:
 Input data can be entered using the standard input library function called scanf().
 This function is used to enter any combination of input.
 The scanf() function is used to read information from the standard input device, scanf() starts
with a argument and may contain additional arguments.
Syntax: scanf(“control string”, &var1,…………&var-n);
Example: int n;
scanf(“%d”, &n);
Control string:
 It is the type of data to accept via the input statements, this can be formatted and always
preceded with a ‘%’ sign.
Format code Meaning
%c Single character
%d integer
%s Strings
%f Float values
Rules:
 The control string must be preceded with % sign and must be within quotations.
 If there is a number of input data items, items must be separated by commas and must be
preceded with & sign except for string input.
 The control string and the variables going to input should match with each other.
 It must have termination with semicolon.
b) printf() function:
 Output data or result of an operation can be displayed to a standard output device using the
library function printf().
 This function is used to output any combination of data.
 It is similar to the input function scanf(), except that it display data rather than input.
 There are two types of printf() functions:
1. printf() with control string
2. printf() without control string
Syntax: printf(“control string”, var1, var2,…………var n);
Example: printf(“result is…….%d”, n);
printf(“%f”,f);
printf(“%s”,s);
Rules:
 The variable must be separated by commas, and need not be preceded with ‘&’ sign.
 The control string and the variables must match in their order.
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 The control string must be in quotations and there also use any other text to print with data.
 Provide blank space in between the numbers for better readability.
  Print special messages wherever required in output.
fscanf() and fprintf():
 fscanf() and fprintf() functions are used only during the file operations.
 fscanf()---for reading the content from file.
 fprintf()---for writing the content to the file.

Reading and writing integer numbers:

 The integers can be read/write through the scanf() and printf() statements with the field
specification along with the control string.
Reading:
 The scanf() function reads the integer numbers using its format specification ‘%d ’
Syntax: scanf(“%d” , &var);
Example: scanf(“%d%d”, &x, &y);
Writing:
 The integer data values can also be displayed using the field width specification in
printf() statement.
Syntax: printf(“%d”, var);
Example: printf(“%d”, x);

Reading and writing real or floating point numbers:

Reading:
 The scanf() function reads the real numbers using its format specification ‘%f ’
Syntax: scanf(“%f” , &var);
Example: scanf(“%f%f”, &x, &y);
Writing:
 The writing or displaying of real numbers may be displayed in decimal point notation
using the field width specification.
Syntax: printf(“%(width)f” , var);
Example: printf(“%.2f”,x);

Reading and writing character strings:

 The single character or string can be read/write through the scanf() and printf()
statements with the field specification along with the control string.
Reading a character:
 The specification for reading character is %c
Syntax: scanf(“%c”, var);
Example: scanf(“%c”, gender);
Reading strings:
 Specification for reading string is %s
Syntax: scanf(“%s”, var);
Example: scanf(“%s”, name);
Writing a character:
 A single character can be displayed in a desired position using the following format.
Syntax: printf(“%c”, var);
Writing strings:
 The writing or displaying of string may be displayed in decimal point notation using the
following width specification.
Syntax: printf(“ %s”, var);
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Enhancing the readability of output:
 Specify the blank spaces in between the data items whenever necessary and applicable.
  Specify the appropriate headings and names for the variables.
 Give the blank line as and when required.
 Specify newline character whenever is applicable.
 Print special text messages depending on necessity.

CONTROL STATEMENTS OR CONTROL STRUCTURES

 Programmers can take decisions in their program with help of control statements.
 Types of control statements:
1. Sequence (or) Linear Structure
2. Decision making (or) selection (or) Branching Structure
3. Looping (or) Iteration Structure
4. Unconditional Structure
S.No. Structure Name Types
1 Sequence (or) Linear Structure one by one
1. Simple if
2. If ….else
3. Nested if ….else
2 Decision making (or) Selection (or) Branching Structure
4. if……else ladder
5. Switch case
6. Nested switch case
1. while
2. do-while
3 Looping (or) Iteration Structure
3. for
4. Nested for
1. break
2. continue
4 Unconditional Structure
3. goto
4. return
1. Sequence (or) Linear Structure:
 Statements are read one by one is called sequence or linear structure.
 It is normal flow of program.
 Only one direction of every time execution.
2. Decision making (or) selection (or) Branching Structure
a) Simple if statement
 The if statement is a decision making statement.
 It is used to control the flow of execution of the statements and also used to test logically
whether the condition is true or false.
 It is always used in conjunction with condition.
 This statement is used when a question requires answer.
Syntax Flow Chart Example

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if(condition is true) #include<stdio.h>
{ Start #include<conio.h>
True statements; void main()
} {
Read A,B
Next Statement; int a,b;
clrscr();
True scanf(“%d%d”,&a,&b);
if(A>B)
if(a>b)
Print “A is Big”
{
False printf(“A is big”);
}
printf(“\nIt is simple if”);
getch();
Print “It is simple if” }

Stop

Properties:
 If the condition is true then the simple or compound condition statements are executed.
 If the condition is false it does not do anything.
 The condition is given in parenthesis and must be evaluated as true or false.
 If a compound structure is provided it must be enclosed in opening and closing braces.
b) The if-else statement:
 It is basically two way decision making statement and always used in conjunction with
condition.
 It is used to control the flow of execution and also used to carry out the logical test and
then pickup one of the two possible actions depending on the logical test.
Syntax Flow Chart Example
if(condition) //Biggest of 2 Numbers
{ Start #include<stdio.h>
True statements; #include<conio.h>
} Read A,B void main()
else {
{ int a,b;
False statements; FALSE TRUE clrscr();
if(A>B)
} scanf(“%d%d”,&a,&b);
Next Statement; if(a>b)
PRINT “B IS BIG” PRINT “A IS BIG” {
printf(“A is big”);
}
else
{
printf(“B is big”);
}
Print “It is if…else”
printf(“\nIt is if…else”);
getch();
Stop }

c) Nested if……..else statement:

 When a series of if…..else statements are occurred in a program, we can write an entire
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if…..else statement in another if….else statement called nesting and the statement is
called nested if.
 Start
Flow Chart:
Read A,B,C

FALSE TRUE
if(A>B||C>B)

FALSE TRUE
if(A>C)
PRINT “B IS BIG”
PRINT “C IS BIG” PRINT “A IS BIG”

Print “It is Nested if…else”

Stop
Syntax Example
if(condition 1) //Biggest of 3 Numbers
{ #include<stdio.h>
if(condition 2) #include<conio.h>
{ void main()
True statement2; {
} int a,b,c;
else clrscr();
{ scanf(“%d%d%d”,&a,&b,&c);
False statement2; if(a>b||c>b)
} {
} if(a>c)
else {
{ printf(“A is big”);
False statement1; }
} else
Next Statement; {
printf(“C is big”);
}
}
else
{
printf(“B is big”);
}
printf(“\nIt is Nested if…else”);
getch();
}
d) if……else ladder:
 Nested if statements can become quite complex.
 More than three alternatives is not consistent to determine the logical structure of if
statement.
 In situations, you can use the nested if as the else if ladder.
Flow Chart: www.annauniversityplus.com
Start

Read A,B,C,D

FALSE TRUE
 Syntax Example
if(condition 1) //Biggest of 4 Numbers
{ #include<stdio.h>
Statement 1; #include<conio.h>
} void main()
else if(condition 2) {
{ int a,b,c,d;
Statement 2; clrscr();
} scanf(“%d%d%d%d”,&a,&b,&c,&d);
else if(condition 3) if(a>b&&a>c&&a>d)
{ {
Statement 3; printf(“A is big”);
} }
else else if(b>c&&b>d)
{ {
Default- statements; printf(“B is big”);
} }
Next Statement; else if(c>d)
{
printf(“C is big”);
}
else
{
printf(“D is big”);
}
printf(“\nIt is if…else Ladder”);
getch();
}

The switch statement:

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 The switch statement is used to pickup or execute a particular group of statements from
several available groups of statements.
 It allows us to make a decision from the number of choices.
  It is a multiway decision statement, it tests the value of given variable or expression
against a list of case valuesStart
and when a match is found a block of statements associated
with that case is executed.
Flow Chart:
Initialize A=10,B=20,C=0,CH
CH=1
Print C=A+B
Print “1.ADD
2.SUB 3.MUL 4.DIV” CH=2
Print C=A-B

CH=3
Read CH Print C=A*B

CH=4
Print C=A/B
switch(CH)

Stop

Syntax:
Syntax Example
switch(expression) //Arithmetic operations using switch case
{ #include<stdio.h>
case constant-1: #include<conio.h>
Block 1; void main()
break; {
case constant-2: int a=10,b=20,ch,d;
Block 2; clrscr();
break; printf("1.ADD\n2.SUB\n3.MUL\n4.DIV");
. printf("\nEnter your choice:");
. scanf("%d",&ch);
default: switch(ch)
Default block; {
break; case 1:
} printf("%d",a+b);
Next Statement; break;
case 2:
printf("%d",a-b);
break;
case 3:
printf("%d",a*b);
break;
case 4:
printf("%d",a/b);
break;
default:
printf("\nEnter the correct choice");
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break;
}
printf("\nIt is switch case");
 getch();
}

Rules:
 The expression in switch statement must be an integer value or a character constant.
 No real numbers are used in an expression.
 The case labels must be constants.
 The switch can be nested.
Nested switch() case:
 ‘C’ supports the nested switch() statements. The inner switch() statement can be a
part of an outer switch() statement.
 The inner and outer switch() case constants may be same.
 No conflict arises even if they are same.
Comparison of switch() case and nested if:
Switch() case Nested if
The switch() can test only constant values. The if can evaluate relational or logical
expressions.
No two case statements have identical Same conditions may be repeated for number of
constants in the same switch. times.
Character constants are automatically Character constants are automatically converted
converted to integers. to integers
In switch() case statement, nested if can be In nested if statements switch() case can be used.
used.
LOOPING STATEMENTS:
1. while loop:
 It is a repetitive control structure, used to execute the statements within the body until the
condition becomes false.
 The while loop is an entry controlled loop statement means the condition is evaluated first
and it is true then the body of the loop is executed.
 After executing the body of the loop the condition is once again evaluated and if it is true,
the body is executed once again the process of repeated execution of the body of the loop
until the condition becomes false and the control is transferred out of the loop.
 The body of the loop may have one or more statements the blocking with the braces are
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needed only if the body contains two or more statements.
Syntax Example OUTPUT
 while(condition) void main() Sum of n Numbers
{ { Enter the Limit Value:10
Body of the loop; int n,i,sum=0;
} clrscr(); Sum = 55
printf("Sum of n Numbers");
printf("\nEnter the Limit Value:");
scanf("%d",&n);
i=0;
while(i<=n)
{
sum=sum+i;
i++;
}
printf("\nSum = %d",sum);
getch();
}
2. do……while loop:
 The while loop makes a test of condition before the loop is executed.
 In some situations it may be necessary to execute the body of the loop before the test condition
is performed, such a situation the do……while loop is useful.
 It is also repetitive control structure and executes the body of the loop once irrespective of the
condition then it checks the condition and continues the execution until the condition is false.
 Here the statements within the body of the loop are executed once, then it evaluates for the
condition if it is true, then it executes body until the condition becomes false.
Syntax Example OUTPUT
do void main() Sum of n Numbers
{ { Enter the Limit Value:10
Body of the loop; int n,i,sum=0;
}while(condition); clrscr(); Sum = 55
printf("Sum of n Numbers");
printf("\nEnter the Limit Value:");
scanf("%d",&n);
i=0;
do
{
sum=sum+i;
i++;
}while(i<=n);
printf("\nSum = %d",sum);
getch();
}

While Do……while
This is the top tested loop. This is the bottom tested loop.
The condition is first tested if the condition is It executes the body once after it checks the
true then the block is executed until the condition condition if it is true the body is executed
becomes false. until the condition becomes false.
Loop will not be executed if the condition is Loop is executed at least once even though
false. the condition is false.

3. for loop: www.annauniversityplus.com

 The for loop is another repetitive control structure and is used to execute set of instructions
repeatedly until the condition becomes false.
  The assignment incrementation or decrementation and condition checking is done in for
statement only where as other control structures are not offered all these features in one
statement.
For loop has three parts:
1. Initialize counter is used to initialize counter variable.
2. Test condition is used to test the condition.
3. Increment/decrement counter is used to increment or decrement counter variable.
 If there is a single statement within the for loop the blocking with braces is not
necessary if more than one statement includes in body of the loop the statements
within the body must be blocked with braces.
Syntax Example OUTPUT
for(initialize; condition; void main() Sum of n Numbers
increment/ decrement) { Enter the Limit Value:10
{ int n,i,sum=0;
Body of the loop; clrscr(); Sum = 55
} printf("Sum of n Numbers");
printf("\nEnter the Limit Value:");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=0;i<=n;i++)
{
sum=sum+i;
}
printf("\nSum = %d",sum);
getch();
}

4. Nesting of for loops:

 Like if statement for loop also nested. The loop within the loop is called nested loop.
 In nested loops two or more for statements are included in the body of the loop.
 The number of iterations in this type of structure will be equal to the number of
iterations in the outer loop multiplied by the number of iterations in the inner loop.
Types of loops:
1. Counter controlled loops:
 The counter controlled loops are used in a situation when the programmer knows
in prior exactly how many times the loop will be executed.
 These loops are also called as definite repetition loop.
 In this loop the control variable is declared initialized tested and updated regularly
for the designed operations.
2. Sentinel controlled loop:
 The sentinel controlled loops are used in a situation when the programmer not
knows in prior exactly the number of times the loop will be executed.
 This loop is also called as indefinite repetition loop, because the no. of repetition
is not known before.
 In this loop the control variable is called sentinel variable it is tested with test
condition for repetition.
Ex:
While(i!=-999)
{
Scanf(“%d”, &i);
Sum = sum+i;
} www.annauniversityplus.com
Selecting a suitable loop structure:
 Choose either entry-controlled or exit controlled loop depending on the problem.
  Choose either counter-controlled loop or sentinel controlled loop depending on
the problem.
 If the entry-controlled loop is necessary the best suitable loop in while or for.
 If the exit controlled loop is necessary the best suitable loop is do…..while.
 Choose for loop for counter controlled loop and while for sentinel controlled
loops.
UNCONDITIONAL STATEMENTS:
1. break statement:
 It is used to terminate the loop.
 When the keyword break is used inside any ‘C’ loop control automatically transferred to the
first statement after the loop.
 A break is usually associated with an if statement.
 When the break statement is encountered inside a loop the loop is immediately exited and
the program continues with the statement immediately following the loop.
Syntax: break;
2. continue statement:
 In some situation we want to take the control to the beginning of the loop bypassing the
statements inside the loop which have not yet been executed, for this purpose the continue is
used.
Syntax: continue;
Break Continue
Break statement takes the control to the outside Continue statement takes the control to the
of the loop. beginning of the loop.
It is used in switch statement. It is used in loop statements.
Always associated with if condition in loops. This is also associated with if condition.
3. goto statement:
 So far we have seen number of ways of controlling the flow of execution based on the
conditions.
 ‘C’ provides the goto statement to transfer control unconditionally from one place to another
place in the program.
 A goto statement can cause program control almost anywhere in the program
unconditionally.
 The goto statement requires a label to identify the place to move the execution.
 A label is a valid variable name and must be ended with colon(:).
Syntax:
goto label; label:
label: goto label;

//Sum of n Numbers
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,i,sum=0;
clrscr();
printf("Sum of n Numbers"); www.annauniversityplus.com
printf("\nEnter the Limit Value:");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=0;i<=n;i++)
sum=sum+i;
printf("\nSum = %d",sum);
getch();
}
OUTPUT:
Sum of n Numbers
Enter the Limit Value:10
Sum = 55

//Sum and average Numbers

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[10],n,i,sum=0;
float avg=0.0;
clrscr();
printf("Sum and average of given Numbers");
printf("\nEnter the Limit Value:");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("\nEnter the Values:");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
sum=sum+a[i];
}
avg=(float)sum/n;
printf("\nSum = %d",sum);
printf("\nAverage = %.2f",avg);
getch();
}
OUTPUT:
Sum and average of given Numbers
Enter the Limit Value:3
Enter the Values:3
6
1

Sum = 10
Average = 3.33

//roots of quadratic equation.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,c,D;
float Root1,Root2;
clrscr(); www.annauniversityplus.com
printf("Roots of quadratic equation.");
printf("\nEnter the A,B,C Value:");
scanf("%d%d%d",&a,&b,&c);
D=(b*b)-(4*a*c);
if(D>=0)
{
Root1=(float)(-b+sqrt(D))/(2*a);
Root2=(float)(-b-sqrt(D))/(2*a);
printf("\nRoot1 = %.2f",Root1);
printf("\nRoot2 = %.2f",Root2);
}
else
{
printf("\nRoots are imaginary");
}
getch();
}
OUTPUT:
Roots of quadratic equation.
Enter the A,B,C Value:3
10
2

Root1 = 463.00
Root2 = -466.33

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 UNIT-3
ARRAYS and STRINGS
Arrays:
 An array is a collection of similar data items, which are stored under a common name.
 Each element of an array is stored in successive locations of the memory.
 Data items can be int, float, char values of data types.
 The elements of the array are known as members of the array.
 Arrays are declared using the symbol square bracket”[ ]” (or) subscript.
Need for Array:
 A single variable store only one value.
 If we want to store more values means we need to declare more variables.
 This problem solved using array.
Types of array:
Arrays can be classified into
1. One Dimensional Array
2. Two Dimensional Array
3. Multi Dimensional Array

1. One Dimensional Array:

 An array is a collection of similar data items, which are stored under a common name using
single subscript.
 One Dimensional Array also called linear array or Single Dimensional Array.
 The array elements must be accessed on an element by element.
 Array accessed by using looping structure(for, while).
 Array elements are always starting at Zero and end with Maximum element-1.
Syntax:
Datatype array_name[size];
Datatype—Type of data items like as int,char,float
Array_name---specifies name of the array
Size---element count.
Example: int a[3];
Array index Element values
a[0] 4
a[1] 12
a[2] 10

Array initialization:
 The array initialized in two ways:
1. At compile time
2. At run time
1. At compile time:
o The array elements are initialized at the time of declaration.
Syntax: Datatype array_name[]={list of values};
Example: int marks[3]={45,67,89};
Array index Element values
marks[0] 45
marks [1] 67
marks [2] 89
2. At run time:
o The array elements are initialized at the time of program running.
o The “for” loop is used to initialize values for array element.
Example:
i) Using for loop to initialize value “0” to all the elements.
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int a[10],i;
for(i=0;i<10;i++)
a[i]=0;
 ii) Using scanf() function to initialize different values.
int a[5],i;
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
scanf(“%d”,&a[i]);
//One Dimensional array Sum and average Numbers
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[10],n,i,sum=0;
float avg=0.0;
clrscr();
printf("Sum and average of given Numbers");
printf("\nEnter the Limit Value:");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("\nEnter the Values:");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
sum=sum+a[i];
}
avg=(float)sum/n;
printf("\nSum = %d",sum);
printf("\nAverage = %.2f",avg);
getch();
}
OUTPUT:
Sum and average of given Numbers
Enter the Limit Value:5
Enter the Values:45
2
3
10
5
Sum = 65
Average = 13.00

2. Two Dimensional array:

o Two dimensional arrays have two subscripts.
o We need to store table of values use the 2D array.
o Two pairs of square brackets denoted by rows and columns.
Example: A[3][3];
Column-0 Column-1 Column-2
Row-0
Row-1
Row-2

That is represented as
Columns
Column-0 Column-1 Column-2
Rows

Row-0 A[0][0] A[0][1] A[0][2]

Row-1 A[1][0] A[1][1] A[1][2]
Row-2 A[2][0] A[2][1] A[2][2]

Syntax: www.annauniversityplus.com
Datatype array_name[row_size][column_size];

Initialization:
 1. At compile time:
 The values can be initialized at the time of declaration.
Syntax:
Datatype array_name[row_size][column_size]={List of Values};
Example:
A[2][2]={{1,2}{3,4}};
Or
A[2][2]={1,2,3,4};
2. At run time:
 The values can be initialized at the time of running.
 Run time initialization can be do with the scanf() function.
Example:
int a[5][5],I,j;
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
for(j=0;j<5;j++)
scanf("%d",&a[i][j]);
Example:
//Two Dimensional array or Matrix Multiplication
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[2][2],b[2][2],c[2][2],j,i,k;
clrscr();
printf("Matrix Multiplication");
printf("\nEnter the A matrix 4 values:");
for(i=0;i<2;i++)
for(j=0;j<2;j++)
scanf("%d",&a[i][j]);
printf("\nEnter the B matrix 4 values:");
for(i=0;i<2;i++)
for(j=0;j<2;j++)
scanf("%d",&b[i][j]);
printf("\nResult Matrix:\n");
for(i=0;i<2;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<2;j++)
{
c[i][j]=0;
for(k=0;k<2;k++)
c[i][j]= c[i][j]+a[i][k]*b[k][j];
}
}
for(i=0;i<2;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<2;j++)
printf("%d\t",c[i][j]);
printf("\n");
}
getch();
}
OUTPUT:
Matrix Multiplication
Enter the A matrix 4 values:1
2
3 www.annauniversityplus.com
4
Enter the B matrix 4 values:5
6
7
8
Result Matrix:
19 22
43 50

//Two Dimensional array or Matrix Addition

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[2][2],b[2][2],c[2][2],j,i;
clrscr();
printf("Matrix Addition");
printf("\nEnter the A matrix 4 values:");
for(i=0;i<2;i++)
for(j=0;j<2;j++)
scanf("%d",&a[i][j]);
printf("\nEnter the B matrix 4 values:");
for(i=0;i<2;i++)
for(j=0;j<2;j++)
scanf("%d",&b[i][j]);
printf("\nResult Matrix:\n");
for(i=0;i<2;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<2;j++)
{
c[i][j]=a[i][j]+b[i][j];
printf("%d\t",c[i][j]);
}
printf("\n");
}
getch();
}
OUTPUT:
Matrix Addition
Enter the A matrix 4 values:3
2
1
5
Enter the B matrix 4 values:4
6
8
2
Result Matrix:
7 8
9 7

Strings:
 Group of (or) Collection of (or) Array of characters are called strings.
 The strings are specified with pair of double quotes (“ “).
 Where declaring a string it will take null character “\0” at the end of string.
 This null character cannot visible.
Syntax: char array_name[];
Initialization:
 The values of string can bewww.annauniversityplus.com
initialized at run time or compile time.
 The string values are initialized at compile time:
Syntax: char array_name[]=”values”;
 Example: char name[]=”Senthil”;
 The string values are initialized at run time using scanf():
Syntax:
char array_name[];
scanf(“%s”,array_name);
Example:
char name[];
scanf(“%s”,name);
Reading and Writing:
 Reading & writing the string using scanf() & printf() function through the “%s” control string.
 Also use the gets() and puts() functions.
Syntax:
Read Write
scanf(“%s”,array_name); printf(“%s”,array_name);
gets(array_name); puts(array_name);
Example:
char name[15];
printf(“Enter the name:”);
scanf(“%s”,name);
printf(“\nName:%s”,name);
OUTPUT:
Enter the name:Senthil
Name:Senthil

String Handling (or) Standard Functions:

 The ‘C’ compiler provides the following string handling functions:
S.No. Function Purpose
1. strlen() Find length of the string
2. strcpy() Copy one string to another
3. strcat() Combine two strings
4. strcmp() Comparing two strings
5. strrev() Reverse a string
6. strlwr() Convert in to lower case
7. strupr() Convert into upper case
1. strlen():
 This function is used to count & return the number of characters present in a string.
Syntax: int var=strlen(string1);
Example:
char name[]=”Senthil”;
int len1,len2;
len1=strlen(name);
len2=strlen(“Kumar”);
printf(“%s length is %d”,name,len1);
printf(“\n%s length is %d”,”Kumar”,len1);
OUTPUT:
Senthil length is 7
Kumar length is 5
2. strcpy():
 This function is used to copy the contents of one string to another .
Syntax: strcpy(string1,string2);
 The contents of string2 copy to string1.
Example:
char str1[]=”Senthil”,str2[]=”Kumar”;
strcpy(str1,str2);
printf(“String1=%s\nString2=%s”,str1,str2);
www.annauniversityplus.com
OUTPUT:
String1=Kumar
String2=Kumar
3. strcat():
 This function is used to concatenate (or) combine the two strings.
Syntax: strcat(string1,string2);
String2 is combined with string1
Example:
char str1[]=”Senthil”,str2[]=”Kumar”;
strcat(str1,str2);
printf(“The combined string:%s”,str1);
OUTPUT:
The combined string:SenthilKumar

4. strcmp():
 This function is used to compares two strings and find out whether they are same or different.
 The two strings are compared character by character until end of one string is reached.
 When two strings are equal it will give value “Zero” otherwise give any other value.
Syntax: int var=strcmp(string1,string2);
Example:
char name1[]=”Kalai”,name2[]=”Malai”,name3[]=”Kalai”;
int I,j;
i=strcmp(name1,name2);
j=strcmp(name1,name3);
printf(“Comparison of %s & %s is %d”,name1,name2,i);
printf(“\nComparison of %s & %s is %d”,name1,name3,j);
OUTPUT:
Comparison of Kalai & Malai is 1
Comparison of Kalai & Kalai is 0
5. strrev():
 This function is used to reverse a string.
Syntax: strrev(string1);
Example:
char str1[]=”Senthil”;
strrev(str1);
printf(“Reversed String=%s”,str1);
OUTPUT:
lihtneS
6. strlwr():
 This function is used to converts the characters of string into lower case characters.
Syntax: strlwr(string1);
Example:
char str1[]=”SenThiL”;
strlwr(str1);
printf(“Converted lower case:%s”,str1);
OUTPUT:
Converted lower case:senthil
7. strupr():
 This function is used to converts the characters of string into upper case characters.
Syntax: strupr(string1);
Example:
char str1[]=”SenThiL”;
strupr(str1);
printf(“Converted upper case:%s”,str1);
OUTPUT:
Converted upper case:SENTHIL

Sorting & Searching:

Sorting: www.annauniversityplus.com
 Arrange the elements either in ascending (or) descending order.
 Elements are may be in the form of char, int, float values.
Descending order:
 Bigger number is moved to top of all & smaller number is moved to bottom.
Ascending Order:
 Smaller number is moved to top of all & bigger number is moved to bottom.
Types of Sorting:
1) Bubble sort
2) Insertion sort
3) Selection sort
4) Quick sort
1) Bubble sort:
 It is the one of the easiest sorting method.
 In this method each data item is compared with its neighbor.

 It like as bubble near with another bubble so that it is called bubble sort.
Diagram:

www.annauniversityplus.com

Example:
 //Bubble Sorting
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[]={35,75,45,5,25},j,i,temp=0;
clrscr();
printf("Bubble Sorting");
printf("\nUnsorted Elements:\n");
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
printf("%d\t",a[i]);
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
for(j=i+1;j<5;j++)
{
if(a[i]>a[j])
{
temp=a[i];
a[i]=a[j];
a[j]=temp;
}
}
printf("\nSorted Elements:\n");
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
printf("%d\t",a[i]);
getch();
}
OUTPUT:
Bubble Sorting
Unsorted Elements:
35 75 45 5 25
Sorted Elements:
5 25 35 45 75
Searching:
 To determine if the particular data item is present in that collection.
 Which data item to find is called the “key”.
 Our task the key element matches in the collection of data items.
Types of Search:
1) Sequential (or) Linear search
2) Binary search
1) Sequential (or) Linear search:
 It is the search the key element in sequentially.
 That is search element matches check with element by element.
 If the searching element is present in at last of the list means it will take more time.

www.annauniversityplus.com
Example:
//Linear or Sequential Search
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[]={4,21,36,14,62,5,10},key,i,t=0;
clrscr();
printf("Linear or Sequential Search");
printf("\nList of Elements:\n");
for(i=0;i<7;i++)
printf("%d\t",a[i]);
printf("\nEnter the search key:");
scanf("%d",&key);
for(i=0;i<7;i++)
{
if(a[i]==key)
{
t=1;
printf("\nThe %d is present in %d position",key,i+1);
break;
}
}
if(t==0)
printf("\nThe Element is not present\n");
getch();
}
OUTPUT:
Linear or Sequential Search
List of Elements:
4 21 36 14 62 5 10
Enter the search key:62
The 62 is present in 5 position

UNIT-4
FUNCTIONS:
 A function is a set of instructions that are used to perform specified task.
Types of Functions:
i) User defined functions
ii) Built in functions
User Defined Functions:
 The user defined functions has to be written by the programmer.
Built in functions:
 These functions are not required to be written by the programmer.
 Built in functions also called as pre defined (or) library functions.
Need for user defined function:
 The program becomes too large & complex.
 The users cannot go through at glance.
www.annauniversityplus.com
 The task of debugging, testing & maintenance becomes difficult.
Elements of functions:
 The functions contain following three elements:
 1) Function declaration
2) Function Definition

3) Function calling
Example:

1) Function Declaration:
 The function can be declared before they are defined.
 The parameters must match.
Syntax:
Return_type function_name(Parameter list);
Return_type  Datatype of the return value
Function_name  Name of the function
www.annauniversityplus.com
Parameter list  List of parameters
Example:
 Int add(int x, int y); or void add();
2) Function Definition:
 The function definition is the actual body of the function.
 It is the process of specifying and establishing the operation.
Syntax:
Return_type function_name(parameter list)
{
Body of the function;
Return data;
}
3) Function call:
 A function can be called by specifying its name, followed by a list of parameters.
 The function definition may return a value to function call.
 A semicolon (;) is used at the end of the statement.
Syntax:
Function_name(); (or) function_name(parameter);
Value=function_name(parameter);
Example:
Fun(); or fun(a,b);
C=fun(a,b);
Parameters:
 Parameters provide the data communication between the function call & function definition.
 Parameters are also called as arguments.
There are 2 types:
i) Actual parameters
ii) Formal parameters.
Actual and formal parameters must match.
i) Actual parameters: These parameters are present in the function call.
ii) Formal parameters: These are present in the function definition.
Example:
Void main()
{ void sum(int x, int y)
……. {
Body of the function;
…… }
Sum(a,b);
…..
……
}
Return Statement:
 Value (or) information is returned from the function definition to the function call.
 A function may contain more than one return statement.
 Return type must be present in definition.
Syntax:
Return; (or) return(value (or) expression);
Example:
www.annauniversityplus.com
int first() int second()
{ {
 ….. ……
…. …
Return x*x; return a;
} }
Function prototypes:
 The functions are classified into the following types depending on arguments present or not
and the value is returned or not.
 These are called as function prototypes.
a) Function without arguments & no return values
b) Function with arguments & no return vales
c) Function with arguments & with return vales
d) Function without arguments & with return vales

a) Function without arguments & no return values:

 Here, there is no data transfer between function call & function definition. i.e.,no
arguments
are passed
from main
function & no
value is
returned from
the sub
function.
Syntax:

Example:
void sum();
void main()
{
sum();
} www.annauniversityplus.com
void sum()
{
int a,b,c;
printf("enter the two values:");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
c=a+b;
printf("sum =%d",c);
}
Output:
enter the two values:10
20
sum =30
b) Function with arguments & no return values:
 In this prototype, data is transferred from function call to the function definition.
 The value does not return the function call so it is called one-way communication.
Syntax:

Example:
void sum(int,int);
void main()
{
int a,b;
printf("enter the two values:");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
sum(a,b);
}
void sum(int x, int y)
{
int z;
z=x+y;
printf("sum=%d",z);
}
OUTPUT: www.annauniversityplus.com
enter the two values:10
20
sum =30

c) Function with arguments & with return vales:

 Here, the data is transferred between function call & function definition.
 The value is returned to the function call. So it is called as two way communication.

Syntax:

Example:
void main()
{
int a,b,c;
clrscr();
printf(“enter the two values:”);
scanf(“%d%d”,&a,&b);
c=sum(a,b);
printf(“sum=%d”,c);
getch();
}
void sum(int x, int y)
{
int z;
z=x+y;
return z;
}
Output:
Enter the values: 5 10
Sum=15
d) Function without arguments & with return values:
www.annauniversityplus.com
 Here, no data is transferred between function call & function definition.
 But the value is returned from the function definition to the function cal.
 So it is called as one way communication.
Syntax:

Example:
void main()
{
int a,b,c;
clrscr();
c=sum();
printf(“sum=%d”,c);
getch();
}
void sum(int x, int y)
{
int x,y,z;
printf(“enter the two values:”);
scanf(“%d%d”,&x,&y);
z=x+y;
return z;
}
OUTPUT:
Enter the values: 5 10
Sum=15

Parameter Passing Methods

There are 2 ways to pass a parameter inside the function. They are:
i) Call by Value
ii) Call by reference

i) Call by Value:
 This method copies the values of actual parameters into the formal parameters of the
function.
 The changes of the formal parameters cannot affect the actual parameters.
www.annauniversityplus.com
 Because formal parameters are photocopy of the actual parameters.

Syntax:
void main()
{
…………
swap(a,b);
……….
}
swap(int a,int b)
{
int temp;
………….
}

Example:
void swap1(int,int);
void main()
{
int a=10,b=20;
clrscr();
printf("before swap: a=%d\t b=%d",a,b);
swap1(a,b);
printf("\nafter swap: a=%d\t b=%d",a,b);
}
void swap1(int x, int y)
{
int t;
t=x;
x=y;
y=t;
printf("\nIn function a=%d\t b=%d",x,y);
}
OUTPUT:
before swap: a=10 b=20
In function a=20 b=10
after swap: a=10 b=20

ii) Call by reference:

 Call by reference is the addresses of actual parameters are copied into the formal parameters
inside the function.
 The address is used to access the actual parameters inside the function also.
 So, Changes made in parameters are permanent.
 Here pointers are used to store the address.
Syntax:
void main()
{
…………..
www.annauniversityplus.com
swap(address of variable);
…………
}
void swap(pointer variable)
{
………..
}

Example:
void swap(int*,int*);
void main()
{
int a=10,b=20;
clrscr();
printf("before swap: a=%d\t b=%d",a,b);
swap(&a,&b);
printf("\nafter swap: a=%d\t b=%d",a,b);
}
void swap(int *x, int *y)
{
int t;
t=*x;
*x=*y;
*y=t;
}
OUTPUT:
before swap: a=10 b=20
after swap: a=20 b=10

Recursion:
 Recursion takes the form of function that calls itself.
 A process being performed where one of the instructions is to repeat the process.
 It is similar to looping.
 Recursion is the process of calling the same function itself again and again until some
condition is satisfied.
Syntax:
void function1();
{
---
---
function1();
}

 The above function function1() is called themselves continuously.

Example:
void main()
{
www.annauniversityplus.com
int n,f;
printf("Enter the Number:");
 scanf("%d",&n);
printf("\nThe factorial of %d = %d",n,fact(n));
}
int fact(int x)
{
int f;
if(x==1)
return 1;
else
f=x*fact(x-1);
return f;
}
OUTPUT:
Enter the Number:5
The factorial of 5 = 120

Tower of Hanoi:
 The Tower of Hanoi is a mathematical game or puzzle.
 It consists of three rods, and a number of disks of different
sizes which can slide onto any rod.
 The puzzle starts with the disks in a neat stack in ascending
order of size on one rod, the smallest at the top, thus making a
conical shape.
The objective of the puzzle is to move the entire stack to another rod,
obeying the following simple rules:
1. Only one disk can be moved at a time.
2. Each move consists of taking the upper disk from one of the
stacks and placing it on top of another stack i.e. a disk can only
www.annauniversityplus.com
be moved if it is the uppermost disk on a stack.
3. No disk may be placed on top of a smaller disk.
 With three disks, the puzzle can be solved in seven moves. The minimum number of moves
required to solve a Tower of Hanoi puzzle is 2n - 1, where n is the number of disks.

The Standard Library Functions

 Some of the "commands" in C are not really "commands" at all but are functions.
 For example, we have been using printf and scanf to do input and output, and we have used
rand to generate random numbers - all three are functions.
 There are a great many standard functions that are included with C compilers and while these
are not really part of the language, in the sense that you can re-write them if you really want
to, most C programmers think of them as fixtures and fittings.
 ASCII(American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
 The most useful functions they contain follows:

S.No. Function Meaning Example OUTPUT

Mathematics functions
1. sqrt() It evaluates square root of x x=25; sqrt(x); 5
2. abs() The absolute value of integer quantity x=-75; abs(x); 75
3. pow(x,y) It evaluates the values of xy x=3,y=2; pow(x,y); 9
4. ceil() Round of given number. x=5.6;ceil(x); 6
Trigonometric Functions
5. sin() It evaluates sine value. x=30; sin(x); -0.99
6. cos() It evaluates cosine value. x=30; cos(x); 0.15
7. tan() It evaluates tangent value. x=30; tan(x); -6.41
Character Function
8. toascii() It gives ASCII value of the character. x=’a’; ascii(x); 97
9. tolower() It converts lowercase character. x=’A’; tolower(x); a
10. toupper() It converts uppercase character. x=’a’; toupper(x); A

Example:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
#include<ctype.h>
void main()
{
int x,y=2;
printf("\nEnter the number:");
scanf("%d",&x); www.annauniversityplus.com
printf("\nThe squareroot of %d is %f",x,sqrt(x));
printf("\nThe value of %d power%dis%f ",x,y,pow(6,2));
printf("\nThe ceiling of 6.7 is %f",ceil(6.7));
printf("\nThe floor of 6.7 is %f",floor(6.7));
printf("\nThe absolute value of -6 is %d",abs(-6));
printf("\nThe value of sin 45 is %f",sin(45));
printf("\nThe uppercase of 'a' is %c",toupper('a'));
printf("\nThe uppercase of 97 is %c",toupper(97));
getch();
}
OUTPUT:
Enter the number:6
The squareroot of 6 is 2.449490
The value of 6 power 2 is 36.000000
The ceiling of 6.7 is 7.000000
The floor of 6.7 is 6.000000
The absolute value of -6 is 6
The value of sin 45 is 0.850904
The uppercase of 'a' is A
The uppercase of 97 is A

Pointers:
 A pointer is a variable that is used to store the address of another variable.
 It is declared like other variables and also it is always denoted by asterisk “*” operator.
 Each variable has two attributes:
o Address
o Value
 It can be used to access and manipulate data stored in the
memory.
 Ordinary Variable:
int a=5;
aaccess the value
&a access the address of variable.
a variable
5 value
4002 address
Syntax: Data_type *pointer_variable;
Example: int *p;

Advantages:
1. It is increase the speed of execution.
2. It is saving memory space.
3. It enables us to access the memory directly.
4. It is also provide an alternate way to access an array.
5. Multiple data items can receive in the function.
Initializing pointer:
 The process of assigning the address of a variable to a pointer variable is called initialization.
 The location of the variablewww.annauniversityplus.com
in system memory.
 This can be achieved through the ampersand(&) symbol.
 The ampersand(&) symbol is an address operator.
  It takes the address of the variable.
 Pointers must be initializing with assigning address of the variable.
Example:
void main()
{
int a=10,*p;
p=&a;
printf("\n*p=%d\tp=%d\t&p=%d\t&a=%d",*p,p,&p,&a);
}
OUTPUT:
*p=10 p=-12 &p=-14 &a=-12
 *pvalue of the address stored in pointer variable.
 Paddress of the variable.
 &paddress of the pointer variable.
 &aaddress of the variable.
a variable *p
10 value -12
-12 address -14

Pointer Arithmetic:
 C pointer is an address, which is a numeric value.
 Therefore, you can perform arithmetic operations on a pointer just as you can a numeric value.
 There are four arithmetic operators that can be used on pointers: ++, --, +, and -
Data type Initial Address operation address after operation bytes of data type
char 4000 ++ 4001 1
char 4000 -- 3999 1
int 4000 ++ 4002 2
int 4000 -- 3998 2
float 4000 ++ 4004 4
float 4000 -- 3996 4

Incrementing a Pointer
 Incrementing pointer is generally used in array.
 The variable pointer to access each succeeding element of the array.
 Incrementing pointer variable depends upon datatype of the pointer variable.
Example:
void main ()
{
int var[] = {10, 100, 200};
int i, *ptr;
ptr = var;
for ( i = 0; i < 3; i++)
{
printf("\nAddress of var[%d] = %u", i, ptr );
printf("\nValue of var[%d] = %d", i, *ptr );
ptr++;
} www.annauniversityplus.com
}
OUTPUT:
Address of var[0] = 65520
Value of var[0] = 10
Address of var[1] = 65522
Value of var[1] = 100
Address of var[2] = 65524
Value of var[2] = 200

Decrementing a Pointer
 The same considerations apply to decrementing a pointer, which decreases its value by the
number of bytes of its data type as shown below:
Example:
void main ()
{
int var[] = {10, 100, 200};
int i, *ptr;
ptr = &var[3-1];
for ( i = 3; i > 0; i--)
{
printf("Address of var[%d] = %u\n", i, ptr );
printf("Value of var[%d] = %d\n", i, *ptr );
ptr--;
}
}
OUTPUT:
Address of var[3] = 65524
Value of var[3] = 200
Address of var[2] = 65522
Value of var[2] = 100
Address of var[1] = 65520
Value of var[1] = 10

Pointers and Arrays or Pointers and Functions:

• The elements of the array can also be accessed through a pointer.
• Pointers also send the array to functions.
Syntax:
Pointer_variable=array_name;
Example:
void fun(int[]);
void main()
{
int a[3]={10,20,30},*p;
p=a;
fun(p);
}
void fun(int b[])
www.annauniversityplus.com
{
int i,total=0;
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
total=total+b[i];
printf("\nTotal=%d",total);
}
OUTPUT:
Total=60

Unit-5
Structures and Union
Structures:
 Structure is a compound datatype.
 It stores different type of data items.
 It is used to store dissimilar data items.
 Structure is creating with the “struct” keyword.
 It is the one of the storage unit.
 Different type of data items can be store in different memory space.
 The elements of structure are called members.
 It must be declare and defined.

INT FLOAT

Structures
CHAR DOUBLE

Structure Declaration and Definition:

 It must be declare and defined.
 Structure is creating with the “struct” keyword.
 Structure finished declaration with semicolon(;).
 Accessing members with dot(.) operator.
Syntax:
struct structure_name
{
Datatype variables;
----
}; www.annauniversityplus.com
Creating structure Variable:
struct structure_name structure_variable;
 Accessing structure Member:
structure_variable.member;

Difference between structure and array:

S.No. Array Structure
1. It is a collection of similar data items. it is collection of dissimilar data items
2. It is derived data type. It is a user defined data type.
3. It behaves like a built-in data types. It must be declared and defined.
4. An array can be increase or decrease. Its members can be added.

Example:
//Student Details using Structure
struct stud
{
int regno,m1,m2,m3,total;
char name[20],result[5];
};
void main()
{
struct stud s1,s2;
printf("\nStructures");
printf("\nEnter the Regno, Name:");
scanf("%d%s",&s1.regno,s1.name);
printf("\nEnter the Mark1, Mark2, Mark3:");
scanf("%d%d%d",&s1.m1,&s1.m2,&s1.m3);
s1.total=s1.m1+s1.m2+s1.m3;
if(s1.m1<50||s1.m2<50||s1.m3<50)
strcpy(s1.result,"Fail");
else
strcpy(s1.result,"Pass");
s2=s1; //Assigning structure
printf("Regno\tName\tMark1\tMark2\tMark3\tTotal\tResult\n");
printf("%d\t%s\t%d\t%d\t%d\t%d\t%s",s1.regno,s1.name,s1.m1,s1.m2,s1.m3,s1.total,s1.result);
printf("\nStructure--2");
printf("\nRegno\tName\tMark1\tMark2\tMark3\tTotal\tResult\n");
printf("%d\t%s\t%d\t%d\t%d\t%d\t%s",s2.regno,s2.name,s2.m1,s2.m2,s2.m3,s2.total,s2.result);
getch();
}
OUTPUT:
Enter the Regno, Name:345
kumar
Enter the Mark1, Mark2, Mark3:67
78
61
Regno Name Mark1 Mark2 Mark3 Total Result
345 kumar 67 78 61 206 Pass
Structure--2
Regno Name Mark1 Mark2 Mark3 Total Result
345 kumar 67 78 61 206 Pass

Structure within structure: www.annauniversityplus.com

 A structure can be declared within another structure.
 It is also called nesting of structure.
 The structure variables can be normal variable or pointer variable.
  Nesting of more than one type of structure is allowed.
 Structure cannot be nested within itself.
Syntax:
struct struct_1
{
----
----
};
struct struct_2
{
----
----
struct struct_1 s1;
};
Example:
// Structure within structure
struct college_detail
{
int college_id;
char college_name[20];
};
struct student_detail
{
int regno;
char name[20];
float percent;
struct college_detail c1;
};
void main()
{
struct student_detail s1={703,"kumar",87.3,1300,"XYZ college"};
printf("\nStructures within Structure\n");
printf("Regno\tName\tpercentage\tCollege ID\tCollege Name\n");
printf("%d\t%s\t%f\t%d\t%s",s1.regno,s1.name,s1.percent,s1.c1.college_id,s1.c1.college_name);
getch();
}
OUTPUT:
Structures within Structure
Regno Name percentage College ID College Name
703 kumar 87.300003 1300 XYZ college

Example:
//Employee Details using Structure
void dummy(float *a)
{
float b=*a; //perform some floating access
dummy (&b); //calling a floating point function
}
struct employee1
{
int empno;
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char name[10];
float salary;
};
void main()
{
struct employee1 e[10];
int i,n;
printf("\nEnter the no.of Employees:");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("\nEnter the employee empno,name,salary:");
scanf("%d%s%f",&e[i].empno,e[i].name,&e[i].salary);
}
printf("\nEmployee Details\n");
printf("\nEMPNO\tNAME\tSALARY");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
printf("\n%d\t%s\t%.2f",e[i].empno,e[i].name,e[i].salary);
getch();
}
OUTPUT:
Enter the no.of Employees:2
Enter the employee empno,name,salary:23
Raj
5000
Enter the employee empno,name,salary:24
Kumar
3500
Employee Details
EMPNO NAME SALARY
23 Raj 5000.00
24 Kumar 3500.00

Union
• A Union is a collection of different data items, which are stored under a common name.
• Here same memory is shared by its members.
• The keyword union is used to define a union.
• Size of union is equal to the size of largest member.
• Memory allocated is shared by individual members of union.
• The address is same for all the members of a union.
• Altering the value of any of the member will alter other member values.
• Only one member can be accessed at a time.
• Only the first member of a union can be initialized.

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Syntax:
union union_name
 {
union element1;
union element2;
…………………
};
Example:
union result
{
int mark;
float avg;
char grade;
};
union result s;

Structure Union
1.The keyword struct is used to define a structure 1. The keyword union is used to define a union.
2. The size of structure is greater than or equal to the 2. Size of union is equal to the size of largest
sum of sizes of its members. member.
3. Each member within a structure is assigned 3. Memory allocated is shared by individual
unique storage area of location. members of union.
4. The address of each member will be in ascending 4. The address is same for all the members of a
order. union.
5 Altering the value of a member will not affect 5. Altering the value of any of the member will
other members of the structure. alter other member values.
6. Individual member can be accessed at a time 6. Only one member can be accessed at a time.
7. Several members of a structure can initialize at 7. Only the first member of a union can be
once. initialized.

Example:
void dummy(float *a)
{
float b=*a; //perform some floating access
dummy (&b); //calling a floating point function
}
union employee1
{
int empno;
char name[10];
float salary;
};
void main()
{
union employee1 e[10];
int i,n;
printf("\nEnter the no.of Employees:");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("\nEnter the employee empno,name,salary:");
scanf("%d%s%f",&e[i].empno,e[i].name,&e[i].salary);
} www.annauniversityplus.com
printf("\nEmployee Details\n");
printf("\nEMPNO\tNAME\tSALARY");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
printf("\n%d\t%s\t%.2f",e[i].empno,e[i].name,e[i].salary);
getch();
}
OUTPUT:
Enter the no.of Employees:2
Enter the employee empno,name,salary:23
Raj
5000
Enter the employee empno,name,salary:24
Kumar
3500
Employee Details
EMPNO NAME SALARY
16384 5000.00
-16384 3500.00

Preprocessor:
 It is a program that processes the source program before compilation.
 The C preprocessor executes before a program is compiled.
 Preprocessor directives begin with # and only white-space characters and comments may
appear before a preprocessor directive on a line.
 It operates under the following directives
1. File Inclusion
2. Macro substitution
3. Conditional inclusion

File Inclusion:
• It is used to include some file that contains functions or some definitions.
• Copy of a specified file included in place of the directive
Syntax:
#include<filename> Searches standard library for file
(or) #include“filename” Searches for user-defined files
Example:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include "addition.txt"
void main()
{
int a,b;
printf("\nEnter the numbers:");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
printf("The Value is %d",add(a,b));
getch();
}
addition.txt
int add(int a,int b)
{
return(a+b);
}
OUTPUT:
Enter the numbers:7 www.annauniversityplus.com
4
The Value is 11
Macro Substitution:
• It is used to define and use integer, string, or identifier in the source program
• The three forms of macros are
– Simple Macro
– Argumented Macro
– Nested Macro
1) Simple Macro:
 It is used to define some constants.
Syntax
#define identifier string/integer
Example:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#define pi 3.14
#define CITY "chennai"
void main()
{
printf("The Value is %f",2*pi);
printf("\nThe Value CITY is %s",CITY);
getch();
}
OUTPUT:
The Value is 6.280000
The Value CITY is chennai

2) Argumented Macro
• It is used to define some complex forms in the source program.
Syntax:
#define identifier (v1,v2,….) string/integer
Example:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#define cube(n) (n*n*n)
void main()
{
printf("The Value of 3 cube is %d",cube(3));
getch();
}
OUTPUT:
The Value of 3 cube is 27
3) Nested Macro
 Here one macro is used by another macro.
Example:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#define a 3
#define sq a*a
void main()
{
printf("The Value is %d",sq);
getch();
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}
Output:
The Value is 9
Conditional Inclusion:
 It is used to include some conditional statements.
Example:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#define a 3
#ifdef a
#define c a+5
#endif
void main()
{
printf("\nThe value C is %d",c);
getch();
}
Output:
The value C is 8

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