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Earth Science
arth science is a blend of many different sciences,
E including geology, meteorology, oceanography, and
astronomy. Earth scientists in these different specialties
study and model the processes that change our planet.
Some of these changes take place in a matter of seconds;
others take millions of years to occur. The rocks and struc-
tures shown here formed millions of years ago as a result
of many interactions among some of Earth’s systems. In
this unit, you’ll learn about some of the methods used by
Earth scientists, how various parts of Earth interact to
produce changes, and how our planet can be represented
by models known as maps.
Unit Contents
1 The Nature of Science
2 Mapping Our World
Go to the National Geographic

Expedition on page 864 to learn
more about topics that are con-
nected to this unit.
2
Sunset Arch, Grand Staircase
Staircase——
Escalante Wilderness, Utah
3
1 The Nature
What You’ll Learn
• How Earth science is
a blend of sciences.
of Science
• How Earth’s four major
systems interact.
• What is involved in
carrying out scientific
experiments.
• Why it is important to
communicate scientific
methods and results
accurately.
Why It’s Important

In order to better under-
stand Earth and how its
processes affect our lives
and the environment, it is
necessary to learn about
its major systems, the
methods used by Earth
scientists, and how
scientific work is done.
To find out more about

the planet on which you
live, visit the Earth Science
Web Site at earthgeu.com
4
Discovery Lab Scientific Communication
Have you ever explained some- 3. Give your partner the description
thing to someone only to later find and allow him or her a few min-
out that what you thought was a utes to try to determine what your
crystal-clear explanation was confus- object is.
ing, misleading, or even incorrect?
4. Now use your partner’s description
Communication is a very important
to determine what his or her
skill both in everyday life and in sci-
object is.
ence. In this activity, you will work
with a partner to describe objects Communicate Work together
provided by your teacher. to rewrite each description in
your science journals to make
1. Obtain an object from your teacher. them as succinct as possible.
Don’t show it to your partner. Trade the new descriptions with
2. Write only one sentence that accu- another pair of students. Did this
rately describes the object in detail pair of students have an easier time at
without actually saying what the determining the objects than you and
object is. your partner did? Why or why not?
1.1 Earth Science

OBJECTIVES It is easy to see from the photograph on page 4 why this strip of the
• Differentiate among the California coast is called Bowling Ball Beach. These round structures
four major branches of are concretions—masses of rock that form as the result of processes
Earth science. at work on Earth’s surface. In this book, you’ll learn about Earth and
the processes and forces that change it, the materials from which it is
• Contrast the four systems made, its long history, and its place in the universe.
of Earth.
• Discuss how Earth sci- THE SCOPE OF EARTH SCIENCE
ence affects your daily life. The scope of Earth science is vast. Dinosaur bones on display at
museums were once embedded in the rocks that make up some of
VOCABULARY Earth’s cliffs and canyons. Mining certain rocks produces some of the
gold used by jewelers and dentists. Computer models simulate the
astronomy asthenosphere
flow of the blanket of air that surrounds Earth so that scientists bet-
meteorology hydrosphere
ter understand stormy weather. Ocean-floor exploration has led to
geology atmosphere
the discovery of bizarre creatures that never see the light of day, while
oceanography biosphere
the study of objects in space has revealed much about our own planet.
lithosphere
1.1 Ear th Science 5

Figure 1-1 Astronomy
includes the study of Earth,
its neighbors, and distant
stars. The Keck Telescope in
Hawaii, shown here, is used
to study stars trillions of
kilometers from Earth.
As you can see, there are many different areas of Earth science. This
broad field can be broken into four major areas of specialization:
astronomy, meteorology, geology, and oceanography.
Astronomy Astronomy is the study of objects beyond Earth’s

atmosphere. Prior to the invention of sophisticated instruments,
such as the telescope shown in Figure 1-1, many astronomers merely
Figure 1-2 Some ocean-
described the locations of objects in space in relation to one another.
ographers study how Today, these Earth scientists study the universe and everything in it,
human activities affect including Earth, its neighbors, and other bodies in the universe.
Earth’s oceans. This oil spill
occurred off the coast of Meteorology The branch of Earth science that studies the air
Wales in 1996.
that surrounds our planet is called meteorology. Meteorologists
study the forces and processes that cause the atmosphere to change
to produce weather. These Earth scientists also try to predict the
weather and how changes in weather might affect Earth’s climate.
Geology The study of the materials that make up Earth and the
processes that form and change these materials is the branch of Earth
science known as geology. Geologists identify rocks, study glacial
movements, interpret clues to Earth’s 4.6 billion-year history, and
determine how forces change our planet, among many other things.
Oceanography The study of Earth’s oceans, which cover nearly

three-fourths of the planet, is called oceanography. Oceanographers
study the creatures that inhabit salty water, measure different physi-
cal and chemical properties of the oceans, and observe various
processes in these bodies of water. Some oceanographers study the
effects of human activities on Earth’s saltwater bodies. The oil shown
in Figure 1-2 is just a very small portion of the 70 000 tonnes that
were spilled off the coast of Wales in 1996.
6 CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Science

The study of our planet is a broad endeavor, and thus it requires
a variety of subspecialties of the four major areas of Earth science.
Some of these subspecialties are listed in Table 1-1. What kinds of
things does a paleontologist study? Which subspecialty is concerned
with the environment? What types of things are studied by scientists
specializing in tectonics? What might a hydrologist study?
EARTH’S SYSTEMS
Scientists who study Earth have identified four main Earth systems:
the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere.
Each system is unique, yet each interacts with the others. None of
Earth’s systems is independent of the others, nor of the global system
of Earth itself.
Table 1-1 Some Subspecialties of Earth Science

Subspecialty Subjects Studied Subspecialty Subjects Studied
Climatology Patterns of weather Ecology Habitats of organisms
over a long period of and how organisms
time; effects of human interact with each
activities on weather other and their
and climate environments
Paleontology Remains of organisims Geochemistry Earth’s composition

that once lived on and the processes that
Earth; ancient change it
environments
Hydrology Water flow on and Tectonics Effects of internal

below Earth’s surface; processes on Earth’s
sources of and surface, including
solutions to water earthquakes and
pollution mountain building

The Lithosphere Earth’s lithosphere is the rigid outer shell of the
planet and includes the crust and the solid, uppermost part of the
layer below the crust, the mantle. There are two kinds of crust: conti-
nental crust and oceanic crust. Earth’s continental crust is made
mostly of a rock called granite. Oceanic crust is mainly basalt, a rock
that is denser than granite. Earth’s mantle is mainly composed of a
rock called peridotite. Some of Earth’s upper mantle behaves like a
rigid solid while other parts of this layer are partially molten and flow
like a soft plastic. This partially molten layer is the asthenosphere.
Beneath Earth’s mantle is the core, which can be divided into two
parts: an outer, liquid part and a solid, inner part. Earth’s core is
thought to be made of iron and nickel. While Earth’s core and
asthenosphere are not parts of the lithosphere, they do interact with
this system of Earth to produce many of the features at the planet’s
surface. You’ll learn how the lithosphere and asthenosphere interact
to produce volcanoes, mountains, and earthquakes in Unit 5.
The Hydrosphere The water in Earth’s oceans, seas, lakes, rivers,

and glaciers, as well as the water in the atmosphere, makes up the
Topic: Earth’s Systems hydrosphere. About 97 percent of Earth’s water exists as salt water;
To learn more about
Earth’s four major systems,
the remaining 3 percent is freshwater contained in glaciers, in lakes
visit the Earth Science and rivers, and beneath Earth’s surface as groundwater. About three
Web Site at earthgeu.com fourths of all freshwater is contained in glaciers and icebergs, such
Activity: Write a study as the one shown in Figure 1-3; most of the rest of this freshwater
question for each of the is groundwater. On a fraction of Earth’s total amount of freshwater
Earth’s four major systems
based on your new is in lakes and rivers. You’ll find out more about Earth’s hydro-
knowledge. sphere in Units 3, 4, and 7.
Figure 1-3 Most of Earth’s

freshwater is contained in
glaciers. The iceberg shown
here broke off of one of
the glaciers that covers
nearly all of the continent
of Antarctica.

Figure 1-4 The biosphere,
The Atmosphere The blanket of gases that surrounds our planet hydrosphere, atmosphere,
is called the atmosphere. Among other things, Earth’s atmosphere is and lithosphere are interde-
necessary for respiration by most living things, protects Earth’s pendent systems of Earth.
inhabitants from harmful radiation from the Sun, and helps to keep
the planet at a temperature suitable for life. Earth’s atmosphere con-
tains about 78 percent nitrogen and 21 percent oxygen. The remain-
ing 1 percent of gases in the atmosphere include water vapor, argon,
carbon dioxide, and other trace gases. You will learn more about
Earth’s atmosphere and how parts of this system interact to produce
weather in Unit 4.
The Biosphere The biosphere includes all organisms on Earth as

well as the environments in which they live. Most organisms exist
within a few meters of Earth’s surface, but some live deep beneath the
ocean’s surface, and others live high atop Earth’s mountains. Earth’s
biosphere appears to be unique in that scientists have not yet found
any confirmed evidence of life on other planets in our solar system
or elsewhere in the galaxy.
As you can see in Figure 1-4, Earth’s biosphere, lithosphere, hydro-
sphere, and atmosphere are interdependent systems. Earth’s present
atmosphere, for example, formed millions of years ago as a result of
volcanic activity, respiration and transpiration by ancient organisms,
and photosynthesis. Today’s organisms, including humans, continue
to change the atmosphere through their life processes and activities.
You’ll explore interactions among Earth’s biosphere and other sys-
tems, both past and present, in Units 3, 4, 6, and 7.

EARTH SCIENCE IN YOUR
EVERYDAY LIFE
You and the billions of other life-
forms that live on Earth are part of
the biosphere. Together with many
of these creatures, you live on
Earth’s crust, which is part of the
lithosphere, and breathe the gases
in Earth’s atmosphere. You also
depend in many ways on the sub-
stance that covers nearly three-
fourths of Earth — water, which
makes up the hydrosphere. In what
other ways is Earth science a part of
your everyday life?
Figure 1-5 Computers,
calculators, telephones, and Technology While you might not realize it, the study of science,
electricity are technological including Earth science, has led to the discovery of many things that
advances used by many
people in their daily lives.
you use every day. This application of scientific discoveries is called
technology. Freeze-dried foods, ski goggles, micro-fabrics, and the
ultra-light materials used to make many pieces of sports equipment
are just a few examples of technological advances developed as a
result of scientific study. Today, these items, along with those shown
in Figure 1-5, are common.
Technology is transferable, which means that it can be applied to
new situations. The technological developments just described were
first developed for use in space. Later, they were modified for use
here on Earth. In the Science & Technology feature at the end of this
chapter, you’ll find out how medical technology has been used to
study dinosaurs!
1. Name and briefly describe the four 6. Thinking Critically What kinds of interac-
branches of Earth science. tions do you think occur between Earth’s
2. What does a geologist study? hydrosphere and atmosphere?
3. What does a geochemist study? SKILL REVIEW

4. Compare and contrast Earth’s lithosphere 7. Outlining Outline the main ideas of this
and asthenosphere. section. For more help, refer to the
5. Describe the subdivisions of Earth’s Skill Handbook.
hydrosphere.
10 CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Science earthgeu.com/self_check_quiz

1.2 Methods of Scientists
Are you a scientist? Have you ever picked up a rock and peered at it OBJECTIVES
for clues about its origin? Have you ever made a decision about what
• List the steps used in
to wear after having observed the clouds in the sky? Have you won-
a scientific method.
dered where soil comes from, or where it goes during a heavy rain?
While you might not be a scientist, if you answered yes to any of these • Compare and contrast
or similar questions, you have thought like a scientist. What makes experimental variables
scientific methods different from other methods of problem solving? and controls.
• Identify basic SI units.
THE NATURE OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS
• Explain how to write
A scientific method is a planned, organized approach to solving a
numbers using scientific
problem. While the steps taken to solve the problem can vary, the first
notation.
step involved in scientific problem solving, as shown in Figure 1-6, is
usually identifying the problem, or determining what it is you want to
VOCABULARY
know. Often, scientific problem solving involves researching the prob-
lem. Once the problem is defined and research is complete, hypothesis
a hypothesis, or suggested explanation for an observation, is made. independent variable
Often, a hypothesis is stated in the form of a question that can be dependent variable
answered by the results of a test or an experiment. control
Le Système International
d’Unités (SI)
Question Test scientific notation
1. Decide what 2. Do some 1. Select a 2. Determin
e how
you want to research. sample. the variables
will
know. be controlle
d and
measured.
3. Conduct the 4. Record

3. Design a test; 4. State a
hypothesis, experiment the results.
identify and
and make a and observe.
define the
variables. prediction.
Conclude Analyze
1. Look at the 1. Organize the data 2. Look for

data and 2. Re-evaluate
using graphs, trends in
form conc lusions. the hypothesis.
tables, and charts. the data.
3. Compare the data

Figure 1-6 Various steps
3. Formulate new with the hypothesis
questions. and the prediction.
and processes are involved
in a scientific approach to
problem solving.
1.2 Methods of Scientists 11

Experimentation A hypothesis is tested
by conducting an experiment, which is an
organized procedure that involves making
measurements and observations. A good
How do soil and water scientific experiment tests only one vari-
absorb and release heat? able, or changeable factor, at a time. The
independent variable in an experiment is
Experiment to determine the relationship the factor that is manipulated by the exper-
between variables.
imenter. A dependent variable is a factor
Procedure that can change if the independent vari-
able is changed. Constants are factors that
1. Obtain the materials for this lab from
your teacher.
do not change during an experiment. A
2. Put soil into one container until it is half control is used in an experiment to show
full. Put water into other container until it that the results of an experiment are actually
is half full. a result of the condition being tested. Refer
3. Place one thermometer in the soil so that to the Skill Handbook for more information
the bulb is barely covered. Use masking on variables. You will experiment with vari-
tape to secure another thermometer ables in the MiniLab on this page and in
about 1 cm from the top of the soil. many other activities throughout this book.
4. Repeat step 3 with the container of water.
5. Put the containers on a very sunny win- Safety in the Science Classroom Some
dowsill. Record the temperature shown of the labs and activities in this book will
on each thermometer. Write these values require that you handle various materials
in a table. Then record temperature read-
and equipment, including those shown in
ings every 5 minutes for half an hour.
Figure 1-7. When conducting any scientific
6. Remove the containers from the win-
dowsill and immediately record the tem-
investigation, it is important to use all mate-
perature on each thermometer every rials and equipment only as instructed.
5 minutes for half an hour. Follow the safety rules listed in Table 1-2 to
Analyze and Conclude

1. Which substance absorbed heat faster?
2. Which substance lost heat faster?
3. What was your independent variable?
Your dependent variable?
Figure 1-7 Safety goggles and a

lab apron should be worn during
any activity or experiment in the
science lab.

Table 1-2 Some Important Safety Rules
for the Science Lab
1. Before beginning any investigation, understand the safety symbols noted by
referring to the symbols and their meanings in Appendix B.
2. Wear safety goggles and a safety apron during all investigations that involve
heating, pouring, or using chemicals.
3. Tie back long hair and loose clothing before you begin any investigation.
4. Always slant test tubes away from yourself and others when heating the
tubes. Keep all materials away from open flames.
5. Never eat or drink in the lab and never use laboratory glassware as food or
drink containers.
6. Never inhale chemicals, and never taste any substance used in the lab. Also,
don’t draw any material into a tube with your mouth.
7. Know what to do in case of fire. Also, know the location and proper use of
the fire extinguisher, safety shower, fire blanket, first-aid kit, and fire alarm.
8. Report any spill, accident, or injury to your teacher immediately.
9. When cleaning up, dispose of chemicals and other materials only as directed
by your teacher.
10. Always wash your hands thoroughly with soap after working in the lab.
help prevent injury to you and others in the lab as well as make you
aware of possible hazards in a science lab. Refer to Appendix B for
additional safety information and a table of symbols that will alert
you to potential hazards.
Analysis and Conclusions During a scientific experiment, all

data, including measurements and observations, are carefully
recorded. Once an experiment is complete, the data must be format-
ted so that they can be studied, or analyzed. Graphs, tables, and
charts are commonly used to format and display scientific data,
which are then analyzed so that a conclusion can be drawn.
Sometimes, a conclusion is contrary to the original hypothesis. In
such a case, because the conclusion is supported by the data, the
hypothesis, not the conclusion or the data, must be re-evaluated.
It is important to note, as shown in Figure 1-6, that scientific
methods are not rigid, step-by-step outlines to solve problems.
Scientists can take many different approaches to solving a scientific
problem. In many scientific investigations, for example, scientists
form new ideas after observing unexpected results. Sometimes, dur-
ing the process of investigating one problem, an experimenter
might encounter a different problem and choose to pursue the new
problem rather than the original hypothesis.

MEASUREMENT
Scientific experiments often involve making measurements. A mea-
surement, as you already know, includes both a number that identi-
Topic: SI Measurements
fies how many units there are and a unit of measure. Most scientific
To learn more about SI, studies and experiments use a standard system of units called Le
visit the Earth Science Web Système International d’Unités, or SI for short. This system is a
Site at earthgeu.com modern version of the metric system. SI is based on a decimal system
Activity: List three facts that uses the number 10 as the base unit. You will make various mea-
about the history of SI.
surements in SI in the GeoLab at the end of this chapter.
Length The standard SI unit to measure length is the meter (m).

The distance from a doorknob to the floor is about 1 m. A guitar is
also about 1 m long. The meter is divided into 100 equal parts called
centimeters (cm). Thus, 1 cm is 1/100 of 1 m. One millimeter (mm)
is smaller than 1 cm. There are 10 mm in 1 cm. How many millime-
Measuring Use a ters are in 1 m? Long distances are measured in kilometers (km).
metric ruler to mea- There are 1000 m in 1 km. How many centimeters are in 1 km?
sure the length of
the following objects Weight and Mass Weight is a measure of the gravitational force
in both millimeters
and centimeters: this
on an object. Weight is typically measured with some type of scale.
book, a small paper Unlike mass, weight varies with location. For example, the weight
clip, and your pencil. of the astronaut shown in Figure 1-8 while on the Moon is about
Would you use these one-sixth the astronaut’s weight on Earth. This is because the grav-
same units to mea- itational force exerted by the Moon on the astronaut is one-sixth
sure the length of
your classroom? Why the force exerted by Earth on the astronaut. Weight is a force, and
or why not? the SI unit for force is the newton (N). The SI unit of mass is the
kilogram (kg). A half-cup of water with a mass of 4 ounces weighs
about 1 N, and a person with a mass of 60 kg weighs about 600 N.
Mass is the amount of matter in an object and depends on the
number and kinds of atoms that make up the object. The mass of an
Figure 1-8 The gravita-

tional force exerted by the
Moon is less than the gravi-
tational force exerted by
Earth. Thus, when this
astronaut visited the Moon
in 1969, he weighed less
than he did on Earth.
14
object, unlike weight, does not change with an object’s posi-
tion. Mass can be measured with a balance like the one shown
in Figure 1-9.
Area and Volume Some measurements, such as area,

require a combination of SI units. Area is the amount of sur-
face included within a set of boundaries and is expressed in
square units of length, such as square meters (m2) or square
centimeters (cm2). Determine the area, in square centime-
ters, of this book by multiplying the length of the book by
its width.
The amount of space occupied by an object is the
object’s volume. The SI units for volume, like those of
area, are derived from the SI units used to measure
length. The basic SI unit of volume for a regularly
shaped, solid object is the cubic meter (m3). SI measure-
ments for liquid volumes are usually made in milliliters
(mL) or liters (L). Volume can also be expressed in cubic
centimeters (cm3); 1 cm3 equals 1 mL.
Figure 1-9 Mass is mea-
sured with a balance.
Density Density is a measure of the amount of matter that occu-
pies a given space. Density is calculated by dividing the mass of the
matter by its volume. Density is often expressed in grams per cubic
centimeter (g/cm3), grams per milliliter (g/mL), or kilograms per
cubic meter (kg/m3).
Time Time is the interval between two events and is usually mea-
sured with a watch or clock. The clock shown in Figure 1-10 is an
Figure 1-10 Atomic clocks
atomic clock, which provides the most precise measure of time. The provide much more precise
SI unit of time is the second (s). In the activities in this book, you will measures of time than ordi-
generally measure time in seconds or minutes. nary clocks.
Temperature Temperature is a measure of the aver-

age vibrations of the particles that make up a material.
A mass made up of particles that vibrate quickly has a
higher temperature than a mass whose particles vibrate
more slowly. Temperature is measured in degrees with
a thermometer. In science, temperature is often mea-
sured on the Celsius (C) scale. On the Celsius scale, a
comfortable room temperature is about 25oC, and the
normal temperature of the human body is about 37oC.
In SI, temperature is measured on the Kelvin scale. On
this scale, the coldest possible temperature is absolute
zero, or 0 K, which is equal to –273oC.

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
In many branches of science, some
numbers are very small, while others
are quite large. To conveniently
express these numbers, scientists use
a type of shorthand called scientific
notation to express the number as a
Figure 1-11 The Sombrero multiplier and a power of 10.
Galaxy, shown here, is just In scientific notation, a number is expressed as a value between
one of many groups of stars
1 and 10 multiplied by a power of 10. The power of 10 is the num-
in the universe.
ber of places the decimal point must be shifted so that only a single
digit remains either to the left or right of the decimal point. If the
decimal point must be shifted to the left, the exponent of 10 is posi-
tive. For example, the approximate number of stars in the Sombrero
Galaxy, some of which are shown in Figure 1-11, is 90 000 000 000.
In scientific notation, this number is written as 9⫻1010. The mass of
Earth, which is 5 974 200 000 000 000 000 000 000 kg, is written as
5.9742⫻1024 kg in scientific notation. If the decimal point in a num-
ber must be shifted to the right, then the exponent of 10 is negative.
The diameter of an atom in meters, for example, which is approxi-
mately 0.0000000001 m, is written as 1 ⫻10⫺10 m.
All of the quantities discussed in this section and the units used
to measure them are summarized in Appendix A. You can also refer
to Appendix A for explanations of how to convert between the units
you are familiar with, such as feet and pounds, and SI units. In the
next section, you will learn about other ways in which scientific
information is communicated.
1. Describe the steps used in a scientific SKILL REVIEW

method.
6. Concept Mapping Use the terms below
2. Contrast dependent and independent to make a concept map that summarizes
variables. the units used to measure each quantity
3. What is the purpose of a control in a sci- discussed in this section. For help, refer
entific experiment? to the Skill Handbook.
4. Explain how to write a large number time density temperature volume
using scientific notation.
5. Thinking Critically An increase in the mass weight length area
temperature of matter generally results
0
C g/mL km s
in a decrease in its density. Water is an
exception to this rule. What do you think cm3 m2 kg N
happens to water when it freezes?
16 CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Science earthgeu.com/self_check_quiz

1.3 Communicating in Science
There are many ways to communicate the same information, as you OBJECTIVES
found out in the Discovery Lab at the beginning of this chapter.
• List several ways in
Scientists generally communicate through laboratory reports and
which scientific informa-
research papers. Often, scientists propose models to try to explain
tion is communicated.
ideas or systems. When an explanation withstands the test of
repeated experiments, a theory might be proposed. Scientific models • Differentiate between
and theories can be modified when new observations and data are a scientific theory and
collected. a scientific law.
COMMUNICATING RESULTS VOCABULARY

One important goal of science is to make results available to others. theory
Communicating scientific data and results allows others to learn of law
new discoveries, to possibly verify what has been reported, and to
conduct new experiments using the information. From the labora-
tory reports that you will generate as you use this book to scientific
papers published in professional journals, scientific results are
communicated in many ways.
Lab Reports Throughout this book, you will conduct many

Earth science experiments and activities. During and after each
activity or experiment, you will be asked to record and analyze the
information that you collected and to draw conclusions based on
your data. Your resulting lab report, similar to the one shown in
Figure 1-12, will be used by your teacher to assess your under- Figure 1-12 The results of
laboratory experiments and
standing of the activity or experiment. You might also be asked to the answers to questions
compare your results with the results of other students to help you posed in the experiment
find both similarities and differences among the results. should be recorded neatly
in your science journal.
Graphs You will be asked
to graph the results of
many experiments and
activities in this book. As
you will find out in the
Problem-Solving Lab on
page 18, a line graph is a
visual display that shows
how two variables are
related. On a line graph,
the independent variable is
plotted on the horizontal
(x) axis, and the dependent
1.3 Communicating in Science 17

Gas Volume vs. Temperature variable is plotted on the vertical (y) axis. Refer to the
800 line graph in Figure 1-13. What is the independent
variable? The dependent variable?
700
600 MODELS
Gas volume (cm3)
In some of the activities and experiments in this

500
book, you will be making and using models. A scien-
400 tific model is an idea, a system, or a mathematical
expression that is similar to the idea being explained.
300 While a model might not have all of the components
200
of a given idea, it should be a fairly accurate repre-
sentation. Models can change when more data are
100 gathered. Early astronomers, for example, thought
that Earth was the center of the solar system, as
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 shown in Figure 1-14A. This model was changed as
Temperature (K) the result of careful observations of the motions of
the Sun and the planets in the night sky that showed
Figure 1-13 A line graph shows the
relationship between two variables. that the planets in our solar system orbit the Sun, as
Refer to the Skill Handbook for other shown in Figure 1-14B.
types of graphs.
Making and Using Graphs

Average Surface Temperatures
Make and use a graph that shows
Average Surface
how the annual, average surface temper-
Year Temperature (K)
ature of Earth has varied over the past
500 years. The data in the table are 1500 285.8
global, average surface temperatures, in 1600 285.9
Kelvins, starting in the year 1500. 1700 286.0
1800 286.2
Procedure 1900 286.5
1. Convert each temperature from kelvins 2000 286.9
to degrees Celsius by subtracting 273
from each value. 4. How has Earth’s average surface
2. Determine appropriate scales for your temperature changed with time?
graph. Plot the year on the x-axis and
temperature, in degrees Celsius, on the Thinking Critically
y-axis. 5. Use the graph to determine the aver-
age surface temperature for 1980.
Analysis 6. Extrapolate the data to predict what
3. Describe the general trend shown the average surface temperature will
by the data. be in the year 2100.

A B
Figure 1-14 Some early
astronomers thought that
THEORIES AND LAWS the Sun and other planets
A scientific theory is an explanation based on many observations dur- orbited Earth (A). It is now
ing repeated experiments. A scientific theory is valid only if it is con- known that Earth and its
eight neighbors orbit a star
sistent with observations, makes predictions that can be tested, and is
we call the Sun (B).
the simplest explanation of observations. Like a scientific model, a
theory can be changed or modified with the discovery of new data.
A scientific law is a basic fact that describes the behavior of a nat-
ural phenomenon. A scientific law can be thought of as a “rule of
nature,” even though the cause of the law may not be known. The
events described by a law are observed to be the same every time. An
example of a scientific law is Sir Isaac Newton’s first law of motion,
which states that an object at rest or in motion stays at rest or in
motion unless it is acted upon by an outside force. This law explains
why Earth and eight other planets remain in orbit around the Sun.
Theories are often used to explain scientific laws.
In this book, you will communicate your observations and draw
conclusions based on scientific data. You will also find out about
many of the models, theories, and laws used by Earth scientists to
explain the various processes and phenomena that make Earth
unique among its celestial neighbors.
1. What is the purpose of communicating 6. Critical Thinking When ice is heated, it

scientific information? melts. Is this a theory or a law? Explain.
2. What is the purpose of writing lab reports
SKILL REVIEW
for experiments and activities in this book?
7. Recognizing Cause and Effect Refer to
3. How are data plotted on a line graph?
Figure 1-13. Explain the relationship
4. What is a scientific model? between the independent and depen-
5. Contrast scientific theories and laws. dent variables. For more help, refer to
the Skill Handbook.
earthgeu.com/self_check_quiz 1.3 Communicating in Science 19

Measuring in SI
S uppose someone asked you to measure the area of your
classroom in square cubits. What would you use? A cubit
is an ancient unit of length equal to the distance from the
elbow to the tip of the middle finger. Since this length varies
among individuals, the cubit is not a standard unit of mea-
sure. SI units are standard units, which means that they
are exact quantities that have been agreed upon to use for
comparison. In this GeoLab, you will use SI units to measure
various properties of rock samples.
Preparation
Problem Objectives
Measure various properties of rocks and In this GeoLab, you will:
use the measurements to explain the • Measure the area, volume, mass, and
relationships among the properties. weight of several rock samples.
• Calculate the density of each sample.
Materials • Explain the relationships among the
water quantities.
250-mL beaker
graph paper
balance
pieces of string
spring scale
rock samples

Procedure
1. Use the information in the Skill the volume of the rock sample.
Handbook to design a data table in 4. Repeat step 3 for the other rocks.
which to record the following mea- Make sure the original volume of
surements for each sample: area, water is the same as when you mea-
volume, mass, weight, and density. sured your first sample.
2. Obtain rock samples from your 5. Follow your teacher’s instructions
teacher. Carefully trace the outline about how to use the balance to
of each rock onto the graph paper. determine the mass of each rock.
Determine the area of each sample and Record the measurements in your
record the values in your data table. table.
3. Pour water into the beaker until it is 6. Again, secure each rock with a piece
half full. Record this volume in the of dry string. Make a small loop in the
table. Tie a piece of string securely other end of the string. Place the loop
around one rock sample. Slowly over the hook of the spring scale to
lower the sample into the beaker. determine the weight of each rock
Record the volume of the water. sample. Record the values in your
Subtract the two values to determine data table.
Analyze
1. Compare the area of each of your 3. Compare the weight and mass of
samples with the areas determined by each of your samples with the values
other students for the same samples. for these quantities determined by
Explain any differences. other students. Again, explain
2. Compare the volume of each of your any differences.
samples with the volumes deter- 4. Use your measurements to calculate
mined by other students for the same the density of each sample using this
samples. Explain any differences. formula: density = mass/volume.
Record these values in your data table.
Conclude & Apply

1. How accurate do you think your 3. How could you find the volume of
measurement of the area of each a rock such as pumice, which floats
sample is? Explain. in water?
2. What were the variables you used to 4. Does mass depend on the size or
determine the volume of each sample? shape of a rock? Explain.
GeoLab 21
Willo, Sue, and Technology, Too
Paleontology, the area of Earth science that studies ancient life
forms, has long been associated with hands-on work—digging, clean-
ing, and handling fossils. However, technology is playing an increasing
role in this area. Technologies borrowed from medicine, manufactur-
ing, and the aerospace industry are leading to new discoveries about
dinosaurs—especially Willo and Sue.
Willo, the fossil remains of a 66-million year gist Sue Hendrickson in the South Dakota Bad-
old Thescelosaurus, and Sue, the nearly com- lands in 1990. The skull of Sue was sent for CT
plete skeleton of a 66-million year old scanning to a company that makes jet airplane
Tyrannosaurus rex, were both studied using com- engines because medical scanners couldn’t
puterized tomographic scanning, or CT scans. A accommodate the skull’s 1.6-meter length! The
CT scan is a type of scan in which X rays move scan, which is shown above and is on display
through a specimen at different rates depending with a cast of the skull, revealed that the fero-
on the density of the tissues encountered. A CT cious carnivore had a much more acute sense
scan produces a picture of a very thin slice of a of smell than had been expected. The scan of
portion of a specimen. A computer is used to Sue’s skull showed olfactory bulbs the size of
record and process the rates to produce an grapefruits! The discovery of these scent-sens-
image on the screen. Multiple CT slices can be ing organs would never have been made without
stacked to generate a three-dimensional image the use of CT technology.
of the complete specimen. Technology is changing how discoveries are
made in Earth science, but also how they are
A Dinosaur with Heart shared. The images from CT scans are digital.
Willo was found by paleontologist Michael They can be e-mailed and downloaded by scien-
Hammer in Harding County, South Dakota, in tists and students all over the world. The ease
1993. Willo was a plant-eater about the size of of access to important data will, in turn, lead to
a pony. A CT scan of a dark mass of rock found more exciting discoveries.
in Willo’s chest cavity revealed a structure that
appears to be a heart—a four-chambered heart. Internet
A four-chambered heart would strongly support
a relatively new hypothesis that dinosaurs were For more information on the use of CT scans
warm-blooded rather than cold-blooded animals. in the area of paleontology, visit the Earth
Science Web Site at earthgeu.com. Compare
Sue’s Sniffer and contrast scanned skulls of meat-eating
Sue, the most complete skeleton of a T. rex dinosaurs with those of plant-eating dino-
ever recovered, was put on display at the Field saurs. Present your findings in a table.
Museum in Chicago, Illinois, in May 2000. Sue
was found and excavated by amateur paleontolo-

Summary
SECTION 1.1 Main Ideas Vocabulary
Earth Science • There are four major areas in Earth science. Astronomy is the asthenosphere (p. 8)
study of objects beyond Earth’s atmosphere. Meteorology is the astronomy (p. 6)
branch of Earth science that deals with Earth’s atmosphere. The atmosphere (p. 9)
study of the materials that make up Earth and the processes biosphere (p. 9)
that form and change these materials is known as geology. The geology (p. 6)
study of Earth’s oceans is called oceanography. hydrosphere (p. 8)
• Earth can be divided into four main systems. The lithosphere lithosphere (p. 8)
includes the rocks that make up the crust and rigid, upper man- meteorology (p. 6)
tle. The atmosphere is the blanket of gases that surrounds Earth. oceanography (p. 6)
Earth’s hydrosphere is the system of all of the water on the
planet. The biosphere is Earth’s inhabitants and their environments.
• All of Earth’s systems interact. You are part of the biosphere
and you live on the crust, which is part of the lithosphere. You
breathe the gases in that atmosphere and depend in many ways
on the water in the hydrosphere.

Methods of • The order of steps in a scientific method can vary. Most scientific control (p. 12)
Scientists methods to solving a problem, however, include defining the dependent variable
problem, stating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, analyzing (p. 12)
the results of the test, and drawing conclusions. hypothesis (p. 11)
• Variables are factors that change in an experiment. A dependent independent
variable can change in response to changes in the independent variable (p. 12)
variable. A control is a standard for comparison. Le Système Inter-
• Basic units used in SI include the liter, the meter, the second, the national d’Unités
kilogram, the Newton, and degrees Celsius. (SI) (p. 14)
scientific notation
• In scientific notation, a number is expressed as a multiplier and
(p. 16)
a power of 10.

Communicating • Scientific information is communicated through lab reports, pro- law (p. 19)
in Science fessional papers, tables and graphs, and models. theory (p. 19)
• A scientific theory is an explanation based on many observations
during repeated experiments. A scientific theory is valid only if it
is consistent with observations, makes predictions that can be
tested, and is the simplest explanation of observations. A theory
can be changed or modified if it is found to be incorrect.
• A scientific law is a basic fact that describes the behavior of a
natural phenomenon. A scientific law can be thought of as a
“rule of nature,” even though the cause of the law may not be
known.
earthgeu.com/vocabulary_puzzlemaker Study Guide 23

Understanding Main Ideas 8. What is technology, and how is it different
from science?
1. Which area of Earth science includes the study of 9. List the steps involved in a scientific approach to
ancient organisms? solving a problem.
a. astronomy c. paleontology 10. What is a hypothesis, and how is it different from
b. meteorology d. geology a scientific theory?
2. Which area of Earth science includes the study 11. What is a dependent variable in a scientific
of stars? investigation? How does it differ from an
a. meteorology c. geology independent variable?
b. hydrology d. astronomy 12. List the SI units that would be used to measure
the following quantities: the mass of an apple,
3. What is geology? the length of a beetle, the weight of the planet
a. the study of the processes that form and Jupiter, the volume of a medium-sized soft drink,
change Earth and the volume of a cube of sugar.
b. the study of Earth’s oceans
c. the study of objects beyond Earth’s atmosphere 13. How are area and volume alike? How do they
d. the systematic study of weather and climate differ?
14. Complete the table below. Once you have made
4. Which of the following is NOT a part of Earth’s the conversions, express each answer in
lithosphere? scientific notation.
a. the inner core Some SI Conversions
b. the crust
1m —— mm —— km
c. the upper mantle
1g —— mg —— kg
d. rocks on the surface
1 cm3 —— m
3
—— mL
5. What is Earth’s hydrosphere? 3.5 km —— m —— cm
a. the gases in the air 18.6 cm —— km —— m
b. the solid, rocky part of Earth
c. all of the water on the planet 15. Refer to Appendix B. What are the safety symbols
d. the study of Earth’s atmosphere for a biological hazard, an electrical hazard, an
open flame, and the need to wear safety goggles?
6. What are the two most common gases in
the atmosphere?
a. hydrogen and oxygen
b. nitrogen and water vapor Test-Taking Tip
c. oxygen and nitrogen
d. hydrogen and nitrogen PREPARING FOR A TEST As soon as you
find out about an upcoming test, ask which con-
7. Which of the following scientists would most cepts and topics will be tested. When you study
likely study Earth’s past biosphere? for the test, make sure you cover all of the
a. hydrologist c. meteorologist material on which you may be tested.
b. geochemist d. paleontologist
24 CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Science earthgeu.com/chapter_test

16. Compare and contrast scientific theories and Standardized Test Practice
laws. Give an example of each.
17. Explain how variables are plotted on a line graph. 1. Which of the following lists Earth’s layers
from the inside out?
18. What is a scientific model?
a. inner core, outer core, mantle, crust
b. crust, mantle, outer core, inner core
Applying Main Ideas c. crust, inner core, outer core, mantle
d. mantle, outer core, inner core, crust
19. Which of the safety symbols in Appendix B would
be shown in an activity in which you were asked 2. A block is 2 cm wide, 5.4 cm deep, and 3.1
to test the acidity of several liquids? cm long. The density of the block is 8.5
g/cm3. What is the mass of the block?
20. Explain how you might test which of three paper
a. 33.48 g c. 399.3 g
towels is most absorbent.
b. 85.10 g d. 284.58 g
21. Suppose you were testing the effects of the
amount of fertilizer needed to produce tall grass.
What would be your independent variable? Your USING GRAPHS Use the graph below to
dependent variable? Your control? answer questions 3 and 4.
22. A doctor is testing a new cancer drug. She
Reaction distance (m)
chooses 50 patients who have the particular Reaction Distance vs. Speed
cancer to take part in the study. She gives 25 50
patients the new drug and the other 25 patients 40
30
a placebo, which is a substance that contains no 20
active ingredients. What is the purpose of this 10
second group in the doctor’s study?
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
Speed (m/s)
Thinking Critically
3. The distance a car travels between the time
the driver decides to stop the car and the
23. Suppose you want to find out whether doubling
time the driver puts on the brakes is called
the amount of potassium in a soil will increase
the reaction distance. How does the reaction
the yield of tomato plants. Describe how you
distance change with speed?
would test this hypothesis. What would be your
a. Reaction distance decreases with speed.
variables? What would you use as a control?
b. Reaction distance is the same as speed.
24. How might elements in Earth’s hydrosphere c. Reaction distance increases with speed.
interact with Earth’s lithosphere? d. You cannot tell from this graph.
25. Explain your dependence on each of Earth’s
four systems. 4. What is the reaction distance of a driver
traveling 20 m/s?
26. When air or helium is added to a balloon, the
a. 3 m c. 20 m
balloon expands. Suggest a model that could
b. 15 m d. 28 m
be used to explain why this happens.
earthgeu.com/standardized_test Assessment 25
2 Mapping
What You’ll Learn
Our
• How latitude and longi-
tude are used to locate
places on Earth.
• How maps are made,
and what types of
World
maps are best suited to
particular purposes.
• What technology is
used to map Earth
from space.
Why It’s Important

Maps help us to locate
exact places on Earth.
All forms of transporta-
tion, including ships,
planes, cars, and trucks,
rely on accurate maps
for guidance.
To find out more about

maps, visit the Earth
Science Web Site at
earthgeu.com
26
Discovery Lab Make and Use a Map
Have you ever been asked for 3. Have your classmate also give you
directions? If so, you know that it’s a description of where his or her
important to include as much detail home is located in relation to your
as possible so that the person asking school. Your classmate should then
for directions will not get lost. You draw a map to his or her home for
also may have realized that it helps you to examine.
to draw a detailed map of the desti- Observe Which did
nation in question. you find more helpful,
1. Give verbal directions from your the verbal directions or
school to your home to a classmate the map? Explain your
who does not know where you live. answer. What kind of
Include as much detail as possible information did you
in your description. include in your map?
With your classmate,
2. Use a sheet of graph paper and col-
discuss how you could
ored pencils to draw a map from
improve your maps.
your school to your home. Include
What details would
landmarks and other details. Share
you add?
this map with your classmate.
2.1 Latitude and Longitude

OBJECTIVES For thousands of years people have used maps such as the one
• Compare and contrast shown at left to define borders and to find places. We still rely on
latitude and longitude. maps for a variety of purposes. The science of mapmaking is called
cartography. Cartographers use an imaginary grid of parallel lines
• Describe how time and vertical lines to locate points on Earth exactly. In this grid, the
zones vary. equator circles Earth halfway between the north and south poles.
The equator separates Earth into two equal halves called the north-
VOCABULARY ern hemisphere and the southern hemisphere.
cartography
equator LATITUDE
latitude Lines running parallel to the equator are called lines of latitude.
longitude Latitude is the distance in degrees north or south of the equator. The
prime meridian equator, which serves as the reference point for latitude, is numbered
International Date Line 0° latitude. The poles are each numbered 90° latitude. Latitude is
thus measured from 0° at the equator to 90° at the poles. Locations
2.1 Latitude and Longitude 27

Figure 2-1 Lines of latitude 90° N 90° N
are parallel to the equator
(A). The value in degrees Latitudes Angle of
of each line of latitude is north latitude
Earth’s
determined by measuring of 0°
center
the imaginary angle created
Equator
between the equator, the 0° Latitude
center of Earth, and the line (equator)
of latitude (B).
Latitudes
south
of 0°
A 90° S 90° S B
north of the equator are referred to by degrees north latitude (N).

Locations south of the equator are referred to by degrees south lati-
tude (S). For example, Syracuse, New York, is located at 43° north
latitude, and Christchurch, New Zealand, is located at 43° south
latitude. Lines of latitude are illustrated in Figure 2-1.
Degrees of Latitude Each degree of latitude is equivalent to

about 111 km on Earth’s surface. How did cartographers determine
Using Numbers Your this distance? Earth is a sphere, and can be divided into 360 degrees.
plane has flown from The circumference of Earth is about 40 000 km. To find the distance
30° north latitude to of each degree of latitude, cartographers divide 40 000 km by 360°.
42° north latitude. To locate positions on Earth more precisely, cartographers break
Approximately how
many kilometers
down degrees of latitude into 60 smaller units, called minutes. The
have you traveled? symbol for a minute is ′. The actual distance on Earth’s surface of
each minute of latitude is 1.85 km, which is obtained by dividing 111
km by 60′. A minute of latitude can be further divided into seconds,
which are represented by the symbol ″. Longitude, which is discussed
next, is also divided into degrees, minutes, and seconds.
Line of
longitude
Prime Prime
Figure 2-2 The reference meridian 0° meridian 0°
line for longitude is the
prime meridian (A). The
degree value of each line of Equator Equator
longitude is determined by
measuring the imaginary Longitude Longitude
angle created between the °W °E
prime meridian, the center
of Earth, and the line of
longitude (B). A B
28 CHAPTER 2 Mapping Our World

LONGITUDE
To locate positions in east and west direc-
tions, cartographers use lines of longitude,
also known as meridians. As shown in Figure
2-2, longitude is the distance in degrees east How can you locate
or west of the prime meridian, which is the places on Earth?
reference point for longitude. The prime
Determine latitude and longitude for
meridian represents 0° longitude. In 1884,
specific places.
astronomers decided that the prime merid-
ian should go through Greenwich, England, Procedure
home of the Royal Naval Observatory. Points 1. Use a world map or globe to locate the
west of the prime meridian are numbered prime meridian and the equator.
from 0° to 180° west longitude (W); points 2. Take a few moments to become familiar
east of the prime meridian are numbered with the grid system. Examine lines of
from 0° to 180° east longitude (E). latitude and longitude on the map
or globe.
Semicircles Unlike lines of latitude, lines
of longitude are not parallel. Instead, they Analyze and Conclude
are large semicircles that extend vertically 1. Use a map to find the latitude and
from pole to pole. For instance, the prime longitude of the following places.
meridian runs from the north pole through Mount St. Helens, Washington
Greenwich, England, to the south pole. The Niagara Falls, New York
Mt. Everest, Nepal
line of longitude on the opposite side of
Great Barrier Reef, Australia
Earth from the prime meridian is the 180°
2. Use the map to find the name of the
meridian. There, east lines of longitude places with the following coordinates.
meet west lines of longitude. This meridian 0°03’S, 90°30’W
is also known as the International Date 27°07’S, 109°22’W
Line, as you’ll learn later in this section. 41°10’N, 112°30’W
35°02’N, 111°02’W
Degrees of Longitude Degrees of lati- 3°04’S, 37°22’E
tude cover relatively consistent distances. 3. Find the latitude and longitude of your
The distances covered by degrees of longi- hometown, the nearest national or state
tude, however, vary with location. Refer park, and your state capital.
back to Figure 2-2. As you can see, lines of
longitude converge at the poles into a point.
Thus, one degree of longitude varies from
about 111 km at the equator to essentially
the distance covered by a point at the poles.
Locating Places with Coordinates

Both latitude and longitude are needed to
precisely locate positions on Earth, as you’ll
see in the MiniLab on this page. For example,
it is not sufficient to say that New Orleans,
2.1 Latitude and Longitude 29

Louisiana, is located at 29°57′ north latitude because
that measurement includes any place on Earth located
along the 29°57′ line of north latitude. The same is true
50°
of the longitude of New Orleans—90°04′ west longi-
150° 40° 30° tude could be any point along that longitude from pole
130° 50° 30°
110° 90° 70°
to pole. To precisely locate New Orleans, we use its
20° complete coordinates, latitude and longitude, as shown
10° in Figure 2-3. Note that latitude comes first in refer-
0°
ence to the coordinates of a particular location.
10°
20°
TIME ZONES
As Figure 2-4 shows, Earth is divided into 24 time
zones. Why 24? Earth takes about 24 hours to rotate
once on its axis. Thus, there are 24 times zones, each
Figure 2-3 The precise representing a different hour. Because Earth is con-
location of New Orleans is stantly spinning, time is always changing. Each time zone is 15° wide,
29°57′N, 90°04′W. corresponding roughly to lines of longitude. For convenience’s sake,
however, time zone boundaries have been adjusted in local areas. For
example, if a city were split by a time zone, confusion would result.
In such a situation, the time zone boundary is moved outside of the
city. Large countries, however, often have several times zones. There
Figure 2-4 Earth is divided
are six different time zones in the United States, as shown in Figure
into 24 time zones. Each 2-5. When it’s 10 A.M. in Atlanta, Georgia, it’s 7 A.M. in Los Angeles,
zone represents a different California. What time is it in Chicago, Illinois?
hour.
International Time Zones

+11 +12 –11 –10 –9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9 +10
Greenland
Iceland Asia
Canada
British Europe
Isles
International Date Line
United
States
Hawaiian
Islands Africa Phillipines
Brazil
Prime Meridian
Australia
Madagascar
Half-hour
Argentina zones
No zone
system
adopted
11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
P.M. A.M. A.M. A.M. A.M. A.M. A.M. A.M. A.M. A.M. A.M. A.M. A.M. P.M. P.M. P.M. P.M. P.M. P.M. P.M. P.M. P.M. P.M. P.M.
Source: Time Almanac 2001

Figure 2-5 Large countries
U.S. Time Zones such as the United States
Alaska
Standard Time Pacific Mountain Central Eastern are often split into multiple
11 12 1 11 12 1 11 12 1 11 12 1 11 12 1 time zones. The United
10 2 10 2 10 2 10 2 10 2
9 3 9 3 9 3 9 3 9 3 States has six time zones,
8 4 8 4 8 4 8 4 8 4
7
6
5 7
6
5 7
6
5 7
6
5 7
6
5 including Alaska and
Hawaii.
AK NH
WA VT ME
MT ND
OR MN NY MA
ID WI RI
SD MI
WY
Hawaii-Aleutian IA PA NJ CT
Standard Time NV NE IN OH DE
IL WV VA
UT CO MD
10
11 12 1
2 CA KS MO KY
9 3
NC
8 4 TN
7 5 AZ OK AR SC
6
NM GA
MS AL
TX LA
FL
HI
Calendar Dates Each day ends and the next day begins at the
stroke of midnight. Every time zone experiences this transition from
one day to the next, with the calendar advancing to the next day at
midnight. Each time you travel through a time zone, you gain or lose
time until, at some point, you gain or lose an entire day. The
International Date Line, or 180° meridian, serves as the transition
line for calendar days. If you were traveling west across the
International Date Line, you would advance your calendar one day. If
you were traveling east, you would move your calendar back one day.
1. What is cartography? 5. Critical Thinking If you were flying directly

2. Compare and contrast latitude and longi- south from the north pole and reached 70°
tude. What is the reference point for lines north latitude, how many more degrees of
of latitude? What is the reference point latitude would be left to pass over before
for lines of longitude? you reached the south pole?
3. What is the International Date Line? If it SKILL REVIEW

is 3 P.M. on Thursday, July 4, in Salt Lake
6. Comparing and Contrasting Describe how
City, Utah, what time and day is it in
the distance of a degree of longitude
Tokyo, Japan? Use Figure 2-4 for help.
varies from the equator to the poles. For
4. Estimate the time difference between more help, refer to the Skill Handbook.
your home and places that are 60° east
and west longitude of your home.
earthgeu.com/self_check_quiz 2.1 Latitude and Longitude 31

2.2 Types of Maps
OBJECTIVES Maps are flat models of a three-dimensional object, Earth. Because
• Compare and contrast Earth is curved, it’s difficult to represent on a piece of paper. Thus, all
different map projections. flat maps distort to some degree either the shapes or the areas of
landmasses. Cartographers use projections to make maps. A map
• Analyze topographic projection is made by transferring points and lines on a globe’s sur-
maps. face onto a sheet of paper. You’ll use a projection of a world map in
• Describe map character- the Science & Math feature at the end of this chapter.
istics, such as map scales
and map legends. MERCATOR PROJECTIONS
A Mercator projection is a map that has parallel lines of latitude and
VOCABULARY longitude. Recall that lines of longitude meet at the poles. When lines
Mercator projection of longitude are projected as being parallel on a map, landmasses
conic projection near the poles are exaggerated. Thus, in a Mercator projection, the
gnomonic projection shapes of the landmasses are correct, but their areas are distorted. As
topographic map shown in Figure 2-6, Greenland appears much larger than Australia.
contour line In reality, Greenland is much smaller than Australia. Because
contour interval Mercator projections show the correct shapes of landmasses and also
map legend clearly indicate direction in straight lines, they are used for the navi-
map scale gation of planes and ships.
CONIC PROJECTIONS
A conic projection is made by projecting points and lines from a
globe onto a cone, as shown in Figure 2-7. The cone touches the
globe at a particular line of latitude. There is very little distortion in
the areas or shapes of landmasses that fall along this line of latitude.
Distortion is evident, however, near the top and bottom of the pro-
jection. Because conic projections have a high degree of accuracy for
limited areas, they are excellent for mapping small areas. Hence, they
are used to make road maps and weather maps.
Figure 2-6 In a Mercator

projection, points and lines
on a globe are transferred
onto a cylinder-shaped
paper. Mercator projections
show true direction but dis-
tort areas near the poles.

GNOMONIC PROJECTIONS
A gnomonic projection is made by projecting points and lines
from a globe onto a piece of paper that touches the globe at a
single point. As shown in Figure 2-8, gnomonic projections
distort direction and distance between landmasses. However,
they are useful in plotting long-distance trips by air and by sea.
To understand why, you must understand the concept of a
great circle. Great circles are imaginary lines that divide Earth
into two equal halves. The equator is a great circle, as are any
two lines of longitude that connect at the poles to form a com-
plete circle. On a sphere such as Earth, the shortest distance
between two points lies along a great circle. Navigators connect
points on gnomonic projections to plot great-circle routes.
TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS
Detailed maps showing the hills and valleys of an area are
called topographic maps. Topographic maps show changes in
elevation of Earth’s surface. They also show mountains, rivers,
forests, and bridges, among other features. Topographic maps
use lines, symbols, and colors to represent changes in elevation
and features on Earth’s surface.
Figure 2-7 In a conic pro-
Contour Lines Elevation on a topographic map is represented by jection, points and lines on
a contour line. A contour line connects points of equal elevation. a globe are projected onto
a cone-shaped paper. Along
Elevation refers to the distance of a location above or below sea level.
the line of latitude touched
Because contour lines connect points of equal elevation, they never by the paper, there is little
cross. If they did, it would mean that the point where they crossed distortion.
had two different elevations, which would be impossible.
Figure 2-8 In a gnomonic

projection, points and lines
from a globe are projected
onto paper that touches
the globe at a single point.
2.2 Types of Maps 33

Figure 2-9 Points of elevation on
Earth’s surface are projected onto
paper to make a topographic map.
Contour Intervals As Figure 2-9 shows, topographic maps use

contour lines to show changes in elevation. The difference in elevation
between two side-by-side contour lines is called the contour interval.
The contour interval is dependent on the terrain. For mountains,
the contour lines might be very close together, and the contour
interval might be as great as 100 m. This would indicate that the
land is quite steep because there is a large change in elevation
between lines. You’ll learn more about topographic maps in the
Problem-Solving Lab on the next page and in the Mapping GeoLab at
Figure 2-10 The depression the end of this chapter.
contour lines shown here
indicate that the center of Index Contours To aid in the interpretation of topographic maps,
the area has a lower eleva- some contour lines are marked by numbers representing their eleva-
tion than the outer portion
of the area. tions. These are index contours, and they are used hand-in-hand with
contour intervals. If a contour interval on a map is 5 m,
you can determine the elevations represented by other
700 lines around the index contour by adding or subtracting
5 m from the elevation indicated on the index contour.
Depression Contour Lines The elevations of some

640 features such as volcanic craters and mines are lower
than that of the surrounding landscape. Depression
contour lines are used to represent such features. On a
map, depression contour lines have hachures, or short
lines at right angles to the contour line, to indicate
depressions. The hachures point toward lower eleva-
tions, as shown in Figure 2-10.

MAP LEGENDS Highway
Topographic maps and most other maps include both human-made Trail
and natural features that are located on Earth’s surface. These fea-
tures are represented by symbols, such as black dotted lines for trails, Bridge
solid red lines for highways, and small black squares and rectangles Railroad
for buildings. A map legend, such as the one shown in Figure 2-11,
Buildings
explains what the symbols represent. For more information about
the symbols in map legends, see Appendix D. School, church
Spot elevation BM 283

MAP SCALES
Contour line
When using a map, you need to know how to measure distances. This
Depression
is accomplished by using a map scale. A map scale is the ratio contour lines
between distances on a map and actual distances on the surface of (hachures)
Earth. There are three types of map scales: verbal scales, graphic Stream
scales, and fractional scales. A verbal scale expresses distance as a
Marsh
statement, such as “One centimeter is equal to one kilometer.” This
means that one centimeter on the map represents one kilometer on Figure 2-11 Map legends
Earth’s surface. A graphic scale consists of a line that represents a cer- explain what the symbols
tain distance, such as 5 km or 5 miles. The line is broken down into on maps represent.
sections, with each section representing a distance on Earth’s surface.
For instance, a graphic scale of 5 km may be broken down into five
sections, with each section representing 1 km.
Calculating Gradients
Analyze changes in elevation C
Gradient refers to the steepness of a slope.
To measure gradient, divide the change in
elevation between two points on a map by
the distance between the points. Use the A
map to answer the questions; convert
your answers to SI.
Analysis Thinking Critically

1. Use the map scale and a ruler to deter- 3. Calculate the gradient from point B to
mine the distance from point A to point point C. Would it be more difficult to
B. Record the change in elevation hike from point A to point B, or from
between the two points. point B to point C? Explain.
2. If you were to hike this distance, what 4. Between point A and point C, where is
would be the gradient of your climb? the steepest part of the hike? How do
you know?
2.2 Types of Maps 35

Figure 2-12 The map scale
and legend shown here are
from a map of the Rocky
Mountain area in Montana.
A fractional scale expresses distance as a ratio, such as 1:63 500.

This means that one unit on the map represents 63 500 units on
Earth’s surface. One centimeter on a map, for instance, would be
equivalent to 63 500 cm on Earth’s surface. The unit of distance may
be feet or meters or any other measure of distance. However, the
units on each side of the ratio must always be the same. A large ratio
indicates that the map represents a large area, while a small ratio
indicates that the map represents a small area. A map with a large
fractional scale such as 1:100 000 would therefore show less detail
than a map with a small fractional scale such as 1:1000. Figure 2-12
shows the map scale and legend found on a typical map.
1. Compare and contrast Mercator and 5. Thinking Critically The equator is the only
gnomonic projections. What are these line of latitude that is a great circle. Why?
projections most commonly used for?
SKILL REVIEW
2. How is a conic projection made? Why is
this type of projection best suited for 6. Interpreting Scientific Illustrations Use
mapping small areas? Appendix D to draw symbols in their
appropriate colors for the following
3. What is a contour line? How are areas
features: barn, school, church, orchard,
of depression represented on a topo-
woods, perennial stream, marsh, and
graphic map?
primary highway. For more help, refer
4. A topographic map has a fractional scale to the Skill Handbook.
of 1:80 000. The units are in centimeters.
If two cities are 3 km apart, how far apart
would they be on the map?
36 CHAPTER 2 Mapping Our World earthgeu.com/self_check_quiz

2.3 Remote Sensing
Until recently, mapmakers had to go on-site to collect the data OBJECTIVES
needed to make maps. Today, advanced technology has changed the
• Compare and contrast
way maps are made. The process of collecting data about Earth from
the different forms of
far above Earth’s surface is called remote sensing. Let’s examine how
radiation in the electro-
satellites, which use remote sensing, gather information about
magnetic spectrum.
Earth’s surface.
• Discuss how satellites
THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM and sonar are used to
Satellites, such as the one being launched in Figure 2-13, detect dif- map Earth’s surface and
ferent wavelengths of energy reflected or emitted from Earth’s sur- its oceans.
face. This energy has both electric and magnetic properties. Thus, it • Describe the Global
is referred to as electromagnetic radiation. Visible light is a form of Positioning System.
electromagnetic radiation. Other types include gamma rays, X rays,
ultraviolet waves, infrared waves, radio waves, and microwaves. VOCABULARY
Wave Characteristics All electromagnetic waves travel at the remote sensing

speed of 300 000 km/s in a vacuum, a value commonly referred to as electromagnetic spectrum
the speed of light. In addition, electromagnetic waves have distinct frequency
Landsat satellite
Topex/Poseidon satellite
Global Positioning System
sonar
Figure 2-13 Landsat 7, launched in

1999, is equipped to measure differences
in thermal energy emitted by features
on Earth’s surface.
2.3 Remote Sensing 37

Note: Wave not to scale
Radio waves Microwaves Infrared radiation
103 104 105 106 107 108 109 1010 1011 1012 1013 1
105 104 103 102 10 1 10–1 10–2 10–3 10–4 10–5
Figure 2-14 In the electromagnetic spectrum, the waves with the longest
wavelengths have the lowest frequencies.
wavelengths. The arrangement of electromagnetic radiation accord-

ing to wavelengths is called the electromagnetic spectrum, as
shown in Figure 2-14. Gamma rays have wavelengths of less than
0.000 000 000 01 m, while radio waves have wavelengths of 100 000
m. An electromagnetic wave also can be described according to its
frequency, which refers to the number of waves that pass a particu-
lar point each second. Gamma rays have the highest frequencies and
Figure 2-15 The blue area radio waves have the lowest. The wavelengths, speeds, and frequen-
in this Landsat 7 image
cies of electromagnetic waves help determine how the energy is used
shows the range of a fire
that occurred in Los Alamos, by different satellites to map Earth.
New Mexico, in May 2000.
LANDSAT SATELLITES
A Landsat satellite receives reflected wave-
lengths of energy emitted by Earth’s sur-
face, including some wavelengths of visible
light and infrared radiation. Features on
Earth’s surface, such as rivers and forests,
radiate warmth at slightly different fre-
quencies. Thus, these features show up as
different colors in images such as the one in
Figure 2-15. To obtain such images, each
Landsat satellite is equipped with a moving
mirror that scans Earth’s surface. This mir-
ror has rows of detectors that measure the
intensity of energy received from Earth.
This information is then converted by
computers into digital images that show
landforms in great detail. Landsat 7,
launched in 1999, maps 185 km at a time
and scans the entire surface of the planet in
16 days. Landsat data also are used to study
the movements of Earth’s plates, rivers,
earthquakes, and pollution.

Visible Ultraviolet
X rays Gamma rays
light radiation
Frequency
1014 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020 1021 1022 1023
(hertz)
Wavelength
10 –6 10 –7 10 –8 10 –9 10 –10 10 –11 10 –12 10 –13 10 –14 10 –15 (meters)
TOPEX/POSEIDON SATELLITE
Other satellites, such as the Topex/Poseidon satellite, shown in Figure
2-16, use radar to map features on the ocean floor. Topex stands for
“topography experiment.” Radar uses high-frequency signals that are
transmitted from the satellite to the surface of the ocean. A receiving
device then picks up the returning echo as it is reflected off the water.
The distance to the water’s surface is calculated using the known speed
of light and the time it takes for the signal to be reflected. Variations
in time indicate the presence of certain features on the ocean floor.
For instance, ocean water bulges over seafloor mountains and
forms depressions over seafloor valleys. These changes are reflected in
satellite-to-sea measurements. Based on these data, computers create
maps of ocean-floor features. The Topex/Poseidon satellite also has
been used to study tidal changes and global ocean currents.
Figure 2-16 In the

Topex/Poseidon satellite,
an emitter sends an out-
going signal to the surface
of the ocean. A receiver
Receiver times the returning signal.
The distance to the ocean’s
surface is calculated using
Emitter the known speed of light
Returning
and the return time.
Outgoing
2.3 Remote Sensing 39

Figure 2-17 This hiker is
using a hand-held, GPS
receiver.
THE GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a radio-navigation system
of at least 24 satellites that allows its users to determine their exact
To learn more about position on Earth. Each satellite orbits Earth and transmits high-
mapping, go to the frequency microwaves that contain information about the satellite’s
National Geographic
position and the time of transmission. The orbits of the satellites are
Expedition on page 864.
arranged so that signals from several satellites can be picked up at
any given moment by a GPS user equipped with a hand-held
receiver, as shown in Figure 2-17. The receiver calculates the user’s
precise latitude and longitude by processing the signals emitted by
multiple satellites. The satellites also can relay information about ele-
vation, direction, and speed. GPS technology is used extensively for
navigation by airplanes and ships. However, it is also used to detect
earthquakes, create maps, and track wildlife. Lately, it has become
increasingly popular among hikers, backpackers, and other travelers.
SEA BEAM
Sea Beam technology is similar to the Topex/Poseidon satellite in that
it is used to map the ocean floor. However, Sea Beam is located on a
ship rather than on a satellite. To map ocean-floor features, Sea Beam
relies on sonar, which is the use of sound waves to detect and mea-
sure objects underwater. First, a sound wave is sent from a ship
toward the ocean floor, as shown in Figure 2-18. A receiving device
then picks up the returning echo when it bounces off the seafloor.
Computers on the ship calculate the distance to the ocean bottom

Figure 2-18 In a ship
equipped with Sea Beam,
a sound wave is sent to
the ocean floor. The wave
bounces off the seafloor
and its returning echo is
recorded by a receiver on
the ship. The distance to
the ocean floor is then
calculated using the known
speed of sound in water
and the return time of the
sound wave.
using the speed of sound in water and the time it takes for the sound
to be reflected. A ship equipped with Sea Beam has more than a
dozen sonar devices aimed at different parts of the sea. Sea Beam
technology is used by fishing fleets, deep-sea drilling operations, and
scientists such as oceanographers, volcanologists, and archaeologists.
1. What is the electromagnetic spectrum? SKILL REVIEW

Sequence the forms of electromagnetic
6. Concept Mapping Use the following
radiation from longest wavelength to
words and phrases to complete a concept
shortest wavelength.
map about remote sensing. For more
2. How do Landsat satellites collect and help, refer to the Skill Handbook.
analyze data to map Earth’s surface?
3. What features are mapped by the remote sensing Topex/Poseidon
Topex/Poseidon satellite? Describe the satellite
mapping process.
4. Describe the Global Positioning System. Landsat satellite GPS
5. Thinking Critically Explain why electro- uses radar to

map ocean floor
magnetic waves with short wavelengths
have higher frequencies than electromag- uses visible light uses microwaves
and infrared to determine
netic waves with long wavelengths. radiation to map location of user
Earth’s surface
earthgeu.com/self_check_quiz 2.3 Remote Sensing 41

Using a
Topographic Map
T opographic maps show two-dimensional representations
of Earth’s surface. With these maps, you can determine
how steep a hill is, what direction streams flow, and where
mines, wetlands, and other features are located.
Preparation
Problem Materials
How can you use a topographic map to ruler string
interpret information about an area? pencil
Procedure
1. Use the map to answer the following curves, and then measure the
questions. Be sure to check the distance by laying the string along
map’s scale. the ruler.
2. Use the string to measure distances 3. Remember that elevations on United
between two points that are not in a States Geological Survey maps are
straight line. Lay the string along the given in feet.
Analyze
1. What is the contour interval? would be your change in elevation?
2. Calculate the stream gradient of Big 4. If you started at the bench mark
Wildhorse Creek from the Gravel Pit (BM) on the jeep trail and hiked
in section 21 to where the creek along the trail and the road to the
crosses the road in section 34. Gravel Pit in section 21, how far
3. What is the highest elevation of the would you have hiked?
jeep trail? If you followed the jeep trail 5. What is the straight line distance
from the highest point to where it between the two points in question 4?
intersects an unimproved road, what What is the change in elevation?
Conclude & Apply

1. Does Big Wildhorse Creek flow all section 21 to the secondary highway?
year round? Explain your answer. 3. Draw a profile of the land surface
2. What is the shortest distance along from the bench mark in section 22 to
roads from the Gravel Pit in the Gravel Pit in section 33.
SCALE 1:24 000
Thriving in the Arctic
How do you envision conditions in the arctic circle, which surrounds
the north pole? Barren of life? Not quite! More than 20 000 polar bears
live in this region, along with many other species. These hardy animals
have unique adaptations that allow them to survive the harsh climate.
Polar bear
The Ring of Life vary in size from 50 000 km2 to as much as

The borders of five countries—Russia, 350 000 km2. Polar bear ranges are much
Norway, Greenland, Canada, and the United greater than those of other mammals because
States—meet in a rough U-shape around the the sea ice on which they live changes from
Arctic Ocean. The vast majority of this region is season to season and year to year.
covered with ice some 2 m thick. In a climate
where average winter temperatures hover around
Procedure
–35°C, survival is tenuous. The southern bound- 1. Calculate the range of a polar bear that
aries of this region, however, teem with life. Polar travels for six hours a day for seven days at
bears, walruses, beluga whales, fish, birds, and a speed of 5.5 km/h.
seals make the arctic circle their home. 2. Calculate how far a polar bear could swim in
six hours at a speed of 10 km/h.
Animal Adaptations 3. Convert your answers for questions 1 and 2
Polar bears in particular thrive where the into U.S. units.
ocean meets the shoreline, an area of constant
freezing and thawing. Supremely adapted to this Challenge
environment, they have long necks that help 1. Assume that polar bears do equal amounts of
them keep their heads above water and huge swimming and walking, and that they travel an
forepaws that act as paddles. Light-colored fur average of four hours a day. Use your calcula-
provides camouflage to help them hunt, and an tions and a world map or globe to determine
outer coat of hollow hairs makes the half-ton whether a polar bear could travel around the
bears fairly buoyant in the water. circumference of Greenland in a year.
Traveling Bears
Polar bears can swim for an average of
approximately 96.5 km without stopping for a
rest. They have been tracked on land traveling
30 km a day for several days in a row. A polar
bear’s home range—the area in which it hunts, To find out more about polar bears, visit
mates, and cares for its young—may be around the Earth Science Web Site at earthgeu.com
259 000 km2. The home ranges of polar bears

Summary
Latitude and • Cartographers use a grid system to locate exact positions on cartography (p. 27)
Longitude Earth. Lines of latitude refer to distances north and south of the equator (p. 27)
equator. Lines of longitude refer to distances east and west of International Date
the prime meridian. Line (p. 31)
50° • Earth is divided into 24 time zones. Each zone represents a dif- latitude (p. 27)
150°
130°
110° 90° 70°
40° 30°
50° 30° ferent hour. The International Date Line, or 180° meridian, is the longitude (p. 29)
20°
10° transition line for calendar days. The calendar advances to the prime meridian
10°
0°
next day in each time zone at midnight. (p. 29)
20°

Types of Maps • Maps are flat models of Earth’s surface. All maps contain some conic projection
sort of distortion in the shapes or areas of landmasses. (p. 32)
700 • Maps are made by transferring points and lines on a globe contour interval
onto paper. Mercator projections and gnomonic projections (p. 34)
are commonly used for navigation by ships and planes. Conic contour line (p. 33)
projections are best suited for mapping small areas. gnomonic projection
640 • Topographic maps show changes in elevation of Earth’s surface. (p. 33)
Contour lines connect points of equal elevation. A map legend map legend (p. 35)
explains the symbols on a map. A map scale shows the relation- map scale (p. 35)
ship between distances on a map and actual distances on Earth. Mercator projection
(p. 32)
topographic map
(p. 33)

Remote Sensing • The process of gathering data about Earth from far above the electromagnetic
planet is called remote sensing. The electromagnetic spectrum spectrum (p. 38)
shows the arrangement of electromagnetic radiation, which is frequency (p. 38)
often used by remote-sensing devices to map Earth. Global Positioning
• Landsat satellites use visible light and infrared radiation to map System (p. 40)
Earth’s surface. The Topex/Poseidon satellite uses radar to map Landsat satellite
features on the ocean floor. (p. 38)
remote sensing
• The Global Positioning System is a satellite-based navigation
(p. 37)
system that allows a user to pinpoint his or her exact location
sonar (p. 40)
on Earth.
Topex/Poseidon
satellite (p. 39)
earthgeu.com/vocabulary_puzzlemaker Study Guide 45

Understanding Main Ideas 8. Some areas have lower elevations than the
surrounding land. Which of the following rep-
1. What feature on a map shows the ratio of map resents these areas on a topographic map?
distance to actual distance on Earth? a. index contours
a. map legend c. map symbol b. contour intervals
b. map scale d. contour line c. depression contour lines
d. map legends
2. What type of map shows changes in elevation on
Earth’s surface? 9. What is the Global Positioning System?
a. Mercator projection c. topographic map Describe how it might be used by a hiker
b. gnomonic projection d. GPS lost in the woods.
10. Compare and contrast a verbal scale, a graphic
3. Which of the following is NOT true of lines scale, and a fractional scale.
of longitude?
a. They are semicircles. 11. Would a topographic map of the Great Plains
b. They measure distances east and west of the have a large or small contour interval? Explain.
prime meridian. 12. Why can’t two contour lines overlap?
c. They run from pole to pole. 13. How could you leave home on Monday to go
d. They are parallel lines. sailing, sail for an hour on Sunday, and return
home on Monday?
4. What technology is used to map seafloor
features? 14. What is a map legend? Give examples of features
a. conic projections found in a map legend.
b. Topex/Poseidon satellite
c. the Global Positioning System Applying Main Ideas
d. Landsat satellite
15. What type of map would best show true
5. What is the main disadvantage of a Mercator
direction?
projection?
a. It distorts areas near the equator. 16. Do closely spaced contour lines indicate a steep
b. It distorts the shapes of landmasses. slope or a gradual slope? Explain.
c. It distorts areas near the poles.
d. It does not show true direction.
6. What is the reference point for lines of latitude? Test-Taking Tip

a. the equator
b. the prime meridian WHERE HAVE I HEARD THAT BEFORE?
c. the International Date Line If you don’t know the definition of a word, you
d. the 180° meridian can usually work through the question by think-
ing about how you’ve heard the word used
7. What is the distance of one degree of latitude?
before. Think about the context in which the
a. 11 km c. 40 000 km
word was used. This will narrow its meaning.
b. 111 km d. 1.85 km
46 CHAPTER 2 Mapping Our World earthgeu.com/chapter_test

17. Approximately how many kilometers separate Standardized Test Practice
Orlando, Florida, at 29° north latitude and
Cleveland, Ohio, at 41° north latitude? 1. What is the reference point for lines of
18. If it is 10 A.M. in Syracuse, New York, at 76° west longitude?
longitude, what time is it in Athens, Greece, at a. the equator
24° east longitude? b. the prime meridian
c. the International Date Line
Use the map to answer questions 19–21.
d. the 360th meridian
1090 2. Which would be most useful if you were lost
in the Sahara desert?
0
a. Landsat satellite
124 b. Topex/Poseidon satellite
1280 m c. Global Positioning System
d. topographic map of Africa
19. Copy the map shown here. What is its contour

interval?
50°
20. Based on the contour interval, label the
150° 40° 30°
elevations of all the contour lines. 130° 50° 30°
110° 90° 70°
21. Does the map represent a flat or hilly terrain? 20°
Explain. 10°
0°
Thinking Critically 10°
20°
22. Would a person flying from Virginia to California

have to set his or her watch backward or
forward? Explain.
USING MAPS Use the map to answer
23. If you wanted to study detailed features of a vol- questions 3 and 4.
cano on the island of Hawaii, would you use a
map with a scale of 1:150 or 1:150 000? Why? 3. Roughly how many degrees of longitude
does the United States cover?
24. Based on what you have learned in this chapter,
a. 10° b. 20° c. 30° d. 40°
infer how astronomers map objects in the
night sky. 4. Roughly how many degrees of latitude does
25. Which direction would you travel along Earth’s the United States cover?
surface so that your longitude would not change? a. 10° b. 15° c. 20° d. 25°
Explain your answer.
earthgeu.com/standardized_test Assessment 47
For a preview of Earth science, study this GeoDigest before you read the chapters.
After you have studied the unit, you can use the GeoDigest to review.
Earth Science
The Nature of Science Methods and Communication Most sci-
Earth Science Earth science is divided into entific methods include defining the problem, stating
four areas of specialization. Astronomy studies a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, analyzing the
objects beyond Earth’s atmosphere. Meteorology results of the test, and drawing conclusions. In the
studies the atmosphere. Geology studies the mater- testing step, variables are factors in an experiment
ials of Earth and the processes that form them. that change. A dependent variable changes in
Oceanography studies the oceans. The application response to the independent variable. A control is a
of scientific discoveries is technology. Earth is made standard for comparison. Scientists use standard
up of interacting systems. The lithosphere includes units of SI—liter, meter, second, kilogram, Newton,
the rocks that make up the crust and upper mantle. and degree Celsius. Scientists also use scientific nota-
The atmosphere is the gas layer that surrounds tion, in which a number is expressed as a multiplier
Earth. The hydrosphere is Earth’s water. The bio- and a power of ten. Scientists communicate in
sphere is all of the life and habitats on Earth. reports and papers, and use tables, graphs, and mod-
els. A scientific theory is an explanation based on
observations from repeated experiments. It is valid
only if it is consistent with observations, leads to
testable predictions, and is the simplest explanation.
Scientific theories are changed if they are found to
be incorrect. A scientific law is a basic fact that
describes the behavior of a natural phenomenon.
FOCUS ON CAREERS
Science Teacher
Science teachers often provide a
student’s first exposure to science
and may spark a life-long interest
in a particular topic. High school
science teachers must have at
least a bachelor’s degree, often
from a five-year program, with an
emphasis in their area of interest,
such as Earth science.
48 UNIT 1
Earth Science
Mapping Our World Earth from far above is called remote sensing.
Latitude, Longitude, and Maps Examples of remote-sensing devices include
Cartographers use a grid system of latitude and Landsat satellites, the Topex-Poseidon satellite, and
longitude to locate exact positions on Earth. the Global Positioning System. These different types
Latitude refers to distances north and south of the of technology can be used to map Earth’s surface
equator. Longitude refers to distances east and west and oceans, and to locate places on Earth.
of the prime meridian. Earth is divided into 24 time
zones, with each zone representing a different hour. Vital Statistics
The International Date Line, or the 180° meridian, is
the transition line for calendar days. Maps are flat Earth’s Land Area
Continent Area in km2
models of Earth’s round surface, thus all maps con-
Asia, Middle East 44 579 000
tain some sort of distortion. Maps are made by Africa 30 065 000
transferring points and lines on a globe onto paper. North America 24 256 000
A map legend explains map symbols. A map scale South America, 17 819 000
shows how distances on a map and actual dis- Central America,
tances on Earth are related. Mercator and gno- and Caribbean
Antarctica 13 209 000
monic projections are used for aircraft and ship
Europe 9 938 000
navigation. Conic projections are suited to mapping Australia and Oceania 7 687 000
small areas. Topographic maps show changes in ele- Earth Total 148 429 000
vation of Earth’s surface. Gathering data about
ASSESSMENT
Understanding Main Ideas 4. What does a map legend

1. Which of the following is an area of special- contain?
ization in Earth science? a. contour lines
a. hydrosphere c. meteorology b. longitude lines
b. Mercator projection d. remote sensing c. latitude lines
d. the symbols used in a map
2. What happens if a scientific theory is found
to be incorrect? 5. What is the application of science called?
a. It is published. a. technology c. scientific law
b. It is changed. b. latitude d. theory
c. It becomes a scientific law.
d. It becomes a control. Thinking Critically
1. Describe the steps commonly used in scientific
3. Which type of map shows changes in eleva- methods.
tion of Earth’s surface? 2. Why isn’t a conic projection used to navigate
a. conic projection c. topographic map a ship or aircraft?
b. gnomonic projection d. latitude map
GeoDigest 49
Composition
of Earth
n the setting Sun, the giant monolith called Uluru by the
I Aborigines of the Northern Territory of Australia glows
a fiery red. Uluru, also known as Ayers Rock, is 2.5 km
long, 1.6 km wide, and oval in shape. This rock is a con-
glomerate, a type of sedimentary rock composed of large,
rounded chunks of rocks and minerals. Uluru is a solitary
rock that rises nearly 350 m above the surrounding desert
plain. How did such a huge sedimentary rock form in a
desert? In this unit, you will explore the geologic forces
that formed Uluru and also shape rocks and minerals.
Unit Contents
3 Matter and Atomic Structure
4 Minerals
5 Igneous Rocks
6 Sedimentary and Metamorphic Rocks
Go to the National Geographic

Expedition on page 870 to learn
more about topics that are con-
nected to this unit.
50
Ayers Rock, Australia
51
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
Taistelun jälkiä näkyi kaikkialla. Repeytyneitä telttoja oli tykkien
alla. Ruumiskasoja makasi varsinkin telttojen välissä. Kaatuneet
olivat vain puoleksi pukimissa, kauhun ilme avoimissa silmissä.
Ilmeisesti nämä miehet oli kaikki yllätetty keskellä syvää unta.
Müller meni tarkastamaan tykkejä. Ne seisoivat äänettöminä,

naulittuina, yhtä vaarattomina kuin puupölkyt. Yhden päällä oli
tykkimiehen ruumis melkein kahtia leikattuna kauhealla viikatteen
iskulla. Veri oli tahrannut lavetin ja muodostanut sen alle lammikon.
Müller tutki kaikki tarkasti, äänettömänä ja kulmat rypyssä. Ei
yksikään upseereista uskaltanut katkaista äänettömyyttä.
Kuinka olisi voinutkaan lohduttaa vanhaa kenraalia, joka

varomattomuutensa vuoksi oli joutunut tappiolle kuin mikäkin
aloittelija? Tämä ei ollut ainoastaan tappio, vaan myös häpeä. Olihan
kenraali itse nimittänyt Jasna Góran linnoitusta kanakopiksi ja
luvannut litistää sen sormiensa väliin! Olihan hänellä sotaväkeä
yhdeksäntuhatta miestä ja luostarin varusväkeä oli vain kaksisataa!
Olihan hän ammattisotilas ja hänen vastustajansa munkkeja!
Raskas oli Müllerille tämän päivän alku.
Sotamiehiä saapui, ja alettiin kantaa ulos ruumiita. Neljä miestä,

jotka kantoivat ruumista lakanalla, pysähtyi käskemättä kenraalin
eteen.
Müller katsahti ruumiiseen ja sulki silmänsä.
— De Fossis…, — sanoi hän käheällä äänellä.
Heti tämän ryhmän mentyä tulivat toiset kantajat. Sadowski riensi

niiden luo ja huusi jo kauempaa esikuntaan päin kääntyen:
— Horn on tässä!
Mutta Horn oli vielä elossa. Kauhea viikatteen isku oli tunkeutunut
syvälle rintaan. Haavoittunut oli kuitenkin tajussaan. Nähtyään
Müllerin esikuntineen hän hymyili ja yritti puhua, mutta sanojen
asemesta kohosi huulille vain veristä vaahtoa, hänen silmänsä
alkoivat mulkoilla ja hän pyörtyi.
— Viekää hänet minun telttaani! — sanoi Müller. — Lääkärini

tutkikoon hänet heti!
Lähellä olevat upseerit kuulivat hänen mutisevan itsekseen:
— Horn, Horn… Näin hänestä viime yönä unta… heti illalla…

Kauhea, käsittämätön asia…
Luoden silmänsä alas hän vaipui syviin mietteisiin. Niistä hänet

äkkiä herätti Sadowskin pelästynyt ääni:
— Kenraali, kenraali! Katsokaa! Tuolla, tuolla, luostari!
Müller katsoi ja hämmästyi.
Oli jo täysi päivä ja kirkas ilma, vain Jasna Góraa ympäröi

valkoinen sumu. Tämän olisi luullut peittävän luostarin näkyvistä,
mutta vastoin tavallista asiain järjestystä luostari oli kohonnut
kallioltaan alhaalla riippuvien pilvien yläpuolelle ja näkyi taivaan
siinnossa.
Sotamiesten huudot todistivat, että hekin olivat havainneet ilmiön.
— Ylöspäin nousee! Ylös, ylös! - huusivat he — Katoaa näkyvistä!

Todellakin kalliota ympäröivä sumu alkoi jättiläismäisen
savupatsaan tavoin kohota taivasta kohti, ja luostari, joka oli kuin
tuon patsaan päässä, näytti kohoavan yhä korkeammalle aina
taivaaseen asti, jossa se viimein häipyi näkyvistä.
Müller kääntyi upseerien puoleen, ja hänen silmissään kuvastui

ihmetys ja pelko.
— Minä tunnustan, — hän sanoi, — että en ole elämässäni nähnyt

tämmöistä ilmiötä. Se on kokonaan luonnonlakien vastainen eikä
voine olla muuta kuin paavillisten taikoja.
— Olen kuullut, — sanoi Sadowski, — sotamiesten huudahtavan:

»Kuinka osaa ampua tuommoista linnoitusta?» En todellakaan
minäkään ymmärrä.
— Vaikka tämä olisikin luonnonlakien mukainen ilmiö, — sanoi

Hessenin prinssi, — niin missään tapauksessa se ei ole meille hyvä
enne. Katsokaahan, tänne tulomme hetkestä asti emme ole
päässeet askeltakaan eteenpäin!
— Kun se vain olisi sitä! — sanoi Sadowski. — Mutta totta puhuen

olemme kärsineet tappion toisensa jälkeen… eikä tämänpäiväinen
ole niistä pahin. Sotamiehet menettävät halunsa ja rohkeutensa ja
tekevät tehtävänsä leväperäisesti. Tapahtuu kummempiakin. Yhteen
aikaan vuorokaudesta ei voi mennä yksin eikä kahdenkaan ulos
leiristä, ja jos joku sen uskaltaa tehdä, niin hän katoaa jäljettömiin.
Luulisi susien vaanivan ympärillämme…
— Pahempaa vielä tulee, kun talvi saapuu! — lisäsi Hessenin

prinssi. —
Nytkin jo yöt ovat sietämättömiä.
— Sumu hälvenee! — sanoi äkkiä Müller. Tuuli oli alkanut
puhaltaa ja hajoitti sumua.
Aurinko ilmestyi näkyviin, ja pian oli ilma aivan kirkas.
Luostari seisoi entisellä paikallaan. Linnoitus oli hiljainen ja

äänetön aivan kuin siinä ei olisikaan ollut ihmisiä.
— Kenraali! — sanoi Hessenin prinssi pontevasti. — Koettakaa

vielä kerran neuvotteluja! Asia olisi saatava loppuun suoritetuksi.
— Mutta jos neuvottelut eivät vie mihinkään tuloksiin, niin

neuvotteko luopumaan piirityksestä? — kysyi Müller nyrpeästi.
Upseerit vaikenivat. Hetken kuluttua sanoi Sadowski:
— Teidän ylhäisyytenne tietää parhaiten, mitä on tehtävä.
— Tiedän, — vastasi Müller ylpeästi, — ja sanon vain teille: minä

kiroan päivää ja hetkeä, jolloin saavuin tänne, samoinkuin niitä
neuvonantajia (hän vilkaisi Wrzeszczowicziin), jotka ovat saaneet
minut ryhtymään tähän piiritykseen. Mutta sen jälkeen mitä on
tapahtunut en minä peräydy ennenkuin olen muuttanut tämän kirotun
linnoituksen soraläjäksi tahi itse sortunut!
Müller esikuntineen lähti palaamaan Częstochowoon, mutta ei

ennättänyt aivan perille asti, kun hänelle tuotiin kirje sotamarsalkka
Wittenbergiltä. Kenraali avasi sen kiireesti, silmäsi sen läpi ja sanoi
synkän näköisenä:
— Posenista tulee huonoja sanomia. Suur-Puolan aateli ryhtyy

taisteluun, rahvas yhtyy siihen… Liikkeen johdossa on Zegocki, joka
aikoo tulla Częstochowon avuksi.
— Sanoinhan jo edeltäkäsin, että laukauksemme täällä
synnyttävät vastakaiun Karpaateilta Itämereen saakka, — murahti
Sadowski. — Tämä kansa muuttaa nopeasti mieltään. Ette tunne
vielä puolalaisia, mutta myöhemmin tulette heidät tuntemaan.
— Hyvä! Tulemme heidät tuntemaan! — vastasi Müller. —

Parempi on minusta selvä vihollinen kuin petollinen liittolainen… He
alistuivat itse ja nostavat nyt aseen… Hyvä, saavatpa maistaa
meidän aseitamme!
— Ja me heidän! — tokaisi vastaan Sadowski. — Herra kenraali,

käykäämme neuvotteluihin täällä, tehkäämme kaikenlaisia
myönnytyksiä… Ei ole nyt kysymys linnoituksesta, vaan hänen
majesteettinsa kuninkaan hallitusvallasta tässä maassa.
— Munkit antautuvat! — sanoi Wrzeszczowicz. — Jos ei tänään,

niin huomenna, se on varmaa!
Heidän näin keskustellessaan vallitsi luostarissa aamumessun

jälkeen suuri riemu. Naiset kokoontuivat Czarnieckin ympärille ja
osoittivat hänelle kiitollisuuttaan, mutta hän osoitti Kmiciciä ja sanoi:
— Kiittäkää häntäkin! Hän ei anna teidän suudella käsiään, sillä ne

ovat vielä veressä, mutta jos joku nuoremmista muiskaa suulle, niin
enpä luule hänen panevan pahakseen!
Mutta Kmicic ajatteli Oleńkaa, jonka kiitollisten tyttöjen näkeminen

toi hänen mieleensä. »Ah, tyttöraukka», — sanoi hän itsekseen, —
»jospa edes tietäisit, että minä nyt palvelen Pyhää Neitsyttä ja
puolustan häntä niitä vihollisia vastaan, joiden palveluksessa
suureksi surukseni äskettäin olin.»
Ja Andrzej päätti kirjoittaa heti piirityksen päätyttyä hänelle kirjeen
Kiejdanyyn ja lähettää Sorokan viemään sitä. »Nyt», - hän ajatteli, —
»en lähetä hänelle paljaita sanoja ja lupauksia, vaan nyt on minulla
jo tekojakin, jotka yhtään kehumatta mutta tarkalleen kerron
kirjeessä. Tietäköön hän, että hän on ne saanut aikaan, ja
lohduttakoon se häntä!»
Ja niin häntä viehätti tämä ajatus ja niin hän siihen syventyi, että ei
huomannutkaan, kuinka tytöt poistuessaan puhelivat toisilleen:
— Ihana ritari hän on, mutta auttamattoman jörö mies, eikä hän
näy muusta välittävän kuin sodasta.
VIIDESTOISTA LUKU.
Upseeriensa toivomuksia noudattaen Müller ryhtyi uudestaan

neuvotteluihin. Luostariin saapui vihollisleiristä tunnettu ja
yhteiskunnallisen asemansa puolesta huomattu puolalainen
aatelismies. Munkit ottivat hänet ystävällisesti vastaan arvellen, että
hän vain pakosta ehdottaa antautumista, mutta itse asiassa antaa
heille uutta intoa vahvistamalla todeksi luostariinkin jo saapuneen
tiedon, että Suur-Puola on kapinassa, ruotsalaisten käskettävinä
olevat sotajoukot haluttomia sotaan, Jan Kasimir saamassa
voimakasta apua.
Mutta miten veljet erehtyivätkään! Tuo henkilö toikin aivan

päinvastaisia uutisia, sellaisia, jotka olivat omiaan jäähdyttämään
suurimmankin innostuksen, murtamaan lujimmankin vastarinnan,
viemään kiihkeimmänkin uskon.
Kun hän oli lopettanut pitkän puheensa, olivat sekä aateliset että
munkit vaiti. Epäröinti valtasi heidät kaikki, ja sydämet tunsivat
ahdistusta, joka lähenteli epätoivoa.
— Odotan vastaustanne! — sanoi ylhäissukuinen petturi ja painoi

päänsä alas.
Priori Kordecki nousi seisomaan, ja äänellä, jossa ei ollut
vähintäkään empimistä eikä horjumista, hän lausui profeetallisesti:
— Se, mitä te sanotte, nimittäin että Jan Kasimir on meidät jättänyt

ja luopunut valtaistuimesta Kaarle Kustaan hyväksi — se on
valhetta! Karkoitetun kuninkaamme sydämessä on syttynyt toivo, ja
innokkaammin kuin koskaan ennen hän toimii isänmaan
pelastamiseksi, valtaistuimensa takaisinsaamiseksi ja meidän
auttamiseksi ahdistuksessamme.
Naamari putosi heti petturin kasvoilta. Viha ja pettymys kuvastui

niissä aivan kuin kätkössä ollut käärme olisi madellut esiin.
— Mistä tuo tieto? Mistä tuo varmuus? — kysyi hän.
— Tuolta! — sanoi priori Kordecki osoittaen neuvottelusalin

seinälle ripustettua suurta ristiinnaulitun kuvaa. — Menkää,
asettakaa sormenne Kristuksen jalkain päälle ja toistakaa se, mitä
kerroitte!
Petturi alkoi vääntelehtiä kuin rautaisen käden puristamana.

Hänen kasvonsa ilmaisivat pelkoa. Mutta isä Kordecki seisoi
ryhdikkäänä ja uhkaavana kuin Mooses, ja hänen silmänsä
säkenöivät.
Syntyi painostava äänettömyys. Viimein kuului lähettilään

soinnuton ääni:
— Minä pesen käteni…
— Niinkuin Pilatus! — sanoi priori Kordecki. Petturi nousi ja poistui

neuvottelusalista. Pian saatiin nähdä, että hänen kylvönsä alkoi
kantaa hedelmää.
Uutinen Jan Kasimirin luopumisesta valtaistuimelta kulki aatelisten
kautta naisille, sieltä palvelusväelle ja tätä tietä sotajoukkoon, johon
se teki sangen pahan vaikutuksen. Vähimmän siitä hätkähtivät
talonpojat. Mutta kokeneet ammattisotilaat arvostelivat sodan kulkua
omalta kannaltaan. He alkoivat kokoontua yhteen, keskustella siitä,
että oli todennäköisesti mahdotonta jatkaa puolustusta, moittia
asioihin perehtymättömien munkkien itsepintaisuutta ja lopuksi
kuiskutella ja tehdä salaliittoja.
Muuan saksalainen tykkimies neuvoi sotamiehiä ottamaan johdon

omiin käsiinsä ja sopimaan ruotsalaisten kanssa linnoituksen
antautumisesta. Toiset yhtyivät tähän, mutta oli semmoisiakin, jotka
eivät ainoastaan vastustaneet jyrkästi petosta, vaan ilmoittivatpa siitä
heti Kordeckille.
Priori Kordecki, joka rajattomasti — luotti taivaallisiin voimiin, ei

silti laiminlyönyt huolenpitoa maallisista asioista eikä varovaisuutta.
Hän kukisti salaisesti suunnitellun kapinan alkuunsa. Vartiointi
järjestettiin entistä tarkemmaksi, puolustus entistä tehokkaammaksi.
Näin kuluivat päivät ja viikot. Talvi tuli yhä ankarammaksi. Tatran

lumisilta huipuilta puhalteli purevia tuulia tuoden mukanaan jäätä ja
lunta, öisin ruotsalaiset kokoontuivat leiritulien ympärille antautuen
mieluummin luostarin kuulien kuin pakkasen surmattaviksi.
Maa oli kova, ja se vaikeutti varustusten rakentamista. Piiritys ei

tuottanut tuloksia. Ei vain upseerit vaan koko sotajoukko toisteli yhtä
ainoata sanaa: »neuvottelu».
Aloite tuli munkkien puolelta. Müllerin luo saapuivat lähettiläinä isä

Dobrosz ja oppinut Stawicki. Nämä vihjailivat Müllerille, että
antautuminen voisi tulla kysymykseen. Sen kuultuaan Müller oli
vähällä syleillä heitä ilosta, sillä nyt ei ollut kysymys Częstochowosta
vaan koko maasta. Jasna Góran antautuminen olisi vienyt
isänmaanystäviltä viimeisenkin toivon ja lopullisesti antanut
valtakunnan Ruotsin kuninkaan käsiin, kun taas päinvastoin
voitollinen vastarinta saattoi muuttaa mielet ja saada syntymään
uuden kauhean sodan.
Enteitä oli jo näkynyt. Müller tiesi sen ja tunsi, mihin hän oli
antautunut, mikä ankara edesvastuu oli hänen hartioillaan. Hän tiesi,
että häntä odotti joko kuninkaan suosio, marsalkan sauva,
kunniavirat ja arvonimet tahi lopullinen lankeemus. Kun hän nyt itse
huomasi ottaneensa liian kovan pähkinän purtavakseen, niin hän otti
munkit vastaan niin kohteliaasti kuin he olisivat olleet keisarin tahi
sulttaanin lähettiläitä. Hän piti heille kemut, esitti itse heidän
maljansa ja myös priorin maljan, lahjoitti heille kalaa luostariin
vietäväksi ja myönsi lopuksi niin edulliset antautumisehdot, että hän
ei hetkeäkään epäillyt niiden tulevan ilomielin hyväksytyiksi. Isät
kiittivät nöyrästi niinkuin munkkien sopi, ottivat paperin ja poistuivat.
Müller tiedoitti leirille, että seuraavana aamuna portit avattaisiin.
Kuvaamaton ilo vallitsi ruotsalaisten leirissä. Sotamiehet poistuivat
valleilta ja juoksuhaudoista, lähestyivät muureja ja ryhtyivät
keskustelemaan piiritettyjen kanssa.
Mutta luostarista ilmoitettiin, että ennen näin tärkeän asian

päättämistä priorin piti neuvotella koko veljeskunnan kapitoliumin
kanssa, minkä vuoksi pyydettiin vielä yhden päivän lykkäystä. Müller
suostui empimättä. Neuvottelusalissa kesti istunto todellakin
myöhään yöhön.
Vaikka Müller oli vanha, kokenut soturi, joka oli käynyt monet
neuvottelut, niin kuitenkin hänen sydämensä löi levottomasti, kun
hän seuraavana päivänä näki kahden valkopukuisen munkin
lähestyvän leiriä.
Ne eivät olleet samoja isiä kuin viime kerralla. Edellä kulki isä
Maciej Bleszyński, filosofian lehtori, kantaen sinetöityä kirjettä.
Hänen jäljessään asteli isä Zacharyasz Malachowski kädet ristissä
rinnalla, pää alas painettuna ja hieman kalvennein kasvoin.
Kenraali otti heidät vastaan esikuntansa ympäröimänä, ja

vastattuaan kohteliaasti isä Bleszyńskin syvään kumarrukseen hän
otti nopeasti vastaan kirjeen, avasi sen ja alkoi lukea.
Mutta äkkiä hänen kasvonsa peloittavasti muuttuivat: veri tulvahti

hänen päähänsä, silmät pullistuivat, kaula paisui ja hirveä vihastus
kuvastui hänen kasvoillaan. Hän ei saanut sanaakaan suustaan ja
osoitti vain kädellään Hessenin prinssille kirjettä. Tämä silmäsi siihen
ja kääntyen päälliköiden puoleen sanoi tyynesti:
— Munkit vain ilmoittavat, että he eivät voi luopua Jan Kasimirista,

ennenkuin primas on julistanut uuden kuninkaan, toisin sanoen he
eivät halua tunnustaa Kaarle Kustaata.
Hessenin prinssi rupesi nauramaan, Sadowski loi ivallisen katseen

Mülleriin, ja Wrzeszczowicz väänsi raivostuneena viiksiään.
Suuttunut murina kuului muiden läsnäolijani joukosta.
Müller alkoi lyödä kämmenillään polviinsa ja huutaa:
— Vahti tänne!
Neljä viiksisuuta muskettisoturia ilmestyi ovelle.

— Ottakaa nämä paljaspäät luurangot ja viekää lukon taakse! —
huudahti kenraali. — Te, herra Sadowski, kuulutatte luostarissa-
olijoille, että jos he ampuvat ainoankaan tykinlaukauksen
muureiltaan, niin minä samassa hirtätän molemmat munkit!
Molemmat isät kuljetettiin pois sotamiesten ivatessa heitä.

Muskettisoturit panivat omat hattunsa heidän päähänsä tahi
paremmin sanoen heidän silmilleen ja johtivat heitä tahallaan
kaikenlaisten esteitten yli, ja kun jompikumpi munkeista kompastui
tahi kaatui, kävi naurun hohotus läpi joukon, ja kaatunut autettiin
pystyyn pyssynperien avulla. Jotkut syytivät heidän päälleen
hevosen lantaa, toiset heittelivät lumipalloja heidän tonsuureihinsa
tahi pistivät lunta viittojen sisään. Irroitettiin nuora torvista ja sidottiin
se munkkien kaulaan, minkä jälkeen sotamiehet tarttuivat nuoran
toiseen päähän ja ollen kuljettavinaan karjaa markkinoille huutelivat
kuuluvasti hintaa.
Munkit kulkivat ääneti kädet ristissä rinnalla ja rukous huulillaan.

Vilusta värisevinä heidät suljettiin erääseen latoon ja eteen asetettiin
vahteja ladatut musketit käsissä.
Luostarin edustalla kuulutettiin Müllerin määräys eli oikeammin

uhkaus.
Isät kauhistuivat, koko sotajoukko oli hämmästynyt. Tykit

vaikenivat. Kokoonnuttiin neuvotteluun, mutta ei tiedetty, mitä olisi
tehtävä. Mahdotonta oli jättää isät barbaarien käsiin. Jos
lähetettäisiin uudet lähettiläät, niin Müller pidättäisi nekin. Muuten
hän jonkin tunnin kuluttua lähetti itse lähettilään kysymään, mitä
munkit aikoivat tehdä.
Hänelle vastattiin, että mitkään neuvottelut eivät voineet tulla
kysymykseen niin kauan kuin isiä pidettiin vangittuina, sillä kuinka
saattoi veljeskunta uskoa kenraalin pitävän lupauksensa, kun hän
vastoin kansainvälisen oikeuden peruslakeja vangitsi lähetit,
jollaisille raakalaiskansatkaan eivät tee väkivaltaa.
Tähän selitykseen ei tullut mitään vastausta. Kiusallinen

epävarmuus vallitsi luostarissa ja lamautti puolustusintoa.
Ruotsalainen sotajoukko sen sijaan, joka tunsi turvallisuutta, kun

sillä oli panttivankeja, teki innokkaasti valmistuksia uutta hyökkäystä
varten. Väkivoimin luotiin uusia valleja ja asetettiin tykkejä
paikoilleen. Rohkeat sotamiehet tulivat aivan muurien läheisyyteen ja
uhkailivat kirkkoa ja sen puolustajia. Puolijuopuneet sotamiehet
huusivat heristellen nyrkkejään muureja kohti:
— Luovuttakaa luostari, taikka me hirtämme munkit!
Toiset herjasivat kamalasti Jumalan äitiä ja katolista oppia.

Piiritettyjen täytyi vankina olevien isien takia kuunnella kärsivällisesti.
Kmicic oli tukahtua raivoon. Hän repi hiuksiaan ja vaatteitaan ja
puhui käsiään väännellen Czarnieckille:
— Sanoinhan, sanoinhan, että ei pidä käydä neuvotteluja roistojen

kanssa! Nyt ei muuta kuin seiso, kärsi, anna heidän hyppiä silmille!
Jumalan äiti, armahda minua, anna minulle kärsivällisyyttä! Kautta
elävän Jumalan! Pian ne kiipeävät muureillemme!… Pidelkää kiinni
minua, kahlehtikaa minut, minä en jaksa enää sietää!
Ruotsalaiset lähestyivät yhä pelottomammin ja herjasivat yhä

rohkeammin.
Priori Kordecki ajatteli ensi sijassa, miten vangitut isät saataisiin
vapautetuiksi, ja kirjoitti tässä mielessä Müllerille, että hän mielellään
uhraa nämä isät kirkon hyväksi. Tuomitkoon kenraali heidät vain
kuolemaan. Silloin kaikki muut saavat tietää, mitä häneltä on
odotettavissa ja minkä arvoiset ovat hänen lupauksensa.
Molemmat vangitut munkit tuomittiin kuolemaan.
Se tapahtui Müllerin päämajassa, esikunnan ja ylempien

upseerien läsnä ollessa. Kaikki nämä katselivat tarkasti munkkeja
uteliaina näkemään, minkä vaikutuksen tuomio heihin tekee.
Suureksi hämmästyksekseen he näkivät kummankin niin
riemastuvan, kuin olisi heitä kohdannut korkein onni. Heidän kalpeat
poskensa punastuivat, silmät kirkastuivat, ja isä Malachowski lausui
innostuksesta väräjävällä äänellä:
— Ah, miksi emme saa kuolla jo tänään, kun osanamme on olla

uhrina
Jumalalle ja kuninkaalle!
Müller käski viedä heidät heti pois. Upseerit katselivat toisiaan, ja

viimein eräs heistä sanoi:
— Tuollaista kiihkomielisyyttä vastaan on vaikea taistella.
Ja Hessenin prinssi lisäsi:
— Tuommoinen usko oli vain ensimmäisillä kristityillä.
Samassa astui Sadowski esille ja tuli Müllerin luo.
— Teidän ylhäisyytenne ei käskene teloittaa noita munkkeja! —

sanoi hän pontevasti.
— Miksi?
— Siksi, että silloin eivät enää mitkään neuvottelut tule

kysymykseen, kostonhimo valtaa linnoituksen puolustajat, ja nuo
ihmiset mieluummin kaatuvat viimeiseen mieheen kuin antautuvat.
— Wittenberg lähettää minulle raskasta tykistöä.
— Teidän ylhäisyytenne ei tee sitä! — sanoi Sadowski lujasti. —

He ovat lähettiläitä, jotka ovat luottamuksellisesti tulleet tänne!
— Ei heitä ripustetakaan luottamukseen, vaan hirsipuuhun..
— Huhu tästä teosta leviää yli koko maan, kuohuttaa sydämet ja

vieroittaa ne meistä.
— Antakaa minun olla rauhassa huhuiltanne!… Olen kuullut niistä

jo sata kertaa.
— Teidän ylhäisyytenne ei tee sitä hänen majesteettinsa

kuninkaan tietämättä!
— Teillä ei ole oikeutta muistuttaa minulle velvollisuuksistani

kuningasta kohtaan!
— Mutta minulla on oikeus pyytää eroa palveluksesta ja selittää

syyt siihen hänen majesteetilleen. Tahdon olla sotilas enkä pyöveli!
Hessenin prinssi astui joukosta esille keskelle huonetta ja sanoi

mielenosoituksellisesti:
— Herra Sadowski, antakaa minulle kätenne! Te olette ritarillinen

ja kelpo mies!
— Mitä tämä on? Mitä se merkitsee? — kiljaisi Müller hypähtäen
seisomaan.
— Kenraali! — sanoi Hessenin prinssi kylmästi. — Rohkenen olla

sitä mieltä, että herra Sadowski on kelpo mies, enkä luule siinä
olevan mitään sotilaskurin vastaista.
Müller ei pitänyt Hessenin prinssistä, mutta niinkuin moniin

alhaissyntyisiin niin häneenkin vaikutti suuresti ylhäisille ominainen
kylmä, kohtelias ja samalla ylpeä puhetapa. Hän koetti itsekin
omaksua samanlaisen tavan siinä kuitenkaan onnistumatta. Nyt hän
hillitsi vihan puuskan ja sanoi tyynemmin:
— Munkit hirtetään huomenna.
— Asia ei kuulu minuun, — sanoi Hessenin prinssi, — mutta näin

ollen käskekää, teidän ylhäisyytenne, jo tänään ryhtyä toimenpiteisiin
niitä kahtatuhatta puolalaista vastaan, jotka ovat leirissämme, sillä
muussa tapauksessa he huomenna ryhtyvät toimiin meitä vastaan…
Jo nytkin on ruotsalaisten sotamiesten turvallisempaa mennä susien
luolaan kuin heidän telttoihinsa… Siinä on kaikki, mitä minulla oli
sanottavaa, ja nyt saan toivottaa teidän ylhäisyydellenne
menestystä…
Näin sanoen hän lähti päämajasta.
Müller huomasi menneensä liian pitkälle. Määräyksiään hän ei

kuitenkaan peruuttanut, ja vielä samana päivänä alettiin koko
luostarin nähden laittaa hirsipuuta. Samaan aikaan sotamiehet,
käyttäen hyväkseen aselepoa, tulivat yhä lähemmäksi muureja
jatkaen herjauksiaan ja ärsyttelyään. Kokonaisia joukkoja heitä
kiipeili kalliolle, ja he lähestyivät niin tiheinä ryhminä kuin aikoisivat
tehdä väkirynnäkön.
Kmicic, jota ei, kuten hän oli pyytänyt, oltu pantu kahleisiin, ei
todellakaan jaksanut enää sietää tätä menoa. Hän laukaisi äkkiä
tykin tähdäten suurimpaan joukkoon niin hyvällä menestyksellä, että
kaikki etumaisina kulkevat sotamiehet syöksyivät kuolleina alas. Se
oli kuin merkkinä, sillä heti käskemättä ja vastoin kieltojakin alkoivat
kaikki tykit jylistä ja musketit paukahdella.
Ruotsalaiset, joita näin ammuttiin eri suunnilta, alkoivat huutaen

paeta linnoituksen luota, mutta monta kaatui vielä tielle. Czarniecki
riensi Kmicicin luo.
— Tiedättekö, että tuon saatte maksaa hengellänne?
— Tiedän, mutta se on minusta samantekevää! Kas noin!…
— Siinä tapauksessa tähdätkää hyvin! Kmicic tähtäsi hyvin.
Pian hänellä kuitenkaan ei ollut edessään ketään, johon tähtäisi.

Ruotsalaisten leirissä oltiin raivostuneita. Ymmärrettiin ruotsalaisten
itsensä olleen syynä aselevon rikkoutumiseen, ja Müller itsekin
mielessään myönsi luostarin puolustajain menetelleen oikein.
Mutta, mikä oli tärkeämpää ja mitä Kmicic itsekään ei aavistanut,

hän oli laukauksillaan todennäköisesti pelastanut vangittujen isien
hengen, sillä nyt Müller tuli vakuutetuksi, että munkit pahimmassa
tapauksessa olivat todellakin valmiit kirkon ja luostarin hyväksi
uhraamaan kaksi veljistään. Sekin ajatus nousi nyt kenraalin
mieleen, että jos hiuskarvakaan putoaa lähettiläiden päästä, niin
silloin ei ole enää mitään muuta mahdollisuutta jäljellä kuin taistelu
luostaria vastaan.
Seuraavana päivänä hän kutsui molemmat vangitut munkit

luokseen päivälliselle ja sitä seuraavana hän lähetti heidät takaisin
luostariin.
Isä Kordecki itki nähdessään heidät kaikki syleilivät heitä ja

ihmettelivät kuullessaan heiltä, että juuri nuo laukaukset olivat heidät
vapauttaneet. Priori, joka oli tähän saakka ollut vihainen Kmicicille,
kutsui hänet luokseen ja sanoi:
— Olin vihainen, sillä luulin sinun syösseen heidät turmioon, mutta

Pyhä Neitsyt näyttää sinut innoittaneen. Se on armon merkki,
riemuitse siitä!
— Isä armahin, nyt kai ei enää jatketa neuvotteluja? — kysyi

Kmicic suudellen hänen kättään.
Mutta tuskin hän oli sen sanonut, kun torvi törähti portin edustalla
ja uusi Müllerin sanantuoja saapui sisälle luostariin.
Se oli Kuklinowski, vapaaehtoisen joukon päällikkö, joka oli

yhtynyt ruotsalaisiin.
Pahimmat lurjukset, joilla ei ollut uskoa eikä kunniaa, palvelivat

tuossa joukossa. lisäksi siinä oli eriuskolaisia, kuten luterilaisia,
areiolaisia ja kalvinilaisia. Tämä selitti heidän myötätuntonsa
ruotsalaisia kohtaan, mutta pääasiassa oli heidät vienyt Müllerin
leiriin ryöstön ja saalistamisen halu. Tämä joukko, johon kuului
rosvoja, paenneita vankeja ja kuolemaantuomittuja, muistutti
jonkinverran Kmicicin entistä joukkoa, mutta Kmicicin miehet
rakastivat taistelua, nämä vain ryöstöä. Kuklinowski itse oli vielä
vähemmän Kmicicin kaltainen. Hänen tukassaan oli harmaata,
hänen kasvonsa olivat kuihtuneet, ilme julkea ja kavala. Hän oli niitä
sotilaita, joista rosvoileva elämä ja alituiset taistelut ovat kokonaan
kuolettaneet omantunnon. Paljon tuollaisia kierteli
kolmikymmenvuotisen sodan jälkeisenä aikana kaikkialla Saksassa
ja Puolassa. He olivat valmiit palvelemaan ketä tahansa, ja usein
ratkaisi vain sattuma sen, kenen puolella he olivat.
Isänmaa, uskonto — sanalla sanoen kaikki mikä on pyhää — oli

heistä aivan samantekevä. He tunsivat vain sotilaselämän ja etsivät
siitä huvia, etuja ja unhotusta. Kuitenkin he tavallisesti palvelivat
jokseenkin uskollisesti sitä, jonka palvelukseen olivat ruvenneet.
Tämä johtui jonkinmoisesta sotilaan ja rosvon kunniantunnosta ja
myös siitä, että he eivät tahtoneet vahingoittaa
ansiomahdollisuuksiaan.
Sellainen oli myös Kuklinowski. Rohkeus ja tavallista parempi

menestys yrityksissä oli tuottanut hänelle mainetta ammattiveljien
keskuudessa. Hänen oli helppo värvätä miehiä. Koko ikänsä hän oli
palvellut erilaisia aseita käyttäen ja eri leireissä. Väärät sääret
osoittivat, että hän oli suurimman osan ikäänsä ollut hevosen
selässä. Muuten hän oli laiha kuin keppi ja jonkin verran köyryssä
irstaan elämän johdosta. Eikä hän kuitenkaan ollut luonnostaan
täysin huono ihminen, jolla ei olisi joskus ollut jalompiakin tunteita,
hän oli vain perin turmeltunut ja villiintynyt. Itse hän usein päissään
ollessaan sanoi toveriseurassa:
— Olen tehnyt monta tekoa, joiden takia olisin ansainnut, että

salama olisi iskenyt minuun, mutta eipä se ole iskenyt!
Tämä rangaistuksetta pääseminen teki sen, että hän ei uskonut
Jumalan oikeamielisyyteen ja rangaistuksiin tässä elämässä tahi
kuoleman jälkeen, toisin sanoen hän ei uskonut Jumalaan, mutta
kyllä perkeleeseen, noitakeinoihin, astrologeihin ja alkemiaan.
Müller, joka oli samaa tyyppiä, mutta suuripiirteisempi, piti häntä

suuressa arvossa ja näki hänet mielellään pöydässään vieraana. Nyt
oli Kuklinowski itse tarjoutunut häntä auttamaan ja vakuuttanut
saattavansa kaunopuheisuudellaan munkit järkiinsä.
Hän oli ruvennut lähettilääksi ensiksikin itse toimen vuoksi, mutta

toiseksi myös nähdäkseen paikat ja kylvääkseen sinne ja tänne
huonon siemenen. Koska hän ennestään tunsi Czarnieckin, niin hän
suuntasi kulkunsa tämän vartioitavan portin luo. Mutta Czarniecki oli
nukkumassa ja hänen paikallaan Kmicic Tämä johti tulijan
neuvottelusaliin.
Kuklinowski katsahti tuntijan silmin Kmiciciin, ja häntä miellytti

nuoren miehen ryhti ja sotilaallinen olemus.
— Sotilas tuntee heti oikean sotilaan, — sanoi hän nostaen käden

lähelle hatun reunaa. — En luullut papeilla olevan näin komeita
upseereita palveluksessaan. Mikä arvo teillä on, jos saan kysyä?
Kmicic, joka oli innostunut kuten kaikki äskenkääntyneet, saattoi

tuskin hillitä harmiaan nähdessään ruotsalaisten palvelukseen
antautuneen puolalaisen. Mutta hän muisti Kordeckilta äskettäin
saamansa läksytyksen ja myös sen, että tämä piti neuvotteluja
tärkeinä. Senvuoksi hän vastasi kylmästi ja rauhallisesti:
— Olen Babinicz, ennen ollut everstinä liettualaisessa armeijassa,

nyt vapaaehtoisena Pyhän Neitsyen palveluksessa.

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McGraw Hill s SAT 2011 Edition Mcgraw Hill s Sat

Earth Science and the Environment with CengageNOW Printed

Physical Geology Exploring the Earth 6th Edition James

Hacking Exposed 6th Edition Mcgraw-Hill

The Changing Earth Exploring Geology and Evolution 4th

The Changing Earth Exploring Geology and Evolution 7th

Go to the National Geographic

Why It’s Important

To find out more about

1.1 Earth Science

1.1 Ear th Science 5

Astronomy Astronomy is the study of objects beyond Earth’s

Oceanography The study of Earth’s oceans, which cover nearly

6 CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Science

Table 1-1 Some Subspecialties of Earth Science

Paleontology Remains of organisims Geochemistry Earth’s composition

Hydrology Water flow on and Tectonics Effects of internal

1.1 Ear th Science 7

The Hydrosphere The water in Earth’s oceans, seas, lakes, rivers,

Figure 1-3 Most of Earth’s

8 CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Science

The Biosphere The biosphere includes all organisms on Earth as

1.1 Ear th Science 9

3. What does a geochemist study? SKILL REVIEW

10 CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Science earthgeu.com/self_check_quiz

3. Conduct the 4. Record

1. Look at the 1. Organize the data 2. Look for

3. Compare the data

1.2 Methods of Scientists 11

Analyze and Conclude

Figure 1-7 Safety goggles and a

12 CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Science

Analysis and Conclusions During a scientific experiment, all

1.2 Methods of Scientists 13

Length The standard SI unit to measure length is the meter (m).

Figure 1-8 The gravita-

Area and Volume Some measurements, such as area,

Temperature Temperature is a measure of the aver-

1.2 Methods of Scientists 15

1. Describe the steps used in a scientific SKILL REVIEW

16 CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Science earthgeu.com/self_check_quiz

COMMUNICATING RESULTS VOCABULARY

Lab Reports Throughout this book, you will conduct many

1.3 Communicating in Science 17

In some of the activities and experiments in this

Making and Using Graphs

18 CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Science

1. What is the purpose of communicating 6. Critical Thinking When ice is heated, it

earthgeu.com/self_check_quiz 1.3 Communicating in Science 19

20 CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Science

Conclude & Apply

22 CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Science

SECTION 1.2 Main Ideas Vocabulary

SECTION 1.3 Main Ideas Vocabulary

earthgeu.com/vocabulary_puzzlemaker Study Guide 23