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Asbestos Risk Assessment Epidemiology And Health
Effects 1st Edition Ronald F. Dodson Digital Instant
Download
Author(s): Ronald F. Dodson, Samuel P. Hammar
ISBN(s): 9780849328299, 0849328292
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 9.04 MB
Year: 2005
Language: english
ASBESTOS
Risk Assessment, Epidemiology,
and Health Effects
Edited by
Ronald F. Dodson, Ph.D.
Samuel P. Hammar, M.D.
A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the
Taylor & Francis Group, the academic division of T&F Informa plc.
2829_Discl.fm Page 1 Thursday, August 25, 2005 1:46 PM
Published in 2006 by
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
Asbestos : risk assessment, epidemiology, and health effects / edited by Ronald F. Dodson, Samuel
P. Hammar.
p. ; cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8493-2829-2 (alk. paper)
1. Asbestos--Toxicology. 2. Asbestosis. I. Dodson, Ronald F. II. Hammar, Samuel P.
[DNLM: 1. Asbestos--adverse effects. 2. Asbestosis--epidemiology. 3. Risk Assessment. WA 754
A7988 2005]
RA1231.A8A74 2005
363.17'91--dc22 2005048604
Ronald F. Dodson Ph.D., received his B.A. in biology and general sciences (double
major) from East Texas State College, and M.A. in biology and chemistry from East
Texas State University. His doctorate was from the Life Sciences Division of Texas
A&M University with an emphasis in biological electron microscopy. After 7 years
in the faculty at Baylor College of Medicine in Houston, he was recruited to develop
a research program at the University of Texas Health Center at Tyler. His work for
the last 20 years has concentrated in defining dust burden in tissue, body fluids, and
environmental samples by light and analytical transmission electron microscopy.
His laboratories have developed some of the techniques which enable quantitative
studies of tissue burden to be carried out.
He has authored or coauthored over 90 scientific articles on the subject of dust-
related diseases with most of these focusing on asbestos-related issues. He has also
authored or coauthored ten chapters in books and given numerous presentations on
the topic of asbestos and human health. These presentations include those at scien-
tific meeting and to more selected audiences such as the National Conference of
State Legislatures and the Defense Research Institute. His academic achievements
have been recognized in that he holds the status a Fellow in the American Heart
Association and Fellow in the College of Chest Physicians.
He has held various administrative titles during his academic career including
Chief of Department, Chairman of Department, Associate Director for Research,
Vice President for Research, and co-Director of the Texas Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health. He has served on numerous academic committees and as well as
a reviewer for numerous journals. He has directed an EPA/Texas Department of
Health (Model Accreditation governed) approved training division and holds licenses
through the Texas Department of Health of the State of Texas as an Inspector/Manager
Planner and Supervisor/Contractor in the area of asbestos-related activities.
Dr. Dodson and Dr. Hammar have authored or coauthored the majority of the world’s
literature on asbestos content in extrapulmonary sites as well as defined tissue burden
(including shorter fibers) in unique cohorts such as individuals with mesothelioma.
Chapter 1
The History of the Extraction and Uses of Asbestos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Arthur L. Frank
Chapter 2
Asbestos Analysis Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
James R. Millette
Chapter 3
Analysis and Relevance of Asbestos Burden in Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Ronald F. Dodson
Chapter 4
Molecular and Cellular Responses to Asbestos Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Mark A. L. Atkinson
Chapter 5
The Pathologic Features of Asbestos-Induced Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Samuel P. Hammar
Chapter 6
Epidemiology of Asbestos-Related Diseases and the Knowledge that
Led to What is Known Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Richard A. Lemen
Chapter 7
Clinical Diagnosis of Asbestos-Related Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Gary K. Friedman
Chapter 8
Core Curriculum for Practicing Physicians
Related to Asbestos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Jeffrey L. Levin and Paul P. Rountree
Appendix
Understanding Asbestos Regulations and Their Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Fredy Polanco
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
CHAPTER 1
Arthur L. Frank
CONTENTS
that time with production of textiles, socks and gloves, and handbags. Benjamin
Franklin, while in Europe, was noted to have a purse made from asbestos. The
resilience of asbestos cloth and paper was duly noted, and a suit made entirely of
asbestos protected a young Italian as he walked through a roaring fire in the 1820s.
Pope Pius IX was reported to have developed asbestos paper to keep important
documents safe from fire at the Vatican. Additional history of the early use of asbes-
tos can be found in the paper by Abratt et al.2
Modern asbestos history can be traced to the discovery, or rediscovery, of asbes-
tos in Canada and South Africa. By 1850, chrysotile deposits were known around
Thetford, in Canada, and these deposits were again appreciated following a forest
fire when in the mid-1870s out croppings of rocks were noted to not have burned.
By 1876, some 50 tons of asbestos was being mined in Quebec and brought to
market through a specially built railroad. By the 1950s, over 900,000 tons per
year were being mined with a value of almost 100 million dollars.1
In the early 1800s, asbestos was noted to exist in South Africa,2 particularly in
the northwest area of Cape Province, and the name crocidolite was given to a blue-
colored stone otherwise known as “wooly stone.” Further interest did not occur until
the 1880s and the first records of serious production did not take place until early in
the 20th century. The amount of asbestos produced was far less than from Canada,
remaining below 10,000 tons per year until 1940. In the Transvaal of South Africa a
different form of asbestos was mined and was called amosite, an acronym for the
Asbestos Mines of South Africa. By 1970, some 80,000 tons per year of amosite
was being produced. The mines from which the majority of amosite was derived
were run by a small number of Europeans with 6500 local workers of color.
Other locations with significant production of asbestos included Italy, Russia,
the United States, Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), and more recently, China. Italy
was never a major producer of asbestos, not being able to compete with the larger
quantities available in Canada. Russian production was substantial, rivaling that
produced in Canada. In the United States small deposits were mined in Vermont,
Arizona, and California. Smaller deposits of anthophyllite were mined in North
Carolina and Georgia. In Zimbabwe, mines became operative early in the 20th
century and reached a peak production of 95,000 tons.
China has become a major producer and rivals Canada and Russia in terms of
asbestos production. In 2000, Russia led the world with 700,000 tons, followed by
450,000 tons from China and 335,000 tons from Canada. In 2000, the United
States was producing only some 7000 tons from mines in California and elsewhere,
this from a worldwide production of 2,130,000 tons.3 Not surprisingly, Russia and
China accounted for most consumption of asbestos followed by Brazil, India,
Thailand, and Japan. The United States used about 15,000 tons of asbestos in
2000, down from a peak of 750,000 tons per year in the early 1970s.
On a per capita basis, the greatest use of asbestos is in Russia and former Soviet
Republic countries, and in Thailand. Among the countries with lowest per capita
usage, other than in countries that have now banned asbestos, are Canada, the
United States, and several others at one tenth of a kilogram per capita per year.
Although on a per capita basis India ranks low, it stands fourth in the world’s
HISTORY OF THE EXTRACTION AND USES OF ASBESTOS 3
total usage. China, while second in the world, has a relatively low per capita amount,
given its large population base. Major use in the United States is for asbestos cement
and roofing materials. In much of the rest of the world asbestos containing cement,
construction materials, friction products and textiles are made, used, and exported.
Although there has been historical use of asbestos, it was more a curiosity than a
meaningful commercial material. This changed in the last half of the 19th century
as asbestos began to be used in many commercial settings. For example, with indus-
trialization and the use of steam to drive equipment, it was recognized that asbestos
could serve a useful purpose as insulation material. Older products, including the use
of dried dung, were not very efficient insulators.
Increasingly, it became apparent that asbestos, because of its various properties,
was extremely useful in many situations. Asbestos resists degradation under heat
and cold, does not conduct electricity, and is extremely chemically resistant, inclu-
ding resistance to many industrial acids. Because of its heat, cold, and chemical
resistance asbestos was used in many products. Different types of asbestos were
found especially useful for different purposes. For example, amosite was especially
resistant to degradation by sea-water, and was the asbestos of choice as an insulation
material on sea-going vessels.
Naturally, asbestos came to be used in a number of ways. The first systematic use
of asbestos was for sealing and packing materials, soon followed by its use in insu-
lation for heat conservation. The manufacturer of asbestos roofing felt and cement
came soon thereafter, as did the development of textile made from asbestos. Even
brake bands were noted to have contained asbestos.1 All this took place in the
later part of the 19th century.
Around the turn of the century asbestos containing cement pipe was produced,
the asbestos allowing for added strength, creating lighter and thinner cement
materials. The first use of asbestos as a brake lining occurred in 1906, and clutch
facings were developed in 1918. In Great Britain a technique for spraying asbestos
as a fireproofing material was developed in the early 1930s, and this technique was
imported into the United States a few years later. Considerable use of asbestos was
noted during the ship-building era in and around World War II. For the first time
millions, including many women, were exposed to asbestos.
After World War II asbestos was used as filtering agent, and over time was used
for filtering wine, beer, and pharmaceutical products. Asbestos was incorporated
into plastics, paint, and asphalt. Asbestos paper had been used for many years
and many purposes. Crocidolite asbestos was even used as a component of a ciga-
rette filter between 1952 and 1956.
Raw asbestos was used in many other products, and was used as a filler in many
products. Asbestos found its way into plasters and stuccos, was used in drilling mud
for oil wells and other similar operations, and was used in automobile body under-
coatings. Yarns made from asbestos were used in a wide variety of ways, including
4 ASBESTOS: RISK ASSESSMENT, EPIDEMIOLOGY, AND HEALTH EFFECTS
rope, sewing threads, gas mask filters, and for steam hoses, among others. Cloth made
from asbestos was incorporated into blankets, mailbags, theater curtains and com-
mercial products such as ironing board covers. Other consumer products, including
hair dryers, toasters, play sand, and baby powders were shown to contain asbestos.
Construction materials containing asbestos included millboards, cements, lab-
oratory table tops, electrical pump insulation and mountings, and flooring. Asbestos
was found to be present in 3000 – 4000 commercial products.
Increasingly, the use of asbestos is being banned around the world. The current use
of asbestos includes building supplies, such as roofing materials and asbestos cement
pipes. Automobile brake components continue to contain asbestos, and asbestos cloth
is still used in firefighting protective gear. For some countries the continued sale of
asbestos is a significant economic issue. Even in Canada, where only around 1500
miners are still employed, there is a fierce effort to maintain the use and sale of
Canadian chrysotile on a worldwide basis. This is in the face of growing evidence
of the health hazards of all forms of asbestos, and continuing evidence, especially
in developing countries, of no real “controlled use” of asbestos, including chrysotile.
With the recent decision to ban the use of asbestos in Japan, only developing
countries continue to use large quantities of asbestos. China and India, for
example, continue to mine and use asbestos, the most frequent use being in construc-
tion materials. Thailand, another growing economic power in Southeast Asia, con-
tinues to use large quantities of asbestos as well. Encouragement for the use of
asbestos in such countries comes from the West, where the hazards are increasingly
well recognized and actions are being taken to reduce or eliminate the use of
asbestos containing products.
The world has a long history of asbestos use, with some suggestions of potential
health hazards by the ancients. The real history, appreciating the hazards of asbestos,
begins in the last part of the 1890s.
The term pneumoconiosis, having been coined by Zenker4 in 1867 after exam-
ining the lungs of a man with siderosis, was applied to an increasing number of dust
diseases of the lung. In 1924, Cooke coined the term asbestosis.1
Morris Greenberg, who served as a medical member of the Inspectorate
of Factories in Great Britain and is a true scholar of the historical aspects of
asbestos-related disease, wrote an excellent historical overview of the development
of the hazards of asbestos.5,6
In Great Britain, as early as 1898, the Lady Inspector of Factories made note of
the fact that asbestos was causing disease among asbestos textile workers.7 In 1899,
Dr. Murray conducted a post-mortem examination on a young man in his mid-
thirties who died of respiratory insufficiency. He reported, during his hospitalization,
that he was the tenth individual in his particular work area to die, and that his
working brethren had all preceded him in death at a young age from similar
problems. Dr. Murray noted the man had extensive interstitial fibrosis, and what
HISTORY OF THE EXTRACTION AND USES OF ASBESTOS 5
was described as “curious bodies” in his lungs. In 1907, the autopsy findings, with
commentary, were published and unfortunately concluded that proper ventilation
was now thought to be in place to spare additional workers disease in the future.8
Unfortunately, this was far from correct.
In 1915 Collis, after giving a series of lectures, wrote up his findings on pneu-
moconiosis and discussed the problems of silicosis and asbestos-induced fibrosis,
not yet called “asbestosis.”9 The term asbestosis was not used until 1924 when
Cooke coined the term to describe pulmonary fibrosis due to the inhalation of asbes-
tos dust.10 By 1930, Merewether wrote of the principles to protect workers in
England,11 and Lanza in the United States showed that suggested levels of asbestos
in the late 1930s were often too high to protect workers.12
Although previously unnamed, the disease entities caused by exposure to asbes-
tos were not unappreciated. In 1918, the Prudential Life Insurance Company, which
insured workers in Canada and the United States, had called to its attention by one of
its vice presidents, who was a statistician, that there was harm in breathing asbestos
dust. At that point in time Prudential ceased issuing policies on the life of asbestos
workers.
Although not reported in the scientific literature until many decades later, relatively
recent revelations, written up by Tweedale, revealed that at least one major asbestos
company in England knew, beginning in the 1920s their workers were dying of lung
cancer and mesothelioma, and they worked diligently to suppress that information.13
The first actual suggestion of the relationship of asbestos exposure and lung
cancer was by Drs. Lynch and Smith, making observations of workers at a South
Carolina asbestos textile plant.14 They did not have definitive proof this occurred,
but by 1942 Hueper, then director of occupational cancer studies at the National
Cancer Institute, felt the data then available was sufficient for him to write that he
felt asbestos caused lung cancer.15 This was repeated in the scientific literature
several times in the 1940s and early 1950s. In 1955, should there have been question
in anyone’s mind, Doll reported on lung cancer in excess in Great Britain due to
asbestos.16 Interestingly, this data came from the Turner and Newall Company,
where lung cancer cases and pleural cancers, had been accumulating since the
1920s, but had not been previously reported.13
For the problem of mesothelioma, case reports began accumulating in the 1940s,
and by the early 1950s there were studies relating asbestos to the development of this
form of malignancy. The work of Wagner et al., in South Africa, published in 1960,
clearly related exposure to crocidolite asbestos and the development of this disease
and cited earlier cases.17 Interestingly, the cases reported by Wagner were not seen
only among workers, but nonoccupational exposure was documented as causing
mesotheliomas.
Over the years, studies have shown that other forms of cancer can be caused by
asbestos. While there continues to be some controversy, it is generally accepted that
gastrointestinal tract cancers, laryngeal cancers, and kidney cancers are all found in
excess following exposure to asbestos the risk increasing with increasing exposure.
In the United States various government agencies and organizations interested in
cancer accept these findings.
6 ASBESTOS: RISK ASSESSMENT, EPIDEMIOLOGY, AND HEALTH EFFECTS
As more and more groups of individuals exposed to asbestos have been looked at,
evidence of asbestos-induced disease is found. While there clearly appears to be a
threshold phenomenon with regard to the development of asbestosis, no such threshold
appears to exist for asbestos cancers, although a dose–response relationship exists.
While most studies of asbestos and the development of human disease have
focused on individuals occupationally exposed, there is an increasing body of
evidence that non-occupational exposure, usually called environmental or bystander
exposure, can lead to the development of asbestos-related disease.18,19 This is true
for findings such as pleural plaques, where in Finland individuals living near an asbes-
tos mine developed plaques with some regularity, but similar individuals in areas
where no asbestos mines exist do not. Wagner et al., in their classic 1960 paper regard-
ing mesothelioma, spoke to the issue of individuals with environmental exposure
developing mesothelioma as fibers were moved from the site of extraction to enter
the delivery system, on their way to entering general commerce.17 In the United
States a current issue of environmental exposure is the situation in Libby, Montana,
where a tremolite containing vermiculite mine has injured workers and townspeople,
and the product has caused additional disease after entering general commerce.20
A somewhat more specific phrase, either called household exposure or familial
exposure, exists when family members develop asbestos-related disease. Anderson
looked at family members of asbestos-exposed workers. Even family members
moving into a contaminated household after the worker has stopped bringing in
asbestos can lead to the development of disease.21 Environmental exposures can
also apply to those living near asbestos utilizing facilities. Newhouse, in London,
showed that a number of individuals developed mesothelioma simply from living
near an asbestos utilizing facility.19
With increasing regulation or banning of asbestos there will undoubtedly be fewer
cases of asbestos-related disease in the future, although it will probably take several
decades until this comes to pass. Given the long latency of asbestos-related disease
it has been projected that such problems will be noted for several decades yet.22 In
the developing world, with continued use of asbestos, this problem will likely
worsen over time, until proper regulations or bans on the uses of asbestos-containing
materials come into place and protect asbestos-exposed individuals.
A particularly contentious issue is the well-documented synergistic effect of
asbestos and cigarette smoke exposure leading to a marked increase in lung cancer.
Knowledge currently existing in industrialized countries should be disseminated to
countries that continue to use asbestos and often also have high rates of cigarette
consumption.
1.4 CONCLUSION
While asbestos has been utilized for its many useful properties in many products for
a long time, it is now clearly recognized as causing significant injury and disease.
Society has decided to function adequately without use of this dangerous material.
Among the concerns for the future would be inappropriate continuing use in some
HISTORY OF THE EXTRACTION AND USES OF ASBESTOS 7
parts of the world, and inappropriate methodologies for removal of asbestos already
in place in the more developed parts of the world. While there are unanswered
questions regarding the biological affects of asbestos, and have differing views of
scientists on specific aspects of asbestos toxicology, it is clear that asbestos is a
dangerous material with serious consequences for human health.
REFERENCES
1. Selikoff, I.J. and Lee, D.H.K., Asbestos and Disease, Academic Press, New York, 1978.
2. Abratt, R.P., Vorobiof, D.A., and White, N., Asbestos and mesothelioma in South
Africa, Lung Cancer, 455, 53, 2004.
3. Tossavainen, A., Global use of asbestos and the incidence of mesothelioma,
Int. J. Occup. Environ. Health, 10, 22, 2004.
4. Zenker, F.A., Iron lung-siderosis pulmonous, Dtsch. Arch. Klin. Med., 2, 116, 1867.
5. Greenberg, M., The doctors and the dockers, Am. J. Ind. Med., 45, 573, 2004.
6. Greenberg, M. and Lloyd Davis, T.A., Mesothelioma register 1967– 68, Brit. J. Ind.
Med., 31, 91, 1974.
7. Annual Report of the Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops for the year 1898,
Her Majesty’s Stationary Office, London, 1898, p. 171.
8. Murray, H.M., Departmental Committee on Compensation for Industrial Disease,
Minutes of Evidence, Appendices and Index, Wyman and Sons, London, 1907, p. 127.
9. Collis, E.L., The pneumoconioses, Publ. Health, 28, 252, 1915.
10. Cooke, W.E., Fibrosis of the lungs due to the inhalation of asbestos dust, Br. Med. J.,
2, 147, 1924.
11. Merewether, E.R.A. and Price, C.W., Report on the effects of asbestos dust on the
lungs and dust suppression in the asbestos industry, HM Stationary Office, 1930.
12. Lanza, A.J., Silicosis and Asbestosis, Oxford University Press, London, 1938.
13. Tweedale, G., From Magic Mineral to Killer Dust: Turner and Newall and the
Asbestos Hazard, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2000.
14. Lynch, K.M. and Smith, W.A., Pulmonary Asbestosis III: Carcinoma of lung in
asbestos-silicosis, Am. J. Cancer, 14, 56, 1935.
15. Hueper, W.C., Occupational Tumors and Allied Diseases, C.C. Thomas, Springfield,
1942.
16. Doll, R., Mortality from lung cancer in asbestos workers, Br. J. Ind. Med., 12, 81, 1955.
17. Wagner, J.C., Sleggs, C.A., and Marchand, P., Diffuse pleural mesothelioma and
asbestos exposure in North Western Cape Province, Br. J. Ind. Med., 17, 260, 1960.
18. Kivoluoto, R., Pleural calcification as a roentgenologic sign of non-occupational
endemic anthophylite asbestos, Acta Radiol., (Suppl.), 194, 65, 1960.
19. Newhouse, M.L. and Thompson, H., Mesothelioma of pleura and peritoneum
following exposure to asbestos in the London area, Br. J. Ind. Med., 22, 261, 1965.
20. Peipins, L.A., Lewin, A., Campolucci, S., Lybargh, J.A., Miller, A., Middleton, D.,
Weis, C., Spence, M., Black, B., and Kapil, V., Radiographic abnormalities and
exposure to asbestos-contaminated vermiculite in the community of Libby,
Montana, USA, Environ. Health Perspect., 111, 1753, 2003.
21. Anderson, H.A., Lilis, R., Daum, G.M., and Selikoff, I.J., Asbestosis among house-
hold contacts of asbestos factory workers, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 330, 387, 1979.
22. Peto, J., Decarli, A., La Vecchia, C., Levi, F., and Negri, E., The European meso-
thelioma epidemic, Br. J. Cancer, 79, 566, 1999.
CHAPTER 2
James R. Millette
CONTENTS
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . . 9
2.2 Sample Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . . 10
2.3 Polarized Light Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . . 10
2.4 Bulk Asbestos Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . . 12
2.5 PCM: Air Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . . 14
2.6 Transmission Electron Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . . 14
2.7 Scanning Electron Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . . 22
2.8 TEM beyond AHERA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . . 23
2.9 Water Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . . 25
2.10 Surface Dust Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . . 26
2.11 Soil Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . . 27
2.12 Vermiculite Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . . 28
2.13 Methods for Asbestos Analysis in Other Media . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . . 29
2.14 Asbestos Definitions and Terminology . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . . 29
2.15 PCM Equivalency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . . 30
2.16 Cleavage Fragments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . . 31
2.17 Amphiboles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . . 31
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . . 33
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . . 33
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The value of a standard method is that it defines procedures in such a way that
different laboratories working independently will achieve similar results when
using the same method. There are over 30 different “standard” methods available
for the analysis of asbestos in a variety of media. The methods include those for
9
10 ASBESTOS: RISK ASSESSMENT, EPIDEMIOLOGY, AND HEALTH EFFECTS
determining the amount of asbestos in air, water, bulk building materials, surface
dust, carpet, soil, and specific product materials such as vermiculite and talc.
Some methods, although in draft or interim forms, have become generally recog-
nized and used as standard methods by the analytical community. Governmental
agencies, such as the Occupation Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), the
National Institute of Safety and Health (NIOSH), the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA), the California Air Resources Board (CARB), and the New York
State Department of Health, have promulgated some of the methods. Consensus
standards groups such as the American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM), the International Standards Organization (ISO), and the American
Water Works Association (AWWA) have published other methods. A number of
methods have gained acceptance after being published in the scientific literature.
Which method to use in a particular situation depends on the media to be tested
and level of information required.
Because the concern with asbestos is related to its fibrous nature, microscopy is
the chief analytical tool used for its analysis. Different microscopes have advantages
and disadvantages in regard to cost and the ability to provide information about
asbestos fibers. Polarized light microscopy (PLM) is the standard way to analyze
for asbestos in bulk materials. Phase-contrast microscopy (PCM) is the instrumental
technique used for many occupational air sample analyses. Transmission electron
microscopy (TEM) and, in some cases, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) are
used for all types of samples when small fibers are involved or specific identification
of individual asbestos fibers is desired.
The collection of samples for analysis depends on the media to be tested and the
specific procedures for sample collection are usually provided in the particular
analysis method. In general, air samples are collected on membrane filters, water
samples in glass or plastic bottles, surface dust by microvacuum or wipe samplers,
and solid materials such as building materials, soil and specific products in plastic
bags, or rigid plastic containers. Air samples are collected on either mixed cellulose
ester (MCE) or polycarbonate (PC) filters using either 37 or 25 mm air cassettes. To
be quantitative, air samples must be collected with a measured amount of air volume
and surface dust samples must be collected from measured areas of a surface.
established the procedures for asbestos fiber identification by PLM.1,2 The PLM
identification of asbestos fibers depends on several optical crystallographic proper-
ties: refractive indices, dispersion staining, birefringence, sign of elongation, and
extinction angle.
The U.S. EPA has defined asbestos-containing material as any material or product
that contains more than 1% asbestos.3,4 The bulk analysis procedure most often
specified is the “Method for the Determination of Asbestos in Bulk Building
ASBESTOS ANALYSIS METHODS 13
point-count analyses would be expected to fall variously within the range of 0.27–
2.6% asbestos on the basis of Poisson statistics. To provide a more statistically valid
analysis when low levels of asbestos may be present, matrix reduction is used to con-
centrate the asbestos fibers. When possible, combustible material is ashed away,
acid-soluble material is dissolved away, and density separation is used to prepare
the sample of bulk material so that low levels of asbestos fibers can be readily
found. Electron microscopy can also be used to help provide quantitative values
for low levels of asbestos. The EPA 1993 bulk method, the NIOSH 9002, the
OSHA ID-191, and ELAP Item 198.4 all contain some discussion of matrix
reduction and use of electron microscopy.13 A bulk microscopy method that incor-
porates various forms of matrix reduction for particular sample product types and
use of electron microscopy is being drafted concurrently by task groups in both
ASTM and ISO. A comparison of several of the bulk methods is shown in Table 2.1.
The PCM (Figure 2.4) is a compound light microscope, which illuminates a speci-
men with a hollow cone of light. The cone of light is narrow and enters the field of
view of the objective lens. Within the objective lens is a ring-shaped device, which
introduces a phase shift of a quarter of a wavelength of light. This illumination
causes minute variations of refractive index in a transparent specimen to become
visible. The phase-contrast mode pushes the ability of the light microscope to see
fibers as thin as 0.25 mm in diameter, but it does so at the expense of identification.
PCM is not used to identify asbestos fibers.
The most commonly used PCM method, NIOSH 7400, requires a positive PCM
(dark) with green or blue filter, an adjustable field iris, 8– 10 eyepieces, and a
40– 45 phase objective (total magnification is about 400).14 Most PCM analysts
use binocular PCMs. Within one of the eyepieces, there is a Walton – Beckett type
graticule, which forms an analysis area of approximately 0.00785 mm2 at the speci-
men plane. The other U.S. Government promulgated PCM method, OSHA ID-160,
has similar requirements.15 Under the PCM methods, fibers are counted when they
are greater than 5 mm in length and have an aspect ratio (AR) (length to width) of at
least 3:1. The NIOSH 7400 method “A” counting rules used for counting asbestos
fibers have no upper limit on the diameter of the fiber counted. A fiber that appears
to be partially obscured by a particle is counted as one fiber. If the fiber ends
emanating from a particle do not seem to be from the same fiber and each end meets
the length and AR criteria, they are counted as separate fibers. Results of the PCM
methods are given in terms of fibers per cubic centimeter of air.
The TEM (Figure 2.5) uses electro-magnetic coils as lenses to form magnified images
with an electron beam in the same way that a light microscope uses glass lenses and a
Table 2.1 Comparison of Common Methods for Measuring Asbestos in Bulk Building Materials
Instrument Stereo þ PLM Stereo þ PLM Stereo þ PLM Stereo þ PLM with PLM and TEM
XRD and TEM mention of
SEM and TEM
Sample As is and some As is and some As is and some As is and organic and As is and detailed
preparation matrix reduction matrix reduction, matrix reduction carbonate matrix reduction,
ASBESTOS ANALYSIS METHODS
light beam to form images. Electrons can be accelerated with high potential
energies, which produce a beam with a very small wavelength and thus allow
much higher magnifications than can be achieved with the wavelengths of light.
The commonly used TEM methods call for a TEM that can operate at an accelerating
potential of 80,000 (80 kV) to 120,000 V. If operating properly at 80– 120 kV, a
Figure 2.6 Image of crocidolite and chrysotile asbestos fibers as seen with a TEM. Crocidolite is
the thicker fiber; chrysotile is longer and thin. The circles are carbon replicas of the
PC filter.
18 ASBESTOS: RISK ASSESSMENT, EPIDEMIOLOGY, AND HEALTH EFFECTS
Figure 2.7 Chrysotile SAED pattern. The gold ring results from coating the fiber with a thin layer
of gold and is used for calibration.
method, air samples collected using MCE filters were ashed in a low-temperature
plasma asher and the residual ash was dispersed in a solution of nitrocellulose.
The dispersion was “rubbed out” or spread as uniformly as possible on an optical
microscope slide. After the solvent had evaporated, a portion of the film containing
the particles from the filter residue was mounted on a TEM grid for examination.
The value of asbestos was reported in terms of nanograms per cubic meter of
air. The values were determined by summing the masses of the fibers that were cal-
culated from the TEM dimensions of each fiber and an appropriate density for the
type of asbestos found.
In 1978, Samudra et al., published the first methodology for determination of the
numerical concentration of asbestos fibers in ambient atmospheres using a direct
preparation method.20 The provisional methodology developed under contract for
the USEPA recommended air sampling using a 0.4 mm pore size PC filter and prep-
aration of TEM specimen grids by carbon coating followed closely by chloroform
extraction to remove the filter polymer. The Samudra methodology was never
taken beyond the provisional status.
ASBESTOS ANALYSIS METHODS 19
Figure 2.8 EDS x-ray spectra for NIST reference asbestos fibers.
Fiber — NIOSH 7400 (PCM) Longer than 5 mm with a length to width ratio equal to or
greater than 3:1
Fiber — NIOSH 7402 (TEM) All particles with a diameter greater than 0.25 mm that meet
the definition of a fiber (AR greater than or equal to 3:1,
longer than 5 mm)
Fiber — OSHA ID-160 (PCM) A particle that is 5 mm or longer, with a length to width ratio
of 3:1 or longer
Fiber — Yamate (TEM) Particle with an AR of 3:1 or greater and with substantially
parallel sides
Fiber — AHERA (TEM) A structure greater than or equal to 0.5 mm in length with an
AR (length-to-width) of 5:1 or greater and having
substantially parallel sides
Fiber (fibre) — ISO 10312 (TEM) An elongated particle which has parallel or stepped sides.
For the purposes of this international standard, a fiber is
defined to have an AR equal to or greater than 5:1 and a
minimum length of 0.5 mm
Bundle — NIOSH 7400 (PCM) Not defined in method
Bundle — NIOSH 7402 (TEM) Not defined in method
Bundle — OSHA ID-160 (PCM) Not defined in method
Bundle — Yamate (TEM) Particulate composed of fibers in a parallel arrangement,
with each fiber closer than the diameter of one fiber
Bundle — AHERA (TEM) A structure composed of three or more fibers in a parallel
arrangement with each fiber closer than one fiber
diameter
Bundle — ISO 10312 (TEM) A structure composed of parallel, smaller diameter fibres
attached along their lengths. A fibre bundle may exhibit
diverging fibres at one or both ends
Cluster — NIOSH 7400 (PCM) Not defined in method
Cluster — NIOSH 7402 (TEM) Not defined in method
Cluster — OSHA ID-160 (PCM) Not defined in method
Cluster — Yamate (TEM) Particulate with fibers in a random arrangement such that
all fibers are intermixed and no single fiber is isolated
from the group
Cluster — AHERA (TEM) A structure with fibers in a random arrangement such that
all fibers are intermixed and no single fiber is isolated
from the group. Groupings must have more than two
intersections
Cluster — ISO10312 (TEM) A structure in which two or more fibres, or fibre bundles, are
randomly oriented in a connected grouping
Matrix — NIOSH 7400 (PCM) Not defined in method
Matrix — NIOSH 7402 (TEM) Not defined in method
Matrix — OSHA ID-160 (PCM) Not defined in method
Matrix — Yamate (TEM) Fiber or fibers with one end free and the other end
embedded or hidden by a particulate
Matrix — AHERA (TEM) Fiber or fibers with one end free and the other end
embedded in or hidden by a particulate. The exposed
fiber must meet the (AHERA) fiber definition
Matrix — ISO10312 (TEM) A structure in which one or more fibres, or fibre bundles,
touch, are attached to, or partially concealed by, a single
particle or connected group of nonfibrous particles
ASBESTOS ANALYSIS METHODS 21
analytical tools available with the AEM provided progressively more specific identi-
fication of asbestos fibers depending on the amount of time devoted to the task. The
method’s levels are known among the TEM asbestos analytical community as
Yamate Level 1, Level 2, and Level 3. Level 1, requiring the least amount of identi-
fication, was designed for those situations where the airborne particulate was well
characterized. If a particular process was known to emit only chrysotile, Level 1
permitted identification based on morphology alone. For Level 2, asbestos identifi-
cation was determined by morphology and visual diffraction characteristics for chry-
sotile. For amphiboles, Level 2 included some x-ray elemental information. Asbestos
identification in Yamate Level 3 began with the identification steps in Level 2 and
added diffraction pattern indexing to more specifically identify the amphibole.
The Yamate method also contained a section for the situation where an air filter
was overloaded. The preparation was an indirect procedure where a portion of the
filter was ashed and the ash suspended in water. A second filter was prepared
with a portion of the suspension and then processed using the same direct procedures
described in the main method.
On October 22, 1986, President Reagan signed into law the Asbestos Hazard
Emergency Response Act (AHERA).22 The Act required that EPA describe the
methods used to determine completion of response actions such as the abatement
of school buildings. Following the deliberations of a panel of asbestos analysis
experts, the “Interim TEM Analytical Methods” were published in the Federal
Register on October 30, 1987 as Appendix A to Subpart E of the EPA’s “Asbestos-
containing Materials in Schools; Final Rule and Notice.” Following an asbestos
abatement and before the protective plastic barriers are removed, leaf blowers and
fans are used to aggressively stir the air and resuspend any settled dust while five
area air samples are collected. For abatement clearance, the five area air samples
collected inside the containment were to be compared with five or more area air
samples collected outside the containment. No aggressive disturbance of the air
outside the containment was to be done. If there was no statistical difference
between the two sets of samples, the abated area was cleared and prepared for
reoccupancy. A simplified version of the Yamate draft method was needed to create
a rapid method for the clearance of school buildings. The AHERA method main-
tained many of the method particulars of the Yamate method but simplified the
counting and recording for a rapid clearance procedure. As in the Yamate method,
structures were counted. A structure was defined as a microscopic bundle, cluster,
fibers, or matrix which may contain asbestos. A matrix was defined as a fiber or
fibers with one end free and the other end embedded in or hidden by a particulate.
The exposed fiber must meet the fiber definition. Under the AHERA method, an asbes-
tos fiber was defined as a structure greater than or equal to 0.5 mm in length with an AR
(length to width) of 5:1 or greater and having substantially parallel sides. Individual
dimensions of structures or fibers are not recorded under the AHERA method but
information about the overall structure size is classified as either between 0.5 and
5.0 mm or greater than 5.0 mm. The size data is not used to determine compliance
with the AHERA regulations but is included so if an area does not pass, the
project manager might infer something about the source of the contamination.
22 ASBESTOS: RISK ASSESSMENT, EPIDEMIOLOGY, AND HEALTH EFFECTS
Many large structures found in the air would suggest improper cleaning, while small
structures could have come from a source external to the cleaning effort. During the
deliberations of the expert panel, the question was raised about whether all ten
samples needed to be analyzed if no asbestos structures were found on the five
inside-the-containment samples. On the basis of experience of some of the panel in
finding occasional asbestos fibers on blank (unused) PC filters, it was decided a
sample was clearly above the blank filter level if it had a filter loading greater than
70 structures per millimeter square (str/mm2). In the real world abatement industry,
the 70 str/mm2 became the generally recognized clearance level and contractors
were and still are normally instructed to reclean if the average of the five inside
samples exceeded that value. Only rarely today is the comparison made of the five
inside and five outside samples. Those few cases are usually where a contractor
believes that asbestos contamination outside the containment area is contributing to
the air within the abatement area.
In 1987 when the AHERA method mandated the use of TEM, the scanning electron
microscope was determined to be inadequate for building clearance (Figure 2.9).
The reasons given in the AHERA document were (1) currently available method-
ologies were not validated for the analysis of asbestos fibers, (2) SEM was
limited in its ability to identify the crystalline structure of a particular fiber, (3)
the National Bureau of Standards found that the image contrast of the microscopes
was difficult to standardize between individual scanning electron microscopes, and
Figure 2.10 Image of crocidolite and chrysotile asbestos fibers as seen with an SEM. Same
fibers as shown in Figure 2.6.
(4) no current laboratory accreditation program existed for accrediting SEM labora-
tories.22 NBS had determined that the only SEM method recognized at that time, the
Asbestos International Association (AIA) protocol,23 had inherent difficulty when
examining certain types of asbestos. In 2004, there are still no laboratory accre-
ditation programs for SEM laboratories. In the United States, no standard SEM
method is in use for asbestos, although it is mentioned in the OSHA ID-160
method. However, there is interest internationally and the ISO method 14966 for
SEM analysis of inorganic fibrous particles that includes asbestos (Figure 2.10),
ceramic fibers, and glass fibers in air was approved in 2002.24
In 1987 when the AHERA method was published in the Federal Register as an
interim method, it contained a provision that the method would be updated by the
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). As of 2004, no updated
version of the method has been published by NIST or any other federal agency.
The AHERA method became the generally accepted TEM method for the analysis
of asbestos in air. However, its lack of specific size data for individual asbestos
structures was considered a deficiency for some situations. A Yamate Level 2 analy-
sis was requested on occasions when information about fiber size was needed. In
March 1988, the CARB issued Method 427 for the determination of particulate
asbestos emissions from stationary sources using stack sampling, light microscopy,
24 ASBESTOS: RISK ASSESSMENT, EPIDEMIOLOGY, AND HEALTH EFFECTS
and electron microscopy.25 Although the NIOSH 7400 PCM method may be used
with the CARB Method 427, it is evident that the TEM portion is the focus of the
method. Recording of fiber size data is done on the basis of the Yamate method.
A rather more complete TEM airborne asbestos analysis procedure developed
largely by Dr. Chatfield of Chatfield Technical Consulting was released in 1995
by the ISO.26 The International Standard 10312 contains counting rules, which
expand on the Yamate and AHERA concept of asbestos structures. Clusters and
matrices are subdivided into dispersed and compact structures. A dispersed cluster
contains asbestos fibers that can be measured and reported separately while a
compact cluster has fibers too intertwined to be reported individually. In this
method, cluster and matrix components are identified, measured, and recorded sep-
arately up to a maximum of nine substructures. The ISO 10312 was followed in 1998
by the ASTM Standard Test Method D6281-98, which was a translation of the ISO
10312 method into ASTM format with a few improvements and changes.27 The
ASTM Method D6281 was reapproved in 2002 as D6281-02. For samples that
contain any appreciable amount of asbestos, analysis by either ISO 10312 or
ASTM D6281 is considerably more time consuming than an AHERA analysis
and therefore more expensive. The data produced by ISO 10312/ASTM D6281
was designed to allow another analyst to review the data of the original analyst
and understand how the asbestos structures were present on the filter grid. The
method of data recording was designed to allow re-evaluation of the counting
data as new medical evidence or regulatory requirements become available. From
the results of an ISO 10312 (or ASTM D6281) analysis, it should be possible to
determine several different airborne asbestos structure concentration values based
on a number of fiber size classifications. For instance, it should be possible to
extract what a structure per cubic centimeter concentration would have been if
the sample had been analyzed by AHERA counting rules. Both ISO 10312 and
ASTM D6281 have an annex, which describes procedures for the determination
of concentrations of asbestos fibres (International spelling of fiber) and bundles
longer than 5 mm, and of PCM-equivalent (PCME) asbestos fibers. For improved
analytical sensitivity and statistical precision, the larger fiber counts are done at
lower magnifications so more area of the filter may be examined. A comparison of
four common asbestos methods for the analysis of air samples is shown in Table 2.3.
In 1999, ISO 13794 (indirect air) was published.28 The asbestos structure and
fiber counting procedures in this method are the same as those presented in ISO
10312 and ASTM D6281. ISO 13794 provides an indirect-transfer procedure so over-
loaded filters can be analyzed. The filter preparation methods described in both ISO
10312 and ASTM D6281 are direct-transfer procedures. In steps similar to the
Yamate indirect preparation procedure, a portion of the original filter is ashed and
the ash suspended in water. A second filter is prepared with a known portion of the
suspension and then processed using the same direct procedures described in ISO
10312 and ASTM D6281. Although the method states “This International Standard
is applicable to measurement of airborne asbestos in a wide range of ambient air situ-
ations, including the interior atmospheres of buildings, and for detailed evaluation
of any atmosphere in which asbestos fibres are likely to be present,” the user is
ASBESTOS ANALYSIS METHODS 25
cautioned that comparison of results using this indirect-transfer procedure with those
from a direct-transfer procedure may not be done a priori.28 The best study of the
differences between direct and indirect air sample preparation remains the study
by Chesson and Hatfield.29 Their findings supported the generally accepted
opinion that TEM analysis of air samples using indirect-transfer methods provides
estimates of the total airborne asbestos structure concentration that are higher than
those using direct-transfer methods. They concluded that no single factor can be
used to convert measurements made by one method to a value that is comparable
with measurements made by the other. They also concluded that the breakdown of
larger structures into smaller ones during indirect preparation does not appear to
be sufficient to explain the difference in measured concentrations. Interference by
debris and association of unattached structures may also be important. They rec-
ommended that additional research was needed to determine which transfer method
more accurately reflects biologically meaningful airborne asbestos concentrations.
There are three standard methods available for the analysis of drinking water for
asbestos: EPA 100.1, EPA 100.2, and the AWWA 2570.30 – 32 These methods are
all TEM methods and are compared in Table 2.4.33 The EPA has set a maximum
contaminant level of 7 million fibers longer than 10 mm/l of drinking water and
has listed both the 100.1 and 100.2 methods as acceptable for the analysis of water-
borne asbestos. The EPA 100.1 method is a research report produced in 1984 before
26 ASBESTOS: RISK ASSESSMENT, EPIDEMIOLOGY, AND HEALTH EFFECTS
the EPA drinking water regulations and describes counting procedures that include
asbestos fibers longer than 0.5 mm. EPA 100.2 describes counting only those fibers
longer than 10 mm. Guidance as to the modifications of EPA 100.1 necessary to
comply with the EPA drinking water regulations was published by Feige et al.34
The ELAP Certification Manual Item 198.2 describes a modification to Method
100.2 required for New York State Department of Health compliance.35 In the
modification, the ozone generator is considered optional only if all samples are
filtered within 48 h.
In 1989, the ASTM subcommittee D22.07 began work on methods for the analysis
of asbestos in settled dust.36 Three ASTM methods are currently available for the
analysis of surface dust for asbestos. These methods include two microvacuum
methods: ASTM D5755-02 (structure count) and D5756-02 (mass) and one wipe
method, ASTM D6480-99.37 – 39 An EPA carpet method, EPA/600/J-93/167, was
developed during a research study that was published as an article in 1993.40 The
EPA number was assigned in 2001. The three ASTM methods are nondestructive,
while the carpet method requires that a piece be cut from the carpet and sent to
the laboratory. A comparison of the methods is shown in Table 2.5.
Because dust particles can be arranged in layers more than one particle thick,
direct preparation techniques are of limited value for TEM because the electron
beam must be able to penetrate the sample. Indirect preparation procedures are
used for all four of these methods. The results of the analysis are expressed in
numbers or mass of asbestos structures per square centimeter of surface sampled.
The number count methods were originally designed with an analytical sensitivity
of about 1000 str/cm2 but can achieve much better sensitivities on clean surfaces.
A nominal analytical sensitivity for the mass determination is 0.24 pg of
ASBESTOS ANALYSIS METHODS 27
Table 2.5 Comparison of Common Methods for Measuring Asbestos in Surface Dust
EPA/600/
ASTM D5755-02 ASTM D5756-02 ASTM D6480-99 J-93/167
asbestos/cm2. There are no federal government levels with which to compare the
results of the surface dust methods and there is some disagreement on how to inter-
pret the data.41 – 49 Because the amount and type of dust collected by each method
differ, it is clear that results of one method cannot be necessarily compared directly
with data from another. For instance, the bulk carpet method, EPA/600/J-93/167,
is an analysis of the total amount of dust in a carpet. Because carpets are known to be
excellent traps for dust and dirt, the amount of asbestos in the carpet may be con-
siderably higher than that collected from the surface of the same carpet using the
D5755 microvacuum method. It is not appropriate to compare bulk carpet values
with results of the D5755 method, although both are given in terms of structures
per square centimeter. In one set of tests, the EPA/600/J-93/167 results were
found to be about 100 times higher than that of the D5755 type analysis, because
the bulk carpet method involves all dirt trapped in the carpet and the microvacuum
method only analyzed the top, readily-releasable dust.40 Asbestos in dust deep in the
carpet may not be releasable under normal activities and may only be of concern
when the carpet is being removed. Asbestos fibers that are in a sticky film on a
surface and therefore not readily releasable are collected by the D6480 wipe
method. The wipe method gives an index of all the asbestos fibers on a surface
regardless of how much they are stuck, whereas the microvacuum method gives
an index of the readily releasable fibers.
Soil is a difficult medium for the analysis of asbestos because soil minerals are not
easily separated from the asbestos fibers. In a method used by the USEPA Region 1,
28 ASBESTOS: RISK ASSESSMENT, EPIDEMIOLOGY, AND HEALTH EFFECTS
sieving is used to enhance the ability to find asbestos fibers that are then identified
using essentially the standard PLM bulk analysis procedure.50 A more complicated
procedure which looks at the airborne asbestos fibers that might be released from the
soil is called the Superfund method.51,52 The soil sample is placed in a rotating drum
and air samples collected in a vertical elutriator. The samples are analyzed by TEM
according to procedures based on the ISO 10312 method. The counting procedure
may be modified to count “protocol” fibers. Protocol fibers are asbestos fibers
with certain length and width characteristics as determined by studies in biological
systems. At one point in time, fibers longer than 40 mm were thought to be of great-
est interest and the method was modified to count more grid openings at a lower
magnification for better counting statistics. A comparison of the two soil methods
is shown in Table 2.6.
Vermiculite is also a special case for bulk asbestos analysis. Sometimes referred to as
“The Cincinnati Method,” the EPA research method for the sampling and analysis of
fibrous amphibole in vermiculite attic insulation (VAI) uses a flotation step to separate
the vermiculite from the more dense amphiboles.53 The fibrous amphiboles found in the
Libby, MT vermiculite can be hand picked from the “sinks” using a stereomicroscope
and weighed to get a direct weight percent estimate. The method also includes a TEM
portion for the analysis of amphibole fibers that might be present in the “suspended
particle” fraction of the water used in the flotation step. Criteria for examination of
the TEM specimens are specified in ISO 10312 or ISO 13794. Early in 2004, EPA
held a day and a half workshop for a panel of experts to meet and propose a
method to determine whether Libby amphibole is present in a sample of VAI. The
objective of the method is to be accurate with respect to identifying Libby amphibole,
affordable to the average homeowner, and adaptable to most current commercial fiber
ASBESTOS ANALYSIS METHODS 29
analysis laboratories. This more routine vermiculite method, based on the Cincinnati
research method, is expected to be released in late 2004.
In addition to media such as air, water, soil, and dust, methods for analyzing asbestos
in clothing, talc, and biological specimens have appeared in the scientific litera-
ture.54 – 57 Only a few of the many scientific papers that contain descriptions of
asbestos analysis methods are referenced here. Sample preparation procedures are
generally different for each type of sample matrix, but the type of microscopy to
be used and the counting rules are usually borrowed from one of the standard
methods described earlier.
The US NIOSH Standard Method 7400 uses PCM and involves counting only those
fibers that can be seen with the light microscope (thicker than 0.25 mm) and longer
than 5 mm. The TEM companion method NIOSH 7402 considers the same fiber
characteristics as the 7400 method but because the TEM can resolve thin asbestos
fibers, 7402 analysis is restricted to fibers greater than 0.25 mm. The TEM fibers
analyzed under NIOSH 7402 are then PCME fibers. However, the NIOSH 7402
method is not established to provide concentrations of asbestos fibers. The determi-
nation and reportable value from 7402 is a percentage of asbestos fibers of all fibers
in the PCME range in the sample. This percentage can thereby be applied to 7400
values to determine asbestos fiber concentrations in fibers/cm3. Other TEM
methods (primarily ISO 10312, and also occasionally AHERA) have been used to
determine PCME concentrations. It is important when interpreting the data to under-
stand the differences in counting rules between methods. Appendix B of Method
NIOSH 7400 contains a description of the asbestos fiber counting rules (referred
to as “A” Rules) as they apply to labeled objects in Figure 2.2 of the 7400
method. For Object 2 in Figure 2.2, the method states: “Although the object has a
relatively large diameter (.3 mm), it is counted as a fiber under the rules. There
is no upper limit on the fiber diameter in the counting rules.” The ISO 10312
Method defines a PCME fibre as “any particle with parallel or stepped sides, with
an AR of 3:1 or greater, longer than 5 mm and which has a diameter between 0.2
and 3.0 mm.” Using the ISO 10312 method for PCME counting will therefore not
provide a count of PCM fibers equivalent to the NIOSH 7400 Method unless it is
modified, so that fibers of all diameters are included.
More serious cautions are appropriate for the attempt to use AHERA counts to
estimate PCME concentrations. It is important to realize that the NIOSH 7400
method includes fibers associated with other particles. For Object 6 in Figure 2.2,
the NIOSH 7400 method states: “A fiber partially obscured by a particle is
counted as one fiber. If the fiber ends emanating from a particle do not seem to
be from the same fiber and each end meets the length and AR criteria, they are
counted as separate fibers.” The AHERA method counts all asbestos objects as
structures. Objects that contain one or more fibers partially obscured by a particle
are counted as matrices. Under the NIOSH PCM method, several fibers meeting
the length and AR criteria, which are overlapping but do not seem to be part of
the same bundle, would be counted as separate fibers. Under the AHERA TEM
method, these would all be counted as one cluster. If an analyst tries to use the
AHERA data to estimate a PCME fiber count and chooses only those structures
identified as bundles greater than 5 mm, they will miss PCME fibers that are parts
of matrices or clusters. Because AHERA uses a 5:1 AR while the PCM method
uses a 3:1 ratio, an AHERA count would not have included a fiber over 5 mm
with only a 3:1 AR. Considering the differences in the two methods, it does not
seem appropriate to attempt to estimate PCME fiber concentrations from AHERA
data. However, an AHERA analysis in which no asbestos structures are found is con-
sidered to be consistent with no PCME fibers detected. It would be a most unusual
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Title: Éhség
regény
Language: Hungarian
IRTA
KNUT HAMSUN
RITOÓK EMMA
III. KIADÁS
BUDAPEST, 1928
NÉPSZAVA-KÖNYVKERESKEDÉS KIADÁSA
VII, ERZSÉBET-KÖRUT 35
Világosság rt. Budapest. – Müszaki igazgató: Deutsch D.
I.