Geo optional notes by geo

ecologist

Geography is a fascinating optional subject for UPSC. Here are some essential theories and models to
focus on:

Physical Geography

1. Plate Tectonics Theory: Understand the movement of lithospheric plates, types of plate
boundaries, and resulting geological processes.

2. Earth's Energy Balance: Study the incoming solar radiation, albedo, and heat budget.

3. Global Atmospheric Circulation: Learn about Hadley, Ferrel, and Polar cells, trade winds,
westerlies, and jet streams.

4. Hydrological Cycle: Understand precipitation, evaporation, runoff, and infiltration processes.

5. Glacial Theories: Study glacial formation, movement, and types (continental, valley, piedmont).

Human Geography

1. Central Place Theory (Walter Christaller): Understand the concept of hexagonal markets, central
places, and hierarchical systems.

2. Location Theory (Alfred Weber): Study the factors influencing industrial location, transportation
costs, and least-cost location.

3. Gravity Model (Henry Charles Carey): Learn about the relationship between population size,
distance, and interaction.

4. Diffusion Theory (Torsten Hägerstrand): Understand the process of innovation diffusion, types of
diffusion, and barriers.

5. Rostow's Stages of Economic Growth: Study the five stages of economic development (traditional,
transitional, take-off, drive to maturity, high mass consumption).

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing

1. GIS Fundamentals: Understand data models, spatial analysis, and mapping techniques.
2. Remote Sensing Principles: Study electromagnetic radiation, spectral signatures, and sensor
systems.

3. Image Interpretation: Learn about visual and digital image interpretation techniques.

Regional Geography

1. Regional Development Theories: Study growth pole theory, core-periphery model, and
dependency theory.

2. Urbanization Theories: Understand the process of urbanization, urban systems, and urban
morphology.

3. Agricultural Geography: Study agricultural systems, crop distribution, and von Thünen's model.

Models

1. Davision's Cycle of Erosion: Understand the stages of landscape development (youth, maturity, old
age).

2. Penck's Model of Landscape Evolution: Study the concept of parallel slope retreat.

3. Horton's Model of Drainage Basin Development: Learn about the relationship between drainage
density and relief.

4. Christaller's Central Place Model: Understand the hierarchical system of central places.

5. Alonso's Bid Rent Model: Study the relationship between land use, transportation costs, and urban
structure.

Other Important Concepts

1. Sustainable Development

2. Environmental Impact Assessment

3. Disaster Management

4. Climate Change

5. Geographic Thought and Philosophy

Reference Books
1. "Physical Geography" by Strahler

2. "Human Geography" by R.N. Sharma

3. "Geographic Information Systems" by Longley et al.

4. "Remote Sensing" by Joseph K. Liu

5. "Regional Geography" by J.F. Unwin

→Formation of the Solar System: Nuclear Disc Model (neo-Laplacian
model)
Nebular Theory of Laplace (1796) tried to explain the formation of the solar system. But it had
many drawbacks as the theory was based on scientifically erroneous assumptions.

But one assumption it got right was that the solar system was born from a giant gas of dust called as
nebula.

A giant interstellar cloud known as the solar nebula (a vast, swirling cloud of gas and dust) gave birth
to our solar system and everything in it.

The nebula started its collapse and core formation some 5-5.6 billion years ago and the Sun and the
planets were formed about 4.6 billion years ago.
 MERCURY

Mercury's surface appears heavily cratered and is similar in appearance to the Moon's,
indicating that it has been geologically inactive for billions of years (because there is no atmosphere
on Mercury).

Having almost no atmosphere to retain heat, it has surface temperatures that vary diurnally
more than on any other planet in the Solar System (-173 °C at night to 427 °C during the day).

Mercury is smaller than the largest natural satellites in the Solar System, Ganymede (largest
moon of Jupiter) and Titan (largest moon of Saturn).

However, Mercury is massive (has more mass) than Ganymede and Titan.

Images obtained by MESSENGER spacecraft in 2004 have revealed evidence for pyroclastic
flows (vulcanicity) and water ice at Mercury's poles.

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VENUS

Venus is the brightest planet in the solar system and is the third brightest object visible from
earth after the sun and the moon.

Venus is sometimes called Earth's sister planet or Earth's twin because of their similar size,
mass, proximity to the Sun,.
 It has the densest atmosphere of the four terrestrial planets. The atmospheric pressure at
the planet's surface is 92 times that of Earth, or roughly the pressure found 900 m (3,000 ft)
underwater on Earth.

Venus is by far the hottest planet in the Solar System, because of the greenhouse effect
arising from high concentrations of CO2 and thick atmosphere.

A day on Venus is equivalent to 243 earth days and lasts longer than its

year (224 days). It rotates in the opposite direction (clockwise) to most other planets.

In the ancient literature, Venus was often referred to as the morning star and evening star.

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The Moon

The Moon is thought to have formed about 4.51 billion years ago

"Moon formed from the debris left over after a giant impact between Earth and a Mars-sized
body called THEIA. "

It is now generally believed that the formation of the moon, as a satellite of the earth, is an
outcome of 'giant impact' or what is described as 'the big splat'.

As Earth rotates, the Moon's gravity causes the oceans to seem to rise and fall. There is a
little bit of friction between the tides and the turning Earth, causing the earth's rotation to slow
down just a little (1.4 milliseconds in 100 years).

As Earth slows, it lets the Moon move away by a little (four centimetres per year).

MOON

Its diameter is only one-quarter that of the earth.

It is about 3,84,400 km away from us.

A ray of light from the sun takes about eight minutes to reach the earth. Light takes only a
second to reach us from the moon.

The moon is tidally locked to the earth, meaning that the moon revolves around the earth in
about 27 days which is the same time it takes to complete one spin.

Tidal locking is the name given to the situation when an object's orbital period matches its
rotational period.

As a result of tidal locking, only one side of the moon is visible to us on the earth.

Neil Armstrong was the first, and Buzz Aldrin was the second to step on the surface of the
moon on 29 July 1969 (Apollo 11 mission).

Till date, only Twelve astronauts walked on the Moon's surface.

 Colonizing the moon

Discovery of lunar water at the lunar poles by Chandrayaan-1 has renewed interest in the
Moon.

Exploration of the lunar surface by spacecraft began in 1959 with the Soviet Union's Luna
program.

Luna 2 made a hard landing (impact) into its surface and became the first artificial object on
the moon.

Crewed exploration of the lunar surface began in 1968 when the Apollo 8 spacecraft orbited
the Moon. The following year, the Apollo 11 Apollo Lunar Module landed two astronauts on the
Moon.

In 2009, the Chandrayaan probe discovered that the lunar soil contains 0.1% water by
weight.

There are several disadvantages to the Moon as a colony site

The long lunar night would impede reliance on solar power.

The Moon is highly depleted in carbon and volatile elements, such as nitrogen and hydrogen.

The low gravity on the Moon will have adverse effects on human health in the long term.

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MARS

Mars is often referred to as the "Red Planet" because of the reddish iron oxide prevalent on
its surface.

Mars is the site of Olympus Mons (shield volcano), the largest volcano and the highest
known mountain (24 km) in the Solar System, and of Valles Marineris, one of the largest canyons in
the Solar System.

Mars has two irregularly shaped moons, Phobos and Deimos, which are thought to be
captured asteroids.

Liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars due to low atmospheric pressure (less than
1% of the Earth's).

Mars is less dense than Earth, having about 15% of Earth's volume and 11% of Earth's mass.

Mars consists of about 96% carbon dioxide, 1.93% argon and 1.89% nitrogen along with
traces of oxygen and water.

The Mars 2020 mission (NASA) was launched on July 30, 2020, in search for Ancient Life,
Gathering Rocks and Soil
 The Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), also called Mangalyaan is a space probe orbiting Mars
since 24 September 2014. It was launched on 5 November 2013 by the Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO).

It is India's first interplanetary mission and it made it the fourth space agency to reach Mars,
after Roscosmos, NASA, and the European Space Agency.

It made India the first Asian nation to reach Martian orbit and the first nation in the world to
do so on its maiden attempt.

Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN)is a spacecraft developed by NASA that
went into orbit around Mars to study the planet's atmosphere. Mission goals include determining
how the atmosphere and water, presumed to have once been substantial, were lost over time

Terpellant Tank

Selat Array

Gait Antenna

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JUPITER

It is composed mostly of gas and liquid swirling in complex patterns with no solid surface.

Jupiter's four large moons (lo, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto), called the Galilean satellites
because Galileo discovered them.

Ganymede is the largest natural satellite (5,268 km in diameter) in this solar system and is
larger than Mercury, and three times larger than the earth's Moon (3,474 km in diameter, the fifth
largest moon).

It is the third-brightest natural object in the night sky after the Moon and Venus and the
fourth brightest object in the sky after the Sun, the Moon and Venus.

Because of its rapid rotation (once every 10 hours), the planet's shape is that of an oblate
spheroid (slight bulge at the equator). The latest probe to visit Jupiter is Juno.

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SATURN

Saturn's rings are probably made up of billions of particles of ice and ice-covered rocks.

Titan is the second-largest moon in the Solar System (larger than Mercury) and it is the only
satellite in the Solar System with a substantial atmosphere (nitrogen-rich).

Uranus
 In contrast to all other planets, it is tipped and spin on its sides, that is its axis of rotation lies
in nearly the plane of its orbit. (The poles of Uranus lie in a plane where equators of other planets
lie) Venus and Uranus have a strange retrograde rotation (clockwise), i.e., opposite of sun's rotation.

Neptune

Uranus and Neptune (the ice giants) are called the twins of the outer solar system.

They are surrounded by a thick atmosphere of hydrogen and helium and contains a higher
proportion of "ices" such as water, ammonia, and methane ice giants" to emphasise this distinction.

Neptune has the strongest sustained winds (2,100 km/h) of any planet in the Solar System.

PLUTO AND CHARON

Pluto (39 AU) is the largest known object in the Kuiper belt. Charon is Pluto's largest moon.

When discovered in 1930, it was considered to be the ninth planet; this changed in 2006
with the

adoption of a formal definition of a planet.

International Astronomical Union's definition of a Planet: a Planet is an object that:orbits the

sun;

has sufficient mass to assume hydrostatic equilibrium a nearly round shape;

is not a satellite (moon) of another object, and

has removed debris and small objects from the area around its orbit

IAU's definition of Dwarf planet: Dwarf planet is an object that meets planetary criteria
except that it has not cleared debris from its orbital neighbourhood

WHAT IS SOHO ?

SOHO, the Solar & Heliospheric Observatory, was launched on December 2, 1995.

It is a project of international collaboration between ESA and NASA

Objective: to study layers of the sun and the solar wind

The Sun's Surface Temperature is approximately 5,800 K

RECENT ANALYSIS OF SOHO MISSION :

faster rotation rate in the core than in the radiative zone above

WHAT IS SUNSPOT?

Sunspots are visible as dark patches on the Sun's photosphere

They are are slightly cooler than the surrounding photosphere, and, so, they appear dark.

WHAT IS SOLAR FLARE ?

A solar flare is a sudden flash of increased brightness on the Sun

An energy release of typically 1020 joules of energy: clearly

observable event

A major event can emit up to 1025 joules.

 SOME FACTS ABOUT THE MOON

SHAPE: SCALENE ELLIPSOID (due to tidal stretching)

It is the fifth-largest natural satellite in the Solar System

The Moon is the second-densest satellite after Jupiter's satellite IO

The Moon is moving approximately 3.8 cm away from the Earth Every Year

Moonquakes are caused by the gravitational influence of the Earth

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METEOR AND METEORITES

Meteor is a small heavenly body of rock boulders that burn in the outer atmosphere.

It is known as meteorite when falls on the ground.

LONAR LAKE, also known as LONAR CRATER, is a notified National GEO- HERITAGE MONUMENT at
BULDHANA DISTRICT, MAHARASHTRA.

IT IS UNDERSTOOD TO BE THE RESULT OF A METEORITE IMPACT ABOUT 35,000 AND 50,000 YEARS
AGO

Meteorite craters in India

Lonar Lake (1.8 km in diameter) in Buldhana District of Maharashtra Dhala crater (14 km in diameter)
in Shivpuri district, Madhya Pradesh and

Ramgarh crater (3.5 km in diameter) is a potential meteorite crater in Kota plateau in Rajasthan.

COMETS

A CELESTIAL OBJECT CONSISTING OF A NUCLEUS OF ICE AND DUST WHEN NEAR THE SUN

A 'TAIL' OF GAS AND DUST PARTICLES POINTING AWAY FROM THE SUN

THERE ARE PERIODICAL AND NON-PERIODICAL COMETS PERIODICAL COMETS CAN BE SEEN AGAIN
AND AGAIN AT FIXED INTERVALS.

EXAMPLE: HALLEY COMET

HALLEY COMET COMPLETES ONE REVOLUTION AROUND THE SUN IN 76 YEARS.

IT LAST APPEARED IN 1986. IT WILL AGAIN APPEAR IN 2062 A.D.

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What is Latitude and Longitude ?

LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES ARE IMAGINARY LINES

USED TO DETERMINE THE LOCATION OF A PLACE ON EARTH

Example: The location of New Delhi is 28° N, 77° Ε.

WHAT IS THE SHAPE OF THE EARTH CALLED?

The shape of the earth is 'Geoid'

 LONGITUDE

Longitude is an angular distance Measured in degrees along the equator East or West of the Prime
(or First) Meridian.

DO YOU KNOW WHERE IS ZERO MERIDIAN OR PRIME MERIDIAN ?

IT WAS DECIDED IN 1884, BY INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENT ROYAL ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORY AT

GREENWICH, NEAR LONDON

THIS IS THE PRIME MERIDIAN (0°) FROM WHICH ALL OTHER MERIDIANS RADIATE

eastwards and westwards up to 180°

POSITIONALITY OF THE EARTH

Location with respect to other celestial bodies

Celestial means (खगोलीय पिंड)

Latin caelestis, meaning 'heaven'

i.e. pertaining to outer space as observed in a

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GEOCENTRISM

THE EARTH WAS ONCE BELIEVED TO BE THE CENTRE OF THE UNIVERSE

What is Geocentric Theory?

the structure of the solar system (or the universe) in which Earth is assumed to be at the centre

6th Century ВСЕ

Anaximander proposed that a CYLINDRICAL EARTH was the centre of everything. During this same
century, Pythagoras proposed that the Earth was CIRCULAR It was based on observation of eclipses

4th Century ВСЕ

Plato, proposed that the Earth was a SPHERE and the stationary centre of the universe.

2nd Century CE

Ptolemaic Model (ALMAGEST)

ALMAGEST MEANS - THE GREATEST

Ptolemy in his book Almagest proposed the concept of GEOCENTRIC UNIVERSE

What is equant?

Ptolemy developed the equant to describe the motion and orbit of the planets.

It is a geometrical tool located near the centre of a planet's orbit

It causes it to move at a uniform angular speed in retrograde motion.

What is retrograde motion?

It is phenomena that includes: slow down, move backwards, and then move forwards again.

Geocentric theory remained the accepted view for the next 1500 years

16th Century

Nicolaus Copernicus in his book "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres" (De revolutionibus
orbium coelestium) challenged the geocentric theory.

Copernican Heliocentrism (relating to the sun)

It is the astronomical model developed by Nicolaus Copernicus and published in 1543.

Heliocentrism, a cosmological model in which the Sun is assumed to lie at or near a central point of
the universe.

It displaced the geocentric model of Ptolemy that had prevailed for centuries

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What is Epicycle?

Copernican model replaced Ptolemy's equant circles with more epicycles

The epicycle (from Ancient Greek) literally means upon the circle,

meaning circle moving on another circle

It is geometric model used to explain the variations in speed and direction of the objects

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GALILEO AFFAIR

It is a sequence of events, beginning around 1610-1633, where Galilieo Vs. Roman Catholic Church
happened.

Galileo went on to propose a theory of tides in 1616, and of comets in 1619;

He argued that the tides were evidence for the motion of the Earth

The theory of relativity by Albert Einstein, eliminated these concepts.

THE EARTH'S ROTATION IS GRADUALLY SLOWING

at approximately 17 milliseconds per hundred years

At this pace, after 140 million years length of a day will increase to 25 hours

EARTH IS THE ONLY PLANET NOT NAMED AFTER A GOD

The other seven planets in our solar system are all named after Roman gods or goddesses.

THE EARTH IS THE DENSEST PLANET IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM

The average density of the Earth is approximately

5.52 grams per cubic centimetre

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The Age of the Earth

Earth is ~ 4,570,000,000 years old: 4.6 billion years

A billion years 10 years unit of time

AGES ARE ABBREVIATED FROM LATIN

1. Ga (giga-annum) is a billion years

2. Ma (mega-annum) is a million years

3. Ka (kilo-annum) is a thousand years

Geological time scale

 Meghalayan Age, is the onset of which was marked by a mega-drought that crushed a
number of civilisations worldwide.

Although, the evidence is Mawmluh Cave of Meghalaya

The middle phase of the Holocene will be referred to as the Northgrippian, and runs from 8,300
years ago up to the start of the Meghalayan.

KEY TERMS TO REMEMBER

Greenlandian Age (11,700 - 8,326 years ago) - began when the last ice age ended and the world
began to warm up.

Northgrippian Age (8,326-4,200 years ago) - began after an abrupt global cooling started following
the Greenlandian Age.
 EARTH'S ROTATION RESPONSIBLE FOR THE FOLLOWING ACTIVITIES

1. Day and Night

2. Standardized time zones

3. Coriolis Force

4. Tides

5. Magnetism of the Earth

6. Solstices and Equinoxes

Coriolis force is responsible for deflection of the winds in the northern and the southern
hemispheres.

It is explained by Ferrel's law

The Law states that, if a body moves in any direction on the earth's surface, there is a
deflecting force arising from the earth's rotation.

What is the Direction of the deflection?

right in the northern hemisphere

left in the southern hemisphere

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SOLSTICES

The solstice (combining the Latin words Sol for "Sun" and Sistere for "To Stand Still")
 In the Northern Hemisphere, the June Solstice demarcates astronomical beginning of
Summer Season

It is the day with the most daylight in the year

EQUINOXES

Latin with the roots aequs meaning "Equal" and Nox meaning "Night."

Astronomers define the equinox as the moment the Earth's Equator on its axis passes the
same plane of the Sun's equator.

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DO YOU KNOW WHEN OUR PLANET'S SEASONS CHANGE ?

Astronomically, our planet's seasons change on four particular days each year,

Two Solstices: JUNE and DECEMBER

Two Equinoxes: MARCH and SEPTEMBER

Standard Time and Time Zones

Most countries adopt their standard time from the central meridian of their countries.

Both Canada and U.S.A. have five time zones -the Atlantic, Eastern, Central, Mountain and Pacific
Time Zones.

Do you know what is the difference between the local time of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts?
Its nearly five hours. (5)

U.S.S.R had eleven time zones before its disintegration. (11) Russia now has nine time zones. (9)

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WHAT IS INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE ?

The IDL is roughly based on the meridian of 180° longitude,

It is roughly down the middle of the Pacific Ocean, and halfway around the world from the
Greenwich meridian

What happens when we cross the international date line?

When we cross the International Date Line from

west to east - subtract a day (-)

east to west add a day (+)

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Why does the International Date Line in the mid-Pacific curves from the normal 180°
meridian at the Bering Strait, Fiji, Tonga?

To prevent confusion of day and date in some of the island groups that are cut through by the
meridian.

Which are these Islands ?

(Polynesia, Melanesia, Micronesia) fall on either of the dateline. (parts of OCEANIA)

Oceania is a region made up of thousands of islands throughout the Central and South Pacific Ocean.

INDIAN STANDARD TIME

GM

5:30

15:30

The Indian Government has accepted the meridian of 82.5° east for the standard time > which is 5
hours 30 mins, ahead of Greenwich Mean Time i.e (GMT+5:30)

DO YOU KNOW WHAT IS CHAIBAGAAN TIME?

Chaibagaan Time 150 years ago British colonialists introduced "chaibagaan time" or "bagaan time",

It is a time schedule observed by tea planters, which was one hour ahead of IST.

TERMS TO REMEMBER

Syzygy: When the Sun, Moon and the Earth are in a straight line

Aphelion: the Sun is at maximum distance

Perihelion: when the distance between the Sun and the Earth is minimum
Sundogs: It is also called "Parhelia" or "Mac Suns". It is generally formed as Sunlight is reflected by
hexagonal plate like ice crystal

Ophiuchus: It is a large constellation straddling the celestial equator. (serpent-bearer) Also

considered as 13th Zodiac sign, earlier known as SERPENTARIUS

Hydra: It's I Largest constellation is covering 3.16% of the night sky and has at least 68 stars visible to
the naked eye.

Interior of the earth

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SOURCES OF INFORMATION ABOUT THE INTERIOR OF THE EARTH

WHAT ARE DIRECT SOURCES AND INDIRECT SOURCES ?

DIRECT SOURCES INCLUDE

Rocks from mining area

Volcanic eruptions
Average Earth Radius is: 6,371 kilometres (km)

equatorial radius of the Earth: 6,378 km

polar radius of the Earth: 6,357 km

the meridional circumference is : 40,008 km

WHY IS IT SO?

This shape, caused by the flattening at the poles, is called an OBLATE SPHEROID
CRUST

The thickness of the crust varies in the range of range of 5-30 km in case of the oceanic crust and as
50-70 km in case of the continental crust.

The continental crust can be thicker than 70 km in the areas of major mountain systems. It is as much
as 70-100 km thick in the Himalayan region.

1% OF THE EARTH'S VOLUME 0.5% OF EARTH'S MASS

CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF CRUST ARE SILICA (SI) AND ALUMINIUM (AL)

SIAL (Suess classification)

Density increases with depth, and the average density is about 2.7 g/cm³ (average density of the
earth is 5.51 g/cm
WHAT IS ASTHENOSPHERE?

It is 80-200km deep layer

It is viscous, mechanically weak and ductile deforming region of the upper mantle Also called Low
Velocity Zone

WHAT IS MESOSPHERE or PYROSHPERE ?

Region below asthenosphere, but above the core is called as Mesosphere

MANTLE

INTERIOR BEYOND THE CRUST IS CALLED AS THE MANTLE

THICKNESS: 2900 KMS (peridotites)

84% OF THE EARTH'S VOLUME 67% OF THE EARTH'S MASS

IT CONSTITUTES OF Regarding its constituent elements, the mantle is made up of 45%

oxygen, 21% silicon, and 23% magnesium (OSM).

The density of the upper mantle varies between 2.9 g/cm³ and 3.3 g/cm³.

The density ranges from 3.3 g/cm³ to 5.7 g/cm³ in the lower mantle.

Peridotite is the dominant rock of the upper part of the Earth's mantle. The
compositions of peridotite nodules found in certain basalts and diamond pipes (kimberlites) are of
special interest, because they provide samples of the Earth's mantle brought up from depths ranging
from about 30 km to 200 km or more

THE CORE CONSISTS OF TWO SUB-LAYERS:

1. the inner core

2. the outer core

INNER CORE IS IN SOLID STATE OUTER CORE IS IN THE LIQUID STATE (OR SEMI-LIQUID)

WHAT IS BARYSPHERE ?

IT IS USED TO REFER THE CORE OF THE EARTH OR SOMETIMES THE WHOLE INTERIOR

CORE was discovered by R. D. Oldham in 1906 from a study of earthquake records.

In 1929 Danish seismologist Inge Lehmann discovered inner core

THE OUTER CORE

The outer core, surrounding the inner core, lies between 2900 km and 5100 km below the earth's
surface.

The outer core is composed of iron mixed with nickel (nife) and trace amounts of lighter elements.

The outer core is not under enough pressure to be solid, so it is liquid even though it has a
composition similar to the inner core.

The density of the outer core ranges from 9.9 g/cm³ to 12.2 g/cm³.

The temperature of the outer core ranges from 4400 °C in the outer regions to 6000 °C near the
inner core.

Dynamo theory suggests that convection in the outer core, combined with the Coriolis effect, gives
rise to Earth's magnetic field.

THE INNER CORE

The inner core extends from the centre of the earth to 5100 km below the earth's surface.

The inner core is generally believed to be composed primarily of iron (80%) and some nickel (nife).

Since this layer can transmit shear waves (transverse seismic waves), it is solid. (When P-

waves strike the outer core - inner core boundary, they give rise to S-waves)

Earth's inner core rotates slightly faster relative to the rotation of the surface.

The solid inner core is too hot to hold a permanent magnetic field.

The density of the inner core ranges from 12.6 g/cm3 to 13 g/cm3.
The core (inner core and the outer core) accounts for just about 16 per cent of the earth's volume
but 33% of earth's mass.

Scientists have determined the temperature near the Earth's centre to be 6000°C, 1000°C hotter than
previously thought.

At 6000°C, this iron core is as hot as the Sun's surface, but the crushing pressure caused by gravity
prevents it from becoming liquid.

Why is Earth's outer-core liquid?

despite the enormous temperature in this region,

there is also enormous pressure that raises the melting point of iron and nickel

As we move out from the solid inner core, temperature drops, and pressure also decrea

THUS, OUTER CORE IS LIQUID

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soil
 SOIL CHARACTERISTICS

1. Colour: A soil's colour is generally related to its physical and chemical characteristics. E.g.

Soils rich in humus tend to be dark because decomposed organic matter is black or brown.

Soils with high humus content are usually very fertile, so dark brown or black soils are often referred
to as 'rich'. [Note Some dark soils may be dark because of other soil forming factors and may have
little or no humus]

Red or yellow soils typically indicate the presence of iron.

2. Texture: The soil texture refers to the coarseness/fineness of the mineral matter in the soil. It is
determined by the proportion of the sand, silt and clay particles:

1. Clay: Particle Size - diameters less than 0.002 millimetre

2. Silt: Particle Size diameters between 0.002 millimetres to 0.05 millimetres.

3. Sand: Particle Size - diameters between 0.05 and 2 millimetres.

The soil texture directly affects:

1. The soil water content

2. Water flow

3. Retention of nutrients

4. Extent of aeration

Loamy Soil: Loamy soil is the one in which none of the three (sand/silt/clay) dominates the other
two. In particular, loamy soil has about 40% sand, 40%silt, and 20% clay.

. Structure:

While the soil texture describes the size of soil particles, soil structure refers to the arrangement of
the soil particles. The way in which sand, silt, clay and humus bond together is called soil structure.
Structure can partially modify the effects of

soil texture.

Some structural characteristics of soil:

Permeability - The ease with which liquids/gases can pass through rocks or a layer of soil is called
permeability. It depends on the size, shape and packing of particles. It is usually greatest in sandy
soils and poor in clayey soils.

Porosity - The volume of water which can be held within a soil is called its porosity. It is expressed as
a ratio of volume of voids (pores) to the total volume of the material. A soil with high organic content
also tends to have high porosity.

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SOIL CLASSIFICATION - AGENCIES INVOLVED

In the modern period, when humans started to know about the various characteristics of soil they
began to classify soil on the basis of texture, colour, moisture etc.

On May 15, 1862, Abraham Lincoln established the independent Department of Agriculture

to be headed by a commissioner without Cabinet status, and called it the "people's department."

When the Soil survey of India was established in 1956, they studied soils of India and their
characteristics.

The National Bureau of Soil Survey and the Land Use Planning, an institute under the control of
Indian Council of Agriculture Research did a lot of studies on Indian soil.

SO WE STUDY TWO CLASSIFICATIONS:

1. USDA Classification

2. ICAR Classification

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USDA CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS (WORLD LEVEL)

USDA soil taxonomy (ST) developed by United States Department of Agriculture and the National
Cooperative Soil Survey provides an elaborate classification of soil.

The classification was originally developed by Guy Donald Smith, former director of the U.S.
Department of Agriculture's soil survey investigations
Soil properties that can be measured quantitatively are used in this classification system they
include: depth, moisture, temperature, texture, structure, cation exchange capacity, base saturation,
clay mineralogy, organic matter content and salt content.
 1. ALLUVIAL SOIL

✓ Mostly available soil in India (about 43%) which covers an area of 143 sq.km. Widespread in
northern plains and river valleys.

✓ In peninsular-India, they are mostly found in deltas and estuaries. Humus, lime and organic
matters are present. Highly fertile. Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputhra plain, Narmada-Tapi plain etc are
examples.

They are depositional soil transported and deposited by rivers, streams etc.

Sand content decreases from west to east of the country.

New alluvium is termed as Khadar and old alluvium is termed as Bhangar.

Colour: Light Grey to Ash Grey.

Texture: Sandy to silty loam or clay.

Rich in: potash

Poor in: phosphorous.

Wheat, rice, maize, sugarcane,

pulses, oilseed etc are cultivated mainly.

→2. RED SOIL

Seen mainly in low rainfall area.

Also known as Omnibus group.

Porous, friable structure.

Absence of lime, kankar (impure calcium carbonate).

Deficient in: lime, phosphate, manganese, nitrogen, humus and potash.

Colour: Red because of Ferric oxide. The lower layer is reddish yellow or yellow.

Texture: Sandy to clay and loamy.

Wheat, cotton, pulses, tobacco, oilseeds, potato etc are cultivated.

3. BLACK SOIL / REGUR SOIL

Regur means cotton - best soil for cotton cultivation.

Most of the Deccan is occupied by Black soil.

Mature soil.

High water retaining capacity.

Swells and will become sticky when wet and shrink when dried.

Self-ploughing is a characteristic of the black soil as it develops wide cracks when dried.

Rich in: Iron, lime, calcium, potassium, aluminum and magnesium.

Deficient in: Nitrogen, Phosphorous and organic matter.

Colour: Deep black to light black.

Texture: Clayey.

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4. LATERITE SOIL

Name from Latin word 'Later' which means Brick.

Become so soft when wet and so hard when dried.

In the areas of high temperature and high rainfall.

Formed as a result of high leaching.

Lime and silica will be leached away from the soil. Organic matters of the soil will be removed fast by
the bacteria as it is high temperature and humus will be taken quickly by the trees and other plants.

Thus, humus content is low.

Rich in: Iron and Aluminum

Deficient in: Nitrogen, Potash, Potassium, Lime, Humus

✓ Colour: Red colour due to iron oxide.

✓ Rice, Ragi, Sugarcane and Cashew nuts are cultivated mainly.

5. Desert/arid soil:

Seen under Arid and Semi-Arid conditions.

Deposited mainly by wind activities.

High salt content.

Lack of moisture and Humus.

Kankar or Impure Calcium carbonate content is

high which restricts the infiltration of water.

Nitrogen is insufficient and Phosphate is normal.

Texture: Sandy

Colour: Red to Brown.

Peaty marshy soil:

Areas of heavy rainfall and high humidity.

Growth of vegetation is very less.

A large quantity of dead organic matter/humus which makes alkaline. the soil

Heavy soil with black colour.

7. Forest soil:

Regions of high rainfall. Humus content is less and thus the soil is acidic.

8. Mountain soil:

In the mountain regions of the country. Immature soil with low humus and acidic.

28

ON THE BASIS OF DOMINANT SOIL FORMING FACTORS:

Zonal Soil - These soils occur in broad geographical areas or zones.

They are influenced more by the climate and vegetation of the area rather than the rock-type. They
are mature, as a result of stable conditions over a long period of time.

For example desert soils etc. red soils, black soils, laterite soils,
Azonal Soil - It is that soil which has been developed by the process of deposition by the agents of
erosion.

It means that it has been made by the fine rocky particles transported from the far-off regions.

These are immature soils and lack well-developed soil profiles.

This may be due to the non-availability of sufficient time for them to develop fully or due to the
location on very steep slopes which prohibits profile development.

For Example - alluvial and loess soils.

88

Intrazonal Soil - These soils occur within

other zonal soils.It is a well-developed soil reflecting the influence of some local factor of relief,
parent material, or age rather than of climate and vegetation.

For example, calcerous soil (soils which develop from limestone), peat soils

isostasy
Isostasy is a fundamental concept in geography and geology that explains how the Earth's crust and
mantle interact.

What is Isostasy?

Isostasy refers to the state of balance or equilibrium between the weight of the Earth's crust and the
buoyancy of the underlying mantle.

How Does it Work?

Imagine a boat floating on water. The boat's weight is balanced by the buoyancy of the water.
Similarly, the Earth's crust "floats" on the semi-fluid mantle beneath.

Key Principles:

1. Buoyancy: The mantle is denser than the crust, so it provides an upward buoyant force.
2. Gravity: The weight of the crust pushes downward.
3. Equilibrium: The crust and mantle reach a balance, maintaining the Earth's surface.

Types of Isostasy:

1. Airy Isostasy: Proposed by George Airy, this model assumes the crust is floating on the mantle,
with thicker crustal roots beneath mountains.
2. Pratt Isostasy: Proposed by John Pratt, this model suggests the density of the crust varies, affecting
its buoyancy.
Examples and Implications:

1. Mountain Building: Mountains have deeper roots, compensating for their weight.
2. Sea-Level Changes: Changes in sea level affect the weight on the crust, causing adjustments.
3. Volcanic Activity: Isostasy influences volcanic eruptions, as magma rises through the crust.

Why is Isostasy Important?

1. Earth's Surface Processes: Isostasy shapes our planet's surface, influencing geological events.
2. Climate Change: Understanding isostasy helps predict sea-level changes.
3. Natural Resource Management: Isostasy informs mineral and petroleum exploration.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
THE THEORY STATES THAT

Rodinia (from the Russian word Rodina, for 'homeland') was an early supercontinent thought to exist
from 1.1 billion to 700 million years ago, in the Proterozoic period.

It contained many of the older parts of the continents, termed cratons, that we we know today (parts
of North America, Russia, Africa, Australia).

cratons

1.1 Ga belts

RODINIA SUPERCONTINENT

West Africa

Between 750-650 million years ago it progressively fragmented into the supercontinents:

1. Gondwana (Africa, South America, India, Antarctica, Australia)

2. Laurasia (North America, Europe and Asia),

3. Along with a few other continental chunks such as Baltica (currently Scandinavia) and Siberia
(Russia).

88

One line of evidence that supports Rodinia formation is palaeomagnetism: when magnetic minerals
grow in rocks they preserve the orientation of the Earth's magnetic field at the time of growth, thus
telling you where North was at the time, and allowing us to reconstruct the positions of all the plates
if we look at rocks from a particular time period.

When looking for evidence of past supercontinents, geologists love grains of zircon, a durable
mineral that forms from melted rocks at high temperatures.
PLATE TECTONICS
Divergent boundaries
Convergent boundaries
Earth movements
ENDOGENIC GEOMORPHIC MOVEMENTS
The geomorphic processes that are driven by the forces emanating from deep below the
earth's surface are called endogenic geomorphic processes (folding, faulting, etc.).

THE FORCE BEHIND ENDOGENIC MOVEMENTS

 The ultimate source of energy behind forces that drive endogenic movements is earth's
internal heat.

Earth's internal heat is a result of mainly radioactive decay (50% of the earth's internal heat)
and gravitation (causes pressure gradients).

Differences in temperature and pressure (temperature gradients or geothermal gradients

and pressure gradients) among various layers of the earth give rise to density differences and these
density differences give rise to conventional currents.

The Earth's rotation (Coriolis effect) can influence where convection currents travel.

The destination of convection currents determines the nature and location of the endogenic
movements.

88
 EPEIROGENY

HOW THE WORD "EPEIROGENY" WAS COINED?

THE WORD EPEIROGENY WAS COINED BY G. K. GILBERT IN

1890

IN U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY (USGS) MONOGRAPH 1, LAKE BONNEVILLE

THE WORD COMES FROM THE SCIENTIFIC GREEK EPEIROS (MAINLAND) AND GENESIS (BIRTH

Epeirogenic or continent forming movements are radial movements (act along the radius of
the earth).

Their direction may be towards (subsidence) or away (uplift) from the centre.

They cause upheavals or depressions of land exhibiting undulations (wavy surface) of long
wavelengths and little folding.

The broad central parts of continents are called cratons and are subject to epeirogeny, hence
the name continent forming movements.

Epeirogeny is strictly vertical movement of a continent Epeirogenic movements form

Structural basins

Gentle arches

Or

they lift whole regions evenly

 EPEIROGENIC UPLIFT

Raised beaches, elevated wave-cut terraces, sea caves and fossiliferous beds above sea level
are evidence of upliftment.

In India, raised beaches occur at several places along the Kathiawar, Nellore, and Tirunelveli
coasts.

Several places which were on the sea some centuries ago are now a few miles inland due to
upliftment.

For example, Coringa near the mouth of the Godavari, Kaveripattinam in the Kaveri delta and
Korkai on the coast of Tirunelveli, were all flourishing seaports about 1,000 to 2,000
orogeny
GEOSYNCLINAL THEORY
So, the IMPORTANT PRINCIPLES of the theory are:

PRESENCE OF GEOSYNCLINE (GEOSYNCLINAL SYSTEM)

MOBILITY

GEOSYNCLINAL DEPOSITS

THICKNESS VARIATION

FOLDING (OROGENY)

INCREMENT TO CONTINENT (CONSOLIDATION

GEOSYNCLINES are further classified into :

MIOGEOSYNCLINES, EUGEOSYNCLINES AND ORTHOGEOSYNCLINES

MEO

*dependent on rock strata, location, and nature of the mountain system

1.

MIOGEOSYNCLINE comprises of Sandstones, Limestone, and Shale

2. EUGEOSYNCLINES are composed of thick sequences of Deep Marine Sediments

3. ORTHOGEOSYNCLINES are Linear Geosynclinals Belts

CONCEPT OF E. HAUG

ACCORDING TO HAUG

'GEOSYNCLINES ARE RELATIVELY DEEP WATER AREAS AND THEY ARE MUCH LONGER THAN THEY ARE
WIDE'.
HE DREW THE PALAEOGEOGRAPHICAL MAPS OF THE WORLD TO DEPICT THAT

THESE WATER TRACTS WERE SUBSEQUENTLY FOLDED INTO MOUNTAIN RANGES

Concept of J.W. EVANS (British Geologist)

HE PRESENTED SEVERAL ALTERNATIVE SITUATIONS OF GEOSYNCLINES SUCH AS:

IT MAY BE BETWEEN TWO LAND MASSES

IT MAY BE IN FRONT OF A MOUNTAIN OR A PLATEAU

IT MAY BE ALONG THE MARGINS OF THE CONTINENTS

IT MAY BE IN FRONT OF A RIVER MOUTH

VIEWS OF SCHUCHERT

He has divided the geosynclines into 3 categories

1. MONOGEOSYNCLINES ARE EXCEPTIONALLY LONG AND NARROW BUT SHALLOW WATER TRACTS AS
CONCEIVED BY HALL AND DANA.

EG. APPLACHIAN GEOSYNCLINE

2. POLYGEOSYNCLINES WERE LONG AND WIDE WATER BODIES.

EG. ROCKIES AND URAL

3. MESOGEOSYNCLINES ARE VERY LONG, NARROW AND MOBILE OCEAN BASINS WHICH ARE
BORDERED BY CONTINENTS FROM ALL SIDES AS CONCEIVED BY HAUG.

EG. TETHYS GEOSYNCLINE

Geological time scale
GEOMAGNATISM

A 'FIELD' IS A REGION IN WHICH A BODY EXPERIENCES A FORCE OWING TO THE PRESENCE OF OTHER
BODIES.
EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD IS ONE SUCH FIELD.

GRAVITATIONAL FIELDS DETERMINE HOW BODIES WITH MASS ARE ATTRACTED TO EACH OTHER.

IN ELECTRIC FIELDS, OBJECTS THAT HAVE AN ELECTRIC CHARGE ARE ATTRACTED OR REPELLED FROM
EACH OTHER.

MAGNETIC FIELDS DETERMINE HOW ELECTRIC CURRENTS THAT CONTAIN MOVING ELECTRIC
CHARGES EXERT A FORCE ON OTHER ELECTRIC CURRENTS.

88

THE EARTH'S GLOBAL MAGNETIC FIELD IS GENERATED IN ITS METALLIC CORE, LOCATED NEARLY 3,000
KILOMETERS BENEATH THE PLANET'S SURFACE.

THE FIELD HAS EXISTED ON EARTH FOR AT LEAST 3.5 BILLION YEARS AND OFFERS CLUES ABOUT HOW
OTHER PLANETS, STARS AND CELESTIAL BODIES MIGHT HAVE FORMED.

A MAGNETIC FIELD IS CRUCIAL FOR UNDERSTANDING THEIR HISTORY AND INTERNAL STRUCTURE.
WHY SO?

THIS IS BECAUSE THE PRESENCE OF A MAGNETIC FIELD INSIDE A BODY REVEALS THAT IT ALSO LIKELY
FORMED A METALLIC CORE THAT GENERATED THAT FIELD.

THE FIELD IS ONE OF THE FEW WAYS TO REMOTELY SENSE A METALLIC CORE BURIED SO DEEP
BENEATH A BODY'S SURFACE.

88

DYNAMO THEORY

Ancient Greek- dúnamis, meaning "power" GENERATION OF EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD

William Gilbert published de Magnete in 1600, he concluded that the Earth is magnetic and
proposed the first hypothesis for the origin of this magnetism: permanent magnetism such as that
found in lodestone.

In 1919, Joseph Larmor proposed that a dynamo might be generating the field.

The Nobel Prize winner Patrick Blackett did a series of experiments looking for a fundamental
relation between angular momentum and magnetic moment, but found none.

Walter M. Elsasser, considered a "father" of the presently accepted dynamo theory" as an

explanation of the Earth's magnetism, proposed that this magnetic field resulted from electric
currents induced in the fluid outer core of the Earth.

He revealed the history of the Earth's magnetic field through pioneering the study of the magnetic
orientation of minerals in rocks

DYNAMO THEORY THE IDEA THAT A LARGE DYNAMO, OR MAGNETIC FIELD GENERATOR, EXISTS
WITHIN EARTH'S OUTER CORE, WHERE LIQUID IRON CONSTANTLY MOVES AS THE PLANET COOLS.

THIS CONTINUOUS MOTION CREATES ELECTRIC CURRENTS AS ELECTRONS MOVE THROUGH THE
LIQUID.
THROUGH THIS PROCESS, THE ENERGY OF THE MOVING FLUID IS CONVERTED INTO A MAGNETIC
FIELD THAT CAN BE SUSTAINED FOR BILLIONS OF YEARS.

DYNAMO THEORY SUGGESTS THAT

"CONVECTION IN THE OUTER CORE, COMBINED WITH THE CORIOLIS EFFECT (CAUSED DUE TO THE
ROTATION OF THE EARTH), GIVES RISE TO SELF-SUSTAINING (GEODYNAMO) EARTH'S MAGNETIC
FIELD"

UNDERSTANDING THE MECHANISM

EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD IS GENERATED IN THE EARTH'S OUTER CORE(FLUID)

TEMPERATURE OF THE - OUTER CORE IS ABOUT 4400 °C INNER CORE IS 6000 °C

HEAT SOURCES INCLUDE: ENERGY RELEASED FROM COMPRESSION OF THE CORE AND
RADIOACTIVITY OF POTASSIUM, URANIUM AND THORIUM.

THE DIFFERENCES IN TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE AND COMPOSITION CAUSE CONVECTION CURRENTS

THIS FLOW OF LIQUID IRON GENERATES ELECTRIC CURRENTS, WHICH IN TURN PRODUCE MAGNETIC
FIELDS.

RESULTANT IN SELF-SUSTAINING LOOP IS KNOWN AS THE GEODYNAMO

nhdnkd

volcano
What is A Volcano?

~An opening in the earth's crust through which molten lava, ash, and gases are ejected.

~A similar opening on the surface of another planet.

~A mountain formed by the materials ejected from a volcano

TYPES OF MAGMA

Granite magma consist of light-colored rock and is not as heavy as basalt magma.

Granite magma is very sticky and flows rather slowly.

Basalt magma consist of dark-colored rocks and is much heavier then granite magma. It flows more
fluidly then molten granite.

TEPHRA is fragmental material produced by a volcanic eruption regardless of composition, fragment

size, or emplacement mechanism.

✓ Volcanologists also refer to airborne fragments as Pyroclasts.

Once clasts have fallen to the ground, they remain as tephra unless hot enough to fuse together into
pyroclastic rock or tuff.

A lahar is a violent type of mudflow or debris flow composed of a slurry of pyroclastic material, rocky
debris and water.

88

Volcanoes are classified on the basis of form developed at the surface (landforms)

1. Shield Volcano

2. Cinder Cone Volcano

3. Composite Volcano

4. Caldera Volcano

5. Fissure Volcano
 THEORY IS NOTE MENTIONED

Rocks

j
FOLD

THERE ARE FORCES WHICH ACT ON THE EARTH'S CRUST FROM SIDE TO SIDE I.E. HORIZONTALLY OR
TANGENTIALLY.
THEY CAUSE A LOT OF DISRUPTION (CHANGES) IN THE HORIZONTAL LAYER OF STRATA AS THEY DO
INVOLVE COMPRESSION AND TENSION
WE CAN DIVIDE THESE FORCES INTO TWO TYPES:
FORCES OF COMPRESSION FORCES OF TENSION

FORCES OF COMPRESSION

INVOLVE PUSHING OF THE ROCK STRATA AGAINST A HARD PLANE FROM ONE SIDE OR FROM BOTH
SIDES.

ROCK STRATA ALSO BEND IN THE SAME FASHION WHEN FORCES OF COMPRESSION ACT ON THEM
FROM OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS.

IN THIS WAY, THE COMPRESSIONAL FORCES LEAD TO THE BENDING OF ROCK LAYERS AND THUS LEAD
TO THE FORMATION OF FOLD MOUNTAINS.
A FOLD MAY RANGE FROM MICROSCOPIC CRINKLE TO GREAT ARCHES AND TROUGHS EVEN UP TO
100 KMS ACROSS.

A COMPLETE FOLD IS COMPOSED OF

ARCHED PORTION OR ANTICLINE

DEPRESSED TROUGH OR SYNCLINE

Fault
Denudational process 1

WHAT ARE DENUDATIONAL PROCESSES?

DENUDATIONAL PROCESSES OCCUR AT OR NEAR THE EARTH'S SURFACE

THEY INFLUENCE THE SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE TOPOGRAPHY

THEY ARE KEY TO THE EVOLUTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF LANDFORMS

TYPES OF DENUDATIONAL PROCESSES

➤WEATHERING: the physical disintegration or chemical alteration of rocks

➤EROSION: the physical removal and transportation of weathered material by water, wind, ice, or
gravity.

➤MASS WASTING: the transfer or movement of rock or soil down slope primarily by gravity.

➤DEPOSITION: the process by which weathered and eroded materials are placed or deposited to a
new location

WHY ARE DENUDATIONAL PROCESSES IMPORTANT?

 THEY HELP TO REGULATE THE ROCK CYCLE

 THEY TRANSFORM SOLID ROCK INTO SEDIMENTS AND SOIL
 THE REDISPOSITION OF MATERIAL FORMS NEW SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Weathering
SUMMARY OF FACTORS AFFECTING WEATHERING

 TECTONIC SETTING
 ROCK COMPOSITION
 ROCK STRUCTURE
 TOPOGRAPHY
 VEGETATION
 BIOLOGIC ACTIVITY
 CLIMATE

TYPES OF WEATHERING

1. Mechanical (physical) weathering is the physical disintegration.

Examples: Exfoliation, frost wedging, salt wedging, temperature changes, and abrasion

II. Chemical weathering decomposes, dissolves, alters, or weakens the rock through chemical
processes

Examples: Carbonation, hydration, hydrolysis, oxidation, and solution

III. Biological weathering is the disintegration or decay of rocks by Organic Matter

Examples: Rock disintegration by plant or root growth, burrowing and tunneling organisms, acid
secretion

88

PRODUCTS OF WEATHERING

 Clay
 They are hydrous aluminum-silicate minerals
 Sand
A sediment made of relatively coarse mineral grains
 Soil
Mixture of minerals with different grain sizes, along with some materials of biologic origin
 Humus
Partially decayed organic matter in soil

88

DENUDATIONAL PROCESSES -2 (GEOMORPHOLOGY)

EROSION

DENUDATIONAL PROCESSES CONTINUALLY SHAPE THE EARTH'S SURFACE

THEY GENERATE THE SEDIMENTS THAT CIRCULATE IN THE ROCK CYCLE

THESE PROCESSES RESULT IN VARIETY OF LANDFORMS

THEY OPERATE THROUGH INTERACTIONS AMONG THE GEOSPHERE, ATMOSPHERE AND

HYDROSPHERE

EROSION IS THE REMOVAL OF WEATHERED ROCK MATERIALS DOWNSLOPE

AWAY, FROM THEIR ORIGINAL SITE OF WEATHERING

EROSION PROCESSES ARE DRIVEN PRIMARILY BY THE GRADIENT

THEY ARE FURTHER AIDED BY THE

AGENTS OF EROSION

WATER (RIVERS, SEA WAVES)

WIND (DESERT)

ICE (GLACIERS)

GRAVITY (SLOPE/GRADIENT)

HOW DOES EROSION TAKE PLACE?

WATER (FLUVIAL)

Latin fluvialis, meaning - of a river related to fluere "to flow"

Erodes rocks and the landscapes by transporting weathered materials from their source to another
location where they are deposited
 WIND (AEOLIAN)

LATIN-AEOLUS "god of the winds"

GREEK-AIOLOS "lord of the winds"

WIND EROSION IS SIMPLY THE REMOVAL OF SOIL PARTICLES FROM THE SURFACE OF THE
LANDA AND TRANSPORTING THEM TO ANOTHER LOCATION

THE EXTENT OF MOVEMENT DEPENDS ON

1. THE SIZE OF THE SOIL PARTICLES

2. THE CLODDINESS (LUMP) OF THE SOIL PARTICLES

3. THE VELOCITY OF THE WIND (WIND VELOCITY)

88
GLACIAL ICE

GRAVITY

FACILITATES THE DOWN SLOPE TRANSPORTATION OF LOOSENED, WEATHERED MATERIALS

ENABLES THEM TO MOVE WITHOUT THE AID OF WATER, WIND, OR ICE

GRAVITY RELATED EROSION IS A MAJOR COMPONENT OF MASS-WASTING EVENTS

DENUDATIONAL PROCESSES-3 (GEOMORPHOLOGY)

MASS WASTING

MOVEMENT BY MASS WASTING CAN BE SLOW OR RAPID

For Example

MOVING BLOCKS OF BEDROCK ARE CALLED ROCK TOPPLES, ROCK SLIDES, OR ROCK FALLS,
DEPENDING ON THE DOMINANT MOTION OF THE BLOCKS.

MOVEMENTS OF DOMINANTLY LIQUID MATERIAL ARE CALLED FLOWS.

SLOW MOVEMENTS ARE CALLED CREEP

RAPID MOVEMENT CAN BE DANGEROUS, SUCH AS DURING DEBRIS FLOWS

AREAS WITH STEEP TOPOGRAPHY AND RAPID RAINFALL

CALIFORNIA COAST

ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION

PACIFIC NORTHWEST

HIMALAYAN REGION

THEY PARTICULARLY SUSCEPTIBLE TO HAZARDOUS MASS- WASTING EVENTS

88
Depositional landforms
Cycle of erosion
LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT
SLOP DEVELOPMENT