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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTIO TO TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

Transportation is referred to as the movement of people and goods from one

place to another. The movement should reasonably be safe, efficient, reliable
and sustainable. Transportation engineering is a field in civil engineering that
deals with various aspects of transportation systems and infrastructures
associated with it. These include all the elements which support the
movement of people and goods. It also deals with the application of scientific
principles to the planning, functional design, construction, operation, and
management of facilities for any mode of transportation in order to provide
for safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical, and environmentally
compatible movement of persons and goods.

The need for mobility is a necessity for human as resources are naturally not
concentrated in one place. This makes transportation a derived-demand; that
is people do not just travel for travel’s sake. Rather, they make trip in order
to satisfy their desires relating to many aspects of life. Each trip is therefore
made for a particular purpose. From the times immemorial, people travel
either for food or leisure. A closely associated need is the transport of raw
materials to manufacturing units or finished goods to consumption locations.
Hence, transportation fulfils many basic needs of humanity. It also plays a
key role in the development of the human civilization. Transportation
engineering comprises of various disciplines as outlined and briefly discussed
as follows:

1. Areas/Disciplines of Transportation Engineering

Transportation engineering comprises of many areas, which include;
Transportation planning, Geometric design, Pavement analysis and design,
Traffic engineering, Public transport, Accident analysis, Financial and
economic analysis, Environmental impact assessment, Intelligent transport
system, and so forth. It also involves the different aspects relating to
transportation systems as well as the various modes (highways, railways,
airways, waterways, pipelines, and conveyors).
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1.1 Transportation Planning

This involves the development of a transport model which will accurately
represent both the current and future (travel demand) transportation system.
Transportation planning may be defined as the application of planning
techniques to estimate the existing and predict future travel demands as well
as ensuring sufficient provision of facilities and services. The fundamental
goal of transportation planning is to accommodate the need for mobility in
order to provide efficient access to various activities that satisfy human
needs.

1.2 Geometric Design

This deals with design of physical features associated with transportation
facilities. It includes the cross-sectional features, horizontal and vertical
alignments, and intersections.

1.3 Pavement Analysis and Design

Pavement design deals with the structural design of roadways (flexible and
rigid pavements). It deals with the design of paving materials, determination
of the layer thickness, and construction and maintenance processes. The
design mainly covers structural aspects, functional aspects, drainage
facilities, etc. Structural design ensures that the pavement structure has
sufficient strength to withstand the impact of traffic loads. Likewise, the
functional design emphasizes on the riding quality, and the drainage design
protects the pavement from damage due to water infiltration.

1.4 Traffic Engineering

Traffic engineering covers a wide range of transportation engineering
applications with an emphasis on the safety of the public, the efficient use of
transportation resources, and the mobility of people and goods. Traffic
engineering involves a variety of engineering and management skills,
including design, operation, and system optimization. In order to address
these requirements, the traffic engineer must understand the traffic flow
characteristics by extensive collection of traffic flow data and analysis. Based

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on the analysis, traffic flow is controlled so that the transportation

infrastructures are utilized optimally as well as with good service quality.

1.5 Public Transport

Public transport deals with study of the transportation system that meets the
travel demand of many people by sharing a vehicle. Generally, this focuses
on the urban travel by bus and rail transit. The key areas include
characteristics of various modes (taxi, bus, train, tricycle, etc); planning,
management and operations; and policies for promoting public transport
mode.

1.6 Accident Analysis and Reduction

This is also an area of transportation engineering that deals with the causes
of accidents, from the perspective of human, road, and vehicle and formulate
plans towards minimizing it.

1.7 Financial and Economic Analysis

Transportation facilities are usually associated with intensive capital
investments. Therefore, it is imperative that whoever invests money expects
some forms of returns. When government invests in transportation, its
objective is not often monetary returns; but social benefits. The economic
analysis of transportation project tries to quantify the economic benefit which
includes saving in travel time, fuel consumption, accident reduction, etc. This
helps planners and analysts in evaluating various projects and to optimally
allocate funds. On the contrary, private sector investments require monetary
profits from the projects. In this regard, financial evaluation attempts to
quantify the return from such investments.

1.8 Environmental Impact Assessment

The depletion of fossil fuels and degradation of the environment has been of
utmost concern. Despite the numerous benefits derived from transportation
by the society, yet it contributes a lot in polluting our environment. The
environmental impact assessment attempts in quantifying the environmental
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impacts and to develop strategies for the mitigation and reduction of the
impact due to both construction and operation. The primary impacts are fuel
consumption, air pollution, and noise pollution.

1.9 Intelligent transport system (ITS)

With advent of computers, communication, and vehicle technology, it is
possible in these days to operate transportation system much effectively with
significant reduction in the adverse impacts of transportation. Intelligent
transportation system offers better mobility, efficiency, and safety with the
help of the state-of-the-art-technology. ITS involves the application of
advanced computer, communication, control and sensing technologies in
transportation system in order to improve efficiency, safety, and over traffic
situation via transmission of real-time information. With the aid of advanced
communication technology, road users can access real-time information while
onboard, at home, office or outdoors as the reference of choosing
transportation modes, travel trips and routes. The system includes variable
message signs, Highway Advisory Radio (HAR), GPS, internet connection,
cable television, other mobile communication means, and so forth.

1.10 Introduction to transportation Systems

Generally, a transportation system comprises of three basic elements as

follows:

• Fixed facilities,
• Flow elements,
• Control system

These three elements are essential to allow for the move people and goods
from one location to another efficiently in order to achieve some desired
activities.

(a) The fixed facilities are the physical components of the transportation
system that are fixed spatially. The constitute the network of links
(roadway segments, railway track, pipes, etc) and nodes (intersections,
interchanges, terminals, harbours, airports, etc) of the transportation
system.

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(b) Flow elements are the units that traverse the fixed facilities, which include
vehicles, container units, railroad cars, etc. for the highway system, the
fixed facilities are expected to accommodate ranges vehicle categories;
ranging from motorcycle (at times bicycles) to large vehicles combinations
such as trucks and trailers.

(c) The control system consists of vehicular control and flow control.

• Vehicular control is referred to as the technological approach that

individual vehicles are guided onto the fixed facilities. Such control could
be manual or automated. Hence, proper geometric design of the fixed
facilities must incorporate, in addition to the characteristics of the vehicle,
the characteristics of the vehicular control system. In the case of highway
facilities, where the vehicles are manually controlled, these include driver
characteristics, such as the time a driver takes to perceive and react to
various stimuli. In the case of automated systems, similar but more
precisely definable response times exist as well.

• The flow control system consists of the means that allows for efficient and
smooth operation of vehicles’ streams and minimizing the conflicts among
the interacting vehicles. This system includes various types of signing,
marking, and signal systems and the related regulations governing the
operation.

1.11 Modes of Transportation System

Transportation system can be categorized into various modes. For example,

they may be classified according to the types of technology employ, according
to the function or type of service they provide. Likewise, it can be classified
according to who owns or responsible for their implementation and operation,
and so forth.

Generally, there are six basic modes of transportation system. These are
highways, railways, waterways, airways, pipelines, and conveyors. To move
people or goods from one location to another, each of these transportation
modes requires some essential components to accomplish the movement.
There are four essential components associated with each mode of
transportation. These include; way, vehicle (or carrying unit), terminal, and
control. The relationship among these components and each of the
transportation modes is discussed as follows.

For instance, for people and goods to b e moved from one point to another,
a path (or way) is usually required. It is on this path that the vehicle or

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carrying unit will move along to accomplish the movement. In the course of
transporting people or goods, there is need for loading and unloading
activities. These couple of processes are performed at designated locations
referred to as terminals. In transportation process, number of vehicles or
carrying units are operated which require some form of control and guidance.
Hence, the way, vehicle, terminal, and control are essential components for
each mode of transportation.

(a) Way (path) component

In terms of the way component, for highways, the roadway is provided based
on specified standard which serves as the way for the highway mode of
transportation. The highway facilitates for simultaneous longitudinal and
lateral movement of the vehicles, allowing for some flexibility in vehicular
movement. The technology used in effecting the movement for highways
involves the use of rubber-tyre wheel on a smooth firm roadway.

However, for railway mode, the way is simply the rail track resting on sleepers
which is laid on ballast. The railway can be described to some extent as rigid
system as it does not allow for concurrent longitudinal and lateral movement
of the vehicles. It usually operates longitudinally, which requires some other
system to enable lateral movement. Flanged-wheel on rail track is the
technology utilized in effecting the movement.

Regarding the waterways, its route is simply an identified water surface or

body upon which the boats, ships, vessels, etc, float on. In this case,
movement is achieved by the propulsion of floating object through the water
body. For airways, the routes are simply identified instead of constructed as
in the case of waterways. Movement is achieved through the use of air space
at higher altitudes above the ground. In the case of pipeline, the way for this
mode is the pipe itself and the movement is achieved through flow of liquids
under pressure or by gravity. Similarly, for the conveyor, which can be a belt
or bucket conveyor; the belt and the bucket serve as the way for this mode
of transportation. The technology employed in effecting the movement is
through frictional resistance as in pulley system.

(b) Vehicle component

With regard to the vehicle (or carrying unit) component of the transportation
modes, for the highway mode; the carrying unit is the vehicle itself. The
vehicle has broad ranges of type as well as varying dynamic and static
characteristics. For instance, the vehicle includes passenger car, trucks,
buses, tricycle, motorcycle, and so forth. Interestingly, the way is capable of
accommodating all the different categories of vehicles. This is due to the
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flexibility nature of highway mode. Conversely, this is not the case with the
railway system, where the vehicle is characterized by a fixed configuration
depending on the gauge of the rail track. The vehicle in this case is the coach.

For the waterways, the vehicle could be boat, ship, or vessel. These vehicles
vary in size, shape and their dynamic characteristics; ranging from small size
boats utilized for inland waterways transportation to large vessels used for
ocean transportation. Movement of people and goods in waterways mode is
reasonably flexible as the vehicles can move in both longitudinal and lateral
directions. More so, for submarines, the vehicle can move longitudinally,
laterally and vertically. For airways transportation, the vehicles vary in size
and configuration as well as its dynamic and static characteristics. The
vehicle can be helicopter, small plane or large aircraft capable of carrying
many passengers and large cargo tonnage. For the pipeline, the pipe or tube
serves as both the way and the vehicle while in the case of conveyor, the
vehicle is the conveyor belt or lift cab.

(c) Terminal component

Another essential component in transportation system is terminal. The

characteristics of the terminal vary depending on the type of transportation
mode. For the highways, the terminals are either on-street or off-street
parking facilities, bus terminal, trucks terminal, etc. The terminals for
highways are often less costly to provide as compared to the cost of providing
the way. In the case railway mode, the terminal is the rail station, while for
waterways; the terminal is port, which can be seaport or inland waterway
ports. However, for airways, the terminal is airport; which is an important
component for the mode in question whose provision requires a huge amount
of money. For the pipelines, the initial and end points of the pipeline serve
as the terminals; which could be ports, factories, etc. Likewise, the terminal
for conveyor is usually the initial and end points such as stockpiling and
packaging points.

(d) Control component

Lastly, the control is equally an important component in any form of

transportation system. For highways, many facilities aid in the control of
traffic flow; these include the use traffic control devices such as signals, signs,
traffic islands, rotaries, pavement markings, etc. Similarly, with regard to
railway system, signs and signals are used to regulate the movement of
trains, particular at crossing points and stations. For waterways and airways,
communication and use of light signals are used to regulate the route or the
vehicles navigation. In addition, for the airways’ mode, runways’ marking

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also contributes in the control aspect. For pipelines and conveyors, the
pumping and driving mechanisms serve as the control systems, respectively.

The characteristics of the transportation systems in terms of modes and

associated components are summarized and presented in Table 1.1.

In addition to the characteristics in Table 1.1, the highway and railway

systems facilities for the “way” may be an interchange, which could be
elevated type (flyovers), on ground (or at-grade as in conventional roads),
or underground (as in tunnel and underpass). Further, the highways,
railways, waterways, and airways transportation systems are regarded as
discrete flows while pipelines and conveyors are considered as continuous
flows.

The applications, advantages and disadvantages of the transportation modes

discussed earlier are summarized and presented in Table 1.2.

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Table 1.1: Types of Transportation Systems and their Associated Components

Modes

Highways Railways Waterways Airways Pipelines Conveyors

Components

Natural
and Conveyor
Paved and unpaved artificial belts,
Rail track Air space Pipe and tubes
Way roads channels, ropeways,
bodies of rollers
water

Self-
Motor vehicles, propelled
Coaches, Aircraft, Conveyor belt,
buses, lorries, vessels, Pipe and tubes
Vehicle wagons helicopter trams, lift cab
motorcycles, etc. ships &
boats

Destinations
Airport,
Street and off-street Railway Harbours such as sea Stockpiles and
Aerodrome,
Terminal parking, garages station and ports ports, industrial baggage hold
Heliport
plants, homes

Signals, signs, Signs, Communic Communication,

Pumping Driving
markings, signals, ation, light light signs,
mechanism mechanism
Control intersections, etc etc signs markings

Discrete flow systems Continuous flow systems

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Table 1.2: Applications, Advantages and Disadvantages of Each Transportation Mode

Modes Applications Advantages Disadvantages

Individual transport, transport of merchandise and Flexibility of routes, speed

Low productivity especially for the smaller
general cargo of medium size and quantity, pickup and ease of movement,
Highways vehicles, high accident rate, weather
and delivery service, covers varying range inter- local service, door-to-door
susceptibility, air and noise pollution
and intracity transport, feeder service service.

Bulk commodity and general cargo transport, intra-

terminal freight traffic, commuting traffic in densely Minimum propulsive
populated areas and intercity passenger movement resistance and general Produces vibration, water pollution from
Railways
& long-haul passenger transport where speed is not flexibility, dependability, engine house waste, noise pollution.
paramount. However, currently high-speed train are and safety.
common in many developed & developing countries.

Slow-speed movement of bulk, low grade-freight

where waterways are available; general cargo High net-ton-mile-per-ship-
Slow-speed, lack of route flexibility,
Waterways transport where speed is a not factor or where other hour, productivity at low
weather susceptibility, water pollution.
means are not available; not generally useful for horsepower per ton.
domestic passenger service.

Movement of any traffic where speed is a key

Airways requirement over a medium or long distance; traffic High-speed Air and noise pollution, high energy cost.
with high value in relation to its weight and bulk.

Transport of liquids where total and daily volume

High energy requirement, especially to the
are maximum and continuity of delivery is required, Continuous flow, maximum
Pipelines crushing of ore or coal for suspension in
have potential for use in movement of suspended dependability and safety
fluid and removal from the fluid
solids when adequate fluid supply is available

Transport of granular bulks where total and daily High initial cost of belting or roping, loan
Conveyors volumes are of maximum and continuity of delivery Same as for pipelines route and cargo flexibility need to
is required duplicate flights for two-way movement

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CHAPTER TWO

VEHICLE AND DRIVER CHARACTERISTICS

2.1 Introduction

A road transportation system comprises of three key elements. These are;

the vehicle, driver (road user, pedestrians inclusive), and the roadway.
These elements interact with one another and their characteristics affect
the operational performance of the road transportation system. Hence, a
Highway (transportation) Engineer is expected to have a good
understanding about them and the manner in which they affect the
operation of the facility. It is well known that vehicles vary in terms of their
static and dynamic characteristics. This is also the case with drivers; as
individuals are different in terms of issues relating to driving skill,
perception and reaction abilities, behaviour and so forth.

Hence, it is important to study the characteristics of both the vehicles and

road users, in terms of their performance capabilities and limitations.
Having a sound knowledge on these elements’ characteristics would equip
the Engineer on how to consider them in the course of planning,
incorporate them in the design of the facilities (road network and traffic
control devices) for efficient and safe traffic operation.

The following sections discuss the vehicle and driver characteristics as they
affect the design and operation of highway facilities.

2.2 Vehicle’s Characteristics

By vehicle characteristics is meant the operation, performance and the

physical features of the vehicle on a highway, and the manner in which
they affect the design and safe operation of the highway and other traffic
facilities.

Although the vehicle has lesser variable characteristics than the driver,
their features are usually controlled within defined limits by legislation by

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way of imposing limits on overall performance, weight and size, as well as

by specifying minimum requirements for individual items of equipment
such as brakes, lighting, and indicators. In order for the Engineer to
adequately plan, design facilities and recommend laws for the control and
regulation of vehicles’ movement on the highway, he must have a good
knowledge of their physical characteristics and performance limitations as
well.

The effect of these vehicle operating characteristics on the decisions of the

Engineer will be discussed under the following sub-headings:

2.2.1 Resistance to Motion and Power Requirements

In order for a vehicle to remain in motion on a level road (or along segment
with different geometric features), the following resistances (forces) need
to be overcome; rolling, air, grade, curve, inertia and mechanical friction
resistances. The sum of all these resistances is the value of the tractive
resistance or total resistance to traction (or power).

2.2.1.1 Rolling Resistance

This is a form of resistance developed as a result of frictional slip between
a vehicle’s tyre and pavement surface, flexing or bending of tyre at the
surface of contact, rolling over rough particles (i.e. stones, or broken
pavement mix particles), pushing wheels through sand, mud, and internal
friction at wheel, and axle. This resistance increases with speed and
roughness of road surfaces and decreases with high tyre inflation
pressures. For a given speed, the value increases for the type of roadway
materials in the following order; badly broken and patched asphalt; dry,
well packed gravel; and loose sand.
This form of the resistance is important in deciding the choice of an
appropriate road’s surfacing material.
2.2.1.2 Air Resistance:
Air resistance is composed of the effect of air (due to its weight) in the
vehicle pathways, the frictional force of air passing over the surfaces of

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the vehicle (including the underside), and the partial vacuum behind the
vehicle. Air resistance varies approximately in proportion to the square of
vehicle’s speed. Under standard air condition, the resistance is given by
Equation 2.1.

 AV 2
Ra = Cd ( ) (kg) (2.1)
2g

Where,

Cd = dimensionless drag coefficient depending on vehicle’s body

shape (0.25 for sport cars, 0.45 for saloon cars, 0.80 for trucks)

A = projected body area in direction of travel (m2)

 = density of air (kg/m3)

V = speed of vehicle (m/s)

g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)

The relationship can be rewritten as Ra = KAV2. A typical equation for a

saloon car is Ra = 0.0022AV2, where V is measured in kilometres per hour.
The coefficient K for a sport car is about 0.0009.

2.2.1.3 Grade Resistance

This is the force acting on a vehicle when on an incline section of a road.
It is equals to the component of vehicle weight acting down the grade. It
acts as a retarding force only when vehicles are moving upgrade. It is an
accelerating force for a vehicle moving downgrade. It acts only as an
inertia resistance when speed increases are involved on an uphill grade.
This resistance serves as a guide in selecting an appropriate grade’s value.
Grade resistance is expressed as in Equation 2.2.

Rg = Wsin (2.2)

Where,

W = Component of the vehicle’s gross weight acting down the grade

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 = Inclination angle of the grade

Usually, an increasing the grades causes an increase in the resistance to

be overcome by the tractive effort and adds to vehicle operating costs in
other ways. The highway Engineer must, therefore, keeps gradients as
mild as possible in order to minimize the effect grade, especially on heavy
vehicles. Limits for grades are usually set depending on the type of terrain.
The limiting grade in highways is that which is so steep that it reduces
vehicles’ speeds and thereby limits the number of vehicles (reduction in
roadway capacity) that can traverse the grade in a given time.

Subsequently, congestion begins to develop (especially, on a busy highway

segment) when speeds drop below the minimum acceptable level. To
minimize the potential of this incidence, mild grades or climbing lanes
(passing bays) are provided/added to the roadway width on a long slow
climb section to permit faster moving passenger cars and other light
vehicles with a lower weight/horse power ratio to continue without
appreciable reduction in speed.

2.2.1.4 Curve Resistance

Curve resistance is the force acting through the front wheels contact with
the pavement surface, needed to deflect a vehicle along curvilinear path.
This force increases with speed; as the faster a vehicle moves the more
difficult it is to change its direction. A sound understanding of curve
resistance would helpful in selecting the type of curve to be used in
connecting straights of a highway. A super-elevation can be used to reduce
the effect of curve resistance.
2.2.1.5 Inertia Resistance
Inertia resistance is the force to be overcome in order to change or
increase speed. It is a function of vehicle weight (regardless of type of
vehicle) and the rate of acceleration. Initially, a force is required to
overcome inertia during acceleration to the required speed and during
motion; the inertia affects the rotating parts. It can be computed using
Equation 2.3.
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Ri = 28wa (kg) (2.3)

Where,
w = gross weight of vehicle (tonnes)

a = acceleration rate (kph/sec.)

Figure 2.1 illustrates the combination of forces acting on a moving vehicle.

For the vehicle to remain in continuous motion, the tractive force delivered
from the engine must be greater than the sum of all the resistances.

Figure 2.1: Forces Acting on a Moving Vehicle

2.2.2 Acceleration Performance

The acceleration capabilities of vehicles are very useful information in the

design and operation of highway and traffic facilities. The highway
engineer uses such information to evaluate minimum passing sight
distance requirements, and for the determination of minimum lengths of
acceleration lanes at stop sign and interchanges.

The acceleration capacity of vehicle is dependent on its mass, the

resistance to motion and available power. In general, the acceleration rates
are highest at low speeds, decreases as speed increases. Heavier vehicles
have lower rates of acceleration than passenger cars. The difference in
acceleration rates becomes significant in mixed traffic streams. For
example, heavy vehicles like trucks will delay a lot of motorists at an
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intersection. This is also the same along links (straight sections) of a

highway. Again, the gaps formed can be occupied by other smaller
vehicles only if they are given the opportunity to pass. The presence of
upgrades makes the problem more severe. Trucks are forced to decelerate
on grades because their power is not sufficient to maintain their desired
speed. As trucks slow down on grades, long gaps will be formed in the
traffic stream which cannot be efficiently filled by normal passing
manoeuvres.

For two-lane highways (single carriageway roads), minimum passing sight

distances are function of maximum acceleration rates. This follows from
the fact that the more quickly vehicles can accelerate to overtake, the
shorter the length of road traversed in overtaking, and hence the shorter
the overtaking or passing sight distance. In highway design, minimum
values of overtaking or passing sight distances are usually obtained from
recommendations in standard design manuals.

2.2.3 Deceleration Performance

Information on different vehicles’ deceleration rates is important to the

highway Engineer for the determination of minimum stopping sight
distance on a roadway. Deceleration of vehicles occurs automatically when
the accelerator pedal is released, because of the retarding effect of the
resistance to motion, including engine compression forces. For controlled
deceleration and maximum rates of deceleration, however, brakes are used
to restrain the vehicle’s movement.

The relationship between the minimum stopping sight distance and the
variables upon which it depends is given by Equation 2.4.

V2
SSD = PV +
2 g ( f  i) (2.4)
Where,

SSD = minimum stopping sight distance (m)

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P = perception reaction time (sec.)

V = vehicle’s running speed (kph)

f = coefficient of friction between pavement and tyre surfaces

i = roadway gradient (%)

2.2.4 Vehicle Dimensions and Weight

Information on the various dimensions and weight of vehicles and current

trends in these variables are needed by the Engineer for the planning of
road geometrics and parking lot layouts. The vehicular dimensions which
can affect the road and traffic design are mainly; width, height, length,
rear overhang, and ground clearance.

The width of vehicle affects the width of lanes, shoulders and parking
facility. The capacity of the road will also decrease if the vehicle’s width
exceeds the design values. The height of the vehicle affects the clearance
height of structures like under-pass structures, tunnels, electric and other
utility lines, and also placing of signs and signals. Another important factor
is the length of the vehicle which affects the extra width of pavement,
minimum turning radius, safe overtaking distance, capacity and the
parking facility. The rear overhang control is mainly important when the
vehicle takes a right/left turn from a stationary point.

The weight of the vehicle provides a useful information for the estimation
of traffic load being an important in pavement’s structural design. The
weight of the vehicle is transferred to the pavement through the axles;
hence, the design parameters are fixed on the basis of the number of
axles.

2.2.5 Braking and Skid Resistance

A knowledge of the manner in which friction is developed between tyre

and roadway surfaces and the magnitude of such friction is required by
the Engineer in determining the braking force and the available resistance

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to skidding on a road surface. Under normal circumstances, a vehicle skids

on a road surface when the limiting friction between tyres and road
surfaces is exceeded. Common causes of this phenomenon of skidding are
polished pavement aggregates, oil spillage, surface bleeding of bitumen
(from asphalt surfacing), and wet road surface condition.

2.2.6 Visibility

For safe driving, it is necessary that the body of a vehicle does not block
or obstruct the view of the driver, especially at or close to junctions. In
order to overtake without causing any accident, rear view mirrors are
provided in front of the driver inside the vehicle and at the sides of the
vehicle to enable the driver to see vehicles behind. Vehicles seats are
usually fitted with adjusters for varying the horizontal position while
adjusters are also provided for reclining the back rests in order to maintain
a proper eye position for a wide visual field.

As far as forward visibility is concerned, the dimensions of the vehicle, and

slope and curvature of wind screens, wind screen wipers, door pillars, etc
should be such that:

• Visibility is clear even in bad weather conditions such as rain, fog,

and snow;
• It should not mask pedestrians, cyclists or other vehicles;
• There is adequate visibility during intersection manoeuvres.

Equally important is the side and rear visibility when manoeuvring

especially at intersections when the driver adjusts his speed in order to
merge or cross a traffic stream. Rear vision efficiency can be achieved by
properly positioning the internal or external mirrors.

2.2.7 Lighting

For safe driving during night hours, lights are provided on vehicles as
headlights and taillights. Lights are also provided on the streets as street
lights (mostly in urban areas).

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Vehicle lights serve two main purposes;

• provision of a clear view of the vehicle to an external viewer viewing

from any approach angle and without the discomfort of glare to the
viewer

• provision at all times of a clearly illuminated field of view to the

driver moving at operating speeds and under the prevailing road
conditions.

Inclement weather conditions may occur such as in the early morning and
late night during rainy and harmattan seasons, which may negate the
purpose for which lights are provided. In many vehicles, this is usually
taken care of by the development of some specialized lighting accessories
purposely built for seeing through fogs.

Likewise, street lights are used in urban areas to improve visibility at night
period. However, for street lights to be effective, they should be closely
spaced as to adequately light the roadway such that driving may be carried
out with parking lights only, in order to reduce glare and save vehicle
battery energy. In poorly light areas or those without street lights, it
behoves that the road user to put on the vehicle’s headlights if accidents
are to be avoided. The incidence of glare should also be guarded against
by the judicious use of the headlights at the upper beam and dipped (lower
beam) conditions.

2.3 Driver’s Characteristics

In traffic operation, human beings perform different roles which make

them essential elements of the traffic. The physical, mental, and emotional
characteristics of human being as a driver affect his ability to operate a
vehicle safely. It is therefore essential for the Engineer to study their
characteristics, behaviour, and shortcomings as road users.

Driver as an important traffic element is far more unpredictable than the

other elements of vehicle and roadway. In order to adequately

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accommodate the variability of drivers’ characteristics in traffic designs

and programmes (traffic system operations), their behaviour patterns and
accident involvement factors are worth well studying. Thus, the following
subsections discuss drivers’ capabilities and limitations in the use of
roadway system and associated traffic facilities.

The most complex problem while dealing with human characteristics is its
variability. The human characteristics like ability to react to situations,
vision and hearing, and other factors vary among the individuals, and
depends on age, fatigue, nature of situations (or stimuli), effect of drugs,
alcohol, and other stimulants. The influence of these factors and the
corresponding variability cannot be accounted when a facility is designed.
So, a standardized value is often used as the design value. The 85th
percentile value of different characteristics is taken as a standard for
design purpose. It represents a characteristic that 85 per percent of the
population can meet or exceed.

The aspect of driver’s characteristics having a bearing on traffic facilities

are broadly categorized into two; as physiological and psychological. The
physiological factors are sub classified into Visual Reception, Hearing
Reception, and Vibration. These are presented in subsections 2.3.1 to
2.3.3. For the psychological category, the driver’s perception-reaction
process is the key factor, as discussed in subsection 2.3.4 and its
associated subsections.

2.3.1 Visual Reception

Vision is one of the essential factors that affects most aspects of highway
facility design and safe operation. The human eye is the sensory organ
that enables one to see and evaluate the size, shape, and colour of objects
as well as estimate the distances and speeds of the objects. The light rays
from an object get refracted through the eye lens and subsequently
brought to focus on the retina. The image formed on the retina is then
transmitted to the brain through the optic nerve which perceives the
object.
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The basic characteristics of visual sense (eye) are visual acuity, peripheral
vision, glare vision and recovery, colour vision, and depth perception.

2.3.1.1 Visual Acuity

This is the ability of a person to see fine details of an object. It is usually
represented by visual angle. The driver’s ability to clearly detect a moving
object, not necessarily in the direct line of vision, depends on the driver’s
dynamic visual acuity. It has been established that most people have clear
vision within a conical angle of 3o to 5o and fairly clear vision within a
conical angle of 10o to 12o. Vision further than this range is commonly
blurred. In other words, drivers can clearly see objects (such as traffic
devices) within the 12o cone; however, objects beyond this cone will
appear blurred.

2.3.1.2 Peripheral Vision

This is the ability of a person to see an object outside the cone of the
clearest vision. Even though object can be seen within this zone, however,
the details and colour may not be clear. The cone for the peripheral vision
could be one subtending an angle up to 160o. It should be noted that this
angle is affected by the vehicle’s speed. One other factor influencing
peripheral vision is the driver’s age. For instance, older drivers have lower
peripheral vision ability as compared to younger ones.

2.3.1.3 Glare Vision and Recovery

Glare is a situation which occurs when a relatively bright light appears
within an individual’s field of vision. It usually results in visibility reduction
and causes discomfort to the affected person’s eyes. Sensitivity to the
effects of glare increases with person’s age. Glare recovery is the time
required by an individual to recover from the effect of glare after passing
a light source unto the person’s eyes. It was discovered that the glare
recovery time is 6 or more seconds when moving from light to dark and
about 3 seconds when moving from dark to light.

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In order to reduce the discomfort to drivers, the effects of glare should be

taken into account in the design and installation of street lighting such that
these effects become negligible. Glare effects can be minimized by
reducing the luminaire brightness and increasing the background
brightness within drivers’ field of view. This can be achieved by increasing
the heights of the mounting points and positioning the lighting supports
farther away from the roadway. Likewise, drivers should be mindful on
when to use full or lower headlights beams.

2.3.1.4 Colour Vision

Colour vision is the ability of an individual to distinguish one colour from
another. A deficiency in this ability is referred to as colour blindness. Even
though this deficiency may affect driver’s decision in ascertaining a
particular colour, it is, however, not regarded as significant defect in driving
task as other means of recognizing traffic control (information) devices
(for instance, shape) can compensate for that defect. It was discovered
that combinations of black and white and black and yellow have
demonstrated to be those to which the eye is most sensitive.

2.3.1.5 Depth Perception

Depth perception is referred to as driver’s ability to estimate distance and
speed of vehicle from his/her position. To the driver moving at a particular
speed, the judgement of speeds of other vehicles is needed to facilitate
various manoeuvres. It is particularly important on two-lane highways
during passing manoeuvres, when head-on crashes may occur due to lack
of proper judgement of distance and speed.

2.3.2 Hearing Reception

Hearing is an aid to the driver which can at times be very essential. The
ear receives sound stimulus, which is essential to the drivers for warning,
mostly alerted by emergency vehicles (ambulance, fire service vehicles,
and their likes) to inform other drivers to get out of their way.

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2.3.3 Vibration

At times, information can be received by drivers through sense of touch or

feeling. For instance, road pavements have etching on the outside edge
of the shoulder to indicate to the driver that he/she is off the pavement
surface. Likewise, raised markers on road surface (such as bumps) are
used to indicate that a driver is required to reduce speed over a specified
section of the roadway.

2.3.4 Perception-Reaction Process

This simply refers to the process through which a driver evaluates and
reacts to a stimulus. In the course of driving task, a driver is subjected to
a series of stimuli both expected and unexpected. The time taken to
perform an action in response to the stimulus involves a series of stages
as follows:

2.3.4.1 Perception
Perception is the process of perceiving the sensations received through the
sense organs, nerves and brains. It is actually the recognition that a
stimulus on which a reaction is required exists. An instance is as follows:

• Seeing a stimulus along with other perceived objects.

• Within the peripheral view, you noticed something coming out of a
nearby bush and perhaps to cross the road.

2.3.4.2 Intellection
This refers to the identification and understanding of stimulus.

• At this moment, the driver begins to explore options.

• You then recognized it is a dog attempting to cross the roadway
ahead of you.
o Do you apply brake to stop in an attempt to avoid it?
o Do you swerve (deviate laterally) to avoid it?
o Do you speed up to avoid it?

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2.3.4.3 Emotion
At this stage, the driver decides what action to take in response to the
stimulus.

• The driver then decides that the best course of action is to swerve
with the hope that he/she can avoid the dog. For the same situation,
another motorist could decide to speed up to avoid the hazard.

2.3.4.4 Reaction (Volition)

The driver actually executes the action decided on during the emotion sub-
process.

• The driver swerves and fortunately enough he/she avoided the dog.

Another instance of perception-reaction-process is if a driver approaches

an intersection where the signal is red, the driver first sees the signal
(perception), he recognizes that it is a red/STOP signal (intellection), he
then decides to stop (emotion) and finally applies the brake (volition). This
sequence is called the PIEV time or perception-reaction time.

2.4 Factors Affecting Driver’s Performance

Factors that modify the basic psychological characteristics of a driver are

either of a permanent or transient nature. The permanent ones include;
age, injury and other forms of long-term sicknesses (e.g. stroke, epilepsy),
all of which can result in disabilities and other permanent deterioration (at
times, never getting better as far as orthodox medicine is concerned) and
impairment. People so affected, with time can adjust to the situation and
accommodate their disability in the driving task. Even though people can
adjust and accommodate the permanent characteristics over time, they do
at times have some effect on them. For instance, few among the effects
of driver’s age are as follows:

• Old drivers:
o Could perceive something as a hazard but may not act quickly
enough.
o Have difficulty in seeing, hearing, and reaction.
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o Drive slower.

• Young drivers:
o Have ability to act quickly but do not have experience to
identify things as a hazard or decide what to do.
o Drive faster.

However, the transient psychological characteristics have more bearing on

drivers’ performance because of the difficulty (or in some cases
impossibility) in adjusting to the situations that arise in driving. The factors
include fatigue, use of alcohol or drugs, short-term illness, weather, and
posture.

2.4.1 Fatigue
This is referred to as the tiredness or weakness of human body or parts of
it caused by use. Fatigue and could be mental, physical or operational.
The mental fatigue is due to the over working of the brain before or while
driving. Physical fatigue can often be attributed to lack of sleep or rest;
incorrect posture induced by cramped conditions and impaired muscular
movement, drowsiness brought on by overheated vehicles, recurring
vibrations, glare and inability of the eye to accommodate different levels
of light. Operational fatigue is simply due to lack of driving skill.

Any of these forms of fatigue can cause mistakes and consequent loss of
vehicle control. Commonly, a fatigued driver is seen to perform the right
action in the wrong sequence. Little can be done about fatigue once
driving. However, one can avoid likely accidents by avoiding driving in this
state.

2.4.2 Use of Alcohol and Drugs

These act as depressants on the central nervous system, hence, use of
excessive amount of these affect people and their reaction. Those that act
as stimulants (cocaine, heroin, etc) lead to erratic behaviour and cause
loss of vehicle’s control. Some of the specific effects of these include:
• Slows response time
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• Increases risk taking

• Slows decision making
• Difficulties with peripheral vision
It is therefore advisable to avoid the use of such drugs, alcohol, and other
stimulants if one is ready to perform the driving task.

2.4.3 Illness
This causes disturbances in the normal emotional and physical state of the
person affected. These result in impaired performance. Persons so affected
should see a medical practitioner for treatment before performing the
driving task.
2.4.4 Weather Conditions
Situations such as excessive heat from the sun, heavy rainfall, cold dry air
in the harmattan period, and foggy conditions, usually render driving
uninteresting, uncomfortable, inconvenient and difficult, especially on
poorly maintained roads that may not even have adequate traffic facilities.
Vehicle designs incorporating appropriate accessories may however take
care of some of these adverse weather conditions.
2.4.5 Posture
Different persons of different heights as well as different trunk/height
ratios will have different eye levels when seated in a vehicle as the drivers.
Roads’ layouts and positioning of traffic devices should be such that a
driver gets full view of these facilities. For very short persons, cushions
placed on the seats (with the seat shifted forward) will enhance visibility
by increasing the view angles in all directions as a result of increased
height of eye level.
2.5 Factors Affecting Driver’s Behaviour
Factors that affect the behaviour pattern or activity of drivers are
motivation, environmental influence, and education.

2.5.1 Motivation
This factor simply referred to as the trip purpose. A driver on a leisure trip
would certainly behave and drive differently (at low speed, carefully, and

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in a more relaxed manner) from one who drives for to beat time for an
important event. Other drivers may as well drive with different emotional
feelings; such as anger, fear, anxiety, and so forth. Hence, for safe and
comfortable movement of persons and goods, the engineer must take into
consideration those characteristics induced by the different motives in the
design and planning of highway facilities.
2.5.2 Environmental Influence
This follows from the motivation factor. A driver just entering a traffic
stream sooner or later finds himself driving in the manner of the other
drivers. However, there are some other aspects of the environment which
influence the driver’s behaviour. A driver will obviously be at ease in a less
noisy atmosphere as well as one free of other atmospheric pollutants, such
as the individual’s vehicle exhaust fumes from exhaust of other vehicles
on the road. Effective control of the types of vehicles that are fit to ply the
roads will guard against these undesirable effects.
2.5.3 Education or Awareness on the Use of Traffic Facilities
It is obvious that one acquires knowledge through education. Lack of
knowledge on the use of traffic facilities have often led to serious hazards
on road sections. Commonly, drivers who do not know the purpose of lane
markings overtake at restricted areas. An indirect result of shallow
education or lack of education is impatience. Drivers are to be noticed
moving ahead unto a signalized intersection immediately the amber light
comes on, without regard for traffic that is still in the intersection. A part
from the traffic engineer and others directly involved in traffic operations
and management; the mass media outlets could as well be utilized to
educate the public on regulations governing a safe operation on highways.
In conclusion, for an efficient design and operation of transportation and
traffic facilities, the Engineer must have road user characteristics as one
of the foremost considerations. He must provide for adequate traffic
control devices (warning, information, direction signs, etc) to be located
at appropriate positions within the road in order to forestall the
consequences of higher operating speeds and poor visibility.

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Likewise, road alignments should be simple rather than complex. Roadway,

footpaths and other areas of the road should be clearly demarcated. Street
lighting (particularly in urban areas) should be considered as a worthwhile
investment that can reduce night accidents by improving visibility. These
would give the road user a sense of having been catered for in the design,
construction and operation of the facilities.

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CHAPTER THREE

TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY

3.1 Introduction

Traffic flow theory or traffic stream characteristics is a means of defining

the interaction among vehicles and roadway environment. It is a tool that
aids transportation engineers to understand and express the
characteristics of traffic flow on highways. At any given time, there is large
number of vehicles moving on roadways. These vehicles interact with each
other and influence the overall movement of traffic within the stream.

Whether the task is evaluating the existing capacity of roadways or

designing new ones, most transportation engineering projects begin with
an evaluation of the traffic flow. Hence, a transportation engineer needs
to have a firm understanding of the theories behind Traffic Flow Analysis.

The fundamental characteristics of traffic stream are usually expressed as

flow, speed and density. A fourth one, however, cannot be called a traffic
stream characteristic on its own but in association with or as a derivative
of flow and density is the headway. It could be time headway, which can
be easily measured in the field (or derived from flow) or space or distance
headway (derived from density).

In terms of application, traffic flow analysis allows traffic Engineers to:

• Analyse traffic operation with respect to capacity and level of service

(LOS).
• Analyse accident occurrences and establish their likely causes.
• Evaluate the need for improvement by conducting before and after
studies.
• Examine varying ranges of traffic flow related issues and suggest
solutions for better operational performance of road facilities.

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3.2 Types of Traffic Flow

Traffic flow can be divided into two major classes. Understanding what
type of flow occurs under a particular condition assists an analyst to decide
on the most appropriate analysis techniques and descriptions.

3.2.1 Uninterrupted flow

This type of flow occurs when vehicles traversing a segment of roadway

are not required to stop by any cause external to the traffic stream, such
as traffic control devices. It is a flow regulated by vehicle-vehicle
interactions and interactions between vehicles and the roadway. For
example, vehicles traveling on an interstate highway can be categorized
under an uninterrupted flow.

3.2.2 Interrupted flow

It occurs when vehicles moving on a roadway are periodically interrupted

by external fixtures, primarily traffic control devices. It is a flow regulated
by an external means, such as a traffic signal. Under interrupted flow
conditions, vehicle – vehicle interactions and vehicle – roadway
interactions play a secondary role in defining the traffic flow.

3.3 Traffic Flow Variables

Traffic flow is a complex phenomenon to describe without the use of a

common set of terms. Even though there are many terms associated with
traffic flow, the key variables deemed most essential are flow, density, and
speed. Nevertheless, the common traffic flow terms are defined as follows:

3.3.1 Flow Rate (q)

This is the equivalent hourly rate at which vehicles pass over a given point
or section of a lane or roadway during a given time interval of less than
one hour, usually 15 minutes. It is expressed as vehicles per hour (veh/h)
and can be determined from Equation 3.1.

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n
q= (3.1)
T

Where, n is the number of vehicles passing an observation point in a

period, T.

For instance, 80 vehicles passed a point on a roadway within 15 minutes,

this implies;

80  60
q= = 320 veh / h
15

For those 15 minutes interval of time, the vehicles were crossing the
designated point at a rate of 320 vehicles per hour.

3.3.2 Volume (Q)

Volume is simply the number of vehicles that pass over a given point or
section of a lane or roadway during a specified time, T, usually 1 hour. It
is expressed as vehicles. If 80 vehicles are observed in 15 minutes, as in
the earlier case, the volume is;

Q = 80 vehicles in 15 mins.

An hour volume is the actual count of vehicles for a full hour duration.
Unlike a flow rate, volume cannot be based on an expanded count.

3.3.3 Density (K)

This is referred to as the number of vehicles occupying a given length of a

lane or roadway at a particular instant. It is computed using Equation 3.2
and expressed in vehicles per kilometre (veh/km).

n
K= (3.2)
L

Where, n = No. of vehicles on the road section, and L = length of the road
section.
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For a segment of 250 m of a three lane (one direction) roadway, 20 vehicles

are observed on each lane at an instant of time.

20 veh
Therefore, K (lane) = = 80 veh / km / lane
1 km
4

20 veh  3lanes
K (roadway) = = 240 veh / km
1 km − lane
4

However, if different number of vehicles are observed on each lane, then the
density for each lane is determined separately and their summation taken
as the density for the roadway.

3.3.4 Time Headway (ht)

The time between two successive vehicles as they pass a point on the
roadway, measured from the same common feature of both vehicles (e.g.,
the front axle or the front bumper). It is usually expressed in seconds.

3.3.5 Average or Mean Time Headway (ht ) :

This is the average of all time headways, ht, in a roadway. This is so since
the definition in section 3.3.4 is for two vehicles and the time headway for
other successive vehicles will generally be different. It is the mean of the
time intervals between successive pairs of vehicles and it is measured over
a period of time at a particular location. It is expressed as seconds per
vehicle (sec/veh). It is closely approximated by the reciprocal of the flow
rate or volume over the time measured as expressed in Equation 3.3.

T 1
ht = =
Q q
(3.3)

For instance, if Q = 80 vehicles in 5 minutes, this would result in flow

rate of 80 vehicles times 12 (i.e. there 5 minutes times 12 in 1 hour).

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Thus, using Equation 3.3, the average time headway can be determined
from the volume as follows:

T 5 min 60 sec
ht = =  = 3.75 sec/ veh
Q 80 veh 1 min

Likewise, the average time headway can be deduced from the flow rate
(as the reciprocal of q) as follows:

1 1 hr 3600 sec
ht = =  = 3.75 sec/ veh
q 960 veh 1h

3.3.6 Space or Distance headway, (hd)

This is also referred to as spacing and defined as the distance between two
successive vehicles on a traffic lane, measured from the same common
feature of the vehicles (e.g., front bumper, front axle, rear axle). It is
measured over space or distance at a point in time (i.e., distance varying).
It is expressed in metres.

3.3.7 Average Space Headway (hd )

It is the average of all space headways on a roadway. It is expressed as

metres per vehicle (m/veh). It arises as a result of the fact that the
headway values among vehicles pairs may vary in a flow. It is closely
approximated by the reciprocal of the density as shown in Equation 3.4.

1
hd =
K
(3.4)

The two are precisely equal if the distance used for the density
measurement defines the locations of the fronts of two vehicles at the
moment of the measurement, provided only one of these two end vehicles
is counted in the calculation. It relates to the average time headway, ht,
and speed, V, by Equation 3.5.

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hd = hV
t s
(3.5)

Where, Vs is the space-mean speed (defined in subsection 3.3.9).

3.3.8 Time Mean Speed (Vt)

Time mean speed (TMS) is the speed of vehicles on a roadway based on
the average of individual speeds of all the vehicles, i.e., the mean of the
speeds of the vehicles passing a point on the roadway in a particular time
interval. TMS is simply the arithmetic mean of spot speeds, expressed as
kilometres per hour (km/hr) and defined as in Equation 3.6.

1 n
Vt = Vi
n i =1
(3.6)

Where, Vi is the speed of ith vehicle at a point in time.

3.3.9 Space Mean Speed (Vs)

Space mean speed (SMS) is the average speed of vehicles based on
average travel time taken to traverse a length of roadway. SMS is obtained
by dividing the total distance travelled by two or more vehicles on a section
of highway by the total time required by these vehicles to travel that
distance. Alternatively, SMS can be estimated as the harmonic mean of
vehicles’ speeds passing a point on a highway during an interval of time.
Based on this definition, the SMS is estimated using Equation 3.7.

n nl
Vs = = n (3.7)
n
1
 ( )  ti
i =1 Vi i =1

Where, li and ti are individual vehicle’s distance and travel time,

respectively.

The SMS is regarded as an important traffic flow variable as it considers

the movement of vehicles over a roadway section as against TMS which
deals with speed of vehicles at a point.

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3.4 Speed – Flow – Density Relationships

As mentioned earlier, space-mean-speed is an important traffic variable.

It is related to the other stream variables; density and flow by Equation
3.8.

q = Vs K (3.8)

Equation 3.8 is the fundamental flow relationship. It is usual that the

relationship between any two of these three traffic flow characteristics is
known. This automatically gives the value of the third or unknown
characteristic when Equation 3.8 is used. The relationship between each
pair of these characteristics is as shown in Figure 3.1.

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Figure 3.1: Speed-Flow-Density Relationships

The descriptions of the relationships among each pair of flow, density, and
speed are presented in sections 3.4.1 to 3.4.3.

3.4.1 Flow – Density Relationship

This relationship indicates that when there are no vehicles on a roadway,

the density is zero and flow is equally zero. As density increases flow also
increases. However, when the density reaches its maximum value
referred to as jam density (Kj); the flow must be zero because vehicles
will tend to line up end to end (standstill condition). Hence, it follows that
as density increases from zero, the flow will also initially increase from
zero to a maximum value (qm), beyond which congestion begins to
develop. Further continuous increase in density will then result in
continuous reduction of flow, which will be zero when density is equal to
the jam density.

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3.4.2 Speed – Flow Relationship

When flow is very low, there is little interaction among vehicles; therefore,
drivers are free to travel at maximum possible speed. The absolute
maximum speed (mean free-flow speed, Vf) is obtained as the flow tends
to zero. Continuous increase in flow will result in a continuous decrease in
speed. A point will be reached when further addition of vehicles will result
in the reduction in the actual number of vehicles that pass a point on the
highway (reduction of flow). At this point, congestion is reached and
eventually both speed and flow become zero. Non-congested flow is
represented by the upper-half of this curve. It is represented by the left-
half of the curve for the flow-density relationship, i.e., for the regions
defined by;

K  Km i.e., between K = 0 and K = Km, and

V  Vm i.e., between V = Vf and V = Vm

Note: Free-flow speed (Vf) is referred to as the vehicle’s speed over a

segment under low volume condition, such that drivers are free to travel
at desired speed and/or not constrained by other vehicles.

3.4.3 Speed – Density Relationship

The relationship between speed and density is linear which suggests that
when there are no vehicles on the highway, the density is zero. When
density approaches zero there will be little or no interaction among
vehicles, therefore drivers are free to travel at maximum possible speed.
Further continuous increase in density will then result in continuous
reduction of speed, which will be zero when density is equal to the jam
density.

The linear form of the relationship between speed and density is defined
by Equation 3.9. This equation is referred to as Greenshields model which
was developed after a study carried out on the relationship between speed
and density.

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Vf
Vs = V f − K (3.9)
Kj

Where, Vs is the space-mean speed, Vf is the free flow speed, Kj is the jam
density, and K is the density corresponding to Vs.

The corresponding relationships for flow – density and speed – flow can
be derived as follows:

q
By substituting Vs = in Equation 3.9, the flow-density relationship is
K
derived as shown in Equation 3.10.

Vf
q = Vf K − K2 (3.10)
Kj

q
Likewise, by substituting K= in Equation 3.9, the speed-flow
Vs

relationship is derived as in Equation 3.11.

Vf
Vs = V f Vs − (3.11)
2
q
Kj

Equations 3.10 and 3.11 indicate that if a linear relationship in the form of
Equation 3.9 is assumed for speed and density, then parabolic
relationships are obtained for flow – density and speed – flow. The shape
of the curves in Figure 3.1 would therefore be as illustrated.

3.4.4 Maximum Flow – Speed – Density Relationships

A part from the derivations of Equations 3.9 through 3.11, it is equally

important to derive the relationship between maximum flow (qmax) and
each of speed and density. Hence, from Equation 3.10, for maximum flow,
dq
=0
dK

From Equation 3.10,

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dq 2V f K
= Vf − =0
dK Kj

 2V f K = V f K j

Kj
K = (3.12)
2

Similarly, rearranging Equation 3.11 gives,

Vs 2 K j
q = Vs K j −
Vf

dq
For maximum flow, =0
dVs

dq 2Vs K j
= Kj − =0
dVs Vf

 2Vs K j = V f K j

Vf
Vs = (3.13)
2

It is important at this point to note that Equations 3.12 and 3.13 imply

that maximum flow (qmax) occurs at half jam density (Kj) and half free-

flow speed (Vf). Hence, the resulting relationship for the determination of

maximum flow is shown in Equation 3.14.

Kj Vf K jV f
qmax =  = (3.14)
2 2 4

3.5 Examples

Example 3.5.1

The spot speeds of five vehicles were observed to be 23, 18, 15, 32 and
28 m/s, respectively. Compute the time mean and the space mean speeds.
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Solution

The time mean speed is the arithmetic average of the spot speeds and is
computed as follows:

1 n 23 + 18 + 15 + 32 + 28
Vt = 
n i =1
Vi =
5
= 23.20 m / s

On the other hand, the space mean speed is the harmonic average:

n 5
Vs = = = 21.49 m / s
n
1 1 1 1 1 1
 ( ) ( + + + + )
i =1 Vi 23 18 15 32 28

Example 3.5.2

If the maximum flow per lane on an uninterrupted two-lane highway is

1700 veh/h, determine the free-flow speed for an average headway of
12.50 m/veh.

Solution

K jV f
q max =
4

4q max
→ Vf =
Kj

1 1
Kj = = 1000 = 80 veh / km
hd 12.50

4qmax 4 1700
Vf = = = 85 km / h
Kj 80

Example 3.5.3

A field observation on a multi-lane highway reveals a free flow speed of

59.5 km/hr, a jam density of 180 vehicles per kilometre per lane. Derive
the linear relationship for speed for these conditions, and determine the
speed and density at maximum flow conditions.

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Solution

Vf K 59.5K
Vs = V f − = 59.5 − = 59.5 − 0.33K
Kj 180

q = Vs K = K (59.5 − 0.33K ) = 59.5K − 0.33K 2

dq
= 59.5 − 0.66 K = 0
dK

Kj
K = 90.15 or K = = 90 veh / km = K m = half of jam density (K at max flow
2
condition)

59.5(90) Vf
Vm = 59.5 − = 29.75 km/h = = half of free flow speed (V at
180 2
maximum flow condition)

Example 3.5.4

A study of freeway flow at a particular site has resulted in a calibrated

speed-density relationship as follows:

Vs = 92.5(1 − 0.008 K )

From this relationship:

i. Find the free-flow speed and jam density

ii. Derive the equations describing flow versus speed and flow versus
density.

iii. Determine the capacity of the studied site and speed at the
capacity.

Solution

(i) To solve for the free-flow speed and jam density:

Vs = 92.5 − 0.74 K

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Notice that the equation (i) above is linear with respect to space mean
speed and density as well as similar to Greenshields Equation’s functional
form.

Vf
Recall: Vs = V f − ( )K
Kj

Free flow speed: V f = 92.5 km / h

Vf
To calculate jam density: = 0.74
Kj

 K j = 125 veh / km

(ii) To derive flow-density equation:

q = Vs K

q = 92.5K − 0.74 K 2 (Flow-density equation, which is a quadratic in K)

To derive flow-speed equation:

0.74 K = 92.5 − Vs

92.5 − Vs V
K= = 125 − s
0.74 0.74

Vs 2
 q = 125Vs − veh / hr (Note that it is a quadratic in Vs)
0.74

(iii) To determine the capacity of the studied site, we need to

determine the maximum flow from part (ii) above,

q = 92.5K − 0.74 K 2

dq
= 92.5 − 2(0.74) K = 0
dK

92.5
K = = 62.5  63 veh / km = K m = Km = density at maximum flow
2(0.74)

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qmax = 92.5K − 0.74K 2 = 92.5(62.5) − 0.74(62.5)2 = 2891veh / h

Speed at maximum flow = Vm = 92.5 − 0.74 K m = 92.5 − 0.74(62.5) = 46.25 km / h

Example 3.5.5

Table 3.1 presents the data obtained during a field measurement of spot
speed over a trap of 30 metres. Use the information in Table3.1 to
estimate time-mean and space-mean speeds in km/hr. What would be
the density of the traffic stream if the mean headway of the observed
sample of vehicles is 3.00 sec/veh?

Table 3.1
Time (seconds) 1.80 1.40 1.10 0.95 2.10 1.85 2.00 1.56 1.25 1.05

No. of Observations 4 8 12 6 10 6 8 2 3 1

Solution

From the information in Table 3.1, the time-mean speed is determined as

follows:

1
Vt =
n
Vi

1  4  30 8  30 12  30 6  30 10  30 6  30 8  30 2  30 3  30 1 30 
=  + + + + + + + + + 
60  1.80 1.40 1.10 0.95 2.10 1.85 2.00 1.56 1.25 1.05 

30
 Vt = 41.80 = 20.90 m / s = 75.24 km / h
60

Space-mean speed:

nl
Vs =
 ti
60  30
=
4(1.80) + 8(1.40) + 12(1.10) + 6(0.95) + 10(2.10) + 6(1.85) + 8(2.00) + 2(1.56) + 3(1.25) + 1(1.05)

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60  30
 Vs = = 19.29 m / s = 69.44 km / hr
93.32

To determine the density, we need to compute the average distance

headway;

hd = Vt ht = 20.65  3 = 62.70 m / veh

The density is

1 1
K= =  1000 = 15.95 16 veh / km
hd 62.70

Example 3.5.6

Table 3.2 presents the samples of field observed speeds of vehicles on a

sub-urban two-lane highway along with the corresponding values of
estimated spacing derived from density. From the information given in
Table 3.2, plot flow-density, speed-density, and speed-flow relationships.
From the plotted relationships, determine the capacity, free-flow speed,
and jam density of the segment evaluated. What are the respective values
of density and speed corresponding to the capacity of the segment?

Table 3.2
Speed (km/hr) 68 64 60 55 45 41 36 31 24 14

Spacing (m/veh) 100 63 42 31 21 18 16 14 12 10

Solution

To plot the required relationships, the spacing, hd (m/veh) given in Table

3.2 is first converted to density, K (veh/km) as shown in Table 3.3. The
value of the density corresponding to the spacing is computed using the
relation:

1
K=  1000
hd

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Likewise, the corresponding flows (q) are computed using the relation; q
= KVs. These values are also shown in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3
Speed, Vs (km/h) 68 64 60 55 45 41 36 31 24 14

Density, K (veh/km) 10 16 24 32 48 56 63 71 83 100

Flow, q (veh/h) 680 1023 1420 1760 2157 2251 2271 2211 1981 1373

The plots for q – K, Vs – K and Vs – q are depicted in Figure 3.2:

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Figure 3.2: q – K, Vs – K, and Vs – q Relationships

• Either from q – K or Vs – q relationship, the capacity (qmax) of the

segment is approximately = 2260 veh/km.

• From Vs – K relationship, free-flow speed, Vf = 74 km/h

• From Vs – K relationship, Jam density, Kj = 123 veh/km

• The values of density and speed corresponding to the capacity are

approximately equal to 62 veh/km and 37 km/h, respectively.

3.6 Calibration of Traffic Flow Model

In various scientific and engineering applications, mathematical

relationships or models between variables are developed by conducting
studies either in the laboratory, field or simulation approaches. The data
collected may be plotted and the relationship between them developed.
Figure 3.3 represents a typical plot (or scatter diagram) of such
observations, each described in terms of pair of values of X and Y that
resulted from an experiment.

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. ..
.
...

X
Figure 3.3: Scatter Diagram

For instance, the two variables may represent the speed and density of a
traffic stream, the strain and stress of a steel sample, etc. Because of the
experimental and other errors of measurements, the points shown on the
scatter diagram will not fall precisely on a smooth curve. For this reason,
the tasks of the analyst (or the traffic engineer in this case) include:

i. To hypothesized the mathematical relationship between the

variables in terms of functional form (model postulation).

ii. To estimate the parameters of the model based on the experimental

data (model calibration).

iii. To determine how well the calibrated relationship explain the

observed data (goodness of fit).

The method of least squares (or regression analysis) is the technique that
yields the best fitting of a postulated form to a set of data. For example,
Equations 3.15 and 3.16 are two possible forms that may be postulated in
the case of a relationship involving two variables X and Y:

Y = aX + b (3.15)

Y = aX 2 + bX + c (3.16)

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Where, X is the independent or explanatory variable, Y is the dependent

or explained variable, and the constant and coefficients are the model
parameters. Since a set of paired values of (Xi , Yi) are the known results
of an experiment, calibrating the model means determining the unknown
values of the parameters that fix the postulated equation to the one that
best fits the data. The method of least squares determines the numerical
values of the coefficients that minimize the sum of square of deviations
between the observed values of the dependent variable, Yi and the

estimated values Yi that would be obtained by applying the calibrated

relationship.

In the course of calibrating a model of the form in Equation 3.17, normal

equations are required to be developed. These are shown in Equations
3.18 and 3.19.

Vs = aK + b (3.17)

Equations 3.18 and 3.19 referred to as normal equations derived from

3.17 and used to determine the values of ‘a’ and ‘b’.

V s = a  K + nb (3.18)

V K = a K
s
2
+ b K (3.19)

The values of ‘a’ and ‘b’ in Equation 3.17 can be determined by solving
Equations 3.18 and 3.19 simultaneously using tabular computations.

Alternatively, ‘a’ and ‘b’ can be computed from Equations 3.20 and 3.21,
respectively.

a=
 KV s − nK Vs
(3.20)
K 2
− nK 2

b = Vs − aK (3.21)

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In assessing the goodness of the fit, we need to determine the correlation

coefficient, R, (or coefficient of determination, R2). Best fit results in R2
value close to +1 or -1. In the case of linear regression, the sign of R is
the same as that of slope ‘a’ of the regression line. If R is close to +1,
there exists a high positive correlation; if it is close to -1, there exists a
high negative correlation; and if it is around zero, there is no correlation
between Vs and K. The coefficient of determination is computed using
Equation 3.22.

 (Vˆ
2
− Vs )
= (3.22)
2 si
R
 (V si − Vs ) 2

Where,

Vˆsi = Values of the dependent variable, Vs as computed from the

calibrated model.

Vsi = Observed values of the dependent variable, Vs.

Example 3.6.1

Given the measurements of a traffic stream shown in Table 3.4 speed, Vs

and density, K, calibrate a model relating Vs and K using the method of
least squares. Does the calibrated model explain the observed data well?

Table 3.4
Speed, Vs (km/h) 68 64 60 55 45 41 36 31 24 14

Density, K 63 71 83 100
10 16 24 32 48 56
(veh/km)

Solution

Using the normal Equations 3.18 and 3.19 and the computations in Table
3.5, the model is calibrated as follows:

V s = a  K + nb

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V K = a K
s
2
+ b K

Table 3.5
S/N K Vs KVs K2

1 10 68 680 100

2 16 64 1,024 256

3 24 60 1,440 576

4 32 55 1,760 1,024

5 48 45 2,160 2,304

6 56 41 2,296 3,136

7 63 36 2,268 3,969

8 71 31 2,201 5,041

9 83 24 1,992 6,889

10 100 14 1,400 10,000

Sum = 503 438 17,221 33,295

Mean 50 44

By substituting the computed values in Table 3.5 in Equations 3.18 and

3.19 and solving the equations simultaneously, the values of the model
parameters are;

a = −0.60 and b = 74.07

Hence, the resulting calibrated model is:

Vs = 74.07 − 0.60K

The coefficient of correlation is determined using Equation 3.21 as follows:

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 (Vˆ
2
− Vs )
= =0.9996
2 si
R
 (Vsi − Vs ) 2

Example 3.6.2

Table 3.5 presents traffic flow data collected at an interval of 5 minutes on

an urban arterial. The observations were made using automatic traffic
recorder and the speed of vehicles being measured by time of travel over
a measured baseline.

Table 3.5

No. of vehicles
observed in 5 97 108 104 100 113 116 116 110 115 91
mins.

Speed (km/h) 27.0 25.4 30.7 25.6 34.8 41.4 30.2 40.4 39.7 51.2

From the data in Table 3.5, develop speed – density, speed – flow, and
flow – density relationships proposed by Greenshields.

Solution


V f 

The equation proposed by Greenshields is given as Vs = V f −  K

K j 


To develop the speed – density, speed – flow, and flow – density

relationships proposed by Greenshields using the method of least square,
we need to develop normal equations (derived from Greenshields’
equation) as follows:


V f 

V = nV f −   K

(3.23)
K j 
s



V f 

 s
V K = V f  K −   K

2
(3.24)
 j
K 

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Table 3.6 presents the computations of the required parameters to be

substituted into Equations 3.23 and 3.24 to determine the values of the
unknown coefficients and develop the required relationships:

Table 3.6

No. of vehicles
Vs q K K2 VsK
observed in 5 mins.

97 27 1164 43.1 1858.6 1164

108 25.4 1296 51.0 2603.4 1296

104 30.7 1248 40.7 1652.5 1248

100 25.6 1200 46.9 2197.3 1200

113 34.8 1356 39.0 1518.3 1356

116 41.4 1392 33.6 1130.5 1392

116 30.2 1392 46.1 2124.5 1392

110 40.4 1320 32.7 1067.5 1320

115 39.7 1380 34.8 1208.3 1380

91 51.2 1092 21.3 454.9 1092

 = 346.4 389.1 15815.9 12840

Substituting the summations in Table 3.6 into Equations (3.23) and (3.24)
gives:


V f 

346.4 = 10V f − 389.2  (3.25)

K j 



V f 

12840 = 389.2V f − 15815 .9  (3.26)

K j 


Solving equations (3.25) and (3.26) simultaneously, gives;

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
V  
V f = 72.03 km/hr and  f  = 0.96, hence the resulting relationship are:

K j 


Speed – density relationship:


V f 

Vs = V f −  K  Vs = 72.03 − 0.96 K (3.27)

K j 


Speed – flow relationship:

q
Substituting K = in equation (3.27), gives
Vs

Vs = 72.03Vs − 0.96q (3.28)

2

Vs (72.03 − Vs )
Or: q = = 1.04Vs(72.03 − Vs ) (3.29)
0.96

Flow – density relationship:

q
Substituting Vs = in equation (3.27), gives
K

q = 72.03K − 0.96 K 2 (3.30)

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CHAPTER FOUR

TRAFFIC ENGINEERING STUDIES

4.1 Introduction
Highway facilities offer a lot of benefits in terms of mobility needs as well
as contribute to human’s living standard. On the other hand, the highway
mode of transportation is also associated with some problems. These
problems could among others include; congestion, delay, traffic accidents,
inadequate parking facility supply, traffic noise, air pollution, and so forth.
To minimize the adverse impact of highways, it is essential to adequately
collect relevant information that describe the extent of the problems and
identify their locations. Such information is commonly generated by
conducting traffic studies. This part of the course presents and discusses
some the various traffic engineering studies that are conducted to collect
information or data on traffic. Traffic studies can be broadly categorized
into three; inventory, administrative, and dynamic studies.

• The inventory study, provides a graphic display or list of existing

information, such as road geometrics (e.g., lane, shoulder, and
median widths), parking lots, transit routes, traffic regulations, and
so forth. Some inventories (parking spaces, traffic controls,
regulations) do change over time and may therefore require periodic
check and update.

• An administrative study uses existing traffic engineering records,

available in government agencies and departments to prepare an
inventory of the relevant data.

• Dynamic study involves the collection of traffic related data under

operational conditions. It includes studies on traffic volume, speed,
travel time and delay, parking, crashes, etc.

Traffic studies involve the collection and analysis of data relating to traffic
and its characteristics. For the fact that traffic studies comprise of
measurements of various variables which could not be fully explored in
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this course, this lecture notes would focus on studies relating to traffic
volume, speed, travel time and delay, and parking.

4.2 Traffic Volume Studies

Traffic volume is referred to as the number of vehicles passing a point on
a highway, or a given lane or direction of a highway, during a specified
time interval. The time interval varies from as short as 15 minutes to as
long as a year depending on the intended use of the data. The unit of
measurement for traffic volume is simply “vehicles”, although it is often
expressed as “vehicles per unit time.” Units of time used most often are
vehicles per hour (veh/h), vehicles per day (veh/day) or vehicles per year
(veh/yr).

However, another important unit of traffic volume passenger car unit per
hour (PCU/h), PCU/day or PCU/yr. Usually, vehicular traffic comprises of
different categories of vehicles with varying characteristics in terms of
sizes, performance, and so forth. These different categories of vehicles can
be converted into a uniform category using equivalent passenger car unit
(PCU). This conversion is essential for consistency in interpreting
operational performance, traffic analysis and design of various highway
facilities. Traffic composition is equally important for further evaluation of
whether there is any disparity between peak hours of equal traffic volume
in terms of veh/h as compared to when the volume is expressed in PCU/h.

There are several methods used for collection of traffic volume data. Some
of the methods include the use of; classified manual count, automatic
traffic recording (ATR), video recording, etc.

Data on traffic volume are usually collected when certain volume

characteristics are required. These characteristics include the following:

4.2.1 Hourly Traffic Volume

This is referred to as the number of vehicles passing a given point during
an hour period. Volume varies considerably over the 24 hours of the day,
with periods of maximum flow commonly occurring during the morning
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and evening commuter rush or peak hours. The single hour of the day
that has the highest hourly volume is referred to as the peak hour. The
traffic volume within this hour is of greatest interest to traffic engineers
for design and operational analysis application. The peak-hour volume is
generally stated as a directional volume (i.e., each direction of flow is
counted separately). Hourly volume is useful for many purposes including
the following:

• To establish hourly traffic variations

• Determination of peak and off-peak periods
• Capacity analyses

4.2.2 Annual Daily Traffic (ADT)

This is the average of 24-hour volume counts collected at a particular
location over a period of more than one day but less than a year. ADT is
determined by dividing the total observed traffic volume over a given time
period by the number of days in that time period. It is expressed in
vehicles per day (veh/day). For instance, the ADT of 5 days volume count
of 9700, 11200, 10000, 9900 and 10500 for days 1 to 5, respectively, is
determined as;

9700 + 11200 + 10000 + 9900 + 10500

ADT = = 10260 veh / day
5

ADT may be useful in many respects, such as:

• Determination of existing traffic demand

• Evaluation of existing traffic flow
• Planning of highway activities

4.2.3 Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT)

The average 24-hour volume counts collected at a particular location over
a complete year. It is simply the total number of vehicles passing the
observation point divided by the number of days in a year. It is also
expressed in vehicles per day (veh/day). A typical example of AADT
computation is shown as follows:

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Day Volume (veh/day)

1 9,700
2 11,200
3 10,000
4 9,900
5 10,500
6 12,500
…… ……
…… ……
364 13,532
365 7,850
Sum 3,660,000 per year

3,660,000
AADT = = 12,234 veh / day
365

AADT may be useful in the following traffic and transportation analyses:

• To establish trends in traffic volume.

• To estimate highway user revenues.
• To estimate traffic loading for pavement structural design.
• To develop programmes for improvement and maintenance.

4.3 Speed Studies

In speed studies, three categories of speeds are usually measured. These
are spot, running, and journey speeds.

(a) Spot Speed: This is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at any

specified point on a roadway.

(b) Running Speed: This is the average speed of vehicle while moving
or the average speed maintained over a particular course while in
motion. It is the length of the course divided by the time the vehicle
is in motion.

(c) Journey Speed: This is also referred to as route speed. It is the

effective speed of a vehicle on a journey between two points. It is
the distance between the two points divided by the total time for the

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journey, where the time includes stopped time due to traffic delays.
Journey speed study is usually carried out as part of a “before” and
“after” study in which the benefits of an improvement scheme are
being assessed.

Spot speed varies between zero and any maximum value. At maximum
value, it is the highest of the three speeds. Journey speed is slower than
running speed except when there are no delays. High running speeds and
low journey speeds indicate stop-go condition, which is undesirable
because of infrequent deceleration and acceleration.

4.3.1 Spot Speed Measurement

Generally, spot speed study is conducted to estimate the distribution of
speeds of vehicles in a stream of traffic at a particular location on a
roadway. The speed of a vehicle is defined as the rate of movement of the
vehicle and is usually expressed in kilometers per hour (km/h). A spot
speed study is carried out by recording the speeds of a sample of vehicles
at a specified location. Speed characteristics identified by such a study will
be valid only for the traffic and environmental conditions that exist at the
time of the study. Some of the applications of spot speed characteristics
determined from the study may include the following:

• To establish speed trends.

• To monitor the effect of speed enforcement.
• To establish whether complaints about speeding are valid.
• To evaluate and or determine the adequacy of highway geometric
characteristics, such as radii of horizontal curves and lengths of
vertical curves.
• To evaluate the effect of speed on highway safety though the
analysis of crash data for different speed characteristics.
• To establish parameters for traffic operation and control, such as
speed zones, speed limits, and passing restrictions.
• To evaluate the effectiveness of traffic control devices, such as
variable message signs at work zones.

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4.3.1.1 Locations for Spot Speed Study

The following locations generally are used for the different applications
listed:

• Locations that represent different traffic conditions on a highway are

used for basic data collection.
• Mid-blocks of urban highways and straight / level sections of rural
highways are sites for speed trend analyses.
• Any location may be used for the solution of a specific traffic
engineering problem.

When spot speed studies are being conducted, it is important that

unbiased data be obtained. This requires that drivers be unaware that such
a study is being conducted. Preferably, equipment used should be
concealed from the driver, and observers conducting the study should be
inconspicuous. Since the speeds recorded eventually will be subjected to
statistical analysis, it is important that a statistically adequate number of
vehicle speeds be recorded.

4.3.1.2 Period and Duration for Spot Speed Study

The period of a day for carrying out a speed study depends on the purpose
of the study. Generally, when the purpose of the study is to establish
posted speed limit, to observe speed trends, or to collect basic data, it is
recommended that the study be conducted when traffic is free-flowing
(during off-peak periods). However, when a speed study is to be
conducted in response to public complaints, it is useful if the period
selected for the study reflects the nature of the complaints. The duration
of the study should be such that the minimum number of vehicle speeds
required for statistical analysis is recorded.

4.3.1.3 Sample Size for Spot Speed Study

In spot speed analysis, it is usually important to determine a mean value
of observed vehicles’ speeds. The established mean speed is used to
represent the true mean value of all vehicles’ speeds at that location. The

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accuracy of this assumption depends on the number of vehicles observed

(sample size). The larger the sample size, the greater the probability that
the estimated mean is not significantly different from the true mean. It is
therefore essential to establish a sample size that will give an estimated
mean within acceptable error limits. Statistical procedures are used to
determine this minimum sample size.

Based on the statistical techniques, the minimum required sample size

depends on the precision level desired. The precision level is defined as
the degree of confidence that the sampling error of a produced estimate
will fall within a desired fixed range. Thus, for a precision level of 90, there
is a 90 percent probability (confidence level) that the error of an estimate
will not be greater than 10 percent of its true value. The confidence level
is commonly given in terms of the level of significance (α), where α = (100
- confidence level). The commonly used confidence level for speed studies
is 95 percent.

The basic assumption made in determining the minimum sample size for
speed studies is that the normal distribution describes the speed
distribution over a given section of highway. The normal distribution is
given by Equation 4.1.

1
f ( x) = e − ( x −  ) /2 for −  x  
2 2
(4.1)
 2

where,

μ = True mean

σ = True standard deviation

σ2 = True variance

The properties of the normal distribution are then used to determine the
minimum sample size for an acceptable error ‘d’ of the estimated speed.
For example, if it can be assumed that the true mean of the speeds in a
section of highway is 70 km/h and the true standard deviation is 8.5 km/h,
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it can be concluded that 95 percent of all vehicle speeds will be between

(70 − 1.96  8.5) = 53.3 km/h and (70 + 1.96  8.5) = 86.7 km/h. Similarly, if a vehicle

is randomly selected, there is a 95 percent chance that its speed is

between 53.3 and 86.7 km/h. The properties of the normal distribution
have been used to develop an equation relating the sample size to the
number of standard variations corresponding to a particular confidence
level, the limits of tolerable error, and the standard deviation. This is given
by Equation 4.2.

 Z 
2

N =  (4.2)
 d 

where

N = Minimum sample size

d = Confidence interval (limit of acceptable error in the mean speed

estimate)

Z = Constant corresponding to confidence level.

The standard deviation can be estimated from record of previous data, or

a small sample size can first be used. The values of Z corresponding to
various confidence levels are as shown in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1: Constant Corresponding to Confidence Level

Confidence Level (%) Z

68.3 1.00
86.6 1.50
90.0 1.64
95.0 1.96
95.5 2.00
98.8 2.50
99.0 2.58
99.7 3.00

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4.3.1.4 Spot Speed Measurement Techniques

There are several methods for conducting spot speed study. The
techniques are generally divided into two categories; manual and
automatic.

For the manual approach the spot speed is usually estimated in the field
by noting a short distance traversed by vehicle at a location and the time
to traverse the distance. The distance should be as short as will not allow
variation in speed to occur while the time measurement is being made. A
distance or trap in the range of 10 – 30 m is commonly used. The trap
size (distance) should not be confused with “section of highway” used in
the explanation of space mean speed. The trap distance is rather too short
to be regarded as a highway section. Figure 4.1 illustrates the sketch of
the process. The lines AB defined the trap length with ‘A’ as the starting
(reference) point. The distance between lines A and B divided by the time
interval taken to traverse the distance gives the spot speed.

A B

Trap Length (10 – 30 m)

Reference Point (Start Timing) Stop Timing

Figure 4.1: Manual Speed Measurement Method

For the automatic category, there are various techniques used for
conducting the study. Included are; Radar Speed Meter (Radar gun), Road
Detectors, and Electronic Detectors.

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Radar speed meter measures the speed of a vehicle by wave incidence and
reflection. Wave is transmitted from the speed meter to the vehicle and
then reflected back at altered wavelength depending on the speed of the
vehicle. The meter is calibrated such that it gives the spot speed of the
vehicle without further calculations. The measured speed is shown on the
meter’s display screen as depicted in Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2: Radar Speed Meter (Radar gun)

Road detectors are classified into two general categories: pneumatic road
tubes and induction loops. These devices can be used to collect data on
spot speeds at the same time as volume data are being collected.
Pneumatic road tubes are laid across the lane in which data are to be
collected. When a moving vehicle passes over the tube, an air impulse is
transmitted through the tube to the detector. When used for speed
measurements, two tubes are placed across the lane, usually about 1.0 m
apart. An impulse is recorded when the front wheels of a moving vehicle
pass over the first tube; shortly afterward a second impulse is recorded
when the front wheels pass over the second tube. The time elapsed
between the two impulses and the distance between the tubes are used to
compute the speed of the vehicle. Figure 4.3 shows a typical automatic
traffic counter (ATC) or recorder (ATR) which uses pneumatic tubes.

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Figure 4.3: Installation of ATC in the Field

An inductive loop is a rectangular wire loop buried under the roadway

surface. It usually serves as the detector of a resonant circuit. It operates
on the principle that a disturbance in the electrical field is created when a
motor vehicle passes across it. This causes a change in potential that is
amplified, resulting in an impulse being sent to the counter.

4.3.1.5 Presentation and Analysis of Spot Speed Data

The data collected during a spot speed study are usually observed from a
sample of vehicles traversing the highway segment on which the study is
conducted, but these data are used to determine the speed characteristics
of the whole population of vehicles travelling on the study site. It is
therefore essential to use statistical techniques in analyzing these data.
Several characteristics are usually determined from the analysis of the
data. Some of them can be calculated directly from the data while others
are determined from a graphical representation. Hence, the data must be
presented in an appropriate form for specific analysis to be performed.

The most commonly used presentation format is the frequency distribution

table. The first step in the preparation of a frequency distribution table is
the selection of the number of classes; that is the number of speed ranges
into which the data are to be fitted. In practice, the number of classes
chosen is usually between 8 and 20, depending on the data collected.
Subsequent to the selection of an appropriate number of classes, the data
are grouped into speed class (class interval). Typically, the mid-value of
each class range is taken as the speed value for that class. The data also
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can be presented in the form of a frequency histogram, or as a cumulative

frequency distribution curve (Ogive). The frequency histogram is a chart
showing the mid-value for each class on the x-axis and the observed
frequency for the corresponding class on the y-axis. The frequency
distribution curve shows a plot of the frequency cumulative percentage
against the upper limit of each corresponding speed class.

Regarding the analysis, spot speed data are analyzed to obtain some
important parameters that are used to describe the speed characteristics.
These include:

(a) Average Speed: is the arithmetic mean of observed vehicles’

speeds given as in Equations 4.3 and 4.4 depending on the data type.

x=
fx i i
(4.3)
fi

where
x = Arithmetic mean of speed

xi = Mid-class spot speed

f i = Number of observations in each speed group

N = Number of observations

x=
x i
(4.4)
N

xi = speed of ith vehicle

N = Number of observations

Note that Equation 4.3 is used for grouped data while Equation 4.4 is for
ungrouped data.

(b) Median Speed: is the mid-value of speeds in a series of observed

spot speeds that are arranged in ascending order. It is described as the
speed below or above which 50% of the vehicles travel and is deduced
from cumulative frequency curve by reading the speed corresponding
to the 50% value (50th percentile).

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(c) Modal Speed: is the speed value that occurs most frequently in a
sample of observed spot speeds.

(d) Percentile Speed: is the spot speed value below which a particular
percent of the vehicles travels with. For instance, 85th spot speed is
the speed below which 85 percent of the observed vehicles travel and
above which 15 percent of the vehicles travel. It denotes the upper
speed limit for safe traffic movement and equally useful for establishing
posted speed limit and determination of overtaking sight distances.
Another important value is 15th percentile which is regarded as the
minimum speed limit for non-interference traffic movement.

(e) Pace: is the speed range for some nominal increment of speed
(usually 20 km/h) around the modal speed which gives the speed range
that contains most vehicles. For instance, if a set of speed data
comprises values between 40 and 100 km/h, the speed intervals will be
40 to 60 km/h, 60 to 80 km/h, and 80 to 100 km/h, assuming an
increment of 20 km/h. The pace is 60 to 80 km/h if this range of speed
has the highest number of observations.

(f) Standard Deviation: is the measure of spread of individual speed

values. It is estimated as

 f (x − x )
2

= i i
(4.5)
N −1

where,

 = standard deviation
xi = Mid-class spot speed

f i = Number of observations in each speed group

N = Number of observations

 (x − x )
2

= i
(4.6)
N −1

xi = speed of ith vehicle; N = Number of observations

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Note that Equations 4.5 and 4.6 are used for grouped and ungrouped data,
respectively.

Example 1

Table 4.2 presents the summary of a pilot spot speed study data collected
on a two-lane rural highway. Analyze and present the data in both
frequency histogram and frequency distribution curve. Determine the
mean speed, median speed, modal speed, pace, standard deviation, and
the 98th, 85th, 50th, and 15th percentile speeds of the distribution. Based
on the results from the pilot study, what would be the required sample size
be if the confidence interval is to be limited to ±1.80 km/h at a confidence
level of 95%?

Table 4.2: Summary of Spot Speed Data

Speed Class (km/h) Frequency (fi)

30.0 - 39.9 3
40.0 - 49.9 6
50.0 - 59.9 24
60.0 - 69.9 60
70.0 - 79.9 47
80.0 - 89.9 25
90.0 - 99.9 12
100.0 - 109.9 6
110.0 - 119.9 3
120.0 – 129.9 1

Solution

The computations of the required parameters are shown in Table 4.3. The
speed classes and mid-class (xi) speed values are shown in columns 1 and
2, respectively. Figure 4.4 shows the frequency histogram for the data
shown in Table 4.2. The values in columns 2 and 3 are used to plot the
frequency histogram.

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Figure 4.5 depicts the frequency distribution curve for the speed data. This
curve shows the percentage of observations against speed which is drawn
by plotting the values in column 4 of Table 4.3 against the corresponding
values in column 2. Figure 4.6 depicts the cumulative frequency
distribution curve for the speed data. The cumulative percentages in
column 5 of Table 4.3 are plotted against the corresponding mid-class
speed values in column 2. This curve is used to establish required
percentile speed values (i.e., the percentages of vehicles that are traveling
at or below a particular speed.

Table 4.3: Frequency Distribution of Spot Speed Data

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Mid-class
Speed Class fi Cumulative
(km/h) xi fi (%) f i (%) fi xi ( xi − x ) ( xi − x )2 f i ( xi − x )2

30.0 - 39.9 35 3 1.6 1.6 105 -37.1 1376.41 4129.23

40.0 - 49.9 45 6 3.2 4.8 270 -27.1 734.41 4406.46

50.0 - 59.9 55 24 12.8 17.6 1320 -17.1 292.41 7017.84

60.0 - 69.9 65 60 32.1 49.7 3900 -7.1 50.41 3024.6

70.0 - 79.9 75 47 25.2 74.9 3525 2.9 8.41 395.27

80.0 - 89.9 85 25 13.4 88.3 2125 12.9 166.41 4160.25

90.0 - 99.9 95 12 6.4 94.7 1140 22.9 524.41 6292.92

100.0 - 109.9 105 6 3.2 97.9 630 32.9 1082.41 6494.46

110.0 - 119.9 115 3 1.6 99.5 345 42.9 1840.41 5521.23

120.0 - 129.9 125 1 0.5 100.0 125 52.9 2798.41 2798.41

Total 187 100 13,485 8,874 44,240.67

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70

60

50

Frequency, fi 40

30

20

10

0
35 45 55 65 75 85 95 105 115 125
Speed (km/h)

Figure 4.4: Frequency Histogram

35

30
Percentage of Frequency, fi (%)

25

20 Pace

15

10

0
35 45 55 65 75 85 95 105 115 125
Speed (km/h)

Figure 4.5: Frequency Distribution Curve

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100
90

Cummulative Frequency (%)

80
70
60
50
40
30

98th
50th

85th
20

15th
10
0
35 45 55 65 75 85 95 105 115 125
Speed (km/hr)

Figure 4.6: Cumulative Frequency Curve

• Mean speed = x =
fx i i
=
13485
= 72.1 km/h
f i 187

• Median speed = 66 km/h i.e. the speed corresponding to 50th

percentile) from cumulative frequency curve (Figure 4.6).
• Modal speed = 65 km/h (mid-class having the highest
frequency)
• Pace = 60 to 80 km/h from frequency distribution curve (Figure
4.5)

 f ( x − x ) 
2
i i 44240.67
• Standard deviation =  = = = 15.42 km / h
N −1 186

The values of the 98th, 85th, 50th, and 15th percentiles speeds are 104,
82, 66, and 54 km/h, respectively, as approximated from Figure 4.6.

If the confidence interval is to be 1.80 km/h, the sample size to be

observed is determined as follows (based on Equation 4.2 stated earlier):

 Z 
2

n= 
 d 

where,
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n = Number of observations or sample size

d = Confidence interval

Z = Constant corresponding to level of significance (Table 4.1). For

the confidence level of 95%, Z = 1.96.

 1.96  15.42 
2

 N =  = 282 Vehicles or Observations

 1.80 

4.3.2 Measurement of Journey Speed

In practice, journey speed is more important to the traffic engineer than
other speeds. It is the average speed of a traffic stream over a section of
highway. It is obtained by test vehicle or moving observer method. The
technique results in estimates of both flow and speed of the traffic stream.
In this method, an observer travels over a known section of highway with
and against the traffic stream. The times to traverse the highway with and
against the traffic stream are noted as ‘tw’ and ‘ta’, respectively. The
number of vehicles overtaking the observer and the number overtaken by
the observer are also noted while travelling with the traffic stream. The
difference between the former and the latter is recorded as ‘y’. The
number of vehicles met in opposite traffic direction while travelling with
the traffic stream is noted as ‘x’.

The flow of the traffic stream is given by Equation 4.7.

q=
(x + y )  60 (veh/h) (4.7)
(t w + t a )

Where, tw and ta are measured in minutes.

The mean stream journey time is determined using Equation 4.8.

 y
t = t w −    60 (min.) (4.8)
q

The mean journey speed is computed using Equation 4.9.

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l
v =  60 (km/h) (4.9)
t

The accuracy of the measurement is normally increased by making several

runs over the route whose traffic stream speed is being studied.

In addition to flow and journey speed, the moving observer method can
also be used for the measurement of running speed and delay. The
stopped delay times recorded by the journey observer can be deducted
from the mean journey time to give an estimate of the mean running time
and hence the mean running speed.

Example 2

A segment of 2.00 km along a single carriageway road connecting two

locations H and J was demarcated for measurement of journey speed using
a moving car observer method. During the exercise, six test runs were
performed in each traffic direction. Travel times and flows were observed
both with and against the test vehicle. The data obtained are shown in
Table 4.4. Calculate the flow, mean journey speed, and density for each
direction.

Table 4.4: Moving Car Observer Speed Study Data

Travel Times
No. of Vehicles
(mins) No. of Vehicles met
Overtaking the Passed by the in opposite direction
H – J (J – H)
Observer Observer
1.83 (2.00) 2 (3) 1 (2) 54 (67)
1.67 (2.17) 3 (3) 2 (7) 60 (60)
2.00 (2.00) 4 (4) 1 (2) 51 (70)
1.50 (1.50) 5 (4) 3 (3) 55 (63)
2.17 (2.17) 2 (5) 1 (2) 53 (68)
1.67 (1.83) 2 (1) 3 (7) 50 (69)

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Solution

The mean values of flow, speed and density for each traffic direction are
determined as follows:

H – J – Direction

x (veh) y (veh) tw (min) ta (min) q (veh/h) t (min)

54 1 1.83 2.00 862 1.76

60 1 1.67 2.17 953 1.61

51 3 2.00 2.00 810 1.78

55 2 1.50 1.50 1140 1.39

53 1 2.17 2.17 747 2.09

50 -1 1.67 1.83 840 1.74

Mean values = 892 1.73

J – H - Direction

x (veh) y (veh) tw (min) ta (min) q (veh/h) t (min)

67 1 2.00 1.83 1065 1.94

60 -4 2.17 1.67 875 2.44

70 2 2.00 2.00 1080 1.89

63 1 1.50 1.50 1280 1.45

68 3 2.17 2.17 982 1.99

69 -6 1.83 1.67 1080 2.16

Mean values = 1,060 1.98

The mean flow, journey speed and density for H to J traffic direction are
determined as follows:

i. Flow = 892 veh/h

l 2.00
ii. Mean journey speed = =  60 = 69.36 km / h
t 1.73

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q 892
iii. q = kVs ,  k = =  13 veh / km
Vs 69.36

For J to H traffic direction:

i. Flow = 1,060 veh/h

l 2.00
ii. Mean journey speed = =  60 = 60.61 km / h
t 1.98

q 1060
q = kVs ,  k = =  18 veh / km
Vs 60.61

Example 3

In a stream of traffic, 30% of the vehicles travel at a constant speed of 60

km/h, 30% at a constant speed of 80 km/h and the remaining vehicles at
a constant speed of 100 km/h. Under this condition, a test vehicle
travelling at a constant speed of 72 km/h with the traffic stream over a
segment of 4.5 km is passed by 13 vehicles more than it passes. When
the test vehicle travels against the traffic stream at the same speed and
over the same segment length, the number of vehicles met in opposite
direction is 157.

(i) Determine the flow and mean speed of the traffic stream.

(ii) How many vehicles travelling at 100 km/h pass the test vehicle, while
it travels with the traffic stream?

Solution

(i) The flow of the traffic stream is obtained from the relation:

q=
( x + y ) , the times of travel t and t are both equals to 4.5 km
a w
(t + t )
w a
72 km / h
157 + 13
q= = 1,360 veh / h
4.5 4.5
+
72 72

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 y  4.5 13
The mean stream journey time, t = tw −   = 72 − 1360 = 0.053 h
 
q

4.5 km
The mean speed of the stream, V = = 84.91 km / h
0.053 hr
 y
(ii) From the relation, t = t w −  
q
 q1 (t w − t1 ) = y1 (for a particular traffic stream or direction)

Where,
q1 is the flow of vehicles with speed of 100 km/h (40% of total traffic). In

this case, it is 0.4  1360 = 544 veh / h

4.5
t w is the travel time of observer = = 0.0625 hr
72
4.5
t1 is travel time of vehicles traveling at 100 km/h = = 0.045 h
100
y1 is the number of vehicles travelling at 100 km/h that overtake the

observer.
Thus, the number of vehicles travelling at a speed of 100 km that pass the
observer is
544 ( 0.0625 − 0.045) = y1 = 9.52  10 vehicles

Example 4

During the measurement of journey and running speeds on an 8 km road

segment, some delays were encountered by the motorists as results of
Police check points mounted at four different locations along the route.
The check points were designated as C1, C2, C3, and C4 with
corresponding average delays of 5.5, 4, 4.5, and 4 minutes at C1, C2, C3,
and C4, respectively. If the average travel time including delays to
traverse the study section is 28 minutes, determine the total delay due to
the presence of the check points, and journey and running speeds.

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Solution

• Total travel delay due to check points = (5.5+4+4.5+4) = 18

minutes.
8 km 60 min
• Journey Speed =  = 17.14 km / h
28 min 1 hr

8 km 60 min
• Running Speed =  = 48 km / h
10 min 1 hr

Since the journey speed is much lower than the running speed, it
implies that drivers experienced excessive delays due to the
presence of the Police check points.

• It should be noted that journey speed can be measured using license

plate method. Student are advised to read up on this approach
of speed measurement.

4.4 Parking Facility Study

Parking is an essential part of transportation system. Any vehicle
travelling on a roadway will at one time or another park for either a
short or long period, depending on the reason for the parking. This
makes provision of parking facilities an essential for highway
transportation. The demand for parking spaces is usually high in areas
where the land uses comprise of commercial, residential, or business
activities. The increasing use of automobiles as a personal means of
movement has equally increased the need for parking spaces,
especially, in urban areas.

Supply of adequate parking spaces to meet the demand for parking in

urban areas may (in addition to off-street parking lots) necessitate the
provision of lay-bys along road edges or curbs which in most cases
reduces the capacity of the roadway (if not properly designed and
constructed) and may likewise affect the level of service. This kind of
problem is usually of concern to traffic engineers. The solution to such
a problem is not an easy task, as the allocation of available space
depends on community’s goals which the traffic engineers must
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consider in an attempt to solve the problem. Generally, parking studies

are used to determine the demand and the supply for parking facilities
in an area, the projection of the demand to meet future need, and the
views of interest groups on how best to solve the problem.

4.4.1 Types of Parking Facilities

Parking facilities can be classified into two main categories as follows:

(i) Off-street parking facilities: In urban centres, some areas are

exclusively allotted for parking which are usually some distance
away from the main traffic stream. Such a parking is referred to
as off-street parking. These facilities may be owned by private
firms or public agencies.

(ii) On street parking facilities: These are type of parking facilities in

which vehicles are parked on the side of a roadway itself. They
are commonly controlled by government agencies. They are also
referred to as curb facilities. These bays can be unrestricted
parking facilities if the duration of the parking is unlimited and
free, or they can be restricted parking facilities if parking is
limited to specific times of the day for a maximum duration.
Parking at restricted facilities may or may not be free. Restricted
facilities also may be provided for specific purposes, such as to
provide handicapped parking or as bus stops or loading bays.

4.4.2 Definition of Parking Terms

Prior to discussion on various methods of carrying out parking studies,
it is important to define some basic terms associated with the exercise.
These are outlined and defined as follows:

i. Parking volume: is the total number of vehicles parked in a study

area during a specific length of time. This does not account for
repetition of vehicles.
ii. Parking accumulation: is the number of parked vehicles in a study
area at any specified time. These data can be plotted as a curve of
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parking accumulation against time, which shows the variation of the

parking accumulation during the day.
iii. Parking load: is the number of vehicles occupying a parking area at
a time interval. It is also the area under the accumulation curve
between two specific times. It is expressed in vehicle hours.
iv. Parking duration: is the length of time a vehicle is parked at a
parking space.
v. Average parking duration: is the ratio of total vehicle hours to the
number of vehicles parked. It gives information of how frequent a
parking space is available. It is expressed as in Equation 4.10.

Parking load
Average parking duration = (4.10)
Parking volume

vi. Parking turnover: is the rate of use of a parking space. It the ratio
of the number of vehicles parked over a duration to the number of
parking spaces available. It is obtained by dividing the parking
volume for a specified period by the number of parking spaces using
Equation 4.11.

Parking volume
Parking turnover = (4.11)
No. of parking spaces

vii.Parking Index (PI): this is also referred to as occupancy or efficiency.

It is defined as the ratio of number of spaces occupied at a particular
period to the total number of available spaces. PI is computed using
Equation 4.12. It gives an aggregate measure of how effectively a
parking space is utilized.

Parking load
PI =  100 (4.12)
Parking lot capacity

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4.4.3 Parking Studies

A comprehensive parking study is expected to cover the following:

• Inventory of existing parking facilities.

• Data collection on parking variables.
• Identification of parking generators.
• Collection of information on parking demand.
Information on related factors, such as financial, legal, and administrative
matters, also may be collected.

4.4.3.1 Inventory of Existing Parking Facilities

An inventory of existing parking facilities is a comprehensive listing of
the location and all other relevant characteristics of each legal parking
facility, private and public, in the study area. The inventory includes
both on- and off-street facilities. The relevant characteristics usually
listed include the following:

• Type and number of parking spaces at each parking facility

• Times of operation and limit on duration of parking (if any)
• Type of ownership (private or public)
• Parking fees (if any) and method of collection
• Restrictions on use (open or closed to the public) and other
restrictions, if any (such as loading and unloading zones, bus
stops, etc)
• Probable degree of permanency (can the facility be regarded as
permanent or is it just a temporary facility?)

The information obtained from an inventory of parking facilities is useful

both to the traffic engineer and to public agencies, such as planning
departments. The inventory should be updated at regular intervals of
about four to five years.

4.4.3.2 Collection of Parking Data

This includes collection of data on relevant parking parameters, such as
accumulation, parking turnover, parking duration, and so forth.
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Accumulation data are obtained by checking the amount of parking

during regular intervals on different days of the week. The checks are
usually carried out on an hourly or 2-hour basis for a full day period.
For instance, for shopping complexes area; a period of between 9:00
am and 10:00 pm. may be used. The selection of the times depends on
the operation times of land-use activities that act as parking
generators. For instance, if a commercial zone is included, checks
should be made during the times when retail shops are opened, which
may include periods up to the business closing hour. The information
obtained is used to determine hourly variations of parking and peak
periods of parking demand.

Information on turnover and duration is usually obtained by collecting

data on a sample of parking spaces in a given block. This is done by
recording the license plate of the vehicle parked on each parking space
in the sample at the ends of fixed intervals during the study period. The
length of the fixed intervals depends on the maximum permissible
duration. For example, if the maximum permissible duration of parking
at a curb face is 1 hour, an interval of 20 minutes may be suitable. If
the permissible duration is 2 hours, checking every 30 minutes would
be appropriate. Turnover is then computed using the appropriate
relationship.

4.4.3.3 Identification of Parking Generators

This phase involves identifying parking generators (for example,
shopping centers or transit terminals) and locating these on a map of
the study area.

4.4.3.4 Parking Demand

Information on parking demand is obtained by interviewing drivers at
the various parking facilities listed during the inventory. An effort should
be made to interview all drivers using the parking facilities on a typical
weekday during the operation hours. Information to be collected should
include driver’s trip origin, trip purpose, and destination after parking.
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The interviewer must also note the location of the parking facility, times
of arrival and departure, and the vehicle type.

4.4.3.5 Field Parking Surveys

Parking surveys are conducted to collect information on parking
parameters. The common parking surveys conducted are in-out, fixed
period, and license plate method of surveys.

(a) In-out survey

In this approach, the occupancy count of the vehicles in the study
parking lot is taken at the beginning. Subsequent to that, the number
of vehicles that enter the parking lot for a particular time interval is
counted. Likewise, number of vehicles that exit the parking lot over the
same interval is noted. The final occupancy in the parking lot is also
taken. In terms of labour, requirement is less. Only one person may be
enough to conduct the study if the parking lot entry and exit are close
to each other. However, if the entry and exit are at some distance away
from each other, two observers can be used for the data collection. This
type of survey does not provide data regarding a duration for which a
particular vehicle used that parking lot. Thus, parking duration and
turnover cannot be obtained from this method and it does not provide
a means for estimation of parking fare.

(b) Fixed Period Survey

This is almost similar to in-out survey. At the commencement of the

exercise, all vehicles are counted. Then after a fixed time interval which
may vary between 15 minutes to an hour, the count is repeated. A key
shortcoming of this method is that there are chances of missing the
number of vehicles parked for a short duration.

(c) License Plate Survey

This method results in the most accurate and realistic information. In

this method, every parking space is monitored at a continuous interval

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of 15 minutes or so and the license plate number is noted down. This

will give the data regarding an estimate of duration for which a
particular vehicle was using a parking space. This allows for estimation
of parking fare if need arises as the fare is usually established based on
the duration for which the vehicle was parked. If a short time interval
is used, then there are less chances of missing short-term parkers.
However, this method is labour intensive.

Example 1

A field study was conducted at an off-street parking lot using In-out

survey method. The facility in question can only accommodate a
maximum of 40 vehicles at a particular time. At the commencement of
the survey, it was observed that a total of 25 vehicles were already
parked at the lot. Table 4.5 presents the number of vehicles entering
and exiting the lot at an interval of five minutes.

Table 4.5: In-out Parking Survey Data

T (mins) In Out
0 – 5th 3 2
5th – 10th 2 4
10th – 15th 4 2
15th – 20th 5 4
20th – 25th 7 3
25th – 30th 8 2
30th – 35th 2 7
35th – 40th 4 2
40th – 45th 6 4
45th – 50th 4 1
50th – 55th 3 3
55th – 60th 2 5
T = Time interval

Use the information presented in Table 4.5 to determine parking

accumulation, total parking load, parking index, and efficiency of the
parking lot.

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Solution:

The solution is presented with the aid of some computations (in Table 4.6)
as follows:

Table 4.6: In-out Parking Survey Computations

Accumulation Parking load Occupancy
T (minutes) In Out
(veh) (veh mins) (%)
0 – 5th 3 2 26 130 65
5th – 10th 2 4 24 120 60
10th – 15th 4 2 26 130 65
15th – 20th 5 4 27 135 67.5
20th – 25th 7 3 31 155 77.5
25th – 30th 8 2 37 185 92.5
30th – 35th 2 7 32 160 80
35th – 40th 4 2 34 170 85
40th – 45th 6 4 36 180 90
45th – 50th 4 1 39 195 97.5
50th – 55th 3 3 39 195 97.5
55th – 60th 2 5 36 180 90
Sum = 1935 veh
Mean =
mins. = 32.25 veh
80.63%
hrs.

• Accumulation for each interval can be found out as initial count plus
number of vehicles that entered the parking lot during the interval
minus the number of vehicles exited for that particular time interval.
Hence, for the first-time interval of 5 minutes, accumulation can be
found out as 25 + 3 – 2 = 26. The computation for each interval is
shown in column 4.

• Parking load is computed in column 5. It is obtained by multiplying

accumulation with the time interval. For the first time interval, parking
load = 26 × 5 = 130 vehicle minutes.
• Total parking load is the summation of all the values in column 5 which
is equal to 1935 vehicle minutes or 32.25 vehicle hours.
• Parking index or Occupancy is the ratio of number of occupied spaces
to the total number of spaces available. For the first time interval of 5
26
minutes, Parking index (PI) = Occupancy =  100 = 65% . The
40
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occupancy for the remaining time intervals is computed in a similar way

and shown in column 6. Average occupancy is the average of the
occupancy values for each time interval. Thus, it is the average of all
values in column 6 which is 80.63%.
Parking load 32.25 veh hrs
• Efficiency =  100 =  100 = 80.63%
Capacity of parking lot 40
Example 2

Table 4.7 presents a parking survey data collected from a parking lot using
license plate method. From the information presented in the Table,
determine the accumulation, occupancy, turnover, parking volume,
average duration, total parking load, and efficiency of the parking lot.

Table 4.7: License plate survey data

Time interval (minutes)

Space
0 – 15 15 – 30 30 – 45 45 – 60
1 145 981 - 567
2 194 194 194 194
3 347 546 546 546
4 374 374 975 482
5 188 188 - 759
6 - 735 - 789
7 - 489 489 489
8 893 893 893 -
9 765 765 899 482
10 732 - 278 278
11 121 121 321 477
12 567 667 777 888

Solution:

The solution is presented in Table 4.8. Note that columns 1 to 5 are a

repetition of the input data.

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Table 4.8: License plate parking survey computations

Time interval (minutes)
Space 0 – 15 15 – 30 30 – 45 45 – 60 Turnover
0 – 15 15 – 30 30 – 45 45 – 60

1 145 981 - 567 1 1 0 1 3

2 194 194 194 194 1 1 1 1 1
3 347 546 546 546 1 1 1 1 2
4 374 374 975 482 1 1 1 1 3
5 188 188 - 759 1 1 0 1 2
6 - 735 - 789 0 1 0 1 2
7 - 489 489 489 0 1 1 1 1
8 893 893 933 - 1 1 1 0 1
9 765 765 899 482 1 1 1 1 3
10 732 - 278 278 1 0 1 1 2
11 121 121 321 477 1 1 1 1 3
12 567 667 777 888 1 1 1 1 4
Accumulation 10 11 9 11 Mean =
Occupancy 0.83 0.92 0.75 0.92 2.25

The parking status in every space is coded first. A space occupied by a vehicle
is coded as 1, otherwise, it is 0. This is shown in columns 6, 7, 8 and 9 of
Table 4.8 corresponding to the time intervals of 15, 30, 45 and 60 minutes,
respectively.

• Accumulation for each time interval is computed as follows:

o For the first 15 minutes interval = No. of Vehicles parked over this
initial interval = sum of column 6

• Occupancy for each interval is computed as follows:

o For the first 15 minutes interval = Ratio of number of spaces

occupied to the total number of spaces, expressed in percentage =
10
Occupancy = 100 = 83% (others are computed in a similar way)
12

• Turnover for each time interval is computed as follows (column 10):

o For the first 15 minutes interval,

Parking volume 3 vehicles
Turnover = = = 3 vehicles / space
No. of available spaces 1 space

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Sumof turnover 27
o AverageTurnover = = = 2.25 vehicles / space
Total number of spaces 12

• Parking volume = Total number of vehicles parked in the study lot during
the study period = sum of turnover for all spaces = 27 vehicles.

• Average parking duration = average time for which the parking lot was
utilized by the vehicles, computed as follows:

Parking load Sum of accumulation (10 + 11 + 9 + 11) 15

= = 15 = = 22.78 min / vehicle
Parking volume Parking volume 27

• Total parking load = (Total number of vehicles occupying the lot) x (time
interval) = (accumulation) x (time interval) = (10+11+9+11) x 15 = 615
vehicles-minutes = 10.25 vehicles – hours.
• Efficiency of the parking lot:

Parking load 10.25

=  100 =  100 = 85.42%
Capacity of parking lot 12

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CHAPTER FIVE

OPERATION AND DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL

5.1 Introduction
Traffic signal is a device used to warn, control and direct at least a traffic
stream movement at an intersection or junction. It is well known that
connection of different roads to one another results in formation of road
network, which constitutes of links (segments) and nodes (intersections). At
the intersection, different types of manoeuvres occur. These lead to conflicts
among vehicles from different approaches of the intersection as well as with
pedestrians. Occurrence of these conflicts necessitates the need for some
form of control in order to allow for reasonable safety within the intersection
area. The use of traffic signal is one of the ways employed to regulate
vehicular movements as well as minimize such conflicts at the intersections.

Traffic signal is a device used to warn, control or direct at least one traffic
movement at an intersection. A traffic signal has three indications; Red (R),
Amber (A), and Green (G) as shown in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1: Signal Face or Head

The key purposes of traffic signal include;

• To assign the right-of-way to different approaches at an appropriate

time.

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• To ensure that the conflicting traffic streams are served safely

without excessive delay.

5.2 Merits and Demerits of Traffic Signal

The following are some of the advantages of traffic signal:

• Allows for orderly movement of traffic.

• Provides a continuous movement of traffic at a definite speed along a
particular route.
• Reduces the frequency and severity of right-angle crashes.
• Interrupts heavy traffic at intervals to allow vehicles and pedestrians to
cross.
• Increases intersection’s traffic carrying capacity.

The following are the disadvantages of traffic signal:

• Increases air pollution and fuel consumption.

• Causes excessive delay to motorists and pedestrians during off-peak
periods.
• At times, motorists disobey signal indication.
• It sometimes causes rear-end collision.

5.3 Types of Traffic Signal

5.3.1 Fixed-Time Signal
It is a traffic signal in which the green indication periods or green phase
and cycle lengths are predetermined and of fixed duration.

5.3.2 Vehicle-Actuated Signal

This type of signal is also referred to as fully-actuated signal. It is a kind
of traffic signal in which the green periods vary based on demand by a
particular approach. It is achieved by installation of inductive-loop
detectors in the pavement on all the approaches. Green indication on a
particular approach is activated (or extended) upon detecting the presence
of a vehicle.

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5.3.3 Semi-Vehicle-Actuated Signal

This type of signal is commonly used where major and minor roads
intersect. In this case, the major road approaches are accorded priority
with respect to right-of-way while inductive-loop detectors are installed on
the minor road approaches for detecting the presence of vehicle to be
served.

5.4 Definition of Traffic Signal Terms

• Cycle: a complete sequence of signal indications as shown in Figure 5.2.

Figure 5.2: Traffic Signal Cycle

• Cycle length: Time required for a complete sequence of signal indications

as illustrated in Figure 5.3. It is denoted as Co and expressed in seconds.

Figure 5.3: Cycle Length

• Interval: Part of a cycle length during which a particular indication is

turned on. The interval can be green, amber, or red.

• All red interval: A time interval during which red light indication is
turned on for all the intersection approaches to allow vehicles and
pedestrians to clear from the intersection area.

• Phase: Part of a signal cycle allocated to a stream of traffic or

combination streams having a simultaneous right-of-way.

• Lane group: Combination of one or more lanes of an approach having

the same green phase.

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• Lost time per phase (li): Time interval between the green indication
and commencement of vehicles movement. It is denoted by li.

• Saturation Flow Rate: Maximum number of vehicles per hour (veh/h)

that can cross an intersection approach, assuming that the approach
has a continuous green indication and no lost times are experienced.

• Peak Hour Factor (PHF): It is the ratio of peak hour volume and peak
15 minutes flow rate within the peak hour. It is a measure of traffic
demand fluctuation within the peak hour.

5.5 Determination of Saturation Flow Rate

Consider a group of vehicles in a queue at an intersection waiting for right-
of-way or green indication as shown in Figure 5.4.

Figure 5.4: Vehicles in Queue at Intersection

When the vehicles (Vi) are given right-of-way, they will cross the intersection
with different headways (hi) as shown in Figure 5.5.

• First headway: Interval between the initiation of right-of-way and the

instant the first vehicle crosses the stop line.
• Second headway: Interval between the first and second vehicles
crossing the stop line.
• Successive headways follow as in Figure 5.5.
• Usually, after the fourth or fifth vehicle, the headway becomes constant
for the remaining platoon of vehicles. This is referred to as saturation
headway.

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9
8
7

Headway (sec)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 V7 V8 V9 V10
Vehicles in Queue

Figure 5.5: Vehicles’ Crossing Headways

• It follows that if every vehicle needs headway, h (sec) of right-of-way,

then, S number of vehicles per hour will cross the intersection. Hence,
the saturation flow can be expressed as in Equation 5.1.

3600
S= (5.1)
h
Where, S and h denote the saturation flow rate and saturation headway,
respectively.

5.6 Traffic Signal Design

The aim of traffic signal is to establish an optimum cycle length, such that
excessive delays are minimized. Webster method is one of the common
approaches used for traffic signal design. In this method, for minimum delay
at intersection, the cycle length is determined based on Equation 5.2.
n
1.5 li + 5
1.5L + 5
Co = = i =1
(5.2)
1− Y n
1 −  yi
i =1

Where, Co = Optimum cycle length (sec)

L = Total lost time per cycle (sec) for all the approaches

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yi = maximum value of ratios of approach flows to saturation flows for lane

 qi 
groups using phase i,  yi = .
 Si 

qi = Flows on lane groups having the right-of-way during phase i.

Si = Saturation flow on lane group i.

5.6.1 Determination and Allocation of Green Times

Green time is usually expressed in two components. It can either be actual
green time (complete green interval) or effective green time (utilized
green interval). The two green times are as shown in Figure 5.6.

Figure 5.6: Determination and Allocation of Green Times

Where, g e = Effective green time per phase, g a = actual green time per

phase, li = lost time per phase, and ' a ' is amber interval. The relevant

time intervals are determined using Equations 5.3 to 5.5.

• Total effective green time per cycle for all phases

ge = Co −  li = Co − L (5.3)

• Effective green time for each phase

yi
gei =  ge
Y (5.4)

• Actual green time for each phase

gai = gei + li − a (5.5)

The terms used in Equations 5.3 through 5.5 are as defined earlier.

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5.6.2 Design Steps

i. Determine the traffic volume for each approach.
ii. Compute peak hour volume.
iii. Compute peak hour factor using;

Peak hour volume

PHF =
4  peak 15 min flow rate within peak hour
iv. Determine equivalent hourly flow rates for each lane group using the
relation;
Peak hour volume
qi =
PHF
v. Determine saturation flow rate using;

3600
Si =
h

vi. Determine the ratios of approach flow to saturation flow rates for lane
groups using phase ‘i' as;

qi
yi = (choose the highest ratio for each lane group to
Si
determine Y)

vii. Compute Y as;

Y =  yi

viii. Compute total lost time L (based on design criteria with respect to lost
time and amber intervals) as;

L =  li

ix. Compute optimum cycle length, total effective green time for all
phases, effective green time for each phase, and actual green time for
each phase using Equations 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, and 5.5, respectively.

5.6.3 Example
In an attempt to improve the performance of an existing at-grade
intersection with four approaches, a traffic signal control system is

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proposed to be installed to regulate traffic movements at the intersection.

In line with the proposal, a traffic study was conducted at the intersection
to establish the basis for the design of the signal system. A four-phase
signal system with two lane groups per phase is proposed to be used for
the design. The phases are designated as P, Q, R, and S. Based on the
traffic study, the data obtained from the field were analyzed and presented
in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1: Approach Flows and Saturation Flow Rates

Phase P Phase Q Phase R Phase S
Variables
LG1 LG2 LG1 LG2 LG1 LG2 LG1 LG2

qi (veh/h) 254 996 696 155 46 214 391 342

Si (veh/h) 1510 3585 3585 1510 1510 3585 1510 3585

LG = Lane Group, qi = flow on lane groups having a right-of-way during phase i, and Si
= Saturation flow on lane group i.

From the data in Table 5.1 and using Webster method, determine the
actual green times for each of the phases. Assume an amber interval and
lost time per phase of 3.0 and 3.5 seconds, respectively.

Solution:

The values of the ratio of approach flow to saturation flow rates are
determined from the information given in Table 5.1 and presented in Table
5.2.

Table 5.2: Ratio of Approach Flows to Saturation Flow Rates

Phase P Phase Q Phase R Phase S

Variables
LG1 LG2 LG1 LG2 LG1 LG2 LG1 LG2

qi (veh/h) 254 996 696 155 46 214 391 342

S i (veh/h) 1510 3585 3585 1510 1510 3585 1510 3585

yi = qi Si 0.169 0.278 0.194 0.103 0.030 0.060 0.259 0.095

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From Table 5.2, the maximum ratios for each phase are the circled figures.
Hence;

Y = 0.278+0.194+0.060+0.259 = 0.791

• Total lost time for all phases = L =  li = 4  3.5sec = 14sec

1.5L + 5 1.5(14) + 5
• Optimum cycle length, Co = = = 124sec
1− Y 1 − 0.791

• Total effective green time per cycle (for all phases),

ge = Co − L = 124 − 14 = 110sec

• Effective green time for each phase is computed as follows:

yi
• gei = g
Y e

0.278
o For Phase P: geP = 110 = 39sec
0.791
0.194
o For Phase Q: geQ = 110 = 27sec
0.791
0.060
o For Phase R: geR = 110 = 8sec
0.791
0.259
o For Phase S: geS = 110 = 36sec
0.791
The actual green time for each phase is computed as follows:

• gai = gei + li − a (where ‘a’ is amber period)

o For Phase P: gaP = 39 + 3.5 − 3.0 = 39.5  40sec

o For Phase Q: gaQ = 27 + 3.5 − 3.0 = 37.5  38sec

o For Phase R: gaR = 8 + 3.5 − 3.0 = 8.5  9sec

o For Phase S: gaS = 36 + 3.5 − 3.0 = 36.5  37sec

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CHAPTER SIX
EARTHWORKS FOR ROAD CONSTRUCTION
6.1 Introduction

The movement of soil or rock (usually unformed rocks) from one location to
another for construction purposes is referred to as earthwork. It is one of the
major works involved in roadways construction. Basically, earthwork for an
intended road is performed for the purpose of reconfiguring the topography
of a site to achieve the road alignment’s design levels. The process involves
both cutting and filling activities in order to achieve the required alignment’s
profile.

Cutting is the process of excavating an earth material from a work location to

achieve the desired profile or reconfigured topography; filling is the
movement of the excavated earth material or additional earth material to the
work location to achieve the desired profile of a roadway. Earthwork is not
limited to road works alone. It is also applicable to other Civil Engineering
project; such as railways, irrigation canals and so forth.

In relation to highway construction, earthwork operations are aimed at

getting a compacted subgrade up to finished level with the proper horizontal
and vertical alignments, camber, grades, x-slopes, etc. The operation includes
the following basic stages:

• Site Clearance: This involves the removal of trees, bushes, stubs, and
other objectionable materials within the limit of the designated area, not
necessarily within the entire right-of-way.
• Grubbing: This is the removal of roots, shrubs, and other obstructions to
a nominal shallow depth to be decided by the engineer’s judgement based
on field conditions.

Clearance and grubbing can be combined as one item of work or separated

in road project. Bulldozer with its various attachments is the machine
commonly used in carrying out these operations.

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• Disposal of Debris: The debris or unwanted materials removed from

the designated area are disposed-off properly in order to permit the
commencement of earthmoving operation.

6.2 Earthmoving Operation

This involves cutting and filling operations that are required for excavation
and embankment constructions.

6.2.1 Excavation

This refers to the removal of soil in its various forms from its natural resting
place and for various purposes. Excavation could be:

• Common excavation; which has to do with the removal and disposal of

the common soil.

• Rock excavation; i.e. the excavation, removal and disposal of boulders

of about 0.5 m3 in volume and hard rock, which may require blasting.

In terms of cost, the rock excavation is more expensive than the common
excavation because of greater difficulty and technicalities involved. It is
advisable for a contractor bidding for a particular project that involves
excavation job to visit the project site so as to be able to have a reasonable
estimate on the relative proportion of rock (if any) that may be required.

Excavation can also be classified according to the purpose for which it is

meant as follows:

• Roadway and Drainage Excavation: This involves the excavation of

roadway and ditches structures as well as the removal and disposal of
all excavated materials some of which may be required for later use,
say in embankment construction.

• Structural Excavation: This refers to the excavation of soil materials

in order to permit the construction of structures such as culverts,
foundation for bridges, retaining walls, etc.

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• Burrow Excavation: This involves the digging of burrow pits from

approved sites outsides the limits of the right-of-way to supply
additional suitable material for embankments construction and other
elements of roadway structure.

6.2.2 Embankment Construction

This refers to the filling processes required to raise the grade line of a roadway
to some desired height above the level of the existing ground surface in order
to maintain allowable design standards. It involves the filling in a relatively
thin layers and rolling each layer to a specific maximum dry density in the
field. In-situ density checks at suitable intervals are performed to confirm
that the desired compaction level is attained.

As much as appreciable, the amounts of cuts and fills should be balanced so

as to minimize the amount of earthmoving operations.

6.2.3 Finishing Operations

These include such items as the trimming of shoulders, side slopes, ditches,
and the fine-grading operations to bring the sub-grade to the desired finished
level. It also involves the compaction and stabilization of cut sections by
means of spraying with bituminous materials, planting vegetation or
concreting to prevent materials from falling back.

Subsequent to the execution of the earthworks processes, the compacted

surface is then considered ready for the laying of other pavement layers.
These include the sub-base and base layers, then the followed by the
surfacing. This part would be discussed in detail in other parts relating to
pavement structure’s design and construction.

6.3 Computation of Earthwork Quantity

Cross-section of earthwork for roadway in banking or in cutting is usually in

the form of trapezium, and the quantity of earthwork can be estimated using
the method described below. Figures 1 (a) and (b) show sections in banking

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and cutting, respectively. The quantity of earthwork can be computed as

follows:

Quantity or Volume = Sectional Area  Length

B Sd Sd

S:1 d S:1 d
S:1 S:1

Sd Sd B

(a) Banking (b) Cutting

Figure 1: Sections in Banking and Cutting

Sectional area = Area of central rectangular section + Area of two triangular

portions

1
= Bd + 2( Sd  d ) = Bd + Sd 2
2
S:1 is the ratio of the slopes as horizontal: vertical. For 1 vertical, horizontal
is S, and for d vertical, horizontal is Sd.

Quantity = ( Bd + Sd )  L
2

When the ground is in longitudinal slope, the height of the bank or depth of
cutting will be different at the two ends of the section, and mean height or depth
may be taken for ‘d’ and sectional area at mid-section is taken out for mean
height. Alternatively, sectional area at the two ends may be calculated and the
mean of the two sectional areas is taken out. Sectional area at the mid-section
or the mean sectional area, multiplied by the length gives the quantity. Figure 2
shows a situation where the ground is in longitudinal slope.

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d2

B
d1

Figure 2: Ground in Longitudinal Slope

The mean height of the two end areas in Figure 2 is given as follows:

d1 + d 2
Mean height =
2

With reference to Figure 2, there are different methods used in determining

the quantity or volume of earthwork as follows:

6.3.1 Mean-sectional Area Method

Let d1 and d2 be the heights of bank at two ends portions of embankment

respectively, L the length of the section, B the formation width and S : 1
(horizontal : vertical) the side slope. Using the method of mean-sectional
area, the quantity of earthwork is determined as,

Quantity = Mean-sectional Area  Length

Sectional area at one end = A1 = Bd1 + Sd12

Sectional area at the other end = A2 = Bd2 + Sd2 2

Where d1 and d2 are the heights or depths at the two ends of the section
under consideration

A1 + A2
The mean sectional area Am =
2

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 A1 + A2 
Quantity of Earthwork, Q =    L = Am  L
 2 

When long section of a road is considered in the computation of the earthwork

quantities, the calculation is usually carried out in tabular form as follows:

Height Area of Total Length

Area of Mean Quantity (Bd+Sd2)*L
Chainag or central sectional between
sides, sectiona
e (m) Depth portion, area chainage Embankmen Cuttin
Sd2 l area
'd' Bd Bd+Sd2 s t g

6.3.2 Mid-sectional Area method

The method is based on determining the value of the mid-sectional area

between the two ends areas. Figure 3 shows a typical mid-sectional area
between two ends of a section.

S:1 dm S:1

Sdm Sdm

Figure 3: Mid-sectional Area

With reference to the Figure 3, the mean height of end areas is;

d1 + d 2
dm =
2

Hence, sectional area = Area of rectangular portion + Area of two triangular

portions

1 1
= Bd m + Sd m + Sd m = Bd m + Sd m
2 2 2

2 2

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 Quantity of earthwork = ( Bd m + Sd m )  L
2

Generally,
Q = ( Bd + Sd 2 )  L

Where, d stands for mean height or depth.

Quantities of earthwork involving long section of roadway can be computed
in a tabular form as follows:

Mean Quantity =
Height Area of Total
height Area of Length (Bdm+Sdm2)*L
Chainage or central sectional
or sides, between
(m) Depth portion, area
depth, Sdm 2 chainages Embankment Cutting
'd' Bdm Bdm+Sdm2
dm

6.3.3 Prismodal Method

In this method, the quantity is computed as follows:

L
Quantity = ( A1 + A2 + 4 Am )
6
Where A1 and A2 are the cross-sectional areas at the two ends of a portion of
embankment of a road of length L, and Am is the mid-sectional area.

Let d1 and d2 be the heights of bank at the two ends, and dm be the mean
height at the mid-section, B be the formation width and S : 1 be the side
slope.

Sectional area at one end:

A1 = Bd1 + Sd12

Sectional area at the other end:

A2 = Bd2 + Sd22

For sectional area at the middle, we need to find the height at the middle i.e
dm.
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d1 + d 2
dm =
2

d + d2   d1 + d 2 
2

Am = Bd m + Sd m = B 1  + S
2

 2   2 

The total quantity or volume of earthwork is then determined using A1, A2

and Am as;

L
Quantity = ( A1 + A2 + 4 Am )
6
Example 1
Estimate the quantity of earthwork for 125 metres length for a portion of a
road with heights of banks at the two ends being 1.00 m and 1.60 m. The
formation width is 10 m and side slopes 2 : 1 (horizontal : vertical).

Solution:
(a) Using Mean-sectional Area Method:

Sectional area at one end A1 = Bd1 + Sd1 = 10  1 + 2  1 = 12 m

2 2 2

Sectional area at the other end

A2 = Bd 2 + Sd 2 2 = 10  1.60 + 2  1.602 = 21.12 m2

A1 + A2 12 + 21.12
Mean-sectional area = = = 16.56 m2
2 2

Quantity of earthwork = mean sectional area x Length = 16.56 x 125 =

2079 m3

(b) Using Mid-sectional area method:

Quantity = ( Bd m + Sd m )  Length
2

d1 + d 2
dm = = 1.30m
2

Quantity = (10  1.30 + 2  1.302 )  125 = 2047.50 m3

(c) Using Prismodal Method:

L
Quantity = ( A1 + A2 + 4 Am )
6

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A1 = Bd1 + Sd12 = 10  1 + 2  12 = 12 m 2

A2 = Bd 2 + Sd 2 2 = 10  1.60 + 2  1.602 = 21.12 m2

Am = Bd m + Sd m 2 = 10  1.30 + 2  1.302 = 16.38 m2

125
 Quantity = (12 + 21.12 + 4  16.38) = 2055 m3
6
Example 2
An embankment of a roadway 300 metres length was constructed in a project
site. The heights (h) of the bank at an interval of 25 metres are as shown in
Table Q2. If the formation width of the bank is 18.6 metres and the side slope
is 2 : 1 (horizontal : vertical), determine the volume of earthwork executed
using mid-sectional area method. If a cubic metre of earthwork costs
N2,050:00, how much will it cost to construct three banks of the same
geometry?

Table Q2

Ch. (m) 0+000 0+025 0+050 0+075 0+100 0+125 0+150 0+175 0+200 0+225 0+250 0+275 0+300

h (m) 1.25 1.15 1.05 0.96 1.23 1.33 1.52 1.39 1.06 1.46 1.18 0.98 1.32

Solution:
The computation of the earthwork quantity is as presented in Table Q2*

Table Q2*
Total Length Quantity =
Mean Area of Area of
Chainage Height or sectional between (Bdm+Sdm2)*L
height or central sides,
(m) Depth (m) area, chainages
depth, dm portion, Bdm Sdm2
Bdm+Sdm2 (m) Embankment
0+000 1.25 * * * * * *
0+025 1.15 1.20 22.32 2.88 25.20 25.00 630.00
0+050 1.05 1.10 20.46 2.42 22.88 25.00 572.00
0+075 0.96 1.01 18.69 2.04 20.73 25.00 518.25
0+100 1.23 1.10 20.37 2.42 22.79 25.00 569.75
0+125 1.33 1.28 23.81 3.28 27.08 25.00 677.00
0+150 1.52 1.43 26.51 4.09 30.60 25.00 765.00
0+175 1.39 1.46 27.06 4.26 31.32 25.00 783.00

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0+200 1.06 1.23 22.79 3.03 25.85 25.00 646.25

0+225 1.46 1.26 23.44 3.18 26.61 25.00 665.25
0+250 1.18 1.32 24.55 3.48 28.04 25.00 701.00
0+275 0.98 1.08 20.09 2.33 22.42 25.00 560.50
0+300 1.32 1.15 21.39 2.65 24.04 25.00 601.00
Total 7,689.00

Total Quantity of earthwork = 7,689.00 m3. The cost of constructing one

embankment = 7,689.00 m3 * N2,050:00 = N15,762,450.00. Thus, it will cost
N47,287,350.00 to construct three banks of equal geometry as the first one.

Exercise
Use the information in Example 2 to compute the total volume of earthwork
executed using mean area method. Compare the estimated earthwork’s quantity
from the two methods.

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CHAPTER SEVEN

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN

Introduction

Generally, pavement is an on-ground horizontal surface structure used for

riding, parking, and walking. With regard to highway, it is part of a road
designed and constructed to withstand the weight or load exerted by traffic.
Its structure comprises of superimposed layers of processed materials above
the native soil or subgrade, mainly to bear and safely distribute the applied
wheel loads to the subgrade. Its design involves:

• Evaluating the properties of the native soil along the selected road
alignment.

• Identification and selection of construction materials for the various layers.

• Determinations of the thicknesses of constituent pavement’s layers for the

estimated traffic loads and environmental conditions expected to prevail
during the design life of the structure.

A pavement structure may be flexible, rigid or composite, depending on the

materials making it up. Whatever type, its main functions are:

• To bear and distribute wheel loads over an area so that the bearing
capacity of the subgrade is not exceeded.

• To provide smooth, skid resistant (adequate coefficient of friction between

tyre and road surface to prevent vehicle’s skidding), and non-dusty surface
over which the wheels move.

• To protect the substructure against the adverse effect of weather

condition, especially water.

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Design Methods

There are various types of flexible pavement design approaches. They

include, Nigerian-CBR, Road Note 31, Road Note 29, TRRL 1132, and AASHTO
design methods. The methods are not limited to the listed ones. The choice
of a particular method depends on the analyst’s familiarity and compatibility
with environment upon which designed pavement structure is to be
constructed. Hence, only few methods will be treated for the purpose of this
course. However, students can explore more on other design methods.

Nigeria CBR Design Method

This is an empirical-based design approach that uses the California Bearing

Ratio (CBR) and expected traffic volume as the primary design inputs. The
technique uses a set of design curves (A to F as shown in Figure 1) for the
determination of pavement’s layers thicknesses. Each of the curves; A to F is
associated with a particular range of traffic class. The thicknesses of the
pavement structure’s layers depend on the anticipated traffic load, subgrade’s
material strength, as well the strengths of the material to be used for sub-
base and base layers. The CBR method considers traffic loading in terms of
commercial vehicles per day exceeding 3 tonnes loaded weight. To determine
the anticipated traffic load (number of vehicles exceeding 3 tonnes) over the
design life of the structure, the anticipated traffic is adjusted using the traffic
adjustment factors shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Traffic Adjustment Factor
Design Annual growth rate, r (%)
Period
2 4 6 8 10
(yrs)
1 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
2 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10
4 0.21 0.21 0.22 0.22 0.23
6 0.32 0.33 0.35 0.37 0.39
8 0.43 0.46 0.50 0.53 0.57
10 0.55 0.60 0.66 0.72 0.80
12 0.67 0.75 0.84 0.95 1.07
14 0.80 0.92 1.05 1.21 1.40
16 0.93 1.09 1.28 1.52 1.80
18 1.07 1.28 1.55 1.87 2.28
20 1.21 1.49 1.84 2.29 2.86
25 1.60 2.08 2.74 3.66 4.92
30 2.03 2.80 3.95 5.66 8.22
35 2.50 3.68 5.57 8.62 13.55

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Subsequent to the adjustment of the traffic load and evaluation of the

constituent layers materials’ CBR, the thicknesses of the pavement layers are
then determined from Figure 1.

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Figure 1: Flexible Pavement Design Curve (CBR Method)

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The method recommends the following as the minimum thicknesses for

granular layers (sub-base and base) and asphalt surfacing:

• Sub-base and base = 150 mm (6 in.)

• Surfacing:
o Light traffic (Curves A, B, and C) = 50 mm (2 in.)
o Medium traffic (Curves D and E) = 75 mm (3 in.)
o Heavy traffic (Curve F) = 100 mm (4 in.)

Example

Use the following information to estimate the thicknesses of a flexible

pavement’s constituent layers:

• Current traffic volume = 3000 veh/day

• Proportion of vehicles exceeding 3 tons = 40%
• Design period = 20 years
• Traffic growth rate = 4%
• Subgrade’s CBR = 7%
• Sub-base’s CBR = 30%
• Base’s CBR = 80%

Solution

• No. of vehicles exceeding 3 tons. = 40% of 3000 veh/day

= 1200 veh/day
• For 4% traffic growth rate and 20 years design period, traffic adjustment
factor = 1.49
• Anticipated traffic = 1.49 1200 = 1788 veh/day (corresponding to traffic
class F)
• For a subgrade’s CBR of 7%, the entire pavement thickness above the
subgrade = 16 inches (400 mm).
• For a sub-base’s CBR of 30%, the pavement thickness above the sub-base
layer = 6.5 inches (162.5 mm).
• For a base’s CBR of 80%, the pavement thickness above the base layer =
3.5 inches (87.5 mm).
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• Hence, the estimated layers’ thicknesses are as follows:

o Sub-base = (400 – 162.5) mm = 237.5 mm
o Base = (162.5 – 87.5) mm = 75 mm
o Surfacing = 87.5 mm
• In order to satisfy the minimum requirements based on the design
method’s recommendations, the thicknesses are adjusted as follows:

o Sub-base = 237.5 mm ≈ 250 mm (rounded)

o Base = 150 mm (minimum thickness for granular base
layer)
o Surfacing = 100 mm (minimum surfacing thickness for traffic
class F)

Pavement Design for New Road

The two basic features affecting pavement thickness requirements are the
bearing capacity of subgrade and pavement materials, and the future traffic
loads. The soil bearing properties are obtained from the soil tests on the
existing materials along the proposed road’s alignment and from burrow pit.
The traffic load is usually estimated from the records of AADT values if
available or a traffic count instituted to generate the data directly.

For areas that are not developed and do not attract sufficient traffic to justify
a traffic count to estimate the vehicular loads required for the pavement
design, the traffic characteristics of the neighbouring areas could be used as
a basis. In a situation where the neighbouring communities do not have
existing traffic, the basis for the design will therefore be the functional
classification of the road when completed. Road note 6 “A guide to geometric
design of highways” classified roads based on their functions as follows:

i. Arterial roads: These are the main routes connecting national and
international centres. Traffic on them is derived from those generated at
the urban centres and from the inter-urban areas through the collector
and access road systems. Trip lengths are likely to be relatively long and
levels of traffic flow and speeds relatively high.

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ii. Collector roads: These have the function of linking traffic to and from rural
areas, either direct to adjacent urban centres, or to the arterial road
network. Traffic flow and trip lengths are of intermediate level.

iii. Access roads: These are the lowest level in the network hierarchy. They
are usually streets or roads mainly for access to residences, business
areas, or other abutting property. Vehicular flow for this class of roads is
very light and is aggregated in the collector road network.

The earlier mentioned three classes of roads are further classified into six
design classes; A through F. These classes have associated bands of traffic
flow as shown in Table 2. The range of flows extends from less than 20 to
15,000 or more motorized vehicles per day, excluding motorcycles.

After selecting the appropriate design class and its corresponding traffic
(AADT) from Table 2, the design AADT for the road can then be determined
based on the proportion of commercial vehicles that are likely to use the
facility. The summary of the design steps are as follows:

i. Select the appropriate design class of the road and its associated ADT on
the basis of its function.

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ii. Establish the design AADT based on the proportion of commercial traffic.

iii. Select a design period and traffic growth rate.

iv. Convert the design AADT to cumulative number of commercial vehicles

over the design life of the road and the selected traffic growth rate using
the relation:

 (1 + r ) − 1
 n

Tn = 365Fo  


r 


v. Convert (iv) above to cumulative number of equivalence standard axles

(esa) using the relation:

Cumulative number of esa = Tn  D

 
0.35  0.26   1 
D= −     Fo  
0.93 + 0.082  0.92 + 0.082    1550  
t t

 3.9   

Where,

Tn =Cumulative number of commercial vehicles

Fo = Initial daily flow for the design year (proportion of commercial

traffic)

r = Traffic growth rate (%)

n = Design life (years)

D = Vehicle damaging factor

t = Difference between the commissioning year and base year (1945)

vi. Determine the subgrade CBR.

vii Design the pavement structure using Road note 31 (A guide to the
structural design of bitumen-surfaced roads).

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The design criterion for Road note 31 is based on the following categories of
traffic (in terms of esa) and subgrade strength (CBR).

Traffic Classes (106 esa) Subgrade Strength Classes, CBR (%)

T1 =  0.3 S1 = 2

T2 = 0.3 – 0.7 S2 = 3 – 4

T3 = 0.7 – 1.5 S3 = 5 – 7

T4 = 1.5 – 3.0 S4 = 8 – 14

T5 = 3.0 – 6.0 S5 = 15 – 29

T6 = 6.0 – 10 S6 = 30+

T7 = 10.0 – 17.0

T8 = 17.0 – 30.0

Once the cumulative number of equivalence standard axles and subgrade CBR
are estimated, the thicknesses of the various pavement layers are then
obtained from the appropriate Road Note 31 design charts. The charts are
designed on the basis of type of construction materials with three different
classes of surfacing namely; surface dressing, semi-structural and structural
surfaces.

Example 1

It is intended to commence the construction of a new road as an urban

collector which is expected to be completed and open to public in June, 2022.
The AADT of the road has been decided to be 665 vehicles per day of which
12% are commercial vehicles. A soil test along the proposed alignment
reveals that the average subgrade CBR is 6% and a granular material is to be
used as sub-base and road base courses. Design the pavement structure to
serve for a period of 15 years at a traffic growth rate of 4 percent per annum.

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Solution

Based on the AADT value and function of the road, the road is to be designed
as collector class “C”.

• Proportion of commercial vehicles, Fo = 0.12  665 80 CV/day

• Cumulative number of commercial vehicles over the design life of the
pavement at a growth rate of 4% is determined as,

 (1 + r )n − 1
Tn = 365 Fo  
 r 

 (1 + 0.04 )15 − 1
Tn = 365  80    = 584,689 Commercial vehicles
 0.04 

 
0.35  0.26   1 
D= −     Fo  
0.93 + 0.082  0.92 + 0.082    1550  
t t

 3.9   

 
0.35  0.26   1 
D= −  
   80   = 1.1839 1.184
0.93 + 0.082  0.92 + 0.082    1550  
77 77

 3.9 

Thus, the cumulative number of equivalence standard axles = Tn  D

= 584, 689 1.184 = 0.6923 106  0.70 106 esa

The cumulative number of equivalence standard axles of 0.70 106 corresponds

to traffic class T2. The estimated subgrade CBR of 6% corresponds to S3
subgrade strength class.

From chart 1 of Road Note 31, for traffic category of T2 and subgrade strength
of S3, and using granular material as sub-base and road base courses, the
appropriate pavement layers thicknesses are:

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• Surfacing = Surface dressing

• Road base = 150 mm
• Sub-base = 250 mm
Example 2

(a) Design a pavement structure with a semi-structural surface using the

following information:

• Current AADT = 3000 veh/day

• Proportion of commercial traffic = 15%
• Design life = 20 years
• Subgrade CBR = 16%
• Traffic growth rate = 4%
• Road to be opened to traffic in January, 2023
• Granular sub-base and base material

(b) What would have been the design thicknesses of the pavement layers if
the road is to be designed with a structural surface and a subgrade CBR of
8%?

Solution

(a) Based on the current AADT value, the road is to be designed as arterial
class “B”.

• Proportion of commercial vehicles, Fo = 0.15  3000 = 450 commercial veh/day

• Cumulative number of commercial vehicles over the design life of the

pavement at a growth rate of 4% is determined as,

 (1 + r )n − 1
Tn = 365 Fo  
 r 

 (1 + 0.04 ) − 1
 20

Tn = 365  450    = 4,891,049 Commercial vehicles

 0.04 

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 
0.35  0.26   1 
D= −     Fo  
0.93 + 0.082  0.92 + 0.082    1550  
t t

 3.9   

 
0.35  0.26   1 
D= −  
   450   = 1.997 2.00
0.93 + 0.082  0.92 + 0.082    1550  
78 78

 3.9 

Thus, cumulative number of equivalence standard axles = Tn  D

= 4,891, 049  2.00 = 9.782 106 esa (T6 traffic class)

The estimated subgrade CBR of 16% corresponds to S5 subgrade strength

class.

From chart 3 of Road note 31, for traffic category of T6 and subgrade strength
of S5, and using granular material as sub-base and road base courses, the
recommended pavement layers thicknesses are:

• Surfacing = 50 mm Flexible bituminous surface

• Road base = 200 mm
• Sub-base = 175 mm

(b) If the subgrade CBR is 8%, the design will now be based on S4 subgrade
strength class and T6 traffic class. From chart 5 of Road Note 31, the design
thicknesses of the pavement layers would be:

• Surfacing = 100 mm Bituminous surface (Base course + Wearing

course)
• Road base = 200 mm
• Sub-base = 175 mm

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Exercise

As a result of unavoidable circumstances, a proposal was made to redesign

the pavement structure in example 2 using composite road base for both
semi-structural and structural surfaces. Estimate the new thicknesses of the
pavement’s constituent layers as a result of the above change. How does the
change affect the overall thickness of the pavement in both cases?

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Bill of Engineering Measurements and Evaluation (BEME) for Road

Project

Bill No. 1: General

S/N Description of Work Item Qty Unit Rate (N:K) Amount (N:K)

Allow for mobilization and

101 demobilization of Contractor's PS 8,000,000.00
equipment and plant

Provide according to the

instruction of the Engineer,
102 2 PS 100,000.00
erect and remove project sign
boards

Allow for geotechnical

investigations at major
103 PS 2,000,000.00
culvert/bridge and borrow pit
locations

Provide and maintain office

accommodation for the
Engineer's representative
including basic furnishing, 3 Nr
tables, 9 Nr chairs (3 arm and
104 PS 4,000,000.00
6 armless), 2 Nr air
conditioning units, 1 Nr full
multimedia Duo core laptop set
with hp desk jet printer and
electricity

Continuing Operation and

105 Maintenance of Site Office for 12 month 150,000.00 1,800,000.00
the Engineer's representative

Provide one four wheel (Toyota

106 brand) official vehicle for PS 10,000,000.00
Engineer's representative

Provide for relocation of

existing installations for
107 PS 3,000,000.00
electricity, water supply and
other utilities

Provide maintenance and

108 running costs for the vehicles PS 1,000,000.00
used by the Engineer's staff

Allow for progress report, site

meetings, quarterly contract
109 PS 1,500,000.00
performance review meetings
and progress photographs

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Total Carried to Summary 31,400,000.00

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Bill No. 2: Site Clearance

S/N Description of Work Item Qty Unit Rate (N:K) Amount (N:K)

Clear site on either side of

centreline of road up to limits
201 of construction width of all m2
bush/shrubs materials. Rate to
include cart to spoil

Cut all trees (500 mm diameter

202 or more) along carriageway No.
and shoulders and cart to spoil.

Remove vegetable soil to 150

mm depth, stock pile and
203 m2
dispose as may be directed by
the Engineer's representative

Cut, fill , shape and compact

204 scarified existing subgrade to m2
100% B.S. compaction

Excavate from approved

burrow pit, haul excavated
material any distance, deposit,
spread in 150 mm layers and
compact to 100% BS
205 compaction as filling to m2
embankment and margins,
shape formation and trim
slopes to required cross
section. All measured as
completed work in final in-situ.

Total Carried to Summary

Bill No. 3: Culverts & Drains

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S/No. Description of Work Item Qty Unit Rate (N:K) Amount (N:K)

Culverts

Excavate for construction of

new culverts/drains to any
depth including backfilling and
301 disposal of surplus material as
directed by the Engineer's
Representative (including
dewatering).

Box Culverts

Provide, mix and place concrete

grade 20 in Box culverts as
302
specified inclusive of blinding,
formwork and reinforcement

(1.0 m depth x 1.0 m width) 3

302.1
No.

(1.0 m depth x 2.0 m width) 3

302.2 m3
No.

303 Drains

Provide and install uncovered

reinforced concrete drain as
303.1 m3
directed the Engineer's
representative

Provide and install precast

concrete paving slab over drain
at pedestrian crossing not
303.2 exceeding 100 mm thick as Lin.m
directed by the Engineer's
representative. Rate inclusive
of formwork and reinforcement

Ditto: At vehicular crossings

303.3 Lin.m
(150 mm thick)

Total Carried to Summary

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Bill No. 4: Pavement and

Surfacing
S/N Description of Work Item Qty. Unit Rate (N:K) Amount (N:K)

Provide, spread, shape and

compact to 100% WASC
naturally occurring materials as
401 subbase in varying thickness m3
not exceeding a compacted
layer of 150 mm on
carriageway, Haulage inclusive

Provide, spread, shape and

compact to 100% WASC
naturally occurring materials as
402 base in varying thickness not m3
exceeding a compacted layer of
150 mm on carriageway
Haulage inclusive.

Provide and spray prime coat

using MC1 cutback bitumen at
403 the rate of 1.0 lit./sq.m m2
including blinding with sand or
quarry dust.

Provide and spray prime coat

using S125 cutback bitumen at
404 the rate of 1.3 lit./sq.m m2
including blinding with sand or
quarry dust.

Provide, lay and compact

asphaltic concrete wearing
405 course to a compacted m2
thickness of 50 mm as
specified.

Total Carried to Summary

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Bill No. 5: Miscellaneous

S/N Description of Work Item Qty Unit Rate (N:K) Amount (N:K)

501 Pavement markings

Pavement marking: Supply

materials and execute all the
necessary roadway markings
m
on pavement to existing
standard as directed by the
Engineer's representative

501.1 Broken centre lines m

501.2 Continuous centre lines m

501.3 Edge lines m

502 Kilometer posts

Provide and install standard

triangular section of grade 20
kilometer posts including
reinforcement, excavation,
502.1 No.
painting with double coat of
approved paint and numbering
with luminous paint as specified
at 1 km interval

502 Guard rails

Supply and replace guard rails

at bridge edges and other
locations including painting as m
directed by the Engineer's
representative.

503 Kerbs

Provide and install grade 20

concrete kerbs at pavement
edges at built-up areas as
m
directed by the Engineer's
representative (450 mm x 150
mm)

504 Traffic Signs

Provide and install standard

traffic signs including
excavation, painting and
No.
indication of symbols/texts with
luminous paint as directed by
the Engineer's representative.

Total Carried to Summary

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SUMMARY
AMOUNT
S/N (N:K)

1 Bill No. 1: General

2 Bill No. 2: Site Clearance

3 Bill No. 3: Culverts

Bill No. 4: Pavement and

4 Surfacing

5 Bill No. 5: Miscellaneous

Sub-Total

Add 5% Contingency

Total

Add 5% VAT

GRAND TOTAL

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CHAPTER EIGHT
CONSTRUCTION AND MAITENANCE OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENT

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CHAPTER NINE

HIGHWAY DRAINAGES

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