Networking notes

Computer Network : A computer network is a set of nodes like computers and

networking devices that are connected through communication media for the purpose
of communication and sharing resources(hardware/software) among the users.
Applications/benefits of Network
Some of the applications of network are discussed below:

1. Sharing of Information In a network, the users can share information, data

and text easily to other users. Different users can share the same database,
having different levels of access control.
2. Sharing of Peripherals The computers, in a network, can share common
peripherals, e.g. one highly speed common printer can be used for all
computers in a network.
3. Communication In a network environment, communication between
different users or computers is possible. By which we can send messages,
documents (text), data files, graphics, videos, images or an e-mail to
different users over the network.
4. Accessing Remote Database We can access the remote database and
retrieve information according to our requirement in a network. We can
booked tickets for airlines and trains or even we can book a room in a hotel
at any destination by a network.

Disadvantages of computer network Lack of robustness, security

issue, cost of network

Evolution of networking
ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency NETwork): In 1969, The US govt.
formed an agency named ARPANET to connect computers at various universities and
defence agencies. The main objective of ARPANET was to develop a network that
could continue to function efficiently even in the event of a nuclear attack.
Later on this network was joined with another network of NSF. Later various other
business organisations also joined the network. Over the period of time it was joined
by large number of users and has evolved and taken shape as it is today.

Communication Media
Communication media of a network refer to the connecting media, through which
different computers in a network are interconnected together. The communication

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media can also be referred as communication channels. The communication media can
be grouped into two categories:

Wired Technologies (Guided Media)

When the computers in a network are interconnected through a wire or cable, then
such a medium is categorised under wired technologies. Among wired technologies,
ethernet cable, co-axial cable, optical fiber, etc., are included.

1. Ethernet Cable It is also known as twisted pair cable. There are two identical wires
wrapped together and twisted around each other.
Advantages of Ethernet Cable

 It is simple and physically flexible.

 It is inexpensive and easy to install and maintain.

Disadvantages of Ethernet Cable

 Using ethernet cable, signals cannot be transported over long distances

without using repeaters.
 It is not suitable for broadband applications as it has low bandwidth
capabilities.

2. Co-axial Cable It consists of a solid core wire surrounded by foil shield, each
separated by some insulator. The inner solid core wire carries the signal through the
network and the shield is used to provide earthing or ground. Co-axial cable is
commonly used in transporting multi-channel television signals in cities.

Advantages of Co-axial Cable

 The data transmission quality in co-axial cable is better than twisted pair
cable, yet it is affordable.
 Co-axial cables can be used successfully in shared cable network.
 It can be used effectively for broadband transmission.

Disadvantages of Co-axial Cable

 Co-axial cable is more costly than twisted pair cable.

 The co-axial cable is not compatible with twisted pair cable. So, both of
these cables cannot be used together in a network.

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3. Optical Fiber It consists of thin strands of extruded glass silica or plastic, slightly
thicker than human hair, which are capable of carrying light signals from a source at
one end to another end. At the source, there is a Light Emitting Diode (LED) or a Laser
Diode, which modulates the data into light beam using frequency modulation
techniques. At the receiving end, the data are demodulated into computer readable
form.
An optical fiber cable contains following three parts:

 Core It is the innermost part, which is made up of glass or plastic through

which the light signals travels.
 Cladding The cladding covers the core and reflects the light beam back into
the core.
 Protective Coating The protective coating is outside the cladding for the
protection of the optical fiber.

Advantages of Optical Fiber

 It is immune to electrical and magnetic interference i.e. noise in any form

cannot harm the data because, the information is travelling on a modulated
light beam.
 It is highly suitable for rigid industrial environments.
 Optical fiber cables can be used for broadband transmission, where several
channels (i.e. frequency bands of) are handled in parallel and there is
possibility of mixing up of data transmission channels with other channels.

Disadvantages of Optical Fiber

 Connecting either two fibers together or a light source to a fiber is a

difficult process.
 Because of noise immunity, optical fibers are virtually impossible to tap. In
order to intercept the signal, the fiber must be cut and a detector must be
inserted which is not possible.
 Optical fiber cables are more difficult to solding (joint of one or more
cable).

Wireless Technologies (Unguided Media)

When the computers in a network are interconnected and transmitted through waves,
which are travelled through air, water or vacuum, then such a medium is categorised
under wireless technologies. Among wireless technologies are bluetooth, infrared,
microwave, radio link, satellite, etc., are included.
1. Bluetooth It is a wireless technology, which is used for exchanging data over short

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distances from fixed and mobile devices. Such types of networks are categorised under
personal area network.

Advantages of Bluetooth

1. It allows you to stay cord or cable free.

2. Even though you are able to exchange data across your cell phones, you still
have the ability to keep your information private.
3. As it is already, but most likely it will be more dominant. You can use
bluetooth on laptops, cell phones, music players, headsets, printers and
many more other products.

Disadvantages of Bluetooth

1. You are using up more battery power, when you leave your bluetooth
enabled on your phone all day.
2. Throughout all devices, when using bluetooth Internet, the connection can
sometimes run very slow, so bluetooth Internet is not highly suggested for
that cases

2. Infrared In this type of transmission, infrared light signals are used. Infrared signal
are used in TV remotes, infrared wireless speakers, etc., as a mode of transmission.
In infrared transmission, signals are transmitted through the air but these signals
cannot penetrate the walls.

Advantages of Infrared

 Low power requirements therefore ideal for laptops, telephones, personal

digital assistants.
 Low circuitry costs $2-$5 for the entire coding/decoding circuitry.
 Simple circuitry no special or proprietary hardware is required, can be
incorporated into the integrated circuit of a product.

Disadvantages of Infrared

 Blocked by common materials: people, walls, plants, etc., can block

transmission.
 Line of sight: transmitters and receivers must be almost directly aligned
(i.e. able to see each other) to communicate.
 Short range: performance drops off with longer distances.

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3. Microwave In this type of transmission, signals are transmitted in the same way as
the radio and television transmission. The requirement for microwave transmission is
transmitter, receiver and the atmosphere. Under this mode of transmission parabolic
antennas are mounted on the towers. These antennas send the signals in the
atmospheric air. These signals are received by the receiver.

Advantages of Microwave

 Using microwave, signals can be transmitted in the air without using

cables.
 Using microwave, communication is possible even in difficult terrain or
over oceans.

Disadvantages of Microwave

 It is not a secured mode of communication.

 Microwave communication is affected by weather conditions such as rain,
thunderstorms, etc.

4. Radio Link When two terminals are connected by using radio frequencies, then
such type of communication is referred as radiowave transmission or radio link. Any
radio transmission set-up has two parts viz., the transmitter and the receiver. Both the
transmitter and the receiver use antennas to send and receive the radio signals.

Advantages of Radio Link

 It is a cheaper means of transmission than wired communication.

 It provides mobility and makes communication easy over difficult terrain.

Disadvantages of Radio Link

 It is not a secured mode of transmission.

 These signals are affected by the weather conditions like rain,
thunderstorms, etc.

5. Satellite In this type of communication, data are transmitted through satellite.

Under this arrangement, there is an earth station and a satellite placed in the
stationary orbit, which is about 22300 miles above the earth’s surface. In satellite
communication, the earth station transmits data towards the satellite and the satellite
accepts these signals, amplifies them and then retransmits them towards the earth.
These signals are captured by the receiver.

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Advantages of Satellite

 In satellite communication, large area could be covered.

 This mode of transmission is very useful in multimedia transmission.

Disadvantages of Satellite

 Satellite communication is very costly. So, it is not suitable for personal or

low budget communication.
 There is atmospheric loss of transmitted signals.

Types of Network
On the basis of coverage or geographical spread, a network can be divided into
following types:
1. Local Area Network (LAN) When the network of computer is confined to a small or
localised area such as school, office or building, it is known as Local Area Network
(LAN). Computers or users in a local area network can share data, information,
software and common hardware devices such as printer, modem, hard disk, etc.

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) A metropolitan area network is the network

which is spread over a city. The functions of a MAN is similar to LAN. Like a LAN,
computers in a MAN are also capable of sharing data, information, software and
hardware. The difference is only on the basis of geographical area coverage.

. Wide Area Network (WAN) The network of computers which is spread across the
countries probably over the entire world is known as a Wide Area Network (WAN).

 A WAN can be a group of several LANs interconnected together.

 The largest WAN is the Internet.
 The functions of WAN are also similar to a LAN or MAN.

4. Personal Area Network (PAN) The PAN refers to a computer network, which is
used for communication among computer devices spread over a few meters. PAN may
be wired (i.e. with the use of computer buses such as USB) or wireless using wireless
network technologies such as bluetooth, wireless USB, Z-wave and ZigBee. Bluetooth
personal area network(PAN) is also called a piconet. It can be composed of upto eight
devices in a master slave relationship. The first bluetooth device is master and other

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devices are acting as slaves. Normally, its range is upto 10 m.

Switching is a technique of transferring the information from one computer network

to another computer network.

There are 3 common switching techniques:

1. Circuit Switching
2. Packet Switching
3. Message Switching

1. Circuit Switching
The Circuit Switching technique establishes a dedicated path or channel
between the sender and receiver for data transmission, and once a dedicated
path is established then it does not terminate it until and unless the connection
between the two data transmission points terminates. We can say that it operates in
a similar manner in which a telephonic network operates when you call someone,
then a dedicated communication channel or path is established between you two,
which remains open till you disconnect the phone call.

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Message Switching –
Message switching was a technique developed as an alternative to circuit
switching before packet switching was introduced. In message switching,
end-users communicate by sending and receiving messages that included
the entire data to be shared. Messages are the smallest individual unit.
Also, the sender and receiver are not directly connected. There are a number
of intermediate nodes that transfer data and ensure that the message
reaches its destination. Message switched data networks are hence called
hop-by-hop systems.or store and forward technique.

Message switching is advantageous as it enables efficient usage of network

resources. Also, because of the store-and-forward capability of intermediary
nodes, traffic can be efficiently regulated and controlled. Message delivery as
one unit, rather than in pieces, is another benefit.

3. Packet Switching
We've seen that in circuit switching we select a dedicated path for data transmission,
but let's assume you have a small amount of data. The packet switching technique
transmits data through the network by breaking it down into several data
packets for more efficient transfer and it also utilizes multiple vacant resources,
these network devices direct or route the data packets to the destination where the
receiving device then collects all of them and reassembles to get the proper
orientation of the message.

Network Topologies
The network topology refers to the arrangement or pattern of computers (i.e. nodes or

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workstations), which are interconnected in a network.
Commonly used network topologies are as follows:

1. Bus Topology Bus topology is also referred as linear topology. Under this
arrangement, all nodes in the network are connected by a single length of
transmission medium, which is normally a co-axial cable. Both ends of the cable are
terminated by terminators. Data transmission from any workstation can travel in both
directions.

Advantages of Bus Topology

1. In bus topology, all nodes are connected through a single length of cable, so
very short cable length is used.
2. Extension of network is very easy in bus topology. We can connect new
nodes along its length.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. When there is any problem in data communication with any node, whole
network stops functioning.
2. In case of any fault in data transmission, fault isolation is very difficult. We
have to check the entire network to find the fault.

2. Ring Toplogy In ring or circular topology, the nodes are connected in a circular
way. In such arrangement, each node is connected to exactly with its two neighbouring
nodes. In other words, when the last node in a bus network is connected with first
node and the entire network becomes circular network is known as a network using
ring topology.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Short cable length is required for connecting the nodes together.

2. The architecture of network is simple and easy to maintain.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. In ring topology, each node is connected in a circular way with its two
neighbouring nodes, so when there is transmission problem anywhere in
the network, entire network stops functioning.
2. Fault diagnosis is very difficult in a network formed using ring topology.

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3. Star Topology In star topology, there is a direct and dedicated connection of every .
node of the network with the central node or server. In star topology, the server is
directly connected with each and every node in the network via a hub.

Advantages of Star Topology

1. The star topology is the most reliable as there is a direct connection of

every node in the network with the central node or server.
2. If there is any problem in connection with any node, other nodes in the
network are not affected.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Since, every node is directly connected with the central node or the server,
so a large quantity of the cable is required.
2. There is dependency on the central node. If there are some problems with
the central node, entire network stops functioning.

4. Mesh Topology A network set-up where each computer and network device is
interconnected with one another to provide an alternative route in case of the host is
down or busy.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

1. Excellent for long distance networking.

2. Communication is also possible through the alternate route, if one path is
busy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. Long wire/cable length, hence increase in the cost of installation and

maintenance
2. There are high chances of redundancy in many of the network connections.
3. Set-up and maintenance of this topology is very difficult. Even
administration of the network is tough.

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5. Tree Topology The tree topology is an extension and variation in bus topology.
Here, the shape of a network is like an inverted tree, where the central node is at the
root which is branching out as the network extends. Tree topology is suitable for the
applications which have a hierarchical flow of data and control. Since, it is a modified
form of bus topology, hence it is a hybrid topology.

Advantages of Tree Topology

1. The tree topology simulates hierarchical flow of data. So, it is suitable for
applications, where hierarchical flow of data and control is required.
2. We can easily extend the network whenever required.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. There is a requirement of long cable length.

2. In tree topology, there is dependency on the root node.

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Network Devices
Network devices are the components used to connect computer and other electronic
devices together, so that they can share files or resources like printers or fax
machines. The most common type of network devices used by the public to set-up a
Local Area Network (LAN) are hub, switch, repeater and if online access is desired, a
high-speed modem.
1. Modem (Modulator/Demodulator) Modem is a device that converts digital signal to
analog signal (modulator) at the sender’s site and converts back analog signal to
digital signal (demodulator) at the receiver’s end, in order to make communication
possible via telephone lines.
Functions of Modem The essential function of a modem is to create an easily
transmitted and decode signal. Modem divides the information into packets called
frames. They minimise the error that occur while the transmission of signals. Modems
are of two types:

 Internal Modem It refers to the modem that is fixed within a computer,

e.g. dial-up and wireless.
 External Modem A modem that resides in a self-contained box outside
the computer system, e.g. USB modem, Cable modem.

2. Hub Hub is a device used to connect several computers together. It provides a

centralised connection to several computers with the central node or server.
It is multi-slot device in which multi-port cards can be inserted to provide access to
computers in the network.
Functions of a Hub A hub is a device that interconnects a number of computers or
users. Whenever any data packet is received by any port in a workstation which may
be an e-mail, graphics or any document, is forwarded to all remaining ports. Thus, the
required data packet is transported to desired user or device.
There are two types of hub:

 Active Hub It amplifies the signals and passes from one connected device
to another. These hubs are working as repeaters to boost up the signals.
 Passive Hub It simply passes signals from one connected device to another
without making any changes.

3. Switch The switch is a hardware device used to divide or segment the network into
smaller subnets or LAN segments. The main purpose of segmenting a large network
into smaller segments is to prevent the traffic overloading in a network.
A switch forwards the data packet in a specific way over the network. It means the
switch filters the data packet, when the same is passed to it and for the packet to the
desired LAN segment.

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Functions of a Switch
The switch is responsible for forwarding a data packet to a specific route or segment.
For this purpose, the switch establishes a temporary connection between the source
and the destination, when the data packet is transported the connection is terminated.

4. Repeater The repeater is a hardware device used in a network to amplify the weak
signals, when they are transported over long distances. When the signal is transmitted
over a line, then due to resistance and other causes it accumulates noise. Due to this
noise, the quality of signal degrades.
So, to improve the quality of signals, repeaters are needed to be installed.

Functions of a Repeater
It receives an incoming signal from one device and retransmits it, forwarding it on to
other.
There are two types of repeaters:

 Amplifier Repeaters It amplifies or boosts the incoming signals. So, it

amplifies both the signal and any concurrent noise.
 Signal Repeaters These repeaters remove or filter the noise from
incoming signals and retransmit the same, in the same way as it was
starting from the source.

5. Gateway The gateway is a network device which is used to connect dissimilar

networks. The gateway establishes an intelligent connection between a local network
and external networks, which are completely different in structure.
In fact, the gateway is a node that routes the traffic from a workstation to outside
network. The gateway also acts as a proxy server and a firewall, which prevents the
unauthorised access.

Functions of a Gateway The gateway is a node in a network which serves as a proxy

server and a firewall system. It is associated with a router and a switch. Its main
function as proxy server is to hold the information from a website temporarily so that
the repeated access to the same website or web page could be directed to the proxy
server instead of actual web server, thus helps in reducing the traffic load. As a firewall
system, it prevents the unauthorised access to and from a private network.

RJ45 Connector
Registered Jack 45 is referred to as RJ45. Devices physically connect to Ethernet-
based local area networks using the 8-pin RJ45 connector (LANs). Ethernet is a
technology that specifies LAN setup procedures. Twisted pair cables with RJ45

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connector pins are used for Ethernet LANs. These pins fit into the appropriate socket
on the device and link it to the network.

Ethernet Card
A network interface card (NIC), commonly referred to as an Ethernet card, is a piece
of hardware that computers use to connect to Ethernet LANs and communicate with
other LAN-connected devices. Earlier, Ethernet cards required manual installation
because they were external to the system. It is a piece of internal hardware in
contemporary computers. The network connection is physically inserted into the
NIC’s RJ45 socket.

The protocols an Ethernet card supports may affect its speed. The top speed of older
Ethernet cards was 10 Mbps. Modern cards, however, support 100 Mbps-capable fast
Ethernets. Some cards even have a 1 Gbps capacity.

1.NIC(Network interface card): NIC is a device attached to each node.It helps a node
to establish all important connection. A network interface card (NIC) is a hardware
component without which a computer cannot be connected over a network. It is a
circuit board installed in a computer that provides a dedicated network connection to
the computer. It is also called network interface controller, network adapter or LAN

adapter. Each Nic has a unique number identifying it called node address.The Nic
manufacturer assigns a unique physical address to each Nic called MAC address.
(Media Access control).A MAC address is a 6 byte address with each byte separated
by colon.The first three bytes are manufacturer id and last three bytes are card no
assigned by manufacturer.

Eg: 10:B5:03:63:2E:FC

Functions of nic
1.NIC allows both wired and wireless communications.
2.NIC allows communications between computers connected via local area network
(LAN) as well as communications over large-scale network through Internet Protocol
(IP).
3.NIC is both a physical layer and a data link layer device, i.e. it provides the
necessary hardware circuitry so that the physical layer processes and some data link
layer processes can run on it.

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2.Wi-Fi card:A Wi-Fi card is either an Internal or External LAN Adapter with a built in
wireless radio and antenna. Most of the Wi-Fi card can be used with PCI-slot on the
mother board of a desktop.
Advantages:
1.Wireless Networking is relatively cheaper than wired Networks.
2. Wireless Networking is also very mobile and versatile.
3.Wireless networks can easily be set up and dissembled, which is perfect for many
people who are on temporary worksites/homes or leased space.
4.It can also provide networking in places where regular wire cannot reach such as
the backyard in a home situation

5.Bridge:
1.Bridge is a network device that is used to connect two networks together.
2.Bridges are smart enough to know which node lies which side of the bridge.
3.when a packet reaches to the bridge it checks the address of destination and only
if a packet need to cross the bridge then it will be allowed to do so else will be sent
back.

6. Router:-A device that’s works like a bridge but can handle different protoc

as router.The router is responsible for forwarding data packets from one netwo

other network. Routers perform the traffic directing functions on the network.

Each router maintains a road map of its network,which consist of logical address of nodes
network .
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That road map is called routing table.

Network Protocols
Protocol refers to the set of rules and regulations applicable for a network. The
protocol defines standardised format for the data packet to be transmitted through
the network, techniques for detecting the errors whenever they arise and methods to
correct these errors and so on.
Some of the commonly used protocols are as follows:
1. HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) HTTP is an application level protocol and it is
widely used for viewing information of a web page over Internet. It is a generic,
stateless and object oriented protocol.
HTTP consists of a set of requests from the browser of a local computer to the web
server and a set of responses going back to the other way.
Though HTTP is designed for the use in the web application but it has scope to be
used in future object oriented applications.

2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol) FTP is designed to transfer files from one system to
another. Using FTP, different people locating in different geographical locations can
cooperate and work on a common project. FTP is designed to promote sharing of files
and to encourage the indirect use of remote computers. Using FTP, any type of file
can be transferred from one computer to another. Though for transferring files, we
have to specify whether the file is in ASCII format or in binary format.

3. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) TCP/IP is a set of two

protocols, i.e. TCP and IP. The Internet Protocol (IP) tells how packets of information
are sent out over networks. IP has a packet addressing method that lets any
computer on the Internet forward a packet to another computer that is a step closer
to the packet’s recipient. The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) ensures the
reliability of data transmission across Internet connected networks. TCP checks
packets for errors and submits requests for retransmission if errors are found.

4. PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) The PPP is used with dial-up Internet connections
including ISDN. It is a layered protocol, which is used for transmitting the data over
usual telephone lines. It can provide connection authentication, transmission,
encryption and compression.

Remote Access Software

In remote access software firstly we have to know about the term “remote access”.
Remote access refers to the ability to access a computer or a network from a remote
distance. Remote access can be established via a line that runs between a computer
and Local Area Network. This type of line provide faster speeds but has the drawback
of being more expensive. Another suitable method for performing remote access by
establishing a Virtual Private Network, which is usually uses the Internet to connect
remote site and users together.

To establish a remote connection, both the local machine and remote

computer/server must have remote access software. Remote access software dial
indirectly to the network server.
Team Viewer is one of the example of Remote Access Software. It simplifies remote

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access over the Internet and supports a wide range of devices. It is free for private
uses.

Internet
The Internet has gained popularity and emerged as an important and efficient means
of communication. The Internet is world wide network of networks.
Through Internet, computers become able to exchange information with each other
and find diverse prespective on issue from a global audience.

Basic Components for the Working of Internet

Here, we are discussing some basic yet essential components of a network which are
very much required for the proper functioning of the Internet.

IP Address
An IP address is an identifier for a computer or device on a TCP/IP network. It is a way
to measure a user’s unique identity. The traditional IP Addresses (IPv4) uses a 32-bit
numeric format and it defines both network and host address. But now-a-days a new
version of the IP protocol (IPv6) has been invented to offer virtually limitless number
of unique addresses. An IP address can be static or dynamic. A static IP address will
never change and it is a permanent Internet address. A dynamic IP address is a
temporary address that is assigned to any computing device to access the Internet.
An example of IPv4 address is 216.3.128.12. Each number can be from zero to 255.

MAC Address (Media Access Control Address)

The MAC address refers to unique physical address assigned to a Network Interface
Card (NIC). Every workstation or device which is connected with the network has
unique node address. The MAC address is a 6 byte (48 bit) address. Each byte in this
address is separated by a colon. There are hexadecimal numbers from 00 to FF (i.e. 0
– 255) in each byte, e.g. 05 : C2: 04 : 59 : 2F: BC is a MAC address.

Domain Name
Domain name is a unique name or identification that helps to create the path to open
a particular website. All the domain names have IP addresses. IP address can be
remembered by the computer, but it is difficult to remember for a human being. If
you know that URL (Uniform Resource Locator) of a website, you can access it. The
URL is actually the domain name of website, so the domain name is unique name of
a website. Every time we enter a domain name it will be converted into an IP address
and the website will be opened, e.g. www.Mybook.com A domain name contains
three parts:

1. Host name as, www

2. Name describing the website purpose as, Mybook
3. Top level domain as .com, .net, .edu, etc.

Domain Name Resolution

Domain name resolution refers to the process of getting the corresponding IP
address from a domain name. Infact the content of a website is stored on some

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server anywhere in the world and to access the information or content the IP address
is required. When we enter the domain name in a browser by typing on the address
bar, the browser issues a command to the operating system to provide the
corresponding IP address.

Thereafter, the operating system searches the host file in which IP address of some
domains are stored. If the corresponding domain name was not found there, then
request is forwarded to Domain Name Servers (DNS). The DNS maintains a directory
of all domain names and corresponding IP addresses registered on the Internet.
When the IP address is required, it is provided to the browser. The browser can
access the information from the respective website using the IP address.

Internet Applications
Applications which runs by the use of Internet are given below:
1. E-Mail
E-mail stands for Electronic Mail. It is a text message that may contain files, images
or other attachment sent through a network to a specified individual or group of
individuals. Some early e-mail systems required that the sender and the recipient
both be online at the same time, in common with instant messaging. Today’s e-mail
systems are based on a store and forward model. E-mail servers accept, forward,
deliver and store messages. Neither the user nor their computers are required to be
online simultaneously; they need to connect an e-mail server, for as long as it takes
to send or receive messages. Interaction between e-mail server and clients are
governed by e-mail protocol. The two most common e-mail protocols are POP3 and
SMTP.

2. SMS
SMS stands for Short Message Service. Short text messages are transmitted to and
from a mobile phone, fax machine, etc. Message must not be longer than 160 alpha-
numeric characters and may also contain images or graphics. Once a message is
sent, it is received by a Short Message Service Centre (SMSC), which must get to the
appropriate mobile device. To do this, the SMSC sends a SMS request to Home
Location Register (HLR) to find the roaming customer. Once the HLR receives the
request, it will respond to the SMSC with the subscriber’s status

 Inactive or active.
 Where subscriber is in roaming.

If the response is ‘inactive’, then the SMSC will hold on to the message for a period of
time. When the subscriber access his device, the HLR sends a SMS notification to the
SMSC and the SMSC will attempt delivery. The system pages the device and if it
responds, the message gets delivered. The SMSC receives a verification, that the
message was received by the end user, then it is categorised as, send message and
will not attempt to send again.

3. Video Conferencing
By the name itself it is clear that it is the process of conferencing through video talk.

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Basically, video conferencing is a type of conference, which takes place between two
or more participants by using computer networks to transmit audio and video data.
For such type of video conferencing each participants should have a video camera,
microphone and speakers in his computer set-up.
There are two types of video conferencing:

 Point to Point
 Multipoint.

1. Point to Point Video Conferencing is a conferencing between two person

through video. It is like video telephonic call. The difference in a simple telephonic
call and point to point video conferencing is the virtual appearance of user. They are
able to view each other on their computer window screen.

2. Multipoint Video Conferencing allow more than two participants to sit in a

virtual conference room can communicate with others as if they are sitting just next
to each other.

4. Voice Mail
Voice mail is basically a voice message that stores messages electronically which
can be retrieved by the intended recipients according to their convenience. Voice
mail was developed by telephony to prevent missed calls and to facilitate call
screening. Now-a-days, voice mails are getting integrated with Internet, which allows
users to receive incoming voice message on their computers.

5. Chat
It can be defined as an informal conversation between two or more people. In terms
of computers, chat refers to the communication between two users through
computer, textually. The text is entered by one participant through keyboard and
that text is received by other on the other side and vice versa.

Wireless/Mobile Communication
By the name itself, it can be defined that it is a communication which do not use any
wires for the transmission of data. In this type of communication, waves are used as
the transmission medium, instead of wires. Mobile communication uses
electromagnetic waves for sharing and transferring of data. Some of the mobile
communication such as GSM, CDMA, WLL, 3G and 4G are discussed below:
1. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access. It is a digital cellular technology that
uses spread spectrum techniques. CDMA consistently provides better capacity for
voice and data communications than other commercial mobile technologies, allowing
more subscribers to connect at any given time and it is the common platform on
which 3G technologies are built. CDMA is a military technology first used during
world war II by english allies to foil german attempts at jamming transmission.

2. GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication)

GSM is developed to describe protocols for second generation (2G) digital cellular

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networks used by mobile phones. It is developed by the European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) for the replacement of first
generation (1G) analog cellular networks and originally described a digital circuit
switched network optimised for full duplex voice telephony. Full duplex means
receives and sends the data at a time. ‘GSM’ is a trademark owned by the GSM
Association.

3. WLL (Wireless Local Loop)

It is an ideal application which provides telephone service to a remote rural area.
This technology simply means that the subscriber is connected to the nearest
exchange through a radio link instead of through the copper wires. Sometimes it is
also known as Radio In The Loop (RITL) or Fixed-Radio Access (FRA). WLL has an
advantage over satellite broadband because of its lower transmission delay.

The system used in WLL is based on full-duplex radio network whose capacity is very
high to access the data from network. The cost of installing a WLL system for
subscriber access lines is now virtually the same as that of copper cable, though it
can vary depending on the subscriber line length and local conditions, e.g. A PHS-
WLL system has already been commercialised and is scheduled to be implemented
for commercial service in several countries.

4. 3G (Third Generation)
3G stands for Third Generation and it is also called Tri-Band 3G. 3G
telecommunication networks support services that provide an information transfer
rate of atleast 200Kbps. This will allow 3G mobile devices to support services such as
video footage conferencing and full Internet access. Recent 3G releases, often
denoted 3.5G and 3.75G, also provide mobile broadband access of several Mbps to
smart phones, modems, laptops, computers.

5. 4G (Fourth Generation)
4G stands for Fourth Generation, the stage of broadband mobile communications
that will supersede the third generation (3G). Carriers that use Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiplexing (OFDM) instead of Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) or
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) are increasingly marketing their services as
being 4G, even when their data speeds are not as fast as the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) specifies.

According to the ITU, a 4G network requires a compatible device to exchange data at

the rate of 100 Mbps. A 3G network, on the other hand, can offer data speeds as slow
as 3.84 Mbps. From the consumer’s point of view, 4G is more a marketing term than
a technical specification but carriers feel justified in using the 4G label because it lets
the consumer know that they can expect significantly faster data speed.

Network Security
Network security refers to the provisions and policies adopted by the network
administrator to prevent and monitor unauthorised access, misuse, modification or
denial of the computer network and network accessible resources. For network

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security, there is a provision of assigning an ID and a password or other
authenticating information that allows the user to access the information and
program within their authority. Network security covers a variety of networks; both
public and private. Network security is important because people, organisations,
corporates across the world are using Internet to store the data, for communicating
and transmitting critical information. That is why network security breaches are
there.
Some of the major network security breaches are:
1. Denial of Service (DOS)
A denial of service attack refers to an attempt to make computer resources
unavailable to the intended users. Generally, it consists the effort of a person or a
group of persons to prevent an Internet site or service from functioning efficiently or
completely. It may be temporarily or infinitely. One of the common methods of denial
of service attack is to saturate the target machine with external communication
requests, in such a way that either the machine can not respond properly or respond
slowly that is would not send services effectively.

2. Intrusion Problem
The intrusion problem refers to the malicious activities or policy violation performed
on a computer system. The main motive of intrusion is to tress vital information and
essential data. Such type of activities are performed by the people having malicious
mentality.

1. Intrusion Detection System It is a device or software application that

monitors the network for the malicious activities. The intrusion detection
and prevention system is primarily focused on identifying possible
incidents, logging information and reporting attempts.
2. Snooping It refers to unauthorised opening of files or accessing data, e-
mail, etc. Snooping may include monitoring and tracing of keystrokes
pressed, capturing the passwords and login information, etc.
3. Eavesdropping It is identical to snooping. When there is intentional
interception of other data such as e-mail, login-id, credit card information,
password, etc., then it is said to be eavesdropping. In other words, when
someone listens or intercepts others data secretly, then it is said to be
eavesdropping.

3. Authentication
It provides a way of identify a user. It also known as the term of password protection.
The user is provided with an legal login-id and password by which he/she is
considered to be an authentic user and is allowed to see the password protected
data.

Network Security Concepts

Network security refers to the security of the network resources which are used and
guided by Internet as they are very much unwanted viruses and many other
problems which can damage the active files over the network. Some of the network
security concepts are described below:
1. Cookies

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It is also known as browser cookies or tracking cookies. Cookies are small, often
encrypted text files, located in browser directories. They are used by web developers
to help users navigate their websites efficiently and perform certain functions. Due to
their core role of enhancing enabling usability or site processes, disabling cookies
may prevent users from using certain websites. Cookies are created when a user’s
browser loads a particular website. The website sends information to the browser
which then creates a text file. Computer cookies are created not just by the website
the user is browsing, but also by other websites that run ads, widgets and other
elements on the page being loaded. These cookies regulate how the ads appear or
how the widgets and other elements function on the page.

2. Firewall
A system based on software or hardware designed to prevent unauthorised access to
or from a private network. Firewalls may be combination of hardware and software. A
firewall establishes a barrier between a trusted, secure internal network (private
network) and another network that is not assumed to be secure and’ trusted. All
messages entering or leaving the Intranet (internal network) pass through the
firewall, which examines each message and blocks those that do not meet the
specified security criteria.
There are several types of firewall techniques:

1. Packet filter Looks at each packet entering or leaving the network and
accepts or rejects it based on user defined rules. Packets filtering is fairly
effective and transparent to users, but it is difficult to configure. In
addition, it is susceptible to IP spoofing.
2. Application gateway Applies security mechanism to specific applications,
such as FTP and Telnet servers. This is very effective, but can impose a
performance degradation.
3. Circuit-level gateway Applies security mechanism when a TCP or UDP
connection is established. Once the connection has been made, packets
can flow between the hosts without further checking.
4. Proxy server Intercepts all messages entering and leaving the network.
The proxy server effectively hides the true network addresses.

3. Cyber Law
Cyber law is a term that encapsulates legal issues related to the use of Internet. It is
less a distinct field of law than intellectual property or contract law, as it is a domain
covering many areas of rules and regulations. Some leading topics include Internet
access and usage, privacy, freedom of expression and jurisdiction.

4. Hacker
A hacker is someone who seeks and exploits weaknesses in a computer system or
computer network. Hacking is the practices of modifying the features of a system, in
order to accomplish a goal outside of the creator’s original purpose. Hackers obtain
advanced knowledge of operating systems and programming languages. Hackers are
most commonly associated with malicious programming attacks on the Internet and
other networks.

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5. Cracker
A cracker is also called black hat hacker. A cracker is an individual with extensive
computer knowledge whose purpose is to breach or bypass Internet security or gain
access to the software without paying royalties. The general view is that, while
hackers build things, crackers break things. Cracker is the name given to hackers
who break into computers for criminal gain. Crackers’ motivations can range from
profit, a cause they believe in, general maliciousness or just because they like the
challenge. They may steal credit card numbers, leave viruses, destroy files, etc.

6. Trojan
A Trojan, or Trojan Horse, is a non-self-replicating type of malware which appears to
performs a desirable function but instead facilitates unauthorised access to the
user’s computer system. Trojans do not attempt to inject themselves into other files
like a computer virus. It may steal information, or harm their host computer systems.
Trojans may use drive-by downloads or install via online games or Internet-driven
applications in order to reach target computers. Unlike viruses, Trojan horses, do not
replicate themselves.
e.g. Beast, Sub7.Zeus, Zero Access Rootkit, etc.

TCP/IP

TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol. It uses client-
server model for the communication. In this protocol a client send a request to the
server in the network.

The Internet Protocol defines a numeric address for each computer in the network, by
this IP address, only each computer or node in the network is identified.

On the other hand, TCP ensures that data packets are properly divided into small units
or not. It also ensures the path of the route from source to the destination. TCP
guarantees the delivery of packets on the designated IP address. It is also responsible
for ordering packets so they are delivered in the sequence.

Sometimes two packets can have different routes depending on the data traffic on the
route and other factors. When it reaches to the destination these packets reassembled
into the original message at the receiver’s end.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

As the full form of FTP, it is responsible for file transfers in the network from one
device to another device i.e. client to server and vice versa. It also works on client-
server model just like some other protocols.

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FTP provides two ways for data transfer:

1. With login: Username and password based service

2. Without login: Direct service without any login

When the request for file transfer, a connection will be set up between client and
server. The user enters the username and password and then specifies the filename
and location of the desired file. This will create another connection for file transfer.
FTP also handle some issues like different convention for filenames, representation of
data in different formats, and different directory structure.

The next protocol in Comprehensive Notes Network protocol Class 12 is PPP.

PPP (Point to Point Protocol)

Point to Point Protocol creates a direct connection between two devices in the
network. The authentication and direct link will be defined by this protocol. For
example, Two devices like routers have a direct connection using PPP. In this scenario
the direct connection will be established between internet users and the server of ISP
through Model.

To use this protocol the network devices should have the duplex modes. PPP protocol
maintains data integrity ensuring that the packets arrive in the proper order. If any
data is damaged or any packet is lost while data transfer, will be intimated and asked
to resend by this protocol.

HTTP(HYPER TEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL)

Whenever you are using a website, the address of website starts with http or https
because it is the protocol which is used for access of World Wide Web.
As you know HyperText means a document which contain text or images linked
together with another document. It is also one of the client-server based protocol.
It plays an important role between web browser and web server by providing the
access of HyperText from WWW with the format and transfer mechanism along with
how the web server and browsers should respond to various commands.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
This protocol is used for mail transfer. It works on the message header and going into
the outgoing mails. There one SMTP sender program take the mail from the outgoing
mail list and send to the destinations. When the mail is delivered to the destination, it
removes the corresponding receivers email address from the destination list and
outgoing list. The SMTP receiver program accept each mail arrived from other emails
and place them at appropriate user mailbox.

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Remote Login – Telnet
The remote login – TelNet stands for Terminal Network. This is one type of application
program that allows user to access the remote computer. It is also one client-server
based program that allows local terminals to be the at the remote side.

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