Palmer_analytical geometry

BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE
SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND

THE C3IFT OF "
HENRY W. SAGE
189)
Cornell University LIbrsry
3 1924 031 218 153

Cornell University
Library
The original of tliis bool< is in
tlie Cornell University Library.
There are no known copyright restrictions in

the United States on the use of the text.
http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031218153
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
piumm— Dj
iiiii
ii i
i
I
i
i ii
i i i i ii
||
ii i i i i
||
i i i i ii
|
i| iii ii i| i
jii i i i i [iiiiiiiiiu)iiiiiim[iini»
HkQraW'JlillBock (him
PUBLISHIRS OP BOOKS FOIV^
Coal Age " Electric Railway Journal
Electrical Vferld v Engineering News-Record
American Machinist ' Ingenierfa Internaoionai
Engineering 8 Mining Journal ^ Power

Chemical 6 Metallurgical Engineering
Electrical Merchandising
ANALYTIC GEOMETEY
WITH INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER ON THE
CALCULUS
BY
CLAUDE IRWIN PALMER
ASSOCIATE PBOFESSOB OP MATHEMATICS,
ARMOtTB INSTITUTE OP TECHNOLOGY
AND
WILLIAM CHARLES KRATHWOHL

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS,
ARMOUR INBTITUTJa OF TECHNOLOGT
First Edition
McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, Inc.

NEW YORK: 370 SEVENTH AVENUE
LONDON : 6 & 8 BOUVERIE ST., E. C. 4
1921
Copyright, 1921, by the
McGbaw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
TEX: SIAP1.X: FlfEBB TOSK PA

:
PREFACE
The object of this book is to present analytic geometry to
the student in as natural and simple a manner as possible
without losing mathematical rigor. The average student
,
thinks visually instead of abstractly, and it is for the average

student that this work has been written. It was prepared
primarily to meet the requirements in mathematics for the
second half of the first year at the Armour Institute of Tech-
nology. To make it adaptable to courses in other institutions
of learning certain topics not usually taught in an engineering
school have been added.
While it is useless to claim any great originality in treat-
ment or in the selection of subject matter, the methods and
illustrations have been thoroughly tested in the class room.
It is believed that the topics are so presented as to bring the
ideas within the grasp of students found in classes where
mathematics is a required subject. No attempt has been
made to be novel only; but the best ideas and treatment have
been used, no matter how often they have appeared in other
works on the subject.
The following points are to be especially noted
(1) The great central idea is the passing from the geometric
to the analytic and vice versa. This idea is held consistently
throughout the book.
(2) In the beginning a broad foundation is laid in the
algebraic treatment of geometric ideas. Here the student
should acquire the analytic method if he is to make a success
of the course.
(3) Transformation of coordinates is given early and used
frequently throughout the book, not confined to a single
chapter as is so frequently the case. The same may be said
of polar coordinates.
V
vi PREFACE
(4) Fundamental concepts are dealt with in an informal

as well as in a formal manner. The informal often fixes
and clarifies the ideas where the formal does not.
(5) Numerous illustrative examples are worked out in
order that the student may get a clear idea of the methods
to be used in the solution of problems.
(6) The conic sections are treated from the starting point
of the focus and directrix definition.
Because of its great importance in engineering practice
(7)
the empirical equation is dealt with more completely than is
usual. This treatment has been made as elementary as
possible, but sufficiently comprehensive to enable one to
solve the average problem in empirical equations.
(8) The fundamental concepts of the calculus are presented
in a very concrete manner, and a much greater use then is
usual is made of the differential. The ideas are thus more
readily visualized than is possible otherwise. The applications
are mainly to tangents, normals, areas, and the discussion of
equations.
(9) The concluding chapter gives an adequate and careful
treatment of solid geometry so necessary in the study of the
calculus.
(10) The exercises are numerous, carefully graded, and
include many practical applications.
(11) In the introductory chapter are found various short
tables and formulas, and at the end are given four place
tables of logarithms and trigonometric functions.
The authors take this opportunity to express their indebted-
ness to their colleagues, Professors D. F. Campbell, H. R.
Phalen, and W. L. Miser, for their assistance in the preparation
of the text.
The Authors.
Chicago, III.,
May, 1921.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
Introduction
Art. Page
1. Introductory remarks 1
2. Algebra and geometry imited 1
3. Fundamental questions 1
4. Algebra ... 2
5. Trigonometry 3
6. Useful tables 5
CHAPTER II
Geometbic Facts Expressed Analytically, and Convebselt

7. General statement 8
8. Points as numbers, and conversely . 8
9. The segment
line 9
10. Addition and subtraction of line segments 1,0
11. Line segment between two points ... 11

12. Geometric addition and subtraction of line segments . ... 11
13. Determination of a point in a plane ... . ; .... 12
14. Coordinate axes 12
15. Plotting a point 13
16. Oblique cartesian coordinates . 15
17. Notation 15
18. Value of a line segment parallel to an axis . 16
19 Distance between two points in rectangular coordinates 17 .
20. Internal and external division of a line segment . . .19

21. To find the coordinates of a point that divides a line segment in
a given ratio 20
22. Formulas for finding coordinates of point that divides a line
segment in a given ratio 22
23. The angle between two lines .24 .
24. Inclination and slope of a line . .

25 . .
25. Analytic expression for slope of a line ... 25

26. Formula for finding the slope of a line through two points 25
Viii CONTENTS
Abt. Faqb
27. The tangent of the angle that one hne makes with another in
terms of their slopes . ... 26
28. Parallel and perpendicular lines .... .... 27
29. Location of points in a plane by polar coordinates 29
30. Relations between rectangular and polar coordinates 32
31. Changing from one system of axes to another 33
32. Translation of coordinate axes . 33
33. Rotation of axes. Transformation to axes making an angle <p
with the original ... 34
'34. Area of a triangle in rectangular coordinates ... 36
35. Area of any polygon 38
36. Analytic methods applied to the proofs of geometric theorems 39
CHAPTER III
Loci and Equations

38. Constants and variables 44
39. The locus 45
40. The locus of an equation ... 45
41. Plotting an equation 46
42. The imaginary,number in analytic geometry 47
43. Geometric facts from the equation 48
44. Intercepts 49
45. Symmetry, geometric properties 49
46. Symmetry, algebraic properties 50
47. Extent 51
84. Composite loci .
53
49. Intersection of two curves . .
54
50. Equations of loci 55
^61. Derivation of the equation of a locus 56
CHAPTER IV CX^ "^ '

"^
The Straight Line and the General Equation op the First Degree
52. Conditions determining a straight line 59
53. Point slope form of equation of the straight hne 59
64. Lines parallel to the axes 60
55. Slope intercept form 61
56. Two point form '
62
57. Intercept form 62
.
CONTENTS ix
Abt. Page
58. Normal form 63
59. Linear equations . 65
.
60. Plotting linear equations ... 65
61. Comparison of standard forms 66
62. Reduction oi Ax + By + C = to the normal form ... 66
63. Distance from a point to a line 68
64. The bisectors of an angle. .... 70
65. Systems of straight lines '
. 71
66. Applications of systems of straight lines to problems . . 72
67. Loci through the intersection of two loci . ... 75
68. Plotting by factoring 77
69. Straight line in polar coordinates 78
70. Applications of the straight line 79
CHAPTER V
The Cirole and Certain Forms op the Second Degree Equation
71. Introduction 86
72. Equation terms of center and radius
of circle in 86
73. Greneral equation of the circle ... .... . . .87
74. Special form of the general equation of the second degree . 87
75. Equation of a circle satisfying three conditions . . . ".
. . 88
76. Systems of circles * 92
77. Locus problems involving circles ... 94
78. Equation of a circle in polar coordinates 96
CHAPTER VI
The Parabola and Certain Forms of the Second Degree Equation
80. Conic sections 98
81. Conies 99
82. The equation of the parabola 100
83. Shape of the parabola 101
84. Definitions 102
85. Parabola with axis on the j/-axis 102
86. Equation of parabola when axes are translated ...... 103
, 87. Equations of forms y'' + Dx + Ey + F = and x^ + Dx +
Ey +F = , 106
88. The quadratic function ax' +ay+c.. .... 107
89. Equation simplified by translation of coordinate axes . . .
'
107
. .
X CONTENTS
Abt. Paqe
90. Equation of a parabola when the coordmate axes are rotated 109
91. Equation of parabola in polar coordinates. Ill
92. Construction of a parabola .112
93. Parabolic arch .113
94. The path of a projectile 114
CHAPTER VII
The ElI/Ipse and Certain Forms of the Second Degree Equation
95. The equation of the ellipse 117

96. Shape of the ellipse .... 119
97. Definitions
98. Second focus and second directrix
99. ElUpse with major axis on the 2/-axis.
.
. .
... . .
120
120
121
100. Equation of elUpse when axes are translated 123
'
101. Equation of the form Ax" + Cy^ + Dx + Ey +F = O 125
102. Equation of ellipse lyhen axes are rotated . 127
103. Equation of ellipse in polar coordinates. . 129
104. Construction of an elUpse . .... . 129
105. Uses of the ellipse ...
. ... . . 131
CHAPTER VIII
The Hyperbola and Certain Forms op the Second Degree

Equation
106. The equation of the hyperbola ... .... 134

107. Shape of the hyperbola ... . . 136
108. Definitions . . 137
109. Second focus and second directrix . 137
110. Hyperbola with transverse axis on the j/-axis ... . . 137
111. Asymptotes 139
112. Conjugate hyperbolae 141
113. Equilateral hyperbolas ... 142
114. Equation of hyperbola when axes are translated 143
115. Equation of the form Ax" + Cy' + Dx + Ey + F = O 144
116. Equation of hyperbola when
axes are rotated 146
117. Equation of hyperbola in polar coordinates 147
118. Construction of an hyperbola . ... . . 148
119. Uses of the hyperbola .... 150
CONTENTS
xii CONTENTS
Art. Paoe
152. Parabolic type, y = ex", n>Q 195
153. Hyperbolic type, y = ex", n < 197
154. Exponential type, y = ab" oi y = ae'" . . . 197
155. Probability curve 199
156. Logarithmic paper. ... ... 200
157. Empirical formulas of the type y = a + bx + cx^ + dx' + qx" 203
CHAPTER XI
Poles, Polars, and Diameters
158. Harmonic ratio . . • . 206
159. Poles and polars. . . . 206
160. Properties of poles and polars . .
209
161. Diameters of an ellipse. . . . 210
162. Conjugate diameters of an ellipse . . 212
163. Diameters and conjugate diameters of an hyperbola 213
164. Diameters and conjugate diameters of a parabola 213
165. Diameters and conjugate diameters of the general conic . . 214
CHAPTER XII
Elements of Calculus
166. Introductory remarks 216
167. Functions, variables, increments. 216
168. Illustrations and definitions. 220 . .
169. Elementary theorems of limits. 221

170. Derivatives 222
171. Tangents and normals 223 . .
172. Differentiation by rules .... 225 .
173. The derivative when J (a;) is X . . 226 . . .
174. The derivative when f{x) is c . . 226 .
175. The derivative of the sum of functions ... 226

176. The derivative of the product of two functions 227
177. The derivative of the product of a constant and a function 227
178. The derivative of the quotient of two functions 228 , ,
179. The derivative of the power of a function 228

180. Summary of formulas for algebraic functions 230 .
181. Examples of differentiation 231

182. Differentiation of implicit functions 233 .
183. Discussion of uses of derivative . 235 . .
184. Properties of a curve and its function 235

..
CONTENTS xiii
Abt. Pagb
185. Curves rising or falling, functions increasing or decreasing 236
186. Maximum and minimum . . . . 237
187. Concavity and point of inflection ... ... 239
188. Relations between increments ... , 242
189. Differentials . . .243
...
190. Illustrations
191.
192.
The inverse of differentiation
Determination of the constant of integration
.....
.... . .
243
246
247
193. Methods of integrating. 248.
194. Trigonometric functions
195. Derivatives of sin u and
.
cos u
.
.....
...
250
250
196. Derivatives of other trigonometric functions 252
S sin udu and S cos vidu
197.
198. Derivative of log«u.
199. Derivative of logaU .
.......
.
. . . 253
254
255
200. Derivative of a" and e". . ... 255
201. Derivative of u". . . . .256
202. Illustrative examples. .... ... 257
203. f—,f e'^du, and f a^du . . ... 258
CHAPTER XIII
Solid Analytic Geometry
204. Introduction 261

205. Rectangular coordinates in space . 261
206. Geometrical methods of finding the coordinates of a point in
space. ... ... . . 263
207. Distance between two points ... . . 263
208. Coordinates of a point dividing a line segment in the ratio .
ritori 264
209. Orthogonal projections of line segments. . . . 266
210. Direction cosines of a line. . . 267
211. Polar coordinates of a point 269
212. Spherical coordinates. . . 270
213. Angle between two Unes : . . . . 271
214. Locus in space 274
215. Equations in one variable. Planes parallel to the axes 274
216. Equations in two variables. Cylindrical surfaces 274
217. Spheres 276
218. Surfaces of revolution .... . 276
219. Equations of curves in space 278
xiv CONTENTS
Abt. Pagb
220. Sections of a surface by planes parallel to the coordinate planes. 279
221. Projections of curves on the coordinate planes. 280
222. Surfaces in space .... 282
223. Cieneral equation of second degree. . ... . 284
224. ElUpsoid ... 284
225. The hyperboloid of one sheet 285
226. The hyperboloid of two sheets. ... ... 287
227. ElUptic paraboloid ... 288
228. Hyperbolic paraboloid . . . 289
229. Cone . . 290
230. Equation of a plane . . 292
231. General equation of a plane. 292
232. Normal form of the equation of a plane .... '~:
293
233. Reduction of the equation of a plane to the normal form . . 293
234. Intercept form of the equation of a plane. . 294
235. The equation
of a plane determined by three conditions . . 295
236. Angle between two planes • ^^^
s,
237. Distance from a point to a plane \. ..... . 296

238. Twoplane equation of a straight line ... 298
239. Projection form of the equation of a straight line . 298
240. Point direction form of the equation of, a straight line,
symmetrical form } . 299
241. Two point form of the equation of a straight line . . 300
Summary OP FoHMULAB ...... 303
FoTTR Place Table op Loqarithms .... ... . 308
Table op Trigonometric Functions 310
Answers 315
Index 341
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1. Introductory remarks. —Although it is not always possi-
ble for a student to appreciate at the outset the content of a
subject, it is well, however, to consider the object of the study,
and to understand as far as possible its fundamental aims.
2. Algebra and geometry united. —Analytic
geometry, or
algebraic geometry, a subject that unites algebra and geom-
is
etry in such a manner that each clarifies and helps the other.
Lagrange says: "As long as algebra and geometry travelled
separate paths their advance was slow and their applications
limited. But when these two sciences joined company, they
drew from each other fresh vitality and thenceforward marched
on at a rapid pace towards perfection. It is to Descartes'
that we owe the application of algebra to geometry an appli- —
cation which has furnished the key to the greatest discoveries
in all branches of mathematics."
3. Fundamental questions. —
The fundamental questions of
analytic geometry are three.
First, given a figure defined geometrically, to determine its
equation, or algebraic representation.

'
Ren6 Descartes (1596-1650) was one of the most distinguished philos-
ophers. It was in pure mathematics, however, that he achieved the
greatest and most lasting results, especially by his invention of analytic
geometry. In developing this branch he had in mind the elucidation of
algebra by means of geometric intuition and concepts. He introduced
the present plan of representing known and unknown quantities, gave
standing to the present system of exponents, and set forth the well
known Descartes' Rule of Signs. His invention of analytic geometry
may be said to constitute the point of departure of modern mathematics.
2 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY .
[§4
Second, given numbers or equations, to determine the geo-

metric figure corresponding to them.
Third, to study the relations that exist between the geo-
metric properties of. a figure and the algebraic, or analytic,
properties of the equation.
To pursue the subjectof analytic geometry successfully the
student should be familiar with plane a,nd solid geometry, and
should know algebra through quadratic equations and plane
trigonometry.
While parts of analytic geometry can be applied at once to
the solution of various interesting and practical problems,
much of it is studied because it is used in more advanced
subjects in mathematics.
Some of the more frequently used facts of algebra and trig-
onometry are given here for convenience of reference.
4. Algebra. —
Quadratic equations. The roots of the quad- —
ratic equation ax^ + 6a; + c =^ are
,,=
—b + _^-
Vb^ - 4,ac
^, „„
and
, „
r. = —b— \/¥ — 4ac
Ti + ri = > and riTi = —
a a
These roots are
real and equal if b^ — 4ac = 0,
real and unequal if b^ — 4ac > 0,
imaginary if &^ — 4ac<0.
The expression b^ — 4ac is called the discriminant of the

quadratic equation.
Logarithms.
(1) logMiV = logM + logiV.

(2) log {M ^ N) = log M - log N.
(3) log N"" = n log N.
(4)iog<Xlv
^ = îogAr.
n ;SI°^\^°i"
(6) log!, 6 = 1.
—
§6] INTRODUCTION 3
(7) a'"*"^ = N.
(8) log ^ = -logiV. (10) log!,alog„6 = 1.
1
(11) logîV = 2.302585 logioiV.
log6 N = N. logio N = 0.43429 loge N.
(9) log„
j-^^ (12)
The base e = 2.718281828459- • -. tt = 3.141592653589- - -.
5. Trigonometry. —Formulas.
(1) 27r radians = 360°, ir radians = 180°.
180°
(2) 1 radian = ^^^ = 57.29578° - = 57° 17' 44.8".
TT
(3) 1° = ^= 0.0174533 - radians.
(4) sin^ d + cos2 6 = 1.
(5) 1 +• tan^ e = sec'' 6.
(6) 1 + cot^ e = csc^ e.
(7)^ sin e
^
= 1
CSC
2>
d'
^nd CSC 6 = -.—
sin B
^•
(8) cos = ;;, and sec 9

— ~
^
sec d' cos 6
(9)'
^
tan 6 = — —
cot
r,
B
and cot B =
tan B
-
sin secg
/in\ *
(10) tan aB = = T-
^ ' cos B CSC 9
,^.. „ cosB CSC 9
(11) cot 6
.
= ^ - = T-
sin 9 sec B
(12) sin (a + |8) = sin a cos i8 + cos a sin /3.
(13) cos (a + (3) = cos a cos /3 — sin a sin /S.
(14) sin (a — |8)
= sin a cos /S — cos a sin ;8.
(15) cos (a — /3)
= cos o; cos ;8 + sin a sin /3. •
/iex
(16)
,
tan {a
/
+ 0)
a^ =
,
z
tan a + tan g5-
7
1—
tana —
.,_.
(17)
^ ^
,
tan (a
^
,
— „,
0)^ = r—n.
1 + 1
tan a tan
tan
—^• |3
/3
(18) sin 20 = 2 sin 6 cos 0.
(19) cos 20 = cos^ e - sin fl = 1 - 2 sin^ B = 2 cos" 0-1.

^««N ô 2 tan
(20)tan2g =
,
-
_,, ..
^_^^^,g
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY [§5
— cos 6 COS 6
(21) sin he=±yf (22) cos ^0
—
-n/^ 2
(23) tan|» '-4 +— COS d

cos 8
1 COS 8
sin 8 1
sin 8
+ cos 6
(24) sin a + sin /3 = 2 sin §(« + /3) cos §(« — j3).
(25) sin a — sin |3 = 2 cos ^{a + /3) sin |(a — j8).
(26) cos a +
cos j3 = 2 cos i(a + /3) cos f (a — fi).
(27) cos a — cos /3 = —2 sin |(a + fi) sin |(a — jS).
(28) sin a cos /3 = | sin (a -f |8) + | sin (a — ff).
(29) cos a sin /3 = J sin (a + jS) — | sin (a — /3).
(30) cos a cos /3 = § cos (a + |3) + ^ cos (a — 0).
(31) sin a sin /3 = — | cos (a + /3) + | cos (a — ;3).
(32) (Sine Law.)

sin a sin ^ sin 7
(33) a" = 6= +c .2
26c cos a. (Cosine Law.)
(34) Sin hr — 0) = cos 8.
cos .hf - 0) = sin 8.
tan 'ir - 8) = cot 8.
cot .hr - 6) = tan 8.
(35) sin .hr + 0) = cos 8.
cos W+ 8) = —sin 8.
tan W+ 8) = —cot 8.
cot [h^ + 8) = -tan 8.
(36) sin ir — 0) = sin 8.
cos Tc — 8) = — cos 8.
tan Tf — e) = -tanfl.
cot IT — 8) = —cot 8.
(37) sin V -\- 8) = —sine.
cos ir+ 8) = — cos 8.
tan It+ 8) = tan 8.
cot K + 6) = cot 8.
(38) sin [^ — 8) = — cos 8.
cos \^ — 8) = —sin 8.
tan - 8) = cot 8.
cot [^ — e) = tan 8.
INTRODUCTION
(39) sin (fr + 6) = -cos 6.
cos + e) =
(|ir sin B.
tan (It + 6) = -cot 6.

cot (1^ + 6) = -tanO.
(40) sin (27r - 5) = -sin 0.
cos — 0) = cos 6.
(2ir
tan(2ir - 6) = — tan^.
cot (27r - e), = -cotfl.
(41) sin (- e) = —sine,
cos {— 0) = cos 0.
tan (— 5) = — tan 0,
cot (- 0) = - cot e.
6. Useful tables.
Values op e" from a; = to a; = 4.9
X
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
in
O
m
K
E<
f»
O
w
o
<
b
o
en
S
K
m
Eh
^
§6] INTRODUCTION 7
Table op Feequentlt Used Trigonometric Functions
e"
CHAPTER II
GEOMETRIC FACTS EXPRESSED ANALYTICALLY, AND

CONVERSELY
7. General statement. —
Geometry deals with points, lines,
and figures composed of points and lines. Algebra dâls with
numbers and algebraic statements composed of numbers, such
as the equation.
In order to study geometric relations by means of algebra,
and conversely, it is necessary to be able to represent points,
lines, and geometric figures by means of numbers and equa-
tions, arid conversely. That is, it is necessary to be able to
translate from the language of geometry to that of algebra, and
conversely.
8.Points as numbers, and conversely. — If a point moves
from A to B in a straight line, the point is said to generate
the Une segment AB, that is, the line segment AB is the locus
of the point. If the point moves from fi to A it generates
— *
the line segment
vement to consider
BA.
AB
It
and
is
BA
con-
as
Pjg J
separate line segments having oppo-
site directions. The arrow is often
used to denote the positive direction.
Such line segments as AB and BA are called directed line
segments. The point from which the moving point starts is
called the initial point, and the point where it stops is called
the terminal point.
It is to be noted that a line segment is read by naming the
initial point first.
Let X'X be a straight line of indefinite length, and

choose: first, a unit of length; second, a direction of motion,
which we shall call positive if toward the right and negative
8
§9] GEOMETRIC FACTS EXPRESSED ANALYTICALLY 9
if toward the left; third, a point called the origin from which
to start.
Then any point P can be determined by a real number — în-
tegral, fractional, or irrational —which shows the humber of

units the point has moved from the origin.
The number is positive or negative according as the motion
is in the positive or negative direction. The origin is desig-
nated by 0.
Conversely, any real number corresponds tO a point which

is distant that number of units in the proper direction from
the origin.
Thus, in Fig. 2, +6 designates the point Pi and —2 the point Pj;
while i? corresponds to —3 J, and Q to \/3.
The line X'X is a directed straight line if it is thought of as

generated by a point moving in the direction from X' to or X
from X
to Z'.
.Unit.
Xi. , B Pi O Q P P,
\->X
H
r
1 1 1 1 1
) I I 1 1
-4 -3 -a -1 1 -iiz 3 1
Fig. 2
9. The line segment. —

The magnitude of a hne segment is
determined by the number of units in its length, that is, by
the number of units a point moves in generating it.
The value of a line segment is determined by its length and
direction, and is defined to. be the number which would represent
the terminal point' of the segment if the initial point were taken
as origin.
It follows from this definition that the 'value of a line seg-
ment read in one direction is the negative of the value if read
in the opposite direction.
Thus, AB = -BA, or AB + BA = 0.
By the numerical value of a line segment is meant the num-
ber of units of length in without reference to its direction.
it
Two line segments are equal if they have the same directiori
and the same length, that is, the same value.
10 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY [§10
In Fig. 3, AB = +2, CD = +2, DN = +6, EC 4, FA = -8,

AB = CD, and AF = CN. AC and FD are equal in numerical value.
A
I 1
BCD
1 1
i
1 1
E F
1 1 1 1
N
1—*- I
Unit
1
Fig. 3.
EXERCISES
1. Draw a line segment 5 long and take the origin at the center.
in.
Choose as a unit of measure a What numbers designate
line J in. long.
the ends of the line? Locate the points corresponding to the numbers 9i
7|, -4, -3|, \/2, -V3,,r.
Draw a line segment 20 units in length, with the origin, O, at the
2.
center. Locate the following points: A corresponding to 3, B corre-
sponding to 8, C corresponding to — 4, D corresponding to —10,E cor-
responding to 10. Give the values of the following line segments: AB,
DA,CK, BC, EA, AC.
3. In exercise 2, how are the numbers designating the points affected
if the origin is moved two uhits to the right? How are the values of the
line segments affected?
L
1 1
A\-^ C
\
B(-
M
1^
N1->!
Fig. 4.
10. Addition and subtraction of line segments. In Fig. 4, —

if A, B, C, • • M, iV are any arrangement of points on a
•
p straight line, then

^Q p
X i t ^B + BC+ • • +MN + NA = 0.
Pi p, q For the moving point generates in succes-

^ —' ^ sion the Hue segments AB, BC, MN, -.
NA, starting at A and returning to A. It

therefore generates as much in the negative direction as in the
positive. Hence the sum is zero.
A case of frequent occurrence is that o*f three points .0, P,,
and Pi on a straight hne. Fig. 5. If is taken as origin, then
[1] (1) OP2 = OPi + P1P2,
(2) P1P2 = OP2 - OPi.
— —

6
Proof. OPi + P1P2 + P2O = 0. Why?

Adding OP2 = OP2, gives OPi + P1P2 = OP2.
Adding OP2 + PiO = OP2 + PiO, gives P1P2 =[0P2 + PiO.
.-. P1P2 = OP2-OP1.
Line segment between two points. To find the value

11. —
segment between two points on a straight line, when
of the line
the numbers determining these two points with reference to
an origin on the same line, are known.
In Fig. 5, is the origin and xi and Xi are the numbers
determining the points Pi and P2. respectively. It is requii-ed

to find the value of the line segment P1P2, that is, the magni-
tude and direction t)f P1P2.
PiP2.= OP2 - OPi. By [II.
But OPi = xi, OPi = Xi.
[2] .
•
. P1P2 = X2 - xi.
This states that the value of the line segment between two points
on a straight line is equal to the number determining the terminal
point of the line segment minus the number determining its initial
point, when a point on the straight line is taken as the origin.
-j rM rn
A —m—Pi—n tto—1— —fn—Pa
—-8-7-6-5-4-3-2-1
i
n
r-i—r— — — — — —r* 1
1 Ps
1 1 1 1 1
-U-lO-9 U 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 13
Fig. 6.
Thus, in Kg. 6, P1P2 = OP2 - OPi = 5 - 3 = 2.

P3P2 = OP2 - OP3 = 5 - 8 = -3.
PJ', = OP, - OP5 4 - (-8) = +4.
PJ>2 = OPi - OPe = 6 - (-4) = -h9.
P3P6 = OPi - OP3 = -8 - 8 16.
12. Geometric addition and subtraction of line segments.

From the preceding article it readily follows that two line seg-
ments having the same. or opposite directions can be added by
placing the initial point of the second upon the terminal point
of the first. The sum of the line segments is the line segment
having, as initial point, the initial point of the first and, as terminal
point, the terminal point of the second.
,
A line segment is subtracted from another by reversing its
direction and adding.

Thus, in Fig. 6, OPi +
PJP, = OP, = 8.
PxP, + P>P„ =PlP, = -11.
PtPs - PiPz = P>Pz P3P2 + = PtPi = 9-
PJ** - PO't = PJ'4 + PiPt = PiPt = -9-
EXERCISES
Onaline with origin at O, locate the following points: A determined
1.
by 2, B by 3, C by S, Dhy -5, E by ,-8^ E^ th^ method of arficle-Ô,
find the value of the line segments AB, BC, BD, AE, BE, EB, CE, CD.
2. On a line with origin at 0, locate the points Pi, Pi, Pa, Pt, determined
by the numbers xi, xi, Xi, xt respectively. Give the values of the
(1)
linesegments PiPj, P»P4, P4P2, P4P1. (2) Give the line segments that
have the following values: Xi — Xt, Xi — xt, x, — xi. Do the relative
positions of the points make any difference in the answers?
Determination of a point in a plane. It was shown in

13. —
article 8that the position of a point on a straight line can be
determined by one number, which shows the direction and the
distance that the point is from a fixed point on the straight hne.
Various methods may be given for locating a point in a plane.
For the purposes of analytic geometry, two of these will be
chosen. They correspond to the two methods ordinarily used
in locating a point on the surface of the earth.
First, a house in a city is located by giving its street and
number. That is, by stating its distance arid direction from
each of two intersecting streets.
Second, a city may be located by giving its distance and
direction from another city.
In analytic geometry, the two corresponding methods of
locating a point in a plane are (1) the method by cartesian
coordinates, and (2) the method by polar coordinates.
CARTESIAN COORDINATES
14. —
Coordinate axes. (1) The lines of reference X'X and
Y'Y, Fig. 7, intersecting in the point 0, are chosen. These
lines are considered perpendicular to each other in this article,

and will always be so taken unless otherwise stated.
The line X'X is called the axis of abscissas or the z-axis.
The line Y'Y is called the axis of ordinates or the y-axis. To-
gether they are called the coordinate axes.
When the coordinate axes are perpendicular to each other
they form a rectangular system.
The coordinate axes divide the plane into four quadrants,
numbered I, II, III, and IV as in trigonometry.
(2) A line segment of convenient length is chosen for a unit
of measure. This may be of any length whatever.
(3) The direction is chosen as positive when towards the
right parallel to the a;-axis, or
upwards parallel to the j/-axis. p,
Nt
Hence the negative direction
/Vi
is towards the left, or down-
wards.
Ms M.
15. Plotting a point. —A ^- M. M,
i-ji
point Pi in the plane is de-

N, *Pt
termined by the line segments N,
JViPi and MiPi, Fig. 7, drawn
1"
parallel to X'X and Y'Y re-
Fig. 7.
spectively, for the values of
these Une segments tell how far and in what direction Pi is
from the lines of reference.

Here the line segment NiPi = +5, and MiPi = +4.
The point Pi '
is determined by the line segments NiPt = — 3, and
M2P2 = +6. ,
The point Pa is determined by the line segments NtPt = — 6, and

MJ'i = -4.
It evident that any point in the plane is determined by
is
one pair of numbers, and only one; and, conversely, every pair
of real numbers determines one point in the plane, and only
one.
The two numbers that determine a point in a plane are
called the coordinates of the point. The number which is the

value of the line segment parallel to the rc-axis is called the
abscissa of the point, and is usually represented by x. The
number which the value of the line segment parallel to the
is
j/-axis is called the ordinatei of the point, and is usually repre-

sented by y.
The coordinates are written, for brevity; within parentheses
and sejparated by a comma, the abscissa always being first, as
{x, y). The letter designating the point is often written just
before the parentheses.
Thus, the.points in Fig. 7 are written: Pi(5, 4), Pi(.-3, 6), PaC-C, -4),
and Pi(8, —3). The points Mi, Mi, Ni, Na, and O are respectively the
points (5, 0), (-3, 0), (0, 4), (0, -4), and (0, 0).
It is .evident that, in the first quadrant, both coordinates

are positive; in the second quadrant, the abscissa is negative
and the ordinate positive; in the third quadrant, both
coordinates are negative; and, in the fourth quadrant, the
abscissa is positive and the ordinate negative.
When a point is located in a planeby means of its coordi-
nates it is said to be plotted.
The locating of points is
greatly facilitated by using

paper that is ruled into small
squares. Such paper is called
coordinate paper.
16. —
Oblique cartesian coordinates. In determining a point
in a plane,it is not necessary that the coordinate axes shall
be perpendicular to each other, but they may form an angle

03. Such a set of axes is called an oblique cartesian system.
In Fig. 9, the abscissa of Pi is NiPi = 3, and its ordinate is MiPi = S.
The coordinates of Pj are NJPi = —4, and MaPj = 3.
17. Notation. —To secure

clearness of statement, sub-
scripts wiU be used with the
letters designating points, and
they will agree with the sub-
scripts used with the coordi-
nates of the points.
H^X
Thus, the point Pi has coordi-
nates (xi, 2/i), the point Pj has
coordinates {xi, yi), and so on.
Points designated in this "hia I.
manner will, be fixed' 'p\&!nts, while a point that

in general,
may vary in position will be designated by a letter, as P,
without a subscript and have coordinês {x, y),
EXERCISES 1
1. Draw a pair of axes and plot the following points: (2, 3), (7, 9),
(-2, 4), (-7, -2), (4, -3), (-2, -8), (0, 0), (0, 5), (-6, 0).
2. Draw the triangle whose vertices are (0, 2), (—2, —3), and (3, —2).
3. Draw the quadrilateral whose vertices are (3, 0), (0, 2), ( — 6, 2),
and(0, -2).
4. If the Ordinate of a point is 0, where is the point? Where' if its
abscissa is 0? Using x for the abscissa and y for the ordinate, express
each as an equation.
5. What is the locus of all points that have abscissas equal to 5?
Of aU points having ordinates equal to 10? Use x for the abscissas and
y for the ordinates and write these statements as equations.
6. The abscissas of two points are each a. How is the line joining
them situated with reference to the y-axis? The ordinates of two
points are each —6. How is the line joining them situated with reference
to the X-axis? Write each of these lines as an equation.
7. Two points are placed so that the abscissa of each is equal to
:
its ordinate. How is the line joining the points situated with reference
to the coordinate axes? In what two quadrants can the points lie?
Write the equation.
8. Two points are placed so that the abscissa of each is -equal to
the negative of the ordinate. How is the line connecting them situated
with reference to the coordinate axes? In what two quadrants can the
points lie? Write the equation.
9. Draw a rectangle whose vertices are (—4, 2), (—4, —5), (7, —5),
and (7, 2). Find the length of its sides by differences of abscissas or
ordinates.
10. The vertex of a square is at the origin, and a diagonal lies on the
positive part of the x-axis. Find the coordinates of the other vertices
if a side is 10.
11. What is the locus of a point which moves so that the ratio of
its ordinate to itsabscissa is always 1 ? So that this ratio is always — 1 ?
Always 2? Write the equations.
12. An equilateral triangle of side a has a vertex at the origin and
one side on the x-axis at the right of the origin. Find the coordinates
of its vertices.
13. A regular hexagon of side 8 is placed so that its center is at the
origin and one diagonal is along the x-axis. Find the coordinates of its
vertices.
18. Value of line segment parallel to an axis. If the —

segment of a line is parallel to one of the coordinate axes, it
has a definite direction as well as a length, that is, it has a
value. If Pi(xi, 2/i) and Ptixi, 2/2) are any two points on a
line parallel to the a;-axis, then
[2i] P1P2 = X2 - xi.
This follows directly from article 11, for if P1P2 intersects

the 2/-axis in Ni, P1P2 = NiPa — NiPi = X2 — Xi.
Likewise, if Pi{xi, yi) and Piixi, z/s) are any two points on
a line parallel to the y-a,xis, then
[22] P1P2 = 72 - yi.
The student should locate points in various positions and

satisfy himself that [2i] and [22] are true. Figure 10 shows
several positions of Pi and P2
These facts may be stated as follows
Since (Xi - XiY = (xi - XiY and (2/2 - 2/1)'' = (vi - Vit)^,
d = VCxi - Xi)^+ (2/1 - 2/2)=*.
It should be noted that the line through Pi could as well

have been drawn parallel to the
Pif-î.yit 2/-axis, and the line through P^
parallel to the a;-axis.
-*x It is to be noted thait the above

proof is general and is made with-
y' out reference to a figure. The
1___J
" - -
Pi(»ii»i) «a-*i Q(Xi,ili)
' 1
student, should draw
however,
several figures locating, the points
Fio. 11.
in different positions and satisfy
himself of the truth of [3]. Figure 11 shows one position of
the points.
EXERCISES
1. Find the distance between each of the following pairs of points:
(1) (3, 4), (-6, -8). (3) (-1, -2).
0),(12,
(2) (-10, 4), (3, -9). (4) (6, 7), (-5, -5).
2. In Fig. 12, express each of the fol-
lowing line segments as the difference /•Z*!."!)
between two abscissas: MiMt, MtMa,

M2M1, MiM,. ^liî.yi)
3. Express each of the following line

segments as the difference between two
ordinates: NiNi, NiNi, NtNi, NiN*.
4. Derive the formula for the distance
between Pi(a;i, yi} and Pi(xi, y^), (1)
when both Pi and Pj are in the first P4 («!,»,)
quadrant, (2) when Pi is in the third
Fig. 12.
and Pi in the fourth quadrant, (3) when
Pi is in the fourth and Pj in the second quadrant.
6. Find the lengths of the sides of the following triangles:
(1) (2, 3), (-5, 8), (-2, -4). (2) (3, -6), (0, 5), (-4, -2).
6. Show that the points (9, 12), (-3, -4), and
4-\/6) lie on a (5, 4 -
circle whose center is at the point (3, 4).
7. Find a point whose abscissa is 3 and whose distance from (—3, 6)
is 10.
Suggestion. — ^Let y be the ordinate of the point.

Then V(3 + 3)^ + {y - 6)" = 10. Solve for y.
8. Find the center of the circle passing through the three points
(6, 15), (13,8), and (-4, -9).
—
Suggestion. By the definition of a circle, if a circle passes through
these three points, there must be a point (a;, y) from which they are
equally distant. Write the distance of each point from the point (x, y)
and form two equations. Solve these equations for x and y.
9. Three vertices of a parallelogram are (—2, 4), (5, 2), and (6, 1).
Find a fourth vertex. How many are there?
—
Suggestion. Use the fact that the opposite sides of a parallelogram
are equal.
10. Two vertices of an equilateral triangle are (2, 10) and (8, 2).
Find the third vertex.
11. Find the equation which states that the point (x, ^) is 5 units from
the point (3, 4). What is the locus of the point (x, j/)? Draw the
locus.
12. Find the equation that expresses the fact that the point (x, y) is
equally distant from the points (2, 3) and (7, —4). What is the locus?
13. Show that the values of liae segments parallel to either axes in
rectangular coordinates hold true when the axes are oblique.
14. If the axes are inclined to each other at an angle of oi, and if
lines PiQ and QPi of Fig. 11 are drawn parallel to the axes, then the
angle PiQPi equals ta or 180° — a. By the cosine theorem of t igonom-
etry show that then the distance between the two points Pi(.Xi, yi) and
Pi^xi, yi) is d = V(.Xi X2)2 -(y, y,y +
2(Xi - + - X2){yi -
cos w.
2/2)
16. The angle between two oblique axes is 60°. Find the distance
between the points (—2, 3) and (6, —4).
DIVISION OF A LINE SEGMENT

20. Internal and external division of a line segment. —
If Pi and Pi are any two points on a straight line, then any
third point, Po, on the line is
said to divide the line seg- _£l —5—^2 +^ —
,
ment P1P2 into two parts. îg. 13.

The point Po is said to
divide the line segment P^Pz internally if Po Hes between Pi
and Pi] and externally if Po lies beyond P2 as at P'q, or be-

yond Pi as at Po.
.
When Po lies between Pi and Pa the two parts are PiPo and
P0P2. When Po lies at Pq beyond P2, the two parts are PiPq
and P'oP2- When Po lies at P" beyond Pi, the two parts are
PiPo and ,PoP2- The parts are always read as here, that is,
from the initial point to the division point and from the
division point to the terminal point.
When the line segment P1P2 is divided internally, both
PiPo and P0P2 are read in the same direction, and therefore
PP
the ratio „ „ is positive, and has a small value' when Po is
XÔi 2
near Pi, and a large value when Po is near Pa, that is, the
value of the ratio is between and + <» .
When the line segment P1P2 is divided externally the two

parts are read in opposite directions, and therefore the ratio
P P' P P"
pTp , or p^, is negative. Further, when the point of
division lies beyond P2 the ratio is between -co and —1,

and when the point of division lies beyond Pi the ratio is
between — 1 and 0.
It remains to express these geometric ideas analytically.
This isdone in the next articles.
EXERCISES
1. Upon a straight line locate two points Pi and Pi 6 units apart.
Locate a third point Po such that -^^
P0P2
= f . Such that ^^
P0P2
= -|.
Suggestion. —These may be determined by methods of plane geometry,
or may be computed by algebra.
2. Divide a line 4 in. long into two parts that are in the ratio 3:1.
In the ratio —5.
21. To find the coordinates of a point that divides a line

segment in a given ratio.
—
Example 1. Internal point. Required the coordinates of the point
that divides the line segment from Pi( — 2, —4) to Pa (5, 6) in the ratio
f
Solution. —
Draw a pair of axes as in Fig. 14, and locate the points
Pi and P2. Let Po(so, 2/0) be the required point. Draw lines through
these points parallel to the ^-axis and cutting the i-axis in Mi, Mi,
and Mo respectively.
'
Then, by plane geometry,

M,Mo PiPo
But MiMo = Xo — ( — 2) and MoMi = 5 — Xo, by [2i], for the abscissas

of Ml, Mo, and Mi are respectively —2, Xa, and 5.
And it is given that -5^ = k.

Ps(5,6)
a:o - (-2) _ 5
Hence
6 — lo 2"
Solving this equation, a;o 3.

Similarly, draw lines parallel to the
a;-axis cutting the y-axis in Ni No, and
N2 respectively.
»-x
NjNo ^PiPo
Then
N0N2 PoPi
But iViiVo = 2/0 - (-4) and N0N2 =
6 - 2/0. 12j]
yo - (-4) __ 5 P,(-2,-4)
Hence - yo 2'
Fig. 14.
Solving this equation, j/o = 3^.
Therefore the point Po has as coordinates (3, 3\).
—
Example 2. External point. Required the coordinates of the point
that divides the linesegmentfromPi(-3,5) toP2(2, -3)in the ratio -|.
Solution. —Locate Pi and Pj as in Fig. 15.
Since the ratio is — f, the point of
•^' must be farther from
division, Po(xo,'yo)
Pi than from Pa, and so is beyond Pj as
shown.
Draw the Unes PiiWi, P2M2, and PoAf
^'-H4 H-l-»--X-
as in example 1.
MiMo _ PiPo _ _5
Then: 3-
MoMi P0P2
But MiMo = Xo — (—3) and MoMi =
2 - Xo. I2i].
Xo
'
- (-3) ^ _5
Hence - Xo 3'
2
Solving this equation, Xo = 9-J-.
•Po(«o»o)
Similarly, draw PiiVi, P2N2, and PoATo.
_
^^^'^
^-liVo PiPo 5
~3-
Jml^p^.^
But = 2/0-5 and
ATiiVo iVoiVz = -3 2/0. [aj.
2/0 - 5
-r,
Hence —5
—3—2/0
— = — ^5o-
Solving this equation, 2/0 = — 15-
Therefore the point Po has as coordinates (92, —15).
—
Example 3. External point. Required the coordinates of the
point that divides the line segment from Pi(5, —2) to Pii — 2, 4) in the
ratio — ^.
Solution. —Locate Pi and Pj as in Fig. 16.
Since the ratio is —f , the point of division Po(a;o, 2/o) must lie nearer
to Pi than to Pi, and so is beyond Pi as shown.
Draw the lines PiMi, PiMi, and PoMo as in example 1.
M^Mo P^Po _ 2
^^^°
Mjfi ~ PoPi ~ 5-
But MiMo = lo — 5 and
M0M2 = -2 - Xo. [2i].
Hence —
— ^2 — Xo = —5
g.
Solving this equation, Xo = 9|-.
Similarly, draw PiiVi, PiNi, and

PoiVo.
^'"^'^
iVoATj
~ PoPj ~ 5-
Po(«o.I'o
But iViiVo = j/o - (-2) and
Fig. 16.
iVoiVz = 4-2/0. [22I.
Hence
j/o +2
Solving this equation, ya = —6.
Therefore the point Po has as coordinates (9f , —6).
22. Formulas for finding coordinates of point that divides

a line segment in a given ratio. —Required the coordinates
of the point that divides the line segment from Pi{xi, j/i) to
Piixi, 2/2) in the ratio ri Tj
Let Po(xo, be the required point.
2/0)
Draw through Pi, Pa, and Po parallel to the j/-axis and

lines
intersecting the a;-axis in Mi, M2, and Mq respectively.
Then
M
iMo ^ PiPo ^ n
M,Mi P0P2
But MiMo = Xo — xi and M0M2 =
X2 ~~' Xq, lîj
Xo — a;i J"!
Hence
X2 — Xo
Solving for Xo, Xo ~~

riXj + TiXi
ri + rz
Similarly, draw Unes through Pi, P2, and Po parallel to
§22] GEOMETRIC PACTS EXPRESSED ANALYTICALLY 23
the a;-axis and intersecting the y-axis in Ni, Ni, and

No respectively.
Then ^1^° - ^'^' - ^^
But iViiVo = 2/0 — 2/1 and N0N2 = 2/2 - j/o. [^-t]
Hence ^'' ~ ^^
= li.
2/2 - 2/0 ?"2
Solving for 2/0, 2/" =

^^ff^^'
Therefore the coordinates of Pq are
\Ai ^ _ riX2 + raXi '
riya + r 2yi
ti i- r2 Ti + 12
Special case. — It is frequently required to find the coordi-
nates of the point bisecting a line segment. In this case the
two parts are equal, and the ratio —= 1. Formula [4]
then becomes
r-i
[6]
^
Xo = —+
Xl 2 X2
' y» —+2~"
yi 72
It is readily seen that the results of the last two articles are
true for oblique axes as Well as for rectangular axes.
EXERCISES
In the first four exercises draw the figure, and solve without using
formulas [4] and [5].
1. Find the coordinates of the point which divides the line from
(-5, -8) to (-1, 4) in the ratio 3 1. :
(-1, 4) to (8, 1) in the ratio 1:3.
3. Find the coordinates of the point which bisects the line from (8, 6)
to (-2, -3).
(-4, 8) to (2, 6) in the ratio -|.
6. Do each of the first four exercises by the formulas.
6. Find the coordinates of the point whicli divides the line from
(3, -9) to (-1, 5) in the ratio 5 3. :
( -6, 8) to (3, -2) in the ratio 3:1. In the ratio -2:3,
8. Draw a triangle the coordinates of whose vertices are (1, 1), (2, —3),
and (—4, —6), and find the coordinates of the middle points of its sides.
9. The coordinates of P are (2, 3) and of Q are (3, 4). Find the
coordinates of R so that PR RQ =3:4.
:
10. Draw the triangle with vertices at (3, 5), (—5, —3), and (9, —7).
Find the lengths of its medians.
11. Show
that the line joining the middle points of two sides of the
triangle, having as vertices the points
(8, 6), (1, 1), and (4, —5), is equal
to one-half the third side.
12. Prove that the diagonals of the parallelogram whose vertices are
(10, 4), (—3, 4), (-6, -6), and (7, -6) bisect each other.
13. The middle point 6) and one extremity is at
of a line is at (4,
( — 3,
—2). Find the other extremity.
14. Find the coordinates of the points that trisect the line from (2, 2)
to (-7, -4).
15. Show that the median of the trapezoid whose vertices are (0, 0),
(o, 0), (6, c), and (d, c) equals one-half the sum of the parallel sides.
ANGLES FORMED BY LINES

23. The angle between two lines. —
That one line forms
an angle with another is a geo-
metric idea, and does not neces-
sarily depend upon whether or
not the lines are considered as
having a positive or negative
sense, that is, direction. In
p _ order to express the facts analyti-
we start with the following
cally, :
Definition. —The angle that a line h makes with a line h

is the angle, not greater than 180°, generated by revolving U
in a positive direction until it coincides with li.
In Fig. 17, both (a) and (6), the angle <p is the angle that li makes
with li.
It follows that the angle that U makes with Zi is tt — <p.
The definition still holds when the Unes do not intersect,

that is, are not in the same plane, if it is understood that U
revolves in a plane parallel to h, until it is parallel to h.
. .
24. Inclination and slope of a line. —An important special

case of the angle that one line makes with another is the
angle that a line makes with the a;-axis. This angle is called
the inclination of the line. It is always measured from the
positive part of the x-axis.
Thus, in Fig. 18, ai is the inclination of h \lt

and ai the inclination of U. \
Definition. —The tangent of the
V?!
inclination of a line is called the slope 5 *-x
of the line.
Thus, if TO is the slope of a line and a its Pi^. ig_

inclination, then to = tan a.
Since the inclination may be any angle in the first or second

quadrant, the slope of a line may have any real value either
positive or negative, including and + <»
26. Analytical expression for slope of a line.
—
Example. Required the slope and inclination of a line I passing
through the points Pi(2, 3) and P2(5, 6).
—
Solution. Locate the points Pi and P2
and draw the line I as in Fig. 19. Through
Pi draw a line parallel to the i-axis, and
through Pa a line parallel to the y-axis.
These lines meet at Q, and the angle QPiPj
is the inclination of I. Then to = tan QP.1P2.
= OPa
6-3
h*-X
But tan QPiPj
Hence m 1,
^
and a = tan~'l =
5-2 = 1.
45°.
It should be noted that, whatever

Fig. 19.
the position of the points, the line
drawn parallel to the a;-axis is so drawn that an angle equal to
the inclination is formed.
26. Formula for finding the slope of a line through two
points. —
Required to find the slope of a line I in terms of the
coordinates of two points Piixi, yi) and Piix^, 2/2) on the line.
Let the line be in either of the positions shown in Fig. 20.
In either case draw a line through Pi parallel to the a;-axis,
forming an angle equal to a as shown; and through P^ draw

a line parallel to the 2/-axis meeting the first line in Q.
Then, whether the slope m of Z is positive or negative,
= QPj ^ Vi - yi
m= tan a
—
PiQ Xi xx
If Pi and Pi are inter-

ftK-"!)!^
Z/i-ya
changed, the slope is
X\ — Xi
Pî'i-Vi)
Vi - Vl
which equals
X2 — Xj
::s£ l^x Therefore, in any case, the
formula is
Fig. 20. [6] m = tan a = ^' ~ ^^ -
27. The tangent of ,the angle that one line makes with another
in terms of their slopes. —
Required the tangent of the angle that
line h, having a slope of mi, makes with h, having a slope of m?.
Let the inclinations of h and h be ai and at respectively.
*-x
Fig. 21.
a:;\
an = mi, and tan az = mj.
Then tan
There are two cases: case I when ai>a2, Fig. 21. (a); and
case II when ai<ai, Fig. 21 (6).
In each case, let <p be the angle that h makes with It.
Then, in case I, ai = a2 + ^, or ^ = ai— 0:2.
And, in case II, 0:2 = ai + (180° — <p),
or <p = 180° + (ai - ai)..
In either case,
.
tan <p = ,
tan (ai
/
— ai)
N
= tan ai — tan a^
,
1 +
tan ai 2tan a^
. ,
—~+
= mi m2-
1 wiima
rm i.
mi — m2
1 + va.iaii
28. Parallel and perpendicular lines. If two — lines are

parallel, their slopes are equal, and conversely.
If two lines are perpendicular to each other, the slope of one
is the negative reciprocal of the slope of the other, and conversely.
If line h is parallel to line h, then ai = aa, and mi = mj.
Conversely.
" If mi = mj,
'
^
1
—+ Wimz ;
= 0.
Then tan cp = 0, and hence <p = 0.
Therefore h and h are parallel by Art. 23.

If h and ^2 are perpendicular to each other, ai = a2 + 90°, or
Oil = ai — 90°.
1
1
Then tan ai = tan (02 + 90°) = — cot at = — r-
tan a2
Therefore mi = , and m2 =
m2 mi
Conversely.
" If mi = , tan ai = — t = — cot 0:2.
m2 tan 02
But cot ff2 = tan (90° — ai) = —tan (aa — 90°), or
cot a2= —tan (90° + 0:2).
Then tan ai = tan (a2 — tan ai = tan (90°
90°), or + 02).
From this ai = 02 — 90°, or ai = 90° «2. +
Hence either 02 — ai = 90° or aj — 0:2 = 90°.
Therefore (p = 90°, and h and h are perpendicular to each
other.
The following are the important facts to remember: ^\
[8] For parallel lines, mi = ma.
[9] For perpendicular lines, mi = ——, and m2 = — —

Example. —Find the angle that the line through (4, 5) and (-2, —4)
makes with the line through (0, 4) and (-6, -8).
—The slope =
5+4„ =
3
Solution. of U is OTi . . n*
The slope of h is mt =
4+8 —
_ _ 2.
U +
,
D
1 — 2 1
Substituting in [4], tan <p = ^ _f „ „ = — g.
.-. ^ = tan-i {-\) = 172° 52.4'.
EXERCISES
1. Find the slopes of the lines through the following pairs of points:
(1) (-4, -4) and (4, 4). (4) (-\/3, -v/S) and (^2, VS).
(2) (-4, 3) and (-3, 2). (5) (-o, and (c, d).
6)
(3) (5, 0) and (6, \/3). (6) (V3, 2) and (-s/2, 3).
2. Find the inclination of each of the lines of exercise 1.
3. Find the slope of a Une that is perpendicular to the line through
the points (3, 4) and (-2, -3).
4. Show that the line through (4, 2) and (3, 7) is perpendicular to the
Kne through (8, 1) and (13, 2).
6. it'ind the value of y so that the line through (3, 7) and (4, y) shall
be perpendicular to the line through (9, 10) and (6, 8).
6. Prove by means of slopes that the three points (6, —3), (2, 3), and
(—2, 9) are on the same straight line.
7. Find the value of x so that the three points {x, 6), (2, 8), and (4, 7)
shall be on the same straight line.
8. Express by an equation the fact that a line passing through the
points (4, 5) and {x, y) has a slope of -|.
9. A line passes through the point (—4, 6) and has a slope of — f.
Find the abscissa of the pôint on the line whose ordinate is —3.
point (—3, —6) is perpendicular to the line through the points (—2, 7)
and (4, 6).
point (7, 2) is parallel to the line through (—6, —2) and (4, —7). Find
the point on this Une whose abscissa is —3.
12. Two U and U make tan~'J and tan~'( — -|) respectively,
lines
with the a;-axis. Find the angle that U makes with ij.
13. Find the slope of the line that makes an angle of 47° with the line
having a slope of 0.3674.
Suggestion. —Substitute <p = 47° and mi = 0.3674 in [7] and solve
for mi.
14. Find the angle that the line through the points ( — 3, 6) and
(4, —2) makes with the line through the points (1, 1) and (—7, —7).
-
16. A line passes through the point (4, 5) and is parallel to the line
through the points (3,—2) and (—2, 5). Find where the line cuts the
^-axis.
16. A line I makes an angle of 30° with the line through the points
(2, 3) and (6, 7). Find the slope of I.
17. Show
that the Unas joining the middle points of the sides of a
whose vertices are the points (6, —4), (3, 6), ( — 1, 4), and
quadrilateral
(—3, —2) taken in order, form a parallelogram.
^8. Prove by means of the slopes of the sides that the quadrilateral
whose vertices are the points (4, 2), (2, 6), (6, 8), and (8, 4) is a rectangle.
19. A point is equidistant from the points — 5, —2) and (2, —5), and
(
the line joining the point to (4, 2) has a slope of — |. Find the coordi-
nates of the point.
i/20. A line passes through the point (4, 5) and has a slope of 0.7236.
Find the ordinate of the point on this line having as abscissa —2.
21. The vertices of a triangle are Pi(3, 4), ?«( -4, 3), and P,(, 1, -4).
Find the angle of the triangle at the vertex Pj.
POLAR COORDINATES
29. Location of points in a plane by polar coordinates. —
Thus far only the first method mentioned in article 13 for
>-x
locating points, has been used. The second method, that by

polar coordinates, has advantages over the cartesian system
in certain cases. This method will now be explained.
In polar coordinates we locate a point in a plane by giving
its distance and direction from a given fixed point in the
plane. Thus, in Fig. 22, given the fixed point in the fixed
directed line OX, then any point P in the plane may be located
by stating its distance OP = p from 0, and the angle 6 through
which OX must turn to coincide with OP.

Definitions.— The fixed point is called the pole or origin;
the fixed line OX the initial line, or polar axis; the line segment
OP = p is called the radius vector of P; and the angle 6 the
vectorial or directional angle of P. Together, p and 6 are the
polar coordinates of P, and are written (p, d).
lPj(-4,-HT)
i»,(5,C0 )
*-X
-»-jr
Pl(-3,30°)
Pjf 4,-30 )
FlQ. 23. FiQ. 24.
In order to use both positive and negative numbers as

coordinates of points, the usual conventions of trigonometry
as to positive and negative angles of any size are accepted.
agreed that the radius vector is positive if measured
It is also
from along the terminal side of the angle d, and negative if
measured in the opposite direction.
Thus, Pi (5,60°) is located as shown in Fig. 23, the angle being mea-
sured counter-clockwise and the radius vector along the terminal side in
the positive direction.
To plot the point P2(4, —30°), the angle is measured clockwise and
the radius vector positive. (Fig. 23.)
The following points are plotted as shown in Fig. 24: Pi(— 3, 30°)
andP2(-4, -|ir).
(6,-300 )
*-X
Fig. 25
From the above illustrations it is clear that one pair of polar

coordinates determine one, and but one, point in the plane.
On the other hand, for a single point there are an indefinite

number of pairs of polar coordinates.
Thus, if only values of e numerically less than 360° are taken, then
the four pairs of coordinates (5, 60°), (-5, 240°), (-5, -120°), and
"(5, —300°) all determine the same point as> shown in Fig. 25.
For convenience in plotting, polar coordinate paper ruled

with concentric circles and radial lines, as shown in Fig. 26,
catn be obtained. The following points are shown plotted in
106° 90°
Fig. 26.
Fig. 26: P(5, 20°), Q(-6, 80°), i2(8, \ir), S(-7, fir), and
T{-8, -f^).
EXERCISES
1. Plot the following points in polar coordinates:
(1) (3, 30°). (6) (3, -Itt). (11). (3, 1).
(2) (7,120°). (7) (-4,,r). (12) (-4, -2).

(3) (-2,40°). (8) (-2, -x). (13) (5, -3).
(4) (-6, 150°). (9) (2, 0). (14) (-6, -5).

(5) (4, -75°). (10) (-6 W. (15) (ir, -x)
which is numerically
2. Give three other pairs of coordinates in
less than 360° for each of the following points: (1) (7, 30°), (2) (-3, fir).
3. The side of a square is 4 and the diagonal is taken as the polar

in.
axis with the pole at a vertex. Find the polar coordinates of the vertices.
4. What is the locus of all points for which p = 5? For which 9 = sir?
For which e = fir?
30. Relations between rectangular and polar coSrdi-

nates.—Let X'X and
Y'Y, Fig. 27, be a set of rectangular
coordinate axes; and let the polar axis OX be taken on the
positive part of the a;-axis with the pole at the origin.
Let P be any point in the plane. Draw OP, and QP per-
pendicular to X'X. Then by the definitions already given,
OQ = x,QP = y, OP = p, and Z XOP = 6.
Y By trigonometry and geometry
P it follows that
[10] z = 9 COS 0,
y = e sin ft,
X2 + y2 = q\
By means of these formulas

polar coordinates can be ex-
pressed in rectangular coordi-
nates.
Also by trigonometry and geometry it follows that
[11] e = Vx^ + 7\
ft = tan- -iZ
By means of these formulas rectangular coordinates can be
expressed in polar coordinates.
EXERCISES
1. The origin in rectangular coordinates coincides with the pole in
the polar system, and the x-axis falls upon the polar axis. Find the
rectangular coordinates of the following points: (6, iir), (—2, Jir),
(-5, iir), (6, M, (3, fir), (8, iir), (2, x), (6, |ir).
2. Find the rectangular coordinates of the points whose polar coordi-
nates are: (2, 40°), (3, 70°), (6.5, -30°), (1.2, 130°), (-4.5, 155°).
.
3/ Find two pairs of polar coordinates for each of the following:

(4, 4V3), (-3, -3), (3, 5), (-V2 V6).
4. By means of [10] derive d = Vpi" + Pi^ — 2piP2 cos (0i — Sa) from
[3]. Here (xi, yi) and (pi, fli) are the same point, as also are (xi, yi)
and (p2, 62).
6. Derive the formula for the distance between two points in polar
coordinates directly by means of the cosine theorem of trigonometry.
6. The polar coordinates of P are (5, 75°) and of Q are (4, 15°). Find
the distance PQ.
TRANSFORMATION OF RECTANGULAR COORDINATES

31. Changing from one system of axes to another. —From
the discussions already given,, it is evident that the coordinate
axes may
be chosen at pleasure. In any particular case it is
clear that they should be so chosen that they can be used to
the best advantage. In order to discuss certain problems that
occur in analytic geometry, it is necessary to express the
coordipates of points in the plane in another system of
coordinates than that in which they are already expressed.
It is of advantage to deduce formulas for making these
transformations which are of two kinds.
Transformation by trans-
(1)
changing to new
lation of axes, or
axes that are parallel to the
original axes.
Transformation by rotation'
(2)
of axes, or changing to new axes
that make a certain angle with
the original axes.
32. Translation of coordinate
axes.—Let OX and OY, Fig. 28,
be any system of cartesian axes;
and let O'X' and O'Y' be another set parallel to the original.
Let 0', the origin of the new system, have coordinates Qi, k)
when referred to the original system.
3
Let P be any point in the plane, having coordinates (i, y)
when referred to the original system and {x', y') when referred
to the new system.
Draw a line through P parallel to the a;-axis, intersecting OY
in N and O'Y' in N'. Also draw a line through P parallel to
the 2/-axi§, intersecting OX in M and O'X' in M'.
Then NP = NN' + N'P, and MP = MM' + M'P. Arts.
10 and 18.
But NP = a;, NN' = A, iV'P = x', MP = ?/, MM' = h,
M'P = 2/'.
Therefore the formulas for translating the axes are:
[12] X = x' + h,
y = y' + k.
Solving these formulas for x' and y',
[12i] x' = X - h,
y' = y - k.
In this article it is not implied that the axes are rectangular,

and therefore the formulas hold for transforming from any set
of cartesian coordinate axes to a parallel set.
33. Rotation of axes. Transformation to axes making
Pdc.v)
an angle <p with the original. ^Let —
OX and OY, Fig. 29, be any system
of rectangular axes, and let OX'
and OY' be another set of rec-
tangular axes having the same origin
as the original, but making an angle
<p with OX and OY respectivdy.
Let P be any point in the plane,

having coordinates {x, y) when re-
Fig. 29.
ferred to the original system, and
{x', y') when referred to the new system of axes.
Join to P, draw MP perpendicular to OX, draw M'P
perpendicular to OX'. Let IXOP = 0, and /^X'OP = 6',
and OP = p.
§33] GEOMETRIC PACTS EXPRESSED ANALYTICALLY 35
Then x = p cos 6 = p cos (6' + <p)
= p cos 6' cos (p — p sin d' sin <p. [10]

And y = p sinS = p sin (6' + <p)=
p sin 6' cos(p + p cos 0' sin <p. [10]
But x' — p cos e' and y' = p sin e'. [10]
Substituting these values,
[13] X = x' cos ,
y = x' sin ¥> + y' cos <p.
Solving these formulas for x' and y',
[13i] x' = X cos ^ + y sin ^, i
y' = y,cos ^ — X sin v».

'
—
Example. The point P has coordinates (\/2, 2\/2) when referred to
a certain system of rectangular axes. Find the coordinates of P when
referred to a new set of rectangular axes having the same origin but
making an angle of 45° with the original.
Solution. —
Here we are to find x' and y' when x, y, and <p are known,
and so we use formulas [ISi].
Substituting in these formulas,
a;' = VS cos 45° + 2V2 sin 45°
= V2 X i V2 + 2 V2 X \y/2 = 1+2=3.
y' = 2-v/2 cos 45° - V2 sin 45°
= 2^/2 X i\/2 - V^ X §\/2 =2-1=1.
Check the values by a drawing.
EXERCISES
1. Find the coordinates of the following points when referred to axes
parallel to the original and with origin at the point (3, 4): (7, 8), (4, 3),
(0,0), (-2,6), (-7, -5), (6, -8).

y 2. Find the coordinates of the following points when referred to
axes having the same origin as the original, but making an angle of 45°
with them: (2, 3), (-3, 4), (-5, -5), (7, -1).
»^3. The coordinates of the vertices of a triangle are Pi (—3, —4),
Pi{&, —2), and ^3(2, 7). Find the coordinates of the vertices when
referred to parallel axes with origin at Pi. Plot.
4. The coordinates of a point Pi are (3, 2). Find the coordinates
of the origin of a new set of axes parallel to the old so that the coordi-
nates of Pi shaU be (—4, —6) when referred to the new axes.
6. The^cQ6rdinates of the vertices of atriangle are Pi(0, 0), Pi{2,-2-s/%),
36 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
and P3(— 2, 4). Find the angle through which the axes must be rotated
so that Pa shall lie on the new a;-axis. Find the coordinates of the
vertices of the triangle referred to the new axes.
6. Derive formulas [13i] from Fig. 29 without solving [13].
AREAS OF POLYGONS
34. Area of a triangle in rectangular coordinates. ^Let —
APiPaPs, Fig. 30, be any triangle having vertices Pi{,x\,y^,
Pi{x2, 2/2), and Pîxi, 2/3) re-
ferred to the axes OX and OY.
Translate the axes to a new
system having as origin one
(ajj,yj)vertex of the triangle, say Pi
(a;i, yd,
Then the coordinates of P2
and P3 referred to O'X' and
O'Y' are Pi{xi', y^') and
Piixi, 2/3') respectively, where
Xi' = X2 — xi, 2/2' = 2/2 — 2/1,
This may be written in the determinant form

¥i 2/i 1
A = ^Xiijil,
XaVa 1
by which it can be readily remembered. The formula can

also be remembered and the computation by the
carried out
following:
Rule. — First, write down in a line the abscissas of the
vertices taken in counter-clockwise order, repeating the first
abscissa at the end; and under the abscissas write the cor-
responding ordinates.
Thus, Xi Xi Xa Xi
y\ 2/2 2/3 2/1
Second,multiply each abscissa by the ordinate of the

following column, and add. This gives Xiy^ xiys +xzyi. +
Third, multiply each ordinate by the abscissa of the follow-
ing column and add. This 'gives yiXi y^xs ysXi. + +
Fourth, subtract the third from the second and divide by 2.
This gives the area as in formula [14].
It is evident that the expression
IP1P2 X PiPi sin (63 - 6i) for the area P»(10,4)
is positive or negative according as sin

(03 — 82) is positive or negative. In
order then to have the area positive, *-x
sin (03 — 62) must be positive. Hence

03 — 02 must be positive, and e3>02.
That is, turned counter-
P1P2 is Ps(9,-6)
clockwise to coincide with PiPs- This Fig. 31.

will be true only if, in passing around
the triangle in the order the vertices are taken, the area is
always at the left as shown in Fig. 31. That is, a point
moving around the triangle must move counter-clockwise.
Otherwise the area will be negative.
Thus, in Fig. 31, the area of the triangle, if the vertices are taken in
the order Pi, Pi, Pi, is
4 = J[3(-5) - 9(-2) + 9-4 - 10(-5) + 10(-2) - 3-4] = 28i
If, however, the vertices are taken in the order Pi, Ps, Pi, the area is
A = M3-4 - 10(-2) + 10(-5) - 9-4 + 9(-2) - 3(-5)] = -28J.

35. Area of any polygon. — Âny polygon having its vertices
given in rectangular coordinates can
be divided into triangles by diagonals
drawn from any vertex. Its area can
then be found. It can be readily
shown that the area of any polygon
-e-x can be found by the rule given for
finding the area of a triangle.
Thus, a polygon, Fig. 32, having
five vertices as follows, taken in order
counter-clockwise; Pi{xi, y\),Pi{xi, yt),
Psixa, 2/3) Pi{xi, 2/4), and PsC^s, 2/5), has its area represented
by the scheme,
Xi X2 X3 Xi Xi Xi
2/1 2/2 2/3 2/4 2/6 2/1
which evaluated by the rule gives

-4 = il{xiy2 + xtys + xsyt + xtys + xsy{)
— {yiXi + yiX3 + yiXi, + yiXi + yiXi)].
Example. —Find the area of the polygon
having the following vertices: ( — 3, 6),
(2,-4), (8, 1), and (4, 7).
Solution. —Arranging the abscissas and
ordinates,
-3 2 8 4-3
6-417 6
A = H[(-3)(-4) + 21 + 8-7 + 4-6] -

[6-2 + (-4)8 + 1-4 +7(-3)]) = 65^ square
units.
EXERCISES Fig. 33.
Find the area of the triangles having the following points as

1. vertices,
in each case draw the figure:
(1) (0, 0), (10, 12), (-6, 8).
(2) (-4, 6), (-2, 9), (10, -4).
(3) (17, 2), (-3,9), (-6, -10).
(4) (0,7), (10, -3), (-4,9).
2. Find the area of the quadrilateral with vertices (2,

5), (-7, 9),
(-10, -3), and (6, -9).
3. Find the area of the pentagon with vertices (1, -2), (3,
1),(6, 2),
(4, -4), and (2, -5).
4. Show thatthe area of the triangle with vertices (2, 4), ( — 6, —8),
and (18, —4)
four times the area of the triangle formed by joining the
is
middle points of the sides.

6. Find the area of the isosceles triangle with vertices (4, 5), (10, 13),
and (4, 15). Find the altitude from the vertex at (4, 5), and find
the area as one-half the product of the base and altitude. Do the two
results agree?
6. Find the area of the triangle with vertices Pi(7, 9), P2(— 6, —8),
and Pa (4, —6). Find the point P4 dividing P2P3 in the ratio 2:3, and
show by areas that the triangle is divided into two triangles the areas
ef which are in the ratio 2:3.
7. If the vertices of a triangle in polar coordinates are Pi (pi, 81),
Pi(.pi, #2), and Pa(.P3, 9i), derive a formula for its area.
Suggestion. —
In [14] put Xi = pi cos 9i, yi = pi sin 61, and similarly
forP2 and P3. Arrange and apply the subtraction formula for sines.
8. Find the area of a triangle the vertices of which in polar coordinates
are (10, 30°), (-12, 120°), and (6, 135°).
APPLICATIONS
36. Analytic methods applied to the proofs of geometric

—
theorems. One of the necessary conditions for the mastery
of a mathematical subject is a thorough understanding of
the fundamental ideas and methods. In the present chapter,
stress has been laid upon the expressing of geometric ideas
in an analytic form. Time will be well spent in reviewing
these methods until they are fully comprehended.
As will be repeatedly found in subsequent chapters, analytic
geometry gives a powerful method for treating a great variety
of geometric questions. As an illustration of this a few
elementary examples of the application of algebra t© geometry
are given in this article.
One of the great advantages of the analytic method of
solving geometric problems lies in the fact that an analytic
result obtained by the simplest arrangement of the axes with
reference to the geometric figure holds equally well for all other
arrangements of the axes.
It is well then always to make use of the simplest relations
between the geometric figure and the coordinate axes.
—
Example 1. Prove analytically that the
line segment joining the middle points pf
Psi'a.Va) two sides of a triangle is equal to one-half
the third side and is parallel to it.
Given any triangle OPiPj, and AB bisect-
ing OP2 and P1P2.
To prove AB = |OPi, and that AB is
parallel to OPi.
Proof. — Choose the coordinate axes with
Fig. 34. origin at and the aâxis along OPi. Then
the coordinates of are (0, 0), and Pi and
Pi may be designated by (xi, 0) and {xi, 3/2) respectively.
Coordinates of A and B are and (^^, I) respectively.

( -^.
^ ) ( [6]
Length of A^
=V(^4^-t)^+ (l-l)^ =f [3],
But OPi = xi - = xi.

.-. AB = iOPi.
Also slope ofvAB = 0, and slope of OPi = 0. [6]
.". AB is parallel to OPi.
To see the desirability of this choice of the axes, the student should
write out the proof when the
vertices of the triangle are {xi, yi), •Pafas.WB)
and {xt, ys).

(xi, yi),
—
Example 2. Derive a formula
for the center ofgravity of a
triangle with vertices Pi(xi, y{), ist«2,»a
Pi(x2, yz), and Pîxt, yt); it being
known that the center of gravity î(«i,»i)
of a triangle is at the intersection -^X
of its medians, which is two-thirds
of the length of any median from
Fig. 35.
a vertex.
Solution. —
Here no choice of axes can be made that will simplify the
work.
Choose any median as PiQ. Then it is required to find the coordinates

of Po such that PiPo :PoQ =2:1.
(a;o, 2/0)
Coordinates of Q are (^^^. ML±l!\ .
By [4] xo = ^' + ^' + ^S and 2/„ = ^L±ll±iL».
EXERCISES
1. Use the formulas derived
in example 2 and find the coordinates
of the center of gravity of a triangle with vertices (2, 6), (—8, 3),
and (-4, -3).
Prove the theorems in exercises 2-12.
2. The diagonals of a rectangle are equal.
3. The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
4. The medians of a triangle intersect in a point which is two-thirds
the length of any median from a vertex.
6. The middle point of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equally
distant from the three vertices.
6. The diagonals of a square are perpendicular to each other.
7. If the diagonals of a parallelogram are equal, the figure is a
rectangle.
8. The distance between the middle points of the non-parallel sides
of a trapezoid is equal to half the sum of the parallel sides.
9. The lines joining the middle points of the successive sides of any
quadrilateral form a parallelogram.
10. The lines joining the middle points of the successive sides of any
rectangle form a rhombus.
11. In any quadrilateral, the lines joining the middle points of the
opposite sides, and the line joining the middle points of the diagonals
meet in a point and bisect each other.
12. The sum of the squares of the four sides of a parallelogram is-
equal to the sum of the squares of its diagonals.
13. Given Pi any point in the plane of a rectangle, prove that the
sum of the squares of the distances from Pi to two opposite vertices
of the rectangle is equal to the sum from
of the squares of the distances
Pi to the other two vertices.
GENERAL EXERCISES
1. If the points A, B, C, D, and E are any points on the same straight
line, show that:
(1) AB + CD - CB - ED = AE.
(2) AE + EB + DE + EC - DB = AC.
(3) AC - EB + CB - AE = 0.
2. If the coordinates of the vertices of a rectangle are (0, 0), (8, 0),
(8, 6), and (0, 6), whatbe the oblique coordinates of its vertices if
will
the y-ajds is the diagonal through the origin, the a;-axis remaining as
before?
3. What are the obhque coordinates of the vertices of the rectangle
of exercise 2 if the j/-axis is taken as the diagonal through the point
(0, 6)?
4. What are the coordinates of the vertices of a square if a side is
4\/2i and its diagonals are taken as the coordinate axes?

6. A rhombus hes wholly in the first quadrant, and the angle between
two of its sides is the coordinates of two of its vertices are (0, 0)
30°. If
and (a, 0), find the coordinates of the remaining vertices.
6. Find the coordinates of the vertices of an equilateral triangle of
side a if its center is at the origin and the y-axis passes through one
vertex.
7. The angle between two oblique axes is 135°. Find the distance
between the points (1, 3) and ( — 1, —3).
8. What is the ratio in which the 2/-axis divides the line segment
joining (-2, 3) to (5, -1)?
9. Find the coordinates of two points which divide the line segment
from (2, 4) to (8, —8) internally and externally in the ratio whose
numerical value is 2.
10. Find the coordinates of Pi and Pa where Pi is on the positive

^-axis. Pi on the positive i-axis, and the point (2, 3) divides PiPz in
the ratio 2:1.
11. The point (-2, -2) divides the line PiPj in the ratio -4 3. If :
Pi has the coordinates (2, 6), find the coordinates of P^.

12. If Pi has the coordinates (1, 4) and Pj the coordinates (5, 1), find
a point Pa on PiPj such that PiPa will be a mean proportional between
PiPa and 25.
13. Prove analytically that the diagonals of a rhombus intersect at
right angles.
14. The hypotenuse of a right triangle is the line joining ( — 1, —2)
to (6, 4). Find the coordinates of the third vertex if it lies on the z-axis.
16. One end of the line whose length is 5 is at (4, 2). The abscissa
of the other end is 7, what is its ordinate?
16. The end points of a diagonal of a parallelogram are (2, —3)
and (3, 2). Find the coordinates of the remaining vertices if they are
on the X-axis and y-axis respectively. Why is there only one solution?
17. The
coordinates of the end points of one diagonal of a rhombus
are (0, 0) and
(2, 4). If one side lies along the positive a;-axis, find the
coordinates of the end points of the other diagonal.
18. Two points Pi and Pa are at the same distance from the origin.
If their polar coordinates are (p, Bi) and (p, Bi), show that the slope of
the line joining them is —cot

19. What does the slope of the line joining ( — 1, 3) to (6, 7) become
if the axes are rotated through an angle ip = tan~' |?
20. What does the slope of the line joining (4, 3) to ( — 5, 6) become
if the axes are rotated through 30°?
21. What is the slope of the line through the points the polar
coordinates of which are (6, 30°) and (4, 60°) ?
22. Find the area of a triangle the polar coordLaates of the vertices of i
which are {\k, fir), (tt, Jtt), and (27r, ^Tr).

23. Find the area of a triangle the polar coordinates of whose vertices
are (1, 60°), (3, 210°), and (2, 240°).
24. A rectangle of sides 5 and 12 lies entirely in the second quadrant,
with one vertex at the origin and the longest side on the negative x-axis.
Find the coordinates of its vertices if the axes are revolved so that the
2/-axis coincides with one diagonal.
. 25. The coordinates of the vertices of a parallelogram are (0, 0),
(4, —3), (5,'0), and (1, 3). What will be the coordinates of its vertices
if the axes are rotated so that the avaxis coincides with the longest side?
CHAPTER III
LOCI AND EQUATIONS

37. General statement. —
In the present chapter will be
considered some of the more simple cases of the first two funda-
mental questions of analytic geometry as stated in article 3.
The locus of an equation will be considered first, and then the
equation of a locus. That is, the geometric interpretation of
an equation will be dealt with first.
38. Constants and variables. —
A constant is a number that
never changes, or one that does not change in the course of a
discussion.
Constants that never change are definite numbers, as 2, f ,
V^, log 3, and r. Numbers that are constant during a dis^

cussion, but may be different in another discussion are repre-
sented by the letters that are assumed to have known values.
A variable is a number whose value changes arbitrarily, or
according to some law.
The number expressing the speed of a train as it gains .
headway is a variable. The price of a stock may change

from day to day, and is expressed by a variable. The velocity
of a falling body changes from instant to instant, and is
expressed by a variable.
If two variables are so related that for every value of one
there is a corresponding value of the other, then the one is
said to be a function of the other.
Thus in the formula for the area of a circle, A = irr^, for
every value of r there is a value of A. Then A is a function of
r. This is written A = /(r). Likewise r may be considered a
function of ^.
44
LOCI AND EQUATIONS 45
I
EXERCISES
1. Give various illustrations of variables and constants.
2. In the formula, A = firr', for the volume of a sphere, which are
constants and which variables? Is A a function of r? Is r a function
of A?
3. In the equation a; + j/ = 6, can either x or y he assigned values
aibitrarily? Can both be given arbitrary values at the same time?
Is a; a function of y? Is j/ a function of a;?
39. The locus. —

If the location of a point is determined by
certain stated conditions, then the locus of the point is the
geometric figure such that, (1) all -points oj the figure satisfy
the given conditions, and (2) all points that satisfy the given
conditions are in the figure.
In proving that a certain figure is the required locus, it is
sometimes more convenient, instead of (2) to prove that any ,
point not in the figure does not satisfy the given conditions.
The conditions determining a locus may be stated in the
language of geometry, or may be stated by an equation.
In the more simple cases the locus can be given immediately
from the conditions stated.
EXERCISES
1. What is the locus of a point that is equally distant from two fixed
points?
2. What is the locus of a point in a plane and at a constant distance
from a fixed point in that plane?
3. Whatthe locus of a point equally distant from two intersecting
is
straight lines in the plane determined by those lines?

and
4. What is the locus of a point equally distant from three fixed points
and in the plane determined by the three points?
5. In rectangular coordinates, what is the locus of a point whose
abscissa is 0? Whose abscissa is 5? Whose ordinate is —6?
6. What is the locus of a point whose coordinates satisfy theequation
x = 4? Which satisfy the equation x = y1 The equation x + y = 0?
—
The locus of an equation. If an equation is the analy-
40.
ticstatement of geometric conditions, then it follows from the
definition of a locus, Art. 39, that the locus of an equation is
46 ANALYTIC GEOMETKY [§41
the locus of all points whose coordinates satisfy the equation;

and, conversely, the coordinates of all points on the locus must
satisfy the equation.
While the preceding statement is general, only rectangular
coordinates will be used in the present chapter.
The drawing of the locus is spoken of as plotting the equa-
tion, or plotting the locus of an equation. The locus is
called the graph of the equation.

41. Plotting an equation. —The steps in plotting an equation
are:
(1) Solve the equation for one, or each, variable in terms of the
other.
(2) Assign convenient values to
one variable and determine corres-

ponding values of the other vari-
able, and arrange in a table.
*X (3) Choose a suitable unit and

plot the pairs of values of the
variables.
Fig. 36. (4) Conned these points by a

smooth curve.
The variable to which values are assigned arbitrarily is
called the independent variable. The other is then called the

dependent variable.
Example 1. —Plot the equation 2x + 3y = 13.
/1^ c- 1 • *
= 13 - 2x
(1) Solving for y, y ^
(2) Assign values to a; as shown in the following table and determine

the corresponding values of y.
X
?
§42] LOCI AND EQUATIONS 47
(4) Draw a smooth curve through the points.

The curve is the locus of the equation and
appears to be a straight
line.
Example 2. —
Plot the locus of the equation x^ y^ — 4x + = 21.
(1) Solving for y in terms of x and for x in terms of
y,
y = ± -\/21 + 4a; -x \ and x =2 ± •\/25 - y^.
From the first it is readily seen that y imaginary when x< — 3 or

is
when x>7, for then 21 4a; - + x^<0 and the square root is imaginary.
Likewise, x is imaginary when y< — 5 or when y>5.
It is evident then that we should not choose values of x less than
- 3 nor greater than 7. And should not choose values of y less than
—5 nor greater than 5.
(2) Here it is convenient to assign arbitrarily some values to x and
some values to each case computing the corresponding values of the
y, in
other variable.
Mm
'
^ — —9—'— — — —
' ' ' '
_ — =— II—==-
Some equations, such as x^ + y^ = 0, are satisfied by only-
one pair of real values for x and y. The locus of such an

equation is a single point.
Thus, x^ +y^ = is satisfied only by a; = and y = 0.
Other equations, such as x'^ y^ + i = 0, are satisfied by

+
no real values for x and y. The locus of such an equation is
wholly imaginary.
EXERCISES
Plot the loci of the following equations:
1. y = 2x+i.
: —
§44] LOCI AND EQUATIONS 4&
The properties of the locus of an equation that can be

studied to. the best advantage by analytic geometry are the
following
(1)The intercepts of the curve.
(2)The symmetry of the curve.
(3) The extent of the curve.
Various other properties can be studied by methods of
the calculus.
44. Intercepts. The x-intercepts of a curve are the abscis-
sas of the points where the curve intersects, or meets, the
a;-axis. The y-intercepts are the ordinates of the points
where the curve intersects, or meets, the y-axis. Together
the a;-intercepts and the 2/-intercepts are called the intercepts
of the curve.
Evidently, the a;-intercepts are found by putting y = in
the equation and solving for x. Likewise the ^/-intercepts are
found by putting x = and solving for y.
It follows that, if an equation contains no constant term,
the curve passes through the origin.
Example. —Find the intercepts for the equation 16a;'' + 25y^ = 400
Putting y = 0, 16x^ = 400, or a; = +5.
Putting a; = 0, 25y^ = 400, or 2/ = ±4. .
.^ ^
.'. the aîntercepts are +5 and —5, and the y-intercepts are +4
and —4.
EXERCISES
Find the intercepts for the following equations:
1. 2x - = 10.
3y 6. 5x^y - 15a; + iy = 0.
2. x' + y^ = 36. 6. y =
(^+ 2)7/1 ly
3. + y'' = 64.
4a;'i 7. y^ = {.x + 2)(x - l)(a; - 3).
4. ix' +y^ ~ 8x -2y + 1 = 0. 8. xy = 6.
45. Symmetry, geometrical properties. —Two points are

said to be symmetrical with respect to a given point when the
given point bisects the hne joining the two points. The given
point is called the center of symmetry.
Two poii^ts are said to be symmetrical with respect to a
given line when the given hne is the perpendicular bisector

of the Une joining the two points. The given line is called
the axis of symmetry.
Thus, in Fig. 38, if Q bisects P1P2, Pi and

Pi are symmetrical with respect to Q. Also,
if AB is the perpendicular bisector of P1P2, Pi A ^ b
and P2 are symmetrical with respect to AB.
If the points of a curve can be ar- ip^

ranged in pairs which are symmetrical j-jq, 33
with respect to a line or point, then

the curve itself is said to be sjmimetrical with respect to the
line or point.
Thus, in Fig. 39, the curve is symmetrical with respect to each of

the coordinate axes and with respect to the origin. Tell why.
EXERCISES
1.Has a square a center
of symmetry? Has a rec-
tangle? A A par-
circle?
T-allelogram? A regular
hexagon?
2. How many axes of
symmetry has each of the
figures of exercise I?
3. In rectangular coor-
dinates give the point that
with each of the following is
symmetrical with respect to the i-axis: (2, 4), (—2, 6), (—4, —2),
(6, —8), (x, y). With respect to the y-aina. With respect to the origin.
46. Symmetry, algebraic properties.— In the preceding article

symmetry has been considered from the side of geometry.
It remains to determine how symmetry can be seen by an
inspection of the equation.
If a curve is symmetrical with respect to the a;-axis, it
follows that every point {x, y) on the curve has a correspond-
ing point (x, —y) on the curve. Then the coordinates of the
point (x, —y) must satisfy the equation; that is, if —y is

substituted for y, the equation reduces to the original form.
It is evident that this occurs in an algebraic equation when
only even -powers of y appear in the equation. (See Art. 120.)
Likewise the curve is symmetrical with respect to the
y-aids if, when —a; is substituted for
x, the equation reduces
to the original form. This occurs in an algebraic equation
when only even powers of x appear in the equation.
Since the pair of points (a;, y) and { — x, —y) are symmetrical
with respect to the origin, it follows that if, when —a; is sub-
stituted for x and —y for y, the equation reduces to its original
form, the curve is symmetrical with respect to the origin.
It is evident that this occurs in an algebraic equation if each
term is of even degree, or if each term is of odd degree, in x and
y. In applying this test a constant term is considered as of
even degree.
It also follows that if a curve is symmetrical to both coordi-
nate axes it is symmetrical with respect to the origin.
EXERCISES
State" for which of the following equations the curves are symmetrical
with respect to the a;-axis, the 2/-axis, and the origin.
1. Sx +y+& =0. 7.
2. x' +y' = 25.

3. 3x' - 4^2 = 12.
4. x' + y' + 2x = 16.
6. y^ = 4a;.
6. x'y^ = 16.
47. Extent. —Under

this heading we endeavor to find how
the curve with reference to the coordinate axes by finding,
lies
first, for what values of either variable there are no points on
the curve; and, second, for what values of either variable the
curve extends to infinity.
To do this the equation is solved for each variable in terms
.
of the other. First, if a radical of even index involves a

variable, certain values of that variable may give imaginary
values for the other variable, in which case there are no points
on the curve. If no radicals of even index are involved,
there will be at least, one real value of either variable for a
real value of the other. In which case there are points on
the curve for every value of
either variable.
Second, if the solution for
either variable gives rise to a
fraction having the other vari-
able in the denominator, then
certain finite values of the second
variable may make the first in-
finite. no such fraction occurs

If
both variables may become in-
finite at the same time.
Example 1. — Investigate 9x^ + 42/^

= 36 as to extent.
Solving for a;, x = + |^-\/9 — y^-
Solving for y, y = ± |\/4 - x^.
Therefore x is imaginary when
9 — y^<Q, that is, when y<—Z, or
when y> +3.
And y is imaginary when 4 — x^<0,
r' that is, when s< — 2, or when x> +2.
Fig. 40. The curve is then confined to the
'
portion of the plane in which the

abscissas do not exceed 2 in numerical value, and the ordinates do not
exceed 3 in numerical value.
Example 2. —Discuss the equation x^ — ax — y = and plot the
curve.
Discussion. Intercepts. —
= then y = 0.
^Let x
Let y = then x' — ox =
Solving this for x, x =
0. or + y/a^.
Hence the 2/-intercept is 0, and the x-intercepts are and + \/o
—
Symmetry. Since all terms are of odd degree in x and y, the curve
is symmetrical with respect to the origin.
i Extent-^Solvingfar y, y .=.cif. — ax. . . , _ , _,
LOCI AND EQUATIONS 53
The letter a represents an arbitrary constant and may have any

value assigned to it. But, in assigning a value, do not choose one that
would cause a term to disappear. For the purposes of this discussion
it is given' the value 4.
Since no even root is involved, either variable has a real value for
any value of the, other.
Since large positive values of a; make s' — ax large and positive, for
such values of x, y increases as x increases.
Likewise, for numerically large negative values of x, y decreases as
—
Plotting. Tabulating coordinates for positive values of x, the cutve
can be located in the first and fourth quadrants and, \iy symmetry,
in the second and third quadrants, and is as shown in Fig. 40. "^he
arbitrary value assigned to a is 4, and the unit on the y-&Tas is one-^th
of that on the oâxis.
X
Then/i(a;, y)h{x, y)Mx, y) = 0.

Now any values of x and y that will make any one of these
factors equal zero will satisfy the original equation.
Hence all points on the separate loci of
Mx,y) = 0, Mx, v) = 0, h{x, y) = 0, •

•
will also be points on the locus of
Kx, y) = 0.
Much is often saved when

time
can be factored, by plotting
f{x, y)
•-X
each of the equations fi{x, y) = 0,
f2{x, y) = 0, Mx, y) = 0,
separately.
Example. —Plot the locus of the equation

FiQ. 41.
x' + xy^ - Ix^ - 22/2 - 16a; + 32 = 0.
The factors of a;' + xy^ - 2x^ - "iy^ - 16a; + 32 are

(a; - 1){x^ +2/» - 16).
Equating each factor to zero, a; = 2 and a;' + ^^ = 16.
The first is a straight line and the second a circle as shown in Fig. 41
EXERCISES
Find a single equation whose locus is the combination of the loci
of the separate equations in each of the following and plot.
1. a;v -6 = 0, xs/ + 6 = 0.
2. a; - 22/ + 3 = 0, a;- 22/ - 3 = 0.
3. X = 0, a; = 3, = 5.
a;
= + 2/^ = 16.
'
4. a; 2/, a;
6. a;' + 2/2 = 4, xy = 6.
Plot the locus of each of the following by first factoring /(a;, y), and
then plotting each factor equated to zero.
6. x^y'^ = 16. 8. x' +2xy +y' - = 0. 4:
7. X* - y* = 0. 9. x' - 6x2 + Ha; - 6 = 0.

10. 1^ + x'y - 4x - 4:y + xy^ + 2/' = 0.
11. Plot the locus of (x2 - X - &){,y^ +2y -S) =0, and show that
the lines enclose a rectangle.
49. Intersection of —
two curves. The curves of two equa-
tions are, in general, distinct, and may or may not intersect.
It follows from the definition of the locus of an equation that,

ifa pair of values satisfy both equations, they are the coordi-
nates of a point of intersection. And, conversely, if the
curves intersect, the coordinates of a point of intersection
must satisfy both equations.
In order then to find the coordinates of the points of inter-
section, it is only necessary to solve the equations simultane-
ously. Or, in order to find values of x and y that satisfy the
equations simultaneously, the equations be plotted and may
the coordinates of the points of intersection determined from
.the figure. This is useful when the equations are such as
cannot be solved simultaneously.
EXERCISES
Find the points of intersection of the curves of the following pairs of
equations by solving the equations. Check the results by plotting.
1. a;2 + 2/2 = 16, a: + = 2/ 0.

2. a;2 + 2/2 = 16, x^- y^ = 9.
3. a;2 - 42/2 +7 = 0, 2x +Zy - 12 = 0.
4. x2 + 2/2 = 25) 9a;2 + 492/2 = 441.

6. a;2 -H 2/2 = 25, 272/2 = 16a;'.
6. Find the distance between the points of intersection of

a;2 + 2/2 = 12, and y^ = 4a;.
7. Solve the following equations by plotting to find the coordinates

of the points of intersection: x^ +y = 7, x + y^ = II.
EQUATIONS OF LOCI
50. So far in the present chapter the problem considered
has been the finding of the locus when the equation was given.
Here the second fundamental question is taken up, that of
finding the equation of a locus when the locus is known.
That is, the algebraic statement is to be found when the
geometric figure or description is known.
Definition. —
The equation of a locus is an equation such
that (1) the coordinates of every point on the locus satisfy the
equation, and (2) every pair of values which satisfy the equation
are the coordinates of a point on the locus.
51. Derivation of the equation of a locus.—The process of

deriving the equation of a locus depends largely upon the
ingenuity of the individual. The following suggestions, how-
it is not intended that it is necessary
ever, will be helpful, but
always to take these steps in order.
(1) From the description of the locus sketch a figure involving
all the data.
(2) Draw a pair of coordinate axes and select P{x, y) any

point on the locus.
Frequently the coordinate axes are determined by the data;
but if they are not, they should be located so as to make the
equation as simple as possible.
(3) Write an equation between geometric magnitudes, using
the conditions of the problem.
(4) Express the geometric magnitudes of this eqvMion in terms
of the coordinates of P and the given constants, and simplify the
resulting equation.
The final equation will, in general, contain the variables
X and y, and all the constants involved.
(5) Show thai any point whose coordinates satisfy the equation,
is on the locus, and thus show that the second requirement of the
definition is fulfilled.
A discussion of the equation will
often give further facts concerning
the locus.
Example 1. —The locus of a point is a
Pi (-2.3) straight line passing through Pi(— 2, 3) and
having an inclination of 60°. Find its
equation.
+9-X Solution. —
Here the coordinate axes
(1)
are determined by the data. In Fig. 42, OX
and OY are the axes and PiP the locus.
Fig. 42. (2) P(x, y) is any point on the locus.
(3) Slope PiP = tan 60°.
PiP =
y-3 by
(4) Plope [6].
X + 2
.2/-3
= V3.
'
"x + 2
Simplifying, 3x - y/Zy + 6 + Zy/Z = 0.
(5) Any point P{x, y) whose coordinates satisfy the equation

3a; y/Zy 6 - +
3-v/3 = 0, +
must also satisfy the preceding equation since this equation can be
reduced to that form by reversing the steps. But the equation
y -3 /5
simply says that the slope of a straight line through (x, y) and (—2, 3)
is equal to -y/S, and hence its inclination is 60°.
Therefore the equation of the locus is

Zx - VSy + 6 + 3\/3 = 0.
Example —Find
the equation of the
2.
locus of a point that moves at a dis-
tance 8 from the point (3, —5) and re--
mains in the plane of the coordinate axes. ^X
Solution. —
In Fig. 43, the coordi-
(1)
Pim.v) '
nate axes are drawn and the data located.

(2) P(x, y) is any point on the locus.
(3) By the conditions of the problem,
PC = 8.
But PC = V(x - Zy + {y+ 5y by

[3].
Fig. 43.
(4) .-. V{x - Zy
+ {y + Sr = 8.
Squaring, x' - 6x +9 + y' + lOy + 25 = 64.
Simplifying, x^ + y' - &x + IQy - 30 = 0.
This is the equation that is satisfied by the coordinates of any point
on the locus. The proof of the converse is left to the student.
EXERCISES
Give orally the equations of the loci described in exercises 1 — 10.

1. A
point moves parallel to the y-axis and 4 units, to the right.
Parallel to the 2/-axis and 6 Units to the left.
2. A point moves parallel to the x-axis and 7 units above. Parallel
to the X-axis and 3 units below.
3. A point moves parallel to the x-axis and 3 units above the point
(3, 6). Parallel to the x-axis and through -the point (—6, 4). Parallel
to the X-axis and through the point (0, —7).
4. point moves parallel to the line 2/ = 4 and 6 units above it.
A
5. A point moves parallel t9 the line x = — 3 and 8 units to the right
of it.
6. A point moves so as to bisect the angle the j/-axis makes with the
s-axis.
7. A point moves so as to bisect the angle the a;-axis makes with the
^-axis.
8. A point moves so as from the origin.
to keep 6 units
9. A point moves so as from the point (2, —1).
to keep 8 units
10. A point moves so as to keep equidistant from the lines y = S
and y =
—2.
11. Find the equation of the locus of a point that is equidistant from
the points (5, 4) and (—6, —2).
12. Find the equation of the locus of a point that moves at a distance
10 from the point (-6, -8).
13. Find the equation of the circle having its center at the point
(3, 4), and passing through the point (7, 7).
14. Find the equation of the circle having the extremities of a diameter
at the points (—4, —6) and (2, 2).
16. Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line joining
the Jjoints (-4, ^8) and (5, 2).
16. Find the equations of the perpendicular bisectors of the sides
of the triangle whose vertices are the points (0, 0), (8, 6), and (—4, 10).
17. Find the equation of the locus of a point that moves so as to keep
four times as far from the a;-axis as from the y-axis. Plot.
18. Find the equation of the locus of a point that moves so as to keep
three times as far from the point (2, 3) as from the point ( — 6, 2).
19. A point moves so that its ordinate always exceeds f of its abscissa
by 8. Find the equation of its locus and plot.
20. A point moves so that the sum of its distances from the points
(3, 0) and (—3, 0) is 8. Find the equation of its locus and plot.
21. A point moves so that the difference of its distances from the
points (3, 0) and (—3, 0) is 4. Find the equation of its locus and plot.
22. A point moves so that the difference of the squares of its distances
from the points (—3, —1) and (—2, —4) is 5. Find the equation of the
locus and plot.
23. A point moves so that the slope of the line joining it to the point
(—2, 3) equals twice the slope of the Une joining it to the point (4, —2).
Find the equation of the locus.
CHAPTER IV
THE STRAIGHT LINE AND THE GENERAL EQUATION

OF THE FIRST DEGREE
52. Conditions determining a straight line. In plane —
geometry it is found that two independent conditions deter-
mine a straight line. Just so in analytic geometry any two
conditions that fix the line will determine its equation. Since
the same straight line can be determined in a number of
different ways, it may be expected that there will be several
forms of the equation for the same straight line.
Some of the conditions that de-

termine a straight line are the
following:
{1) A point on the line and the
direction of the line.
(2) Two points on the line.
(3) The length and direction of
the perpendicular from the origin to
Fig. 44.
the line.
Each set of these conditions gives rise to a standard form
of the eqjiation of a straight line.
53. Point slope form of equation of the straight line. —
Suppose the straight line I, Fig. 44, passes through the
point Piixi, yi), and that its direction is given by its slope
m = tan a. If Pix, y) is any point on I, then the slope
of PPi must be constant and equal to m. By [6], the
= y — —
Vi
slope m of PPi IS m
Clearing this equation of fractions,
[15] y - yi = M^ - xi).
59
This is the point slope form of the equation of a straight line.

Since P{x, y) is any point on I it follows that every point
on I satisfies [15].
In order to prove that every point which satisfies [16] is
on line I, let Pzix^, ya), Fig. 45, be such a point, then
ys - yi = m{x3 - xi).
Dividing both sides of this equation by xi — Xi,
Xi — Xi
This shows that the slope of the line P1P3 = m. Therefore

PiPa and I are parallel. Since PiPs
and I pass through the same point Pi,
the line P1P3 and I coincide. There-
fore P3 lies on I.
In the discussion of other forms of

the equation of a straight
line, the
proof that every point whose coordi-

nates satisfy the equation of the locus,
is on the locus, is so similar to the proof just given that it will
be omitted. Nevertheless this fact should not be lost sight

of, for it is one of the essential conditions in determining the
equation of a locus.
64. Lines parallel to the axes. —
In article 53 it is tacitly
assumed that the line whose equation is to be found is not
parallel to the j/-axis. If it is, a equals 90°, m is infinite, and
equation [16] is meaningless. If the line is parallel to the

j/-axis, it must cut the a;-axis at some point (a, 0). Every
point on this line has its abscissa equal to a, hence the equation
of the line is
X = a.
Similarly every line parallel to the a;-axis outs the y-axis

at some point, say (0, b). Every point on this line has its
ordinate equal to b and hence the equation of the line is
y = b.
§55] EQUATION OP THE FIRST DEGREE 61
Example 1.— Find the equation of a line through (-2, 3) and with
an inclination of 135°.
Substituting xi 2, yi = 3, and m = tan 135° 1 in [16],
2/ -3 = (-l)(a; +2),
X + y — 1 = 0.
"
or
Example 2.— Find the equation of a line through the point and
(2, 6)
parallel to the line joining the points (—3, 4) and
(1, 5).
By [6] the slope of the line joining the two points is f.
Therefore the slope of the required line is also J
Substituting m = i, xi = 2, and y, = 6 in [16],
the equation of the required line is y — Q = ilx — 2),
or , X - iy + 22 = 0.
EXERCISES
Find the equations of the lines determined by the following sets of
conditions:
1. Through (2, -3), slope |.
2. Through (-2, -4), inclination 135°.
3. Through (1, 6), inclination 120°.
4. Through ( — 1, 2), parallel to the line
joining (7, 6) to (2, 3). :
'
6. Through ( — 1, 2), perpendicular to the

line joining (7, 6) to (2-, 3).
6.Through (3, 4), parallel to thp y-a,xis.
7. Through (3, 4), parallel to the x-axis. Fig. 46.
8. Through ( — 1, 2), inclination = tan"' f.
9. Through (1, —2), inclination = sin"'
f.
10. Through (3, 2), inclination = cos-' i\.
11. Find the equation of the tangent hne to the curve y = 3?' — x,
at the point whose abscissa is 2, if its slope equals 11.
Suggestion. —
Find the ordinate of the point whose abscissa is 2 and
substitute in [15].
12. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y = 2x' — x + 3
at the point whose abscissa is 2, if its slope equals 7.
55. Slope intercept form. —In Fig. 46, let the intercept of
the line on the equal 6 and let the slope of the line
y-a,xis
equal m. Since the i/-intercept has the coordinates (0, 6)
this problem is a special case of the point slope form.
Putting a;i = and i/i = 6 in [15], then y — b = mx, or
y = inx + b.
•
[16]
—
This is the slope intercept form of the equation of a

straight line.
56. Two point form. —
^Let the two points through which
the line passes be Pi{xi, yi) and Pîxi, y^. Since Pi is a point
on the line and m
is the slope of P1P2, this form can be derived
from [15] by substituting for m its value — . Equation
[15] then becomes
[17] y - yi = ^^^
—
Xi X2
(X - xi).
Note that this equation is not valid \ixi — Xi — 0. The line
is then parallel to the y-axis and hence its equation is a; = Xi.
This is the two point form of the equation of a straight line.

Since the three points P, Pi, and P2 on the straight line
through P1P2, always form a triangle whose area is zero, the
equation of the straight line can be written in the deter-
minant form by article 34, as follows:
X y
= 0.
EXERCISES
Find the equations of the lines given by the following sets of conditions:
1. The s/-intercept = 3 and the slope = J.
2. The ^-intercept = —2 and the slope = 3.
2
3. The 2/-intercept = | and the inclination = sin~' .
•
4. Passing through the points (1, 6) and (7, 2).

6. Passing through the points (—2, 1) and (3, —4).
6. Passing through the points ( — 1, —2) and (—4, —3).
7. What is the effect on line [16] if 6 is changed while m remains
unchanged? What is the effect if m is changed while 6 remains
unchanged?
57. Intercept form. — If the straight line cuts both axes,

let its x-intercept, Fig. 47, equal a and its j/-intercept equal h.
Its equation can be derived from [17] by replacing (a;i, j/i)
by (a, 0) and {Xi, yz) by (0, b).

§57] EQUATION OF THE FIRST DEGREE 63
Equation [17] then becomes y = — (a; — a).
Multiplying both sides of this equation by t> and transpos-
ing the a;-term to the left hand side, it becomes
[18]
1
a + 1D = ^-
This is the intercept form of the

equation of a straight line.
Care must be^ used in employing
this form of the equation, since it is"
not valid if either or both intercepts
Fig. 47.
are zero.
68. Normal form. —A line is completely determined if the
length and direction of the perpendicular to it from the origin
are known.
Fig. 48.
Let C, Fig. 48, be the foot of the perpendicular drawn to the

line from the origin, and let (p, 6) be the polar coordinates of C.
Then OC = p and angle XOC = 0.
Since the line AB is perpendicular to the line OC, its slope
is the negative reciprocal of the slope of OC and equals —cot 9.
AB passes through the point C, a point on AB

Since the line
is known. The rectangular coordinates of this point are
(p cos 6, p sin d).
Hence the equation of AB can be found by substituting in
[15], TO = —cot 6, Xi = p cos 6, and yi = p sin 6.
Making these substitutions, [15] becomes
y — p sin d = —cot 9 (x — p cos 0).
Multiplying both sides of the equation by sin d and transpos-

ing all terms to the left hand side, gives
X cos 6 + y sin 6 — p(sm^0 + cos^ff) == 0.
[19] .". X cos e + y sin e — p = 0.
This is the normal form of the equation of a straight line.

If cot 5 = 00
J
and its equa-
the line is parallel to the j/-axis
tion isx p. = But even
normal form in this case the
is vaUd,
for if cot 6 = 00 6 = 0° and the normal form would read

,
X cos 0° + y sin 0° — p = 0. Since cos 0° = 1 and sin

0° = this equation is equivalent to x = p.
Example. —Find the normal form of the equation of

a straight line if
e = 30° and p = 6.
Substituting these in [19], x cos 30° 2/ sin 30° 6 = 0. + —
Since the polar coordinates of C can be written either (6, 30°) or
(—6, 210°), the normal form of the equation of this line could also be
written x cos 210° y sin 210° + +
6=0. That these equations are
equivalent can readily be seen if the trigonometric functions are
replaced by their, numerical values.
EXERCISES
Find the equations of the following lines having givftc:
1. o = 3, 6 = -2.
59. Linear equation. Theorem —Every equation of a straight

line is of the first degree in one or two variables.
Conversely. Every equation of the first degree in one or
two variables is the equation of a straight line.
Proof. —
Every straight line intersects, does not intersect, or
coincides with the y-axis.
In the first case by means of article 55 its equation can be
put in the form y = mx + b, in the second case its equation
is a; = a, and a; = 0. Each of these equa-
in the third case
tions is x and y.
of the first degree in
—
Proof of converse. Consider the most general equation of
the first degree in two variables. This is
[20] Ax + By + C = 0.
Assume that B 9^ and solve this equation for y, it becomes

Ax C
y-'-B-B
Comparing this equation with the form y = mx b shows +
at once that it is the equation of a straight line whose
slope m = — "d, and whose y-intercept & = ~ d'
If B= 0, [20] becomes Ax +C= 0, otc x = - j- This is
the equation of a straight line parallel to the y-axis.

Hence every equation of the first degree is the equation of a
straight line.
Ax + By + C = 0, the most general equation of the first
degree in two variables, is called the general equation of a
straight line.
60. Plotting linear equations. —
Since every equation of the
first degree represents a straight line, it is sufficient in plotting
the graph of such an equation to find two points which satisfy
the equation and then join these points by a straight line.
Usually two such points that can be easily found are the inter-
cepts on the X and the y-axes.
5
61. Comparison of standard forms. —In article 59 it was

seen how the general equation could be transformed into the
slope intercept form. This method of transforming one
form an equation into another is of great use in analytic
of
geometry, since by comparing the constants in two forms of
an equation of a line or curve, much information can be
secured. In this particular case the transformation from the
general form to the slope intercept form, enables one to read
off by inspection the slope and ^/'intercept of the line.
For example, if the equation Sx + ^y = 12, be solved for y it becomes

y = -I I +3.
Comparing with y = mx +b, shows that the slope of
this equation
the line is —
and its j/-intercept is 3.
J
Take the same equation, 3a; + 4j/ = 12, and divide both sides of the
equation by 12, and t +f = 1-
Comparing this equation with - +t = 1 shows that the a>-intercept
is 4 and that the ^/-intercept is 3.

Here the a>-intercept can be as easily found by putting j/ =0 in the
original equation; and the {/-intercept by putting x = 0.
62. Reduction of Ax + By + C = to the normal form. —

In generalA and B will not be the cosine and sine respectively
of thesame angle, and hence Ax + By + C = will not be in
the normal form. In order to transform it to the normal form
multiply both sides of the equation by an arbitrary constant
k, whose value is to be computed later.
This gives Akx + Bky + Ck = 0.
The quantity k is now assumed to be such a number that
Akx + Bky + Ck =
will be identical with
X cos 6 +y sin e — p = 0.
Comparing coeflBcients gives Ak = cos 6, Bk = sin 0,

Ck = -p.
EQUATION OF THE FIRST DEGREE 67
To find the value of k, square both sides of the first two

equations and add. This gives
AW + B%^ = COST'S + sin^fl = 1.
Solvingforfc, ^ = +
V^+S^'
If k is replaced by its value, Akx + Bky -\- Ck = becomes
Ax By
' C
^ +VA2 + B2 =
r
[211
, - _i_ _(_ n
+ VA2 + B2 ^ +v'A=' + B2
This is the general equation of the straight line expressed

in the normal form. Either sign can be used with the radical,
but of course the same sign must be used throughout the
equation. Comparing this equation with the normal form
gives
_ -c
^ ~ +\/A2 + B2
Hence, to transform the equation Ax By C = to + +

the normal form, divide both sides of the equation by
±Va'' + b^.
—
Example 1. Change 3x — iy + & = into the normal form.
Here A = 3, B = -4, C = 6, and + VA^ + B' = ±y9+16 = ±5.
Dividing the equation through by ±5, it becomes
3x i^ * _6 ~
,
f.
±5 ±5 ±5
Either sign can be used smce the two equations f a; - f i/ +| = 0,
and - fa; +f -2/ I = are equivalent.
EXERCISES
Find the slope and 3/-intercept of the following equations by express-
ing them in the slope intercept form.
1. +2y -
3x 4 =0. '
3. -5x + 2y - 6 = 0.
2.2x-3y + 2 = 0. i. 2x - 2y + 7 = 0.
Change the following equations into normal form, and find the distance
from the origin.
of the line
5. 3z - 4j/ - 6 = 0. 9. X + 2y -^ 3 =0.
6. -3a; + 4y + 10 = 0. 10. -3x + y - 6 = 0.
7. 5x - 12y + 26 = 0. 11. 2a; + 3 = 0.
8. -5a; - 12y + 39 = 0. 12. 3y - 4 = 0.
Find the equations of the lines satisfying the following conditions:
13. Through the point and parallel to 3x — 4j/ + 6 = 0.

(1, 2)
14. Through the point —3) and parallel to a; + 2^ — 3 = 0.
(2,
16. Through the point (6, 2) and perpendicular to 2x + y — 3 =0.

16. Through the point (—3, 1) and perpendicular to a; — y + 6 = 0.
63. Distance from a point to a line. —The

distance from
the origin to the line x cos + y sin 6 — p = 0, is the numeri-
cal value of p. Hence if d' is the distance from the origin to
the line Ax + By + C ^
'' = TvW+Bi' (^)
where the sign of the radical is chosen so as to make d' positive.

In order to find the distance d
from the point Pi(xi, yi), Fig. 49,
to the line Ax + By + C = 0,
translate the axes to the new origin
Pi {xi, 2/i) . The equations of trans-
lation [12] are
X = x' -\- Xi,
Fig. 49.
y = y' yu +
Making these substitutions, the equation
Ax-itBy + C = Q
becomes Ax' + By' + Axi + Byi + C = 0,
where the new constant term is
Ax^ + Byi + C.
The distance d = PiR is the distance from the new origin to
the line. From equation (1)
[23] d = Axi + Byi + C

±-s/k^ + 'B^
where the sign of the radical is chosen to make d positive.
Example 1. —Find the distance from the point (2, 1) to the line
3a; - 4^ +6 = 0.
Solution. — Translate the axes so that the new origin is the point
(2, 1). The equations of translation are
X = x' +2,
y = y' + 1.
The equation of the line — 4j/ + 6 = 0, referred to the new origin is

Ss
3{x' +2) - 4(2/' + 1) + 6 = 0,
or 3x' - 42/' + 8 = 0.
Putting this equation into the normal form gives

3a' - 4ir' +8 ^
±5
Hence the distance from the new origin to the line is d = -f j
and this is the distance from the point (2, 1) to the line 3a; — 4y + 6 = 0.
This distance could be found also by substituting directly in [23].
Putting A = 3, B = -4, C = 6, a;i = 2, 2/1 = 1,
3-2 -4.1+6 +8 _ 8
±5 ~ +5 ~ 5'
Example 2. — Find the distance from the point (3, —2) to the line
5x + 12y - 4: = 0.
Putting A = 5, B = 12, C = -4, xi = 3, and j/i = -2 in [23],
5-3 + 12(-2) -4 _ -13

'^
~
+13 ~ -13 _
~ •
This apparent inconsistency arses because both signs must first be

put down and then the correct sign selected.
EXERCISES
'
Find the distances from, the points to the lines in the following exercises:
1. Point (2, 3) to line ix 3y + i - = 0.
2. Point (-1, 2) to line 3x Ay - 6 = 0. +

3. Point (1, 3) to line x - y = 0.
4. Point (2, 3) to line x cos 30° y sin 30° - 3 = 0. +
5. Point (3,' -1) to hne x cos 135° 2/ sin 135° 1=0. + +
6. Point (1, 6) to line y - 1 = 3(.x - 4).
7. Find the altitudes of the triangle whose sides have the equations.
2/ = 1, 12a; +5y - 27 = 0, and 3a; - 42/ + 9 ,= 0.
Find the altitudes of the triangle whose vertices have the coordi-
8.
nates (4, 2), (-3, 1), (6, -3).
64. The bisectors of an angle. —

^Let the sides of an angle be
formed by the hnes ST and SR, Fig. 50, the equations of which
are AiX + Biy Ci = +
and
^y(^(ahv) A2X +
Biy+ Ci = respectively.
Let P {x, y) be any point on the
bisector SP of the angle formed
by these two lines.
From plane geometry it is

known that the bisector of an
angle is the locus of points equi-
distant from the sides.
Fig. 50.
Hence PT = PR.
Expressing this fact algebraically gives
Aix + Biy + Ci AjX + B^y + C2
+ VAi' + B, ±VA2^ + B2^
The four possible combinations' of signs in this equation will
yield two different equations,
Aix + Biy + Ci +
A2X + Bay + C2
[24]
VaTTb? Va^m^b?
One of these is the equation of the bisector of the angle
RST, while the other is the equation of the bisector of the
supplementary angle TSR'.
In order to tell which equation belongs to the bisector
sought, draw the figure as accurately as possible and observe
whether the slope" of the required bisector is positive or
negative. Since the two bisectors given by [24] are at right
angles to each other, one has a positive slope and the other
has a negative slope, so that in general it is easy to pick out
the required equation. The exceptional case occurs when one
bisector is very nearly parallel to the a;-axis, and it is diffi-
cult to tell the sign of its slope. In this case the numerical
value of its slope is small, whereas the numerical value of the
slope of the other bisector is large, so that again it is easy to
associate the equations with the correct bisectors.
Example. —Find the equation of the bisector of the angle which the
hne h =3x + iy — 5 = makes with the line h ^ 5x — 12y +6 = 0.
In Fig. 51, let I3 be the required bisector.
By [24] the equations of the two bisec-
tors are
3x + ^y - 5 5x - 112y +6
+
13
Clearing of fractions and simplifying
gives thetwo equations
14a; + 112v - 95 = 0, (1)
64a; - 82/ - 35 = 0. (2)
The slope of (1) is small and negative,
whereas the slope of (2) is large and
positive. Since the slope of I3 is large
and positive, its equation is 64x — 8^ — 35 = 0.
EXERCISES
Find the equations of the bisectors of the angle which the first line
makes with the second in exercises 1-6.
1. 8x + - 6 = 0, 7x + 4:y - 3 = 0.
y
2. X - 7y + Q = 0, 5x + 5y - 8 = 0.
3. nx-2y +12 = 0,2x+y -& = 0.
4. 13x +y - 15 = 0, 22a; - Uy - 21 = 0.
6. 12x + Uy - 11 = 0, 9x - 22/ + 10 = 0.
6. 9x + 7y -e =0, llaj + 3v - 14 = 0.
7. Tind the equations of the bisectors of the angles of the triangle the
equations of whose sides are 8a; — ^ 1 = 0, +
X + 8y +
1 = 0, and 7x iy -. 43 = 0.
+
8. Find the equations of the bisectors of
the angles of the triangle whose vertices
are i^,-^), (1> D, and (12, -1).
Systems of straight lines.

65. —
Sometimes the geometrical facts given
are not sufficient to determine a
straight line uniquely. In such a case
FlQ
not all the constants entering into
the equation of the line will be determined. For instance,, if
the problem is to find the equation of a line that is parallel to
3-P 4y _ 6 = 0, Fig. 52, it is evident that there are an un-
+
limited number of lines in the plane which satisfy the condi-

tions of the problem. To find the equation of any one of these
lines, substitute m = — f, in [16], which becomes
y = —fa; + b, or 3x + ^y — 4b = 0.
The quantity b can have any value whatsoever. If it is
given some arbitrary value the equation 3x + 4y — 4:b —

becomes the equation of some one of the lines that are parallel
to 3a; + 4j/ — 6 = 0. All of these parallel lines taken together
are said to form a system of lines.
Another system of lines consists of all the lines through a
given point. If the point has the coordinates (1, 2), the equa-
tion of this system of lines isy — 1 = m{x — 2), by [15].
EXERCISES
Find the equations of the following systems of lines:
1. Allthe lines passing through the point (—2, 3).

2. All the lines passing through the origin.
3. All the lines passing through the point (3, 4).
4. All the lines having their x-intercept equal to 3.
6. All the lines having their ^-intercept equal to —4.
the lines at a distance 3 from the origin.
6. All
the lines at a distance 7 from the origin.
7. All
8. All the Unes parallel to the line 2x y — 3 =0. +
9. All the lines perpendicular to the line x — Zy G + = 0.
10. All the lines such that the s-intercept of each is equal to its
^-intercept.
66. Applications of systems of straight lines to prob-

lems, —Sometimes the facts determining a straight line are
not such that its equation can be written down immediately.
This happens if the slope m and, the distance p of the line
from the origin are given. In such a case there are two
methods of procedure, one is to compute the constants which oc-
cur in some standard form of the equation of a straight line, by
drawing the figure and applying plane geometry or trigonome-
try. Another method is illustrated in the following example.
I
Example.—Find the equation of the straight line given ra = |, and

p =3.
First method. —First write down the equation of the system of lines
whose slope is |. This is y = ^x + b.
Next transform this line into the normal form. Its equation becomes
ix -3y + 3b
= 0.
±5
The distance of this line from the origin is
VT, but this is p and p = 3

36
Hence = 3, and 6 = +5.
±5
Substitute this value of 6 in y = ^x + b,
and it becomes y = ^x ± 5,
or ix — 3y ± 15 = 0.
There are two lines which satisfy ^the

required conditions, and they are equally Fio. 53.
distant from the origin.
—
Second method. Write down the equation of all lines distant 3 from
the origin. This equation is x cos + ^ sin — 3 = 0. In order to
fl fl
determine 0, note that the slope of this line is — cot 6.

Therefore — cot 8 = j, and d can be in either the second or the fourth
quadrants.
If e is in the second quadrant, then sin 9 = | and cos 9 = — f-
If e is in the fourth quadrant, then sin 9 = —
and cos 8 = ^
Substituting these values, the equation be-
comes ± fa; + |2/ —3 = 0.
Multiplying both sides by ±5, gives
4a; - 32/ ± 15 = 0.
—
Example 2. Find the equation of a line
^X through the point (1, 3) and making equal
intercepts pn the axes.
First solution, geometric method. —In Fig. 54,
Fig. 54. let AB be the line through Pi(l, 3) whose equa-
tion is to be found. Since the intercepts are
equal, angle BAO = angle OBA = 45°.
Hence a = OM -\- MA = OM + MPi = 1+3=4, and this is
also the value of 6.
Therefore the required equation is-g + -^ = l, OTX+y = i.
Unfortunately by using the geometric method parts of the solution are

liable to be overlooked. This is illustrated very well in this problem,

since the hne OPi passing through the origin and the point (1, 3), satisfies
all the conditions of the problem and is therefore also a solution.
—
Second solution, algebraic method. Since the Une AB passes through
the point (1, 3) its equation is y — 3 = m(x — 1). The a;-intercept
of this hne is > and the ^-intercept is 3 — w.
Since these are equal, = 3 — m.

Solving this equation gives to = 3 or — 1.
If TO = 3 the equation is y — 3 = 3(x — 1) or ^ — 32; = 0.
If TO = —1 the equation is — 3 = —(a; — 1) or + ^ — 4 =
2/ a; 0.
—
Third solution, algebraic method. This differs from the preceding only
in that it starts from the intercept form of the equation of a straight
line, instead of from the point slope form.
Since the intercepts are equal, the intercept form of the equation is
- +- = 1. In order to make this line pafes through the point (1, 3),
substitute these coordinates for a; and y. This gives —

1 3
h ^ = !•
Solving, gives o = 4 and the required equation is ^ + 7 = 1,
or a; + ^ = 4.
The question naturally arises, what happened to the solu-

tion y — 3x = 0? This
a solution since the
is certainly
intercepts a and 6 = = are equal and the line passes
through the point (1,3). This question can be answered by
noting as stated in article 57 that the intercept form is not
valid when either or both intercepts are 0. Hence the solution
y — 3x = cannot be secured from the intercept form.
Whenever this form of the equation of a straight line is used
the question as to whether either or both intercepts are zero
must be answered independent of the equation.
EXERCISES
Find the equations of the lines determined by the following conditions:
1. The slope of the line equals —| and it is distant IJ urits from the
origin.
2. The Une makes equal intercepts on the axes and passes through the
point (4, 2).
3. The line passesthrough the point ( — 7, 4) and is tangent to a circle

whose center the origin and radius equal to 1.
is
4. The line passes through the point (4, 2) and is tangent to a circle
whose center is the origin and radius equal to 2.
5.The slope of the line is 2 and its a;-intercept equals 3.
6. The slope of the line is —2 and the sum of its intercepts is 9.
7. The slope of the line is —J and the sum of its intercepts is 5.
8. The line makes intercepts which are equal numerically but opposite
in sign, and passes through the point (6, 3).
9. The line passes through the point (1, 3) and the sum of its intercepts
equals 8.
10. The
line passes through the point (3, 1) and the portion in-
cluded between the axes is bisected by this point.
11. The Une passes through the point (3, -s/S) and the perpendicular
from the origin on the line has an inclination of 60°.
12. The line is perpendicular to the line ix \- 3y — 6 = and distant
2 units from the origin.
13. The line is distant 3 imits from the origin and its y-intercept
equals 5.
14. The line is distant 2 units from the origin and the product of its
intercepts is \4.
15. The through the point (1, 2) and makes with the axes
line passes
a triangle in the quadrant whose area equals 4.
first
16. The Une passes through the point (1, 2) and makes with the axes
a triangle in the second or fourth quadrants whose area equals 4.
67. Loci through the intersection of two loci. —Theorem.
Iff(^, y) = and g(x, y) = are
the equations of any two loci and
a(x.v)-a_^
k is any constant not zero, then
fix, y) + kg{x, y) = is the equa-
tion of a curve which passes
f(1,V)-0
through all the points of inter- *-x
section of fix, y) = and
gix, y) = 0, but does not intersect
these curves in any other point.
Proof.—Let Piixi, yx), Fig. 55, be any point of intersection
of fix, !/)
= and gix, y) = 0. Since Pi lies on both these
curves its coordinates must satisfy each equation, therefore
/(a;i, 2/i) = and gixx, j/i) = 0.
Substituting the coordinates of Pi in /(a;, y) + kg{x, y) = 0,
Kxi, yi) kgixx, j/i) = fcO =

+ + 0.
Therefore Pi lies also on the curve J{x, y) + hg{x, y) = 0.
But Pi was any point of intersection of f{x, y) = and

six, y) = 0, therefore every point of intersection of these
curves on f(x, y) + kg{x,
lies y) = 0.
Furthermore the curve fix, y) + kgix, y) =

cannot meet
either /(a;, y) = or gix, y) = in any For if it
other point.
did, suppose it meets /(a;, j/)
= at P2(a;2, 2/2) and that
, P2 is not
on gix, y) = 0. Then jf(a;2, 2/2) = 0, but gr(a;2, 2/2) = a where

o ?^ 0.
Substituting the coordinates of P2 in/(a;, y) + kgix, y) = 0,
fi^î, 2/2) + kgixi, j/2) = + fca F^ 0.
In like manner it can be shown that fix, y) kgix, ?/) = +

will meet gix, y) = only at the points of intersection of
fix, y) = and gix, y) = 0.
If fix, 2/)
= is the straight line Ax + By + C = 0, and
gi^) 2/)
= is the straight line A'x + B'y + C = 0, then
fix, y) + kgix, y) = 0,
or Ax -\- By -\- C -^ kiA'x + B'y + C) =

is the equation of a straight line through the point of in-
tersection of the straight lines, Ax By -{ C = and +
A'x + B'y +C = 0.
—
Example 1. Find the equation of the straight line which passes
through the point (4, 3) and through "the intersection of the two lines
2x +3y - 5 = and 3a; - 4^ + 1 = 0.
It has just been shown that the equation of any line passing through
the intersection of these two lines is of the form
2x +3y - 5 + HSx - 4y + 1) = 0.
Since this line passes through the point (4, 3), its equation is satisfied
when a; = 4 and y = S. This gives

12 + J;(i) = 0.
Therefore fc = —12, and the required equation is
2x +3y - 5 - 12(32; - 4j/ + 1) = 0,
or 2a; - 3^ + 1 = 0.
EXERCISES
Find the equations of the lines satisfying the following conditions.
1. Passing through the point of intersection
of 2x + 3y - 3 =
and 3x - 2/ - 1 = 0, and through the point (1, 1).
2. Passing through the point of intersection of 5x —
iy — 2 =
and 2x +4:y - 15 = 0, and through the point (2, 3).
3. Passing through the point of intersection
of Sx 2y - 6 = +
and X + y = 3, and perpendicular to 2a; + j/ — 1 =0.
4. Passing through the point of intersection of x -
6y = 3 and
2x — y = 2, and perpendicular to a; — 2jr + 1 =0.
5. Passing through the intersection oi y = 6
+ x and 3y = i — 2x,
and parallel to x + 3y — 4: = 0.
—
by factoring. Since it is easy to plot a straight
68. Plotting
line,the theorem of article 48 gives a simple method of plotting
equations which can be factored into linear factors.
—
Example. Plot the equation 2x' 2x 7y = xy 3y^ + 4. + + +
First transpose all terms to the left hand side of the equation
2x' +2x +7y - xy -3y' - 4: =0.

In order to find out if this equation
can be factored, regard it as a quadratic
in X or y, and solve for that variable.
For the sake of convenience the variable
chosen this time will be x. Collecting
like powers of x,
*-x
2x' +{2 -y)x -4:+7y- 3y' = 0.
Solving for x, by means of the formula,

Art. 4, where a = 2, b = 2 — y, and
c 4 + 7j/ - 3y^
-2 + ± 2/ V25y^ - >
+ 36 _ -2+y +(5y-6) ,
4 4
3y_
Hence x
2
-J/ + 1, and the left hand side can be factored
into 2
3y-
The equation now becomes (2a; — 3y 4:)(x y — 1) = 0. + +
Therefore the graph of 2a;* + 2x 7y = xy 3y' +
4 consists of + +
the two straight lines 2a; — 3^ + 4 = and x + y — 1 = 0.
When an equation of the second degree in each of two

variables, is solved for one variable in terms of the other, an
•
expression is obtained under a radical sign. If this expression

is a perfect square, the graph of the equation consists of two
straight lines.
Thus, in the problem just solved, 25y' — 60y + 36 is a perfect square.
If it had not been a perfect square 2x' + 2x + 7y = xy + 3i/* + 4 could
not have been plotted by this method.
Example 2. —
Plot the curve x^y = y'.
Transposing all terms to the left hand side, x'^y — j/' = 0.
Factoring the left hand side, y{x — y){x + y) = 0.
The graph consists of the line j/ = which is the a;-axis, the line
a; — ^ = and the line x -^ y — Q.
EXERCISES
1. Find the equation of the triangle whose sides are x = y, y = 0,
and X -\- y = 1.
2. Find the equation of the square whose bounding lines are x = \,

X = 2,y = 1, and y = 2.
Plot the following curves by first factoring:
3. x'^ -2y' - xy +3y - 1 = 0.
4. 22/" = xy + xK
6. s" + 2x + 1 = 4:y'.
6. 2x^ + xy + 4x +y + 2 = y^.
69. Straight line in polar

general the coordinates. —In
equations of straight lines in polar coordinates are not as
simple as those in rectangular co-
iî^''i'
*''
ordinates. The simplest case is the
^p(p,e) one in which the known quantities
are the polar coordinates of the
-^x from the
foot of the perpendicular
the same
° to the Kne.
origin This is
Fig. 57. , • ,. ,
data as was given for the normal
form of the equation of a straight hne. If the end of the
perpendicular to the line from the origin has the coordinates
(pi, di), Fig. 57, let P{p, e) be any point on the line.
Then
^p
cos POPi = j^r^' or cos (9 — 9i) =—
Ur
Hence m-
p cos(e
a\
0i) = pi,
p
/.\
(1)
'
This equation can also be obtained from the normal form

of the equation of a straight line by replacing p by pi, 6 by h,
X hy p cos e, and y hy p sin 6.
In the special case where the line is perpendicular to the
polar axis, Oi = 0, and the polar form of the equation of the
straight line takes the form p cos 6 = pi. If the straight
line is parallel to the polar axis, di = 90° and the equation of
the straight line becomes p sin 6 = pi.
—
Example. Find the polar form of the equation of a straight line if the
coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular drawn to it from the origin
are (3, 60°).
Substituting in equation (1), gives p cos {e — 60°) = 3.
EXERCISES
Write the equations of the following straight lines in polar coordinates,
if the coordinates of the end of the perpendicular from the origin to the
line are:
1.(3,45°). 3.(7,90°). 5. (-4, 135°).

2. (-2, 60°). 4.(4,180°). 6.(3,315°).
Change from rectangular to polar coordinates.
7. X +y- 1 = . 1. xV3 +y = 4:.
8. a; = 3. 11. a; - yVS +6=0.

9. y = -7. 12. y -2x = 0.
Change from polar to rectangular coordinates.
13. p
'^ = 3 sec e. 18. p = -.
4 cos fl
3
— w—- -„•
6 sm e
—
14. p =
4 CSC 0. 19. 5 sin 6 = 3.
15. tan $ e. = 20. 13 cos 6 5.
2 . „, V2
^^- '' ~ cos 9 + sin e' ^^' " sin (9 - 45°)
_ 3 (cos $ — sin e) 3
"• " ~ 3^^ê ''
cos ie + 60°)'
70. Applications of the straight line. Whenever two vari- —

ables are related so that one varies directly as the other, or
so that a change in one varies directly as the corresponding
change in the other, the relation between the variables is
linear, and the graph showing the relation between the
variables is a straight line.
Since many of the relations in physics, mechanics, and
engineering are of this nature, the straight line has a wide

field of application. Oftentimes the curves representing the
relation between physical quantities are within certain hmits
so nearly straight lines that the more complicated equation
is replaced, on account of its simplicity, by the linear relation.
A few specific instances are the following.
(1) The increase in velocity of a body falling under the
action of gravity is proportional to the time. This is expressed
by the relation
V — Vo = k{t — to),
where Vo is the velocity of the body at the time

to and v is the
velocity of the bodyany time t. If v and Vo are expressed

at
in feet per second, and t and to are expressed in seconds,
then k, the proportionality factor, is the familiar constant g.
This relation is often expressed
V = kt + Vo,
where Vo is the velocity when t = to = 0.

(2) Hooke's Law. — The extension of an elastic string varies
directly as the tension. This is expressed by the relation
I = kt + lo,
where the length of the string under the tension

I is t, and h is
the length of the string when t = 0.

(3) The expansion of a bar due to heat, is very nearly pro-
portional to its increase in temperature. This is expressed
by the relation
I — lo = k(t — to),
where lo isthe length of the bar at some temperature to and

I is its length at any temperature t.
(4) The weight of a column of mercury in a barometer
varies directly as its height. This is expressed by the relation
w = kh,
where the weight w taken as zero when h = 0.
is
In all four cases the graph representing the linear relation

between the variables is a straight line.
§70] EQUATION OF THE FIRST DÎGREE 81
For further applications of the straight line see Chapter X

on empirical equations.
GENERAL EXERCISES
1. Translate the following algebraic statements into words and draw
their loci:
(1) y = 4a;, (2) y = ^x - i,

(3) X = Zy +2, (4) s = 52/ - 2.
2. Find the equation of the line (1) through the point (4, -3) and
parallel to 2x - Sjr = 4; (2) through the point (5, 7) and perpendicular to
2x + 7y = 14.
3. Find the equation of the line (1) through the point (-2, -5)
and parallel to a; - 7^ = 3; (2) through the point {h, k) and parallel
to the line y = mx b. +
4. Find the length of the following perpendiculars:
(1) From (3, 2) to 4a; - 3?/ - 7 = 0.

(2) From (0, -S) to 5x - y- 6 = 0.
(3) From (2, 3) to 6x - 8y - 10 = 0.
Find the lengths of the three altitudes of the triangle whose
5.
vertices are (4, 5), (—2, 2), and (3, —4).
6. Find the distances from the line 2a; + 3j/ — 12 = to each of the
points (4, 4), (2, -3), (0, 0), (-3, 5), and (-2, 8).
7. Given 4:X + ky — 5 = 0; determine the value of k for which the
line will (1) pass through the point (—4, 3), and (2) be parallel to
3x -2y + 7 =0.
8. Find the equations of the lines through the intersection of the lines
2x + y — 16 = and x — y + 2 = and also
(1) passing through the point (2, 7),
(2) parallel to the line 7x - 2y + 6 = 0,

(3) perpendicular to the line 3a; — 4^ + 2 = 0,
(4) haying the slope — -f-
Given a triangle having as
9. vertices the points (6, 2), (—3, 6),
and — 1, —3); find the equations
( of the perpendicular bisectors of the
three sides, and the coordinates of their point of intersection.
10. Show that ISa;^ — 14a;^ — 8y' = is the equation of two straight
lines intersecting at the origin.
11. if .4, B, and C are real numlaers, Ax' + Bxy + Cy' =
Prove that,
represents two straight lines passing through the origin, and that these
lines are real and distinct, real and coincident, or imaginary according
as B' — iAC IB positive, zero, or negative,
6
.12. The perpendicular drawn from the origin to a line makes an angle
of 60° with the i-axis and its length is 2, find the equation of the line.
13. Write the equations of the following lines:
(1) Passing through the point (3, 5) and having an inclination of 45°.
(2) Passing through ( — 1, —3) and having a slope of 2.
(3) Passing through (—2, 8) and having an inclination of 120°.
14. Show that the following lines form a parallelogram:

(a) 2x +3y == 10, (6) 2a; + 3^ = 20, (c) x - 2y = 5,
(d) 2x - 42/ = 17.
y 15. Write the equation of the line passing through the intersection
of X — 32/ + 8 = and 3x + 2^ + 2 = and making an angle whose
tangent is 2 with the x-axis.
Find the coordinates of the point in which the perpendicular to
16.
the line 2x — ^ — 1 = and passing through (—2, 3) intersects that
line.
17. What does the equation 3x — 2y i = become when the +
coordinate axes are turned through an angle of 45°? Plot the locus of
the equation in both cases.
18. Plot each of the following lines, translate the axes so that the new
origin shall be at the point indicated and replot from the new equation.
(1) 2/ = 3x + 4, (2, 3). (3) y = mx+b, (c, d).
(2) 22/ - 3x - 2 = 0, (-2, 3). (4) 2/ - 4x +5 = 0, (f, -2).

J 19. The three vertices of a triangle are (8, 2), (4, 8), and (— 2,-6).
Find the equations of the lines each of which bisects two sides of the
triangle.
20. Given two straight lines each having an inclination of 45° and
having intercepts on the ^-axis of 6 and —8 respectively; find the equa-
tion of the straight line that is equidistant from the two hnes.
21. Find the equation of a straight line such that the perpendicular
from the origin to it equals 8 and makes an angle of 45° with the x-axis.
22. Find the equation of the straight line which passes through the
intersection of the hnes x — 2y — 4 = and x + 3y — 8 = and is
parallel to the line Zx + iy = 4.
H 23. Find the equation of the line through the point (2, 3) making an
angle tan~' f with the line 2x — 4y + 7 = 0.
24. Find the equation of the line through the point ( — 1, 2) making
an angle sin~' | with the line x -f- Sj/ — 4 = 0.
26. Find the equation of the line through the point (6, 4) making an
angle cos~' (— |) with the line 2x — y + 6 = 0.
26. Find the equations of the two lines through the point ( — 1, —3),
which form an equilateral triangle with the line x + y = 2.
27. Find the equation of the line through the point (0, 6) which together
with the 2/-axis as the other equal side forms an isosceles trialigle with
the line 2x — y +
4 = 0.
28. Find the equation of the line through the point (0, 6) which together
with the y-axis for the other leg forms an isosceles triangle *ith the line
2x +y - 4 = 0.
29. The equations of the two equal sides of an isosceles triangle are
X — 2y +
6 = and 2x — y — 2 == 0. Find the equation of the third
side if it passes through the point (9, 4).
30. Find the slope of the line 2x + By — 4 = after the axes are
rotated through 30°.
31. Find the slope of the line x — 3y + 6 = after the axes are rotated
through the angle 0, where cos e = — | and 6 is in the second quadrant.
32. Find the equations of the two Unes through the point ( — 1; 3)
which trisect that part of the line 2x + y — 6 = which is intercepted
between the axes.
» 33. An equilateral triangle lies wholly in the first quadrant. If one
side has its extremities at (1, 6) and (6, 1), what are the equations of the
other two sides?
34. An isosceles right triangle is constructed with its hypotenuse along
the line 2x y — 6 = 0. If its vertex is the point (3, 4), find the
+
equations of its sides.
36. A circle is inscribed in the triangle the equations of whose sides
are x'+ 2y - 16 = 0, 2x - y + 3 = 0, ^.nd 2x + y - 7 = 0. Find
its radius and the coordinates of its center.
36. The base of an isosceles triangle is the line joining the points (1, 5)
and (4, 6), its vertex is on the line x + y — 7 = 0. Find the cootdi-
nates of its vertex.
37. Find the locus of a point which moves so as to be always equi-
distant from the points (3, 5) and ( — 1, 7).
38. Find the equation of the locus of a point which moves so that
its distance from the line 7x + iy — 6 == is twice its distance' from
the line x - 8y +3 =0.

the difference of the squares of its distances from the points (^2, 3)
and (1, 6) shall be constant and equal to 2.
40. Find the equations of two lines through the point (1, 1) such that
the perpendiculars let fall from the .point (1, 3) on them are each of
length |.
41. Prove that the feet of the perpendiculars let fall from the point
(3, 1) on the sides of the triangle a; = 0, 2/ = 0, and 2a; + y - 4 =
lie in a straight line.
42. Find the equations of the straight lines through the point (3, 6)
and intersecting the line x+y — 2 = 0ata distance 5 from this point.
43. Prove that the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle
meet in a point.
44. Find the equation of the locus of a point that is always twice as
far from the origin as from the aj-axis.
46. The coordinates of two points are (3, 5) and (4, 4). Find the
equation of a straight line which bisects the line segment connecting these
points and makes an angle of 45° with the x-axis.
46. A straight line inclined to the x-axis at an angle of 150° has an
^-intercept equal to 8. Find the equation of a straight line passing
through the origin and bisecting that portion of the hne included between
the axes.
47. Find the equations of the four sides of a square two of whose
opposite vertices are and
(2, 3) (3, 4).
48. A straight line moves so as to keep the sum of the reciprocals of
its intercepts on the axes a constant. Show that the moving line passes
through a fixed point.
49. Find the equation of the straight line passing through the point
(2, 6) and making an angle of 30° with the line x —2y = 1.
60. Find the equation of a straight hne passing through the point
(c, 0) and making an angle of 45° with the hne bx — ay = ab.
61. The equation of a straight hne is 3x +

5y — 15; find the equa-
tion of the same whose origin is at (3, 2).
line referred to parallel axes
62. Find the equations of the straight hues bisecting the angles formed
by the lines 12x + 5^ = 8 and Zx — ^y = 3.
63. Show that an angle of 45° is formed by the lines represented by
the equation x' — xy — &y' + 2x — y + 1 =0.
64. Given the equation Ax + By + C = 0. Find the relation be-
tween A, B and C, (1) so that the x- and j/-intercepts shall be equal;
(2) so that the inclination of the line shall be 45°; (3) so that the line
shall pass through the point (1, 2).
65. Determine the angle that the first line of each of the following
pairs makes with the second:
(1) a;+ 2^ = 5, 3a; - 4y = 4.
(2) 3x +4cy = 6,2x - y = 2.
(3) VSx +y ==4:, V3x - j/ +4 = 0.
66. Determine the value oi m in y = mx + 6, so that it shall make

an angle of 60° with x — 2y — 3.
67. Find the coordinates of the point through which the three Unes
y — ix = 5, y — Zx = 4, and y — 2x = Z
58. Find the value of m so that y = mx +3 shall pass through the

intersection oi y —
x = 1 and y — 2x = 2.
59. Find the equation of the line perpendicular to 5x + 8y = Z and
having a y-intercept equal to 6.
60. Find the angle which the Une 4x — y = 8 makes with the line
&x ~ y = 9.
61. Find the equation of the locus of a point whose distance from
3x + iy = 5is one-half its distance from 12a; — 5y = 16.
62. Given the two fixed points Pi(-2, 4) and Pi^l, 3). Find the
equation of the locus of the variable point P{x, y) which moves so that
the area of the triangle PPiPs is always equal to 10.
the slope of the line joining it to the point (0, 2) is twice the slope of the
line joining it to the point (0, —2).
64. If the equations of ihe sides of a triangle are x 2y — 15 = 0, +
2x — y + 5 = 0,11ând 2x — +
15 = 0, find the coordinates of the
point of intersection of the bisectors of the interior angles of the
triangle.
65. Find the equation of a line passing at a distance v'2 from the
originif the sum of its intercepts is 4.
66. If the three lines

Aix + Bxy + Ci = 0,
Aix + Biy + C2 + 0,
Azx + Bzy + Cs = 0,
meet in a point, show that
Ai Bi Ct
Ai Bi Ci = 0.
Ai Bs Cz
CHAPTER V
THE CIRCLE AND CERTAIN FORMS OF THE SECOND
DEGREE EQUATION
71. Introduction. —The circle affords other examples of the
ease and power obtained in analytic geometry by applying
algebra to geometry. Since the properties of the circle are
well known from
plane geometry, atten-
tioncan be confined to the methods
^('.v) used in solving the various problems.
72. Equation of circle in terms of
—
center and radius. A circle is defined
.^x in plane geometry to be the locus of all
points in a plane equidistant from a
fixed point in the plane called the center
FiQ. 58. °^ *^® circle.

Let the center of the circle be the fixed
point, C{h, k), Fig. 58, and let the constant distance, or
radius, be r.
Then if P{x, y) is any point on the circle, the distance

PC = r.
But by [3], PC = y/{x - hy + (y - k)\

Then V(a; - A)^ + (y - ky = r.
[25] .•.(x-h)2 + (y-k)2 = r".
Furthermore, comparison of this equation with [3] shows

that every equation of the form of [25] is the equation of a
circle.
If the center of the circle is the origin, this equation takes
the simple form
[26] x2 + y2 = tK
86
§73] THE CIRCLE AND CERTAIN FORMS 87
73. General equation of the circle.— Equation [25] when

expanded becomes
a;2 + 2/2 - 2hx - 2ky + /i' + fc' - r^ = 0.
This is in the form

[27] x2 + y2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0.
This is called the general equation of the circle.

Conversely, every equation in the form of [27] is the equa-
tion of a circle, since after completing the squares in the x and
the y-terras,, it can be written in the form
1)2 m 7)2 E^
x^ + Dx + -^ + y- + Ey + ^ = ^ + ^ - F,
or {x + \Dy + + \E)^ = iWD^ + E^- Wy.
(j/
Comparison of this equation with equation [25], shows that

h = -ID, k = -Ê, and r = WD^ + E^ - 4F.
Therefore every equation in the form of [27] is the equation
of a circle.
li D'' + E^ — 4F>0, equation [27] represents the equation
of a real circle.
Ti D^ + E^ - 4F = 0, the radius of the circle equals 0, and
the locus becomes a point. Such a circle is called a null or
point circle.
li D^ + E^ — 4F<0, the radius of the circle is imaginary
and the circle is called an imaginary circle.
74. Special form of the general equation of the

second
degree. —The equation a circle is a special case of the most
of
general equation of the second degree ia two variables
Ax^ + Bxy + Cj/2 + Da; + % + F = b.
In order that this shall be the equation of a circle comparison
with [27] shows that 5 = and A = C, for then this equa-
tion becomes
Ax^ + Ay^ + Dz-\-Ey + F==0,
which can be reduced to [27] by dividing by A.
The quantity
A cannot be zero, since if it were, this equation would become
the, equation of a straight line.
,
Example. —Find the coordinates of the center, and the radius of the
circle 5x' + Hy^ + - Sy - 4 =
2a; 0.
Solution. —Dividing by 5.
x'+y^+ix-iy -i---0.
Completing squares
^' +ix + -^ + y' - %y + ^h! = ih + Ths + I
or (x + iy + (y- ^\y = T^.

Comparing this equation with [25], shows that the center has the
coordinates (—5, i\) and that the radius is equal to -v/^ = i^-v/OS-
This problem could also be solved by substituting the values = -f D
£ = -f and
, F = -|, in the formulas of Art. 73.
EXERCISES
Find the coordinates of the centers and the radii of the following circles:
1. x^ + j/« - 2a; - 4j/ -= 0.4

2. a;2 + j/2 + 4a; - 6j/ + 12 = 0.
3. x" +y' + 12a; + 6y + 41 = 0.

i. x" + y^ - X -
iy + 2 =0.
6. 3x' +3y' -2x - iy + 1 =0.
6. 2x' +2y' +x +3y - 5 = 0.
7. 2x' +2y' + 2x +6y + 5 =0.
8. x^ +y' - 2ax - &ay + a' = 0.
9. 2x' + 2y^ + 12ax + Way - a* = 0.
10. Oi" + 9y' - 6ax + ISay + Sa" = 0.
75. Equation of a circle satisfying three conditions. Since —

both equations [25] and [27] involve three arbitrary constants,
the circle is determined if enough geometric or algebraic con-
ditions are given to determine the three constants uniquely.
There are two methods of procedure. One is to compute
the constants in [25] geometrically. That is to say, from the
given conditions compute the radius of the circle and the
coordinates of its center, then substitute these values in [25].
Another method is to set up three equations involving h, k,
and r, or three equations involving D, E, and F, and solve
these equations simultaneously. This method is generally
more satisfactory, and is illustrated for both sets of con-
stants in the following example.
Example —Find the equation

I. of a circle passing through the points
(3, 5), (4, 4), (1, 1).
First method, —Find the equations of the perpendicular
geometrical.
bisectors of twothe sides of the triangle (3, 6), (4, 4), (1, 1).
of
Solve these equations simultaneously. This gives the coordinates of
the center of the circle.
Next find the distance from the center of the circle to any one of the
three This gives the radius of the circle. Substituting
vertices.
the values of h, k and r thus found in [26] gives the desired equation.
It is obvious that this method is long and hence the actual computa-
tion is not given. A shorter method is the following.
—
Second method, algebraic. Make the coordinates of each of the three
points satisfy the equation {x — h)^ {y — kY = r\ This gives +
(3 - hy + (5 - ky = r!,
(4 - hY + (4 - ky = r«,
(1 - hy + (1 - ky = rK
Simplifying each of these equations gives
h'^ -\-k^ -%h - lOfc - r!i
+ 34 = 0,
h^ -\^k^ -m- &k - r' + 32 = 0,
h^ + k^ -2h- 2/0 - r» + 2=0.
Solve these equations by subtracting the second from the first and
the third from the second. Then solving the two equations thus
obtained gives h = 2,k = Z,r = \/5.
Hence the equation of the required circle is
{x - 2y + {v-2,y = 5
Simplifying, this becomes
a;2 + 2/2 - 4a; - 62/ +8 = 0.
Third method. — Make the coordinates of the three points satisfy

the equation x^ -{ y^ Ey + F = 0. This gives
-\- Dx -\-
9 + 30 + 5£ + f = 0,
+ 25
16 +
16 + 4fl 4S + f = 0, -I-
1+ 1+ D + E +F = 0.
Solving these equations simultaneously gives
D = -4:, E = -6, F = 8.
Hence the equation of the circle is
x2+yi-4x-6y + S= 0.
Example 2. —Find the equation of a which passes through the

circle
points (-1, 7) and (7, 1) and is tangent to the lines + y - 10 = 0.

This problem illustrates how a combination of both algebraic and

geometric methods may sometimes be useful.
Solution. —
Ûse the equation (x — h)' (y — k)' = r", and make the
+
circle go through the points ( — 1, 7) and (7, 1). This gives the two
equations (-1 - h)' (7 - k)^ = r',
+ (1)
and (7 - h)' + (1 - k)' =rK (2)
Since the line x y — 10 =Ois tangent to the circle, the distance

+
from the point (h, k) to the line x y — 10 = +
equals r, hence by [23]
Simplifying and combining like

terms in (1) and (2) gives
h" +k'>+ 2h - Uk + 50 = r'^ (4)
h^ + k' - Uh - 2fc + 50 = f. (5)
Subtracting (5) from (4) and divid-

ing both sides of the resulting equa-
tion by 4,
4h-3k = 0. (6)
Substituting the value of r from

equation (3) in (4) and simplifying,
h^ - 2hk +k^ + 2ih - 8k = 0. (7)
Substituting h = \k from equation (6) in equation (7) and simplifying,
k^ + 160J; = 0.
Hence A; = or fc = -160.
pomputing the value of h from equation (6), gives h = or ft = — 120.
^Computing the value of r from equation (3), gives
r = 25-\/2 or r = 145\/2.
Substituting the values of h, k, and r in the general equation of the
circle gives the two solutions x^ + y'' = 50,
and (x + 120)2 + {y + mo)" = 42,050.
EXERCISES
Find the equations of the circles through the following points:
Find the equations of the circles fulfilling the following conditions:

11. Passing through the origin, radius 5, and ordinate of center —3.
12. Passing through the origin, radius 13, and abscissa of center 12.
13. Center at origin and tangent to line x 2y = 10.
+
14. Center at point (1, 2) and passing through the point (3, —1).
15. Center at ( -
1, 3) and tangent to line 3s ^ + -
10 = 0.
16. Center on s-axis and passing through the points (3, 3) and (5, —1).
17. Radius 5 and passing through the points (5, 6) and (2, 7).
18. Radius 5 and tangent to the line ix + 3y — 1& = a.t the point
(1, 4).
19. Having the line joining (-3, 2) and (5, 6) as diameter.
20. Passing through the point (1, 1) and having the same center as
xi +yi + 4:x - 6y = 0.
21. Intercept on equals 3, and passing through the points
a;-axis
(-1, 2)and (2, 3).
22. Tangent to a;-axis, radius 4, and abscissa of center 3.
23. Tangent to 2/-axis, radius 2, and ordinate of center 4.
24. Center on the line x — y + 2 = 0, and passing through the points
(3, 7) and (1, 1).
25. Center on the hne 2x — y — 3 = 0, tangent to both axes, and in the
first quadrant.
on the hne 2x — y — 3 = 0, tangent to both axes, and in the
26. Center
fourth quadrant.
27. Center on the line 3a; — ^ 8 = 0, tangent to both axes, and in
+
the second quadrant.
28. Radius 3, tangent to both axes, and in the second quadrant.
29. Tangent to the line 3a; + y + 2 = at the point ( — 1, 1) and
passing through the point (3, 5)
30. Intercept on the ^-axis 4, and tangent to the line x 2y 1 + + =0
at the point (—3, 1).
31. Tangent to both axes, in the second quadrant, and also tangent
to the line3x — iy + 30 = 0. (Two solutions.)
Tangent to both axes, in the first quadrant, and also tangent to
32.
the Ime 3x - iy + 30 = 0.
33. Tangent to both axes and passing through the point (8, 1). (Two
solutions.)
Find the equation of the diameter with slope 2 of the circle
34.
x' -
4x + y' + 6y - 3 = 0.
35. The point ( — 1, 2) bisects a chord of the circle x' + y' = 10.
Find the equation and length of the chord.
36. A chord of the circle a;'' + 2/^ + 2a; 4?/ — 15 =
+ is bisected by
the point ( — 2, 1). Find the equation and length of the chord.
37. Find the equation of the circle inscribed in the triangle whose
sides are the lines 6a; + 7^ = 85, — 7a; + 6^ = 85, and 2x — 9y = 85.
38. Find the equation of the circle inscribed in the triangle whose
sides are the lines 3x + iy = 18, —4a; + 3y = 26, and y + 4 = 0.
39. Find the equation of the circle circumscribing the triangle whose
sides are the hnes 7x +9y = 65, 3x + y = 25, and x + 2y = 15.
40. Prove analytically that an angle inscribed in a semicircle is a
right angle.
41. Prove analytically that a line from the center of a circle bisecting
a chord is perpendicular to it.
Suggestion. —^Let the ends of the chord be (r, 0) and (6, c).
42. Prove analytically that the length of a perpendicular from any
point on the circumference of a circle to a diameter, is a mean propor-
tional between the segments into which it divides the diameter.
43. Prove that the length of the tangent from the point (a;i, yi) to the
circle x^ +.y' + Dx + Ey + F = Oisxi^ + yi^ + Dxi + Eyi F = Q. +
76. Systems of circles. — If fi{x, y) = and fiix, y) =
are the equaltions of any two then by article 67
circles,
fiiî y) + kfi{x, y) = is the equation of a curve through all

the points of intersection of fi{x, y) = and /a (a;, y) = 0.
Furthermore in this case the curve will always be a circle or
a straight line.
To prove that this is so, let/i(a;, y) = stand for the equa-
tion Aix'^ + Ai2/2 + Dix +
Eiy +Fi = 0, and let Mx, y)
= stand for A^x^ + A^^ +
DiX + Eiy + Fa = 0.
Then/i(a;,2/)-|-fc/2(a;,2/) =0
becomes A^x^ + Aiy^ -{ DiX +
Eiy + Fi + h{AiX^ + A^y^ +
D^
+ E^y + F2) = 0.
Collecting like powers of x
Fio. 60.
and y, this equation becomes
(Ai+ hA2)x^ + (Ai + kAi)y^ + (Dj + kD2)x + {Ex + hE2)y
+ Fi + kFi = 0.
Since the coefficient of x^ equals the coefficient of y^ and the
xy equals 0, this is the equation of a circle. The
coefficient of
THE CIRCLE AND CERTAIN FORMS 93
exception occurs when Ai + kA^ = 0, in which case, this

equation is of the first degree and therefore is the equation of
a straight line.
Fig. 61.
—
Example 1. Find the equation of a circle through the point (1, 2)
and the points of intersection of the circles 2x^ + 2y^ — 3x — iy — 1 =
and 3x^ +Zy' -8x - y - 4: = 0.
Solution. —
The equation of any circle through the points of intersection
of these two circles is
2a;2 + 2j/2 -Zx - iy -\+ ifc(3a;» + Sy' - 8a; - y - 4) =0.
Since the point (1, 2) is on this circle its coordinates must satisfy the
equation of the circle, therefore
2+8-3-8-1+ A;(3 + 12 -8-2- 4) =0.
Solving for fc, gives fc = 2.
Therefore the required equation is
2a;2 +2y^ -3x - iy -1 + 2(3x2 .^ Sy^ _ g^ - y - 4) =0,

or 8x' + 8y' - 19x - Cy - 9 = 0.
Example 2. —Find the equation of the common chord of the circles,

2a;2 + 2y^ - 6x - 4:y + 1 =0 and x' + y' - 2x - y + 3 = 0.
Solution. —The equation of any circle through the points of inter-
section of these two circles is
2j;2 + 22/2 - 6x - 42/ + 1 + ki,x^ + y' - 2x - y -\- 3) =0.

In order that this equation shall be the equation of a straight line, it is
necessary that the coeflBcient of x' shall vanish, hence 2 + Ai = 0. This

gives A; = —2.
Making this siibstitution the equation becomes

2j;2 +2y'' -Qx -4ty + 1 - 2(x' +.y' - 2x - y + 3) =0,
or 2x + 2y + 5 = 0.
This is the equation of their common chord.
If the two circles intersect in real points, the straight line

thus obtained is their common chord, since it passes through
their two points of intersection. If the two circles do not
intersect visually, they are still said to intjersect algebraically,
their points of intersection being imaginary, and the line
/i (a;, y) + kfi (î y) passes through their imagiâry points
of intersection. The straight line which passes thro,ugh the
real or imaginary points of intersection of two circles is called
their radical axis.
EXERCISES
Find the equation of the common chord or the radical axis of the
circles in exercises 1-6.
1. x' + y^ - 3x + y - & = 0, 4. 2x^ + 2y' - 3x - 3y +5 = 0,

x' + y' - Sx - 3y +4 = 0. Sx" + 3y^ - 2x - 3y +i = 0.
2. x' +y' - Qx - =^8y +3 0, 6. 4^' + iy' - x + y - 6 = 0,
x' +y^ +ix +2y - 7 = 0. 3x^ + 3y'' - 2x - 3y +i = 0.
3. x' + y' - 3x - iy +2 = 0, 6. Sx' + 3y' - 2x - 3y +6 = 0,
x' +y' - 2x -2y + & = 0. 2x'' + 2y' + x + y -
2 = 0.
7. Find the equation of the circle through the point (1, 1) and through
the points of intersection of "the circles
x' + y^ - 2x - 3y +i = 0,
a;2 + - 1/2 4x - Sy +6 = 0.
8. Find the equation of the circle through the point (3, 4) and through
the points of intersection of the circles
xi + yi - 7x - 3y + 10 = 0,
x' + y' - 8x + 2y - 6 = 0.
Prove that the common chords

9. of the following circles, taken two at
a time, meet in a point:
x' y^ - Ax -3y +G = 0,
-1-
x'' +y' -2x +5y -2 =0,

x' +y' + X +2y - i = 0.
Locus problems involving circles. Although the ele-
77. —
ments dealt with in plane geometry are the point, straight
'
line and circle, nevertheless the locus problems that can

readily be handled by plane geometry are only of the simplest
kind. On the other hand analytic geometry lends itself
easily to the solution of locus
problems as is illustrated by
the following example.
P(!f,V)
—
Example. Find the locus of the
point, which moves so that the sum
of the squares of its distances from the
points (0, 1) and (2, 1) is constant
and equal to 20.
Solution. —^Let P(,x, y) be any point ^x
on the locus, then
PS= + pf2 = 20, (1)

FS' =x' + {y - 1)2,
py2 = (j; _ 22 + (y - 1)2.
Substituting these values in equa- Fig. 62.

tion (1)
x' + {y - 1)2 + {x - 2)2 + (y - 1)2 = 20.
Simplifying, x' + y' — 2x — 2y = 7.
Completing the squares in the x and j/-terms,
{x - 1)2 + {y - 1)2 = 32.
Hence the required locus is a circle whose center is the point (1, 1)
and whose radius is 3.
EXERCISES
1. Find the locus of a point which moves so that the sum of the squares
of its distances from ( — 2, 0) and (2, 0) is constant and equal to 26.
2. Find the locus of a point which moves so that the sum of the squares
of its distances from ( — 1, 2) and (2, 1) is constant and equal to 10.
3. Find the locus of a point such that its distance from the point
(—2, 0) shall always be twice its distance from the point (2, 0).
4. Find the locus of a point moving so that its distance from- the line
3x +4:y — 5 = shall equal the square of its distance from the point (1,0).
6. Find the locus of a point such that its distance from the y-axis shall
equal the square of its distance from the point (0, 2). (Two solutions.)
6. In an isosceles triangle of base 6 and equal sides of length 5, a point
moves so that the product of its distances from the equal sides equals the
square of its distance from the base. Prove one of the loci to be a circle
and find its radius.
7. Find the locus of the vertex of a right angle if its two sides always
pass through the points (—2, —4) and (2, 6).
8. Find the locus of the vertex of an angle of 30°, whose sides pass
through the points (—2, 0) and (2, 0). (Two solutions.)
9. Find the locus of the vertex of a triangle, if the remaining two
vertices are at the points (—3, 0) and (3, 0) and the length of the median
from the vertex (—3, 0) is constant and equal to 5.
10. The ends of a straight line of length 6 rest on the axes, find the
locus of its middle point.
78. Equation of a circle in polar coordinates.—Let the

radius of the circle be r, and let C(pi, Oi) be the coordinates of
its center, Fig. 63.
Then if P{p, 6) is any point on the
^^1£:£^ circle, by trigonometry,
r^ = p^ + pi2 - 2ppi cos COP.
Replacing angle COP by its value

(e - By),
r^ = p' + pi" - 2ppi cos {e - fli).

"*"
The forms which of this equation
FiQ. 63. occur most frequently are those where
the center is the pole or where the
circle passes through the pole and the center of the circle is
either on the initial line or on the line 6 = 90°.
If the center is the pole, pi = 0, and the equation becomes
p = r.
Kthe circle passes through the pole and has its center on
the initial line, Oi = and pi = ±r. The equation of the
circle then becomes
p = 2r cos 6, or p = —2r cos 9,
according as the center is on the initial line or the initial line

produced through the pole.
the circle passes through the pole and its center is on the
If
line = 90°, 6i = 90° and p = +r, and the equation becomes
p = 2r sin 6, or p = —2r sin 6,
according as the circle lies above or below the polar axis.

EXERCISES
Find the equations of the following circles in polar coordinates:
1. The center is and the radius equals 2.
at the pole
2. The center is (5, 0) and the radius equals 5.
at the point
3. The center is at the point (—4, 0) and the radius equals 4.
4. The center is at the point (3, Jir) and the radius equals 3.
6. The center is at the point ( — 2, iw) and the radius equals 2.
6. The circle is tangent to the initial line at the pole and the radius
equals 6.
7. The circle is tangent to the hne e = 90° at the pole and the radius
equals 6.
8. The center is at the point (3, iir) and the radius equals 3.
Change from rectangular to polar coordinates.

9. x' +y' = 6. 11. 2x' + 2y^ + 5x = 0.
10. x^ +y^ -3y = 0. 12. x' + y' - &x - &y = 0.
Change from polar to rectangular coordinates and find the center and
radius of each of the following circles.
13. p +6 sin e = 0. 17. p + 2 cos 9 + 3 sin 9 = 0.

14. p - 4 cos e = 0. 18. p2 + 3p cos 9 + 4p sin - fl 6 = 0.
16. p = cos fl + sin e. 19. p^ = 9 sect's - p^ tan«9.
16. p = 5. 20. p2 = 4 csc*fl - p' cotê.

CHAPTER VI
THE PARABOLA AND CERTAIN FORMS OF THE

SECOND DEGREE EQUATION
79. —
General statement. It is an interesting and useful
fact that an equation of the second degree in two variables,
if plotted with reference to rectangular axes, gives a conic
section, or simply a conic. That is, the graph is some plane

section of a right circular cone.
80. Conic sections.— When a plane intersects a circular
cone there may be formed a circle, a parabola, an ellipse, an
hyperbola, or, for cer-
tain positions of the
plane, a point, two in-
tersecting straight lines,
or two coincident lines.
In Fig. 64, plane C is
perpendicular to the axis
of thecone and forms a
circle; plane Bis inclined
to the axis but intersects
only one nappe of the
cone and forms an
Fig. 64.
ellipse; plane P is par-
allel to an element of
the cone and forms a parabola; plane H intersects both
nappes of the cone and forms an hyperbola. The intersec-
tion is a point when a plane passes through the point V
only; two intersecting straight lines are formed when the
plane passes through V and intersects the nappes; and two
98
§81] THE PARABOLA AND CERTAIN FORMS 99
coincident lines are formed when the plane passes through V

and tangent to the cone.
is
The conic sections were first stiidied by the Greeks, who

discovered and discussed their properties by methods of
geometry. The modern method of studying these figures is
by the help of algebra, which makes the treatment much
simpler. For the purposes of this method of treatment,
other definitions of the conic sections are given; but it can be
readily shown that these definitions agree with the definitions
mentioned above.
EXERCISES
1. Explain how a conic section could be two lines inclined ;to each
other at an angle of 45°. Could the two straight lines formed on the
same cone form different angles with each other?
2. If the vertex angle of a cone is 30°, what would be the angle between
the intersecting lines formed by the plane intersecting the cone?
3. In forming an hyperbola, does the plane have to be parallel to the
axis of the cone? Could hyperbolas of different shaped be for'med on
the same cone?
4. Explain how a parabola of different widths could be formed on
the same cone.
6. Explainhow ellipses of different widths could be formed on the
same cone.Explain the change in the shape of the ellipse formed by a
plane that revolved into a position parallel to an element of the cone.
81. Conies. —A definition of a conic section, and one that

can readily be translated into algebraic language, is the
following: A conic is the locus of a point that moves in the
plane of a fixed straight line and a fixed point not on the line,
in such a manner that its distance from the fixed point is in a,
constant ratio to its distance from the fixed line.
The fixed point is called the focus of the conic, and the,
fixed line is called the directrix. The constant ratio is called
the eccentricity and is usually representedby e.
The constant e is positive, and may be equal to 1, less than 1,
or greater than 1,
If e = 1, the conic is a parabola.

If e < 1, an ellipse.
the conic is
If e > 1, an hyperbola.
the conic is
82. The equation of the parabola.^By the definition of

the preceding article, the parabola is the locus of a point
equidistant from the focus and the directrix.
In Fig. 65, let F be the focus and D'D the directrix. Choose
as a;-axis the line X'X through
F and perpendicular to D'D
at R. The point on X'X
(-Vzp.u)
midway between R and F is
a point on the locus. Choose
this point as origin. Then
Y'Y parallel to D'D is the
y-axis.
Let p represent the length
and direction of RF. Then the
coordinates of F are (| p, 0),
and the equation of D'D is
Fig. 65.
X = -ip.
To derive the equation of the parabola, let P(x, y) be any
point on the locus, and draw FP, and NP
perpendicular to D'D.
By definition FP = NP.
But FP = V(x - §p)2 + y\ and NP = x + |p.
Then V(x - Ip)^ + y'' = x + Ip.
Squaring and simplifying, this becomes
:
THE PARABOLA AND CERTAIN FORMS 101
for any point that is not on the parabola, for then FP is not
equal to NP, and therefore y^ is not equal to 2'px.
It should be remembered, that in the equation y^ =
2px,
p represents the length and direction of RF. Therefore, when
the focus lies to the right of the directrix, p is positive; but,
when the focus lies to the left of the directrix, p is negative.
83. Shape parabola.— The shape of the parabola and
of the
its position relative to the coordinate axes can be readily-
determined from the equation y^ = 2px. Solving for

y gives
y = ±V2px.
For any positive value of p we have:
(1) When X = 0, y = 0.
Hence the curve passes Y .
through the origin. (iv. apyn

(2) For all positive values
of x,y has two numerically „ ''fp.j'i/r)
"(.ViP.P)
equal values but opposite in
sign. Hence the curve is
symmetrical with respect to
the a;-axis.
(3) For any negative value

of X, y is imaginary. Hence
no part of the curve is at the
left of the y-SLxis. As x in-
creases from 0, the positive value of y increases and the
negative value decreases.
The curve can be located more precisely by the following
points
X
depending only upon the size of the unit chosen. For a

negative value of p, the parabola will be exactly the same
shape but opening toward the left.
84. Definitions. —
The point of the parabola midway between
the focus and the directrix is called the vertex of the
parabola.
The through the focus and perpendicular to the directrix
line
is called the axis of the parabola. As has been proved in the
preceding article, the axis bisects all the chords of the parabola
which are parallel to the directrix, since the axis of the para-
bola lies on the x-axis.
The chord of the parabola through the focus and perpen-
dicular to the axis is called the latus rectum. The length of
^x
«". 2 pa ,p positive x^.2py, V negative
Fig. 67. Fig. 68.
the latus rectum is the absolute value of 2p. For the ab-
scissa of the focus is ^p, and, when x = |p, y = ±'p.
In Fig. 67, V is the vertex of the parabola, VX is the axis, and P'P
is the latus rectum.
A
parabola can be readily sketched if the position of the
vertex V and focus F and the length of the latus rectum,
P'P, are known.
85. Parabola with axis on the y-axis. The equation of —
a parabola whose axis is on the j/-axis and whose vertex is at
the origin is obviously obtained by interchanging x and y
in the work of article 82. The equation is
[29] x2 = 2py.
The focus is at the point (0, |p)', and is on the positive or

the negative half of the 2/-axis according as p is positive or
negative. If p is positive, the parabola, Fig. 68, is above
the a;-axis; and, if negative, it is below the a;-axis.
be remembered that the origin is at the vertex of
It is to
every, parabola whose equation is of the form [28] or [29].
These forms are called the standard forms of the equation of
the parabola.
EXERCISES
1. Plot the following parabolas: y' = 2x, y^ = —2x, x' = 2y, and
x^ =^ -2y.
2. Give the coordinates of the foci of the parabolas in. exercise 1.
Give the equations of their directrices. What are their latera recta?
3. Plot y^ = 4a;, using successively tV in., i in., i in., J in., 1 in.,
and 2 in.' as a unit.^
Plot 2/* = ix using 4 in. as a unit. Plot y^ = ix using 1 in. as a
4.
unit. Plot y^ = X usiag i in. as a unit. Plot y^ = ix using J in. as a
'
unit. Are all parabolas of the same shape?

6. Write the equation of a parabola whose vertex is at the origin and
focus at (1) (3, 0), (2) (0, 6), (3) (-4, 0), (4) (0, -2).
6. Find the equations of the following parabolas, and give the latus
rectum of each:
(1) Vertex at origin, axis on s-axis, and passing through the point
(2, 4).
(2) Vertex at origin, axis on y-axis, and passing through the point
(2, 4).
7. The cables of a suspension bridge hang in the form of a parabola.
Find the equation for such a cable in a bridge 1000 ft. between supports
if the distance from the lowest point of the cable to the level of the top
of the piers is 50 ft.
Suggestion. —Take the origin at the lowest point of the cable. Then
the point (500, SO) is on the parabola. Substitute these values in [29]
and solve for p.
8. Derive equation [29] from [28] by revolving the coordinate axes
through an angle </> = —90°.
86. Equation of parabola when axes are translated. —

Transform the equation y^ = 2px by translating the' axes to
a new origin at the point 0'{—h, — fc), Fig. 69.
By [12], X — x' — h and y = y' — k. Substituting these

values in ?/" = 2px gives
iy'
- ky = 2v{x' - h).
This is the equation of a parabola having its vertex at the

point {h, k) when referred to the
Y' KY
new coordinate axes, that is, the
a;', y'-axes. If the primes are
dropped, this becomes
->x - -
[30] (y k)^ = 2p(x h),
^x- which a convenient form for

is
(-A,-ft)
writing the equation of a para-
bola with vertex at point {h, k)
Fio. 69.
and axis parallel to the a;-axis.
If p the parabola opens toward the right; and if
is positive,
negative, opens toward the left.

it
Similarly, when the axis of the parabola is parallel to the

j/-axis, the equation is
[30i] (X - h)^ = 2p(y - k).
*X
(1) ^^^ (2) (3) / (1)
p positive p neeatfve p positive 2> negative
(x-h)^=2P(u-k)
Fig. 70.
The position of these parabolas with reference to the

coordinate axes is shown in Fig. 70.
Example 1. —
Find the equation of a parabola with vertex at the point
C2, —3), axis parallel to the a;-axis, and p = 2. Plot.
Substituting in [30], (y sy = 2 X 2{x - 2).
+
Simplifying, y' 6^ — 4a; + 17 = 0.
+
The curve is plotted in Fig. 71.
(3) Vertex at (2, 3), axis parallel to y-snas, and passing through the
point ( — 1, 1).
(4) Vertex at (3, —2), axis parallel to 3/-axis, and passing through the
point ( — 1, 3).
87. Equations of forms y" + Dx + Ey + F = and

X* + Dx + Ey + F = 0. — Every
(1) equation of the form
y^ + Dx + Ey -{• F = 0, where 9^ D 0, represents a yarabola
whose axis is parallel to the x-axis.
(2) Every equation of the form x^ \- Dx + Ey -^r F = Q,
where E ^ 0, represents a parabola whose axis is parallel to
the y-axis.
Proof of (1).— Given y^+ Dx + Ey -\-F = 0, where D ^ Q.
Completing square in y,
E^ E^
+ Ey + -r- = —Dx + -^ F-
y'^ —
—
—-jj:
E^
— —E
4Ji'
This is in the form of [30], where h = , k = - ^'
and p = — 2"
Therefore the equation y'' + Dx + Ey + F = where D 5^

represents a parabola whose axis is parallel to the a;-axis.
The proof of (2) is similar to that of (1).~
y Example 1. —Transform the equation

^^ y' + iy ~ ix + 8 = into the form of
[30], give the coordinates of the vertex
and focus, write the equations of the axis
and directrix, and sketch the parabola.
Solution. —Completing the square in y,
y' +4iy +i =^ -8 + i.
Or (y + 2)' = 4(a; - 1).

Hence the vertex is at the point
F (1 - 2).
Since 2p = 4, p = 2, and the focus is
one unit to the right of the vertex, or at
the point (2, -2).
The axis is parallel to the s-axis and two units below. Hence its
equation iay = —2.

The_ directrix
is perpendicular to the a;-axis and one unit to the left
of the vertex. Hence its equation is a; = 0.

The parabola is shown in Fig. 72.
—
Example 2. Find the equation of the parabola with its axis parallel
to the a-axis, which'passes through the points (0, 1), (2, 3), (5, 2).
Solution. —
The equation is of the form y^ + Dx + Ey + F = 0.
Since the parabola passes through the point (0, 1), these coordinates
satisfy the equation. Substituting these coordinates gives
1+^ + ^ = 0.
Likewise (2, 3) give Q + 2D + 3E + F = 0.

And (5, 2) give
i+5D +2E +F =0.
Solving these equations for D, E, and F,D=\,E = — ¥, and F = ^.
Substituting these values in y^ Dx Ey F === 0, gives + + +
Or 4^2 -|- X — 17y + 13 = 0, the required equation.
88. The quadratic function ax^ + bx + c. The locus of —

the equation y = ax^ + bx where a, b, and c are real
-\- c,
numbers and a tÔ, is a parabola with axis parallel to the

2/-axis.
To see this, reduce the equation to the standard form [30i].
^ "I" o~) 4~ —
This is in the form (a; — hy = 2p(y — k), where A = — 5-
and k = j ' ^^^ is a parabola with vertex at the
point (— 9- •
7 )
and axis on the line a; + „- = 0.
Evidently the parabola opens upward if a > and downward

if a < 0.
89. Equation simplified by translation of coordinate
axes. —
It is evident that y^ Dx Ey F = and + + +
x'^ + Dx Ey + +
F = can be transformed to the forms of
[28] and [29], respectively, by a suitable translation pf the

coordinate axes.
In the first equation, the term in y and the constant term
can be made to vanish; and, in the second, the term in x and
the. constant can be made to vanish.
EiMmple. —Translate the coordinate axes so as to transform the

equation 2/" + 6a; —
= to the form of y^ = 2pa;.
4y + 10
Solution. —Using [12], put x = x' + h and y = y' + k, then
iy' + k)' + 6(x' +h) - 4(2/' + J;) + 10 = 0.
Or y" + Qx' + (2fc - 4)?/' + (k^ - Ik + 6h + 10) = 0.

In order that the y' term and the con-
stant term shall vanish
2i; - 4 = and fe2 - 4fc + 6/1 + 10 = 0.
Solving these equations, A = — 1 and A; = 2.

Therefore the transformed equation is
y'^ 61'.
*-x
The transformation can also be made by
completing the square in y, whence
*-x
y^ - Ay +4: = -ex - 6,
or (y - 2)' 6(a; + 1).
Put y — 2 = y' and + 1 = a; a;', and

obtain y'^ = —6a;', as before.
The curve is plotted in Fig. 73.
EXERCISES
Transform the equations of the following parabolas to the form
1.
of [30] or [30i]; and in each case give the coordinates of the vertex and
the focus, write the equations of the axis and directrix, and plot.
(1) 2/2 - 4a; - 42/ + 16 = 0. (4) 2x^ - 24a; + 82/ + 78 = 0.
(2) 2/' + 2x + 82/ + 6=0. (5) 32/« + 15x - 12y + 20 = 0.
(3) 4a;2 + 12i - 20y + 49 = 0. (6) 2x' - 18a; + 15y - 21 = 0.
Find the equation of the parabola with axis parallel to the

2.
y-axis, which passes through the points (2, 3), (1, 0), and (0, 2).
Find the coordinates of the focus and vertex of this parabola, and its
latus rectum.
3. Find the equation of the parabola which has the line 2/ = 4 as axis,
the line a; = — 2 as directrix, and p = 6.
4. Find the equation of the parabola which has its vertex at (2, —3),
its axis parallel to the a;-axis, and which passes through the point (5, 2).
a
5. Translate the coordinate axes so as to ti-ansform the following

parabolas to the form of [28] or [29]. In each case plot showing both
sets of axes.
(1) y" -'tx-6y +8 =0. (3) y^ + 8x - 4y - i = 0.
(2) X' -8x + 16y = 0. (4) 3x^ + 5x - 7y + 8 = 0.
6. For each of the parabolas of exercise 5, find the equation of the

directrix with reference to both sets of axes. Give the coordinates of
the focus for both sets of axes, and the value of the latus rectum.
7. Plot the equation y = oa;* + bx + C' discussed in article 88 for
(1) b' - 4oc > 0, (2) b^ - 4oc = 0, (3) 6^ - 4oc < 0, both when
o > and when o < 0.
90. Equation of a parabola when the coordinate axes are

rotated. —Transform the equation y^ + Dx + Ey + F = Ohy
rotating the coordinate axes through an angle <p, using the
formulas [13].
Putting X == x' eos<p — y' sin ^, and y = x' sm<fi + y' cos tf),
in y^ + Dx + Ey +F = 0, gives (a;' sin <p + y' cos ip)^
+ D(x' cos p — y' sin + E{x' sin p

<p) +_j/' cos <p) +F = 0.
Collecting terms,
x'^ sin" <p + 2 sin <p cos <p x'y' + y'^ cos" ip \,
+ {D cos <p +E sin ip)x' + {E p-D sin^)j/'+F=0. (I)

cos
A similar form is obtained from x^ + Dx + Ey +'F = 0.

Ifthe angle of rotation is some multiple of 90°, then
2 sin tp cos p = 0, and the coefficient of x'y' is 0. Hence,,'
in this case, the a;'(/'-term vanishes.
If the coordinate axes are rotated through an angle ip, such
that the axis of a parabola is not parallel to either coordinate
axis, the equation of a parabola is of the form ^
Aa;" + Bxy + C?/" + Da; + %+F = 0, (II)
the most general form of an equation of the second degree

in X and y.
equation (I), 5" — 4AC = 0. It'
It is readily seen that in
will be shown later, Art. 121, that the necessary and sufficient
condition that any equation of the form of (II) represents,
parabola is that B^ - AAC = 0.
no ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
Example 1. —Transform the equation x' + 2x — 3y +i = by
rotating the coordinate axes through an angle of 45°. Plot.
Solution. —
Substituting x = x' cos 45° y' sin 45° —
and y = x' sin 45° y' cos 45°, +
(x' cos 45° - y' sin 45°)^' + 2(,x' cos 45° - y' sin 45°)
- 3(a;' sm 45° + y' cos 45°) +4=0.
- 2x'y' + y'^ - ^/2x' - 5 V2y' +8 =
^
Simplifying, a;'" 0.
Example 2. —By rotating the coordinate axes transform the equation
9x' -
2ixy + 16^' - 116a; - 162y + 221 = 0, to a form which contains
no term in xy.
Solution. —Putting x = x' cos , and y = x' sin <p +y' cos <p,
9(a;' cos <p — y' sin ip)' — 24(2;' cos <p — y' sin <p){x' sin ip + y' cos ip) +
16(a;' sin <p + y' cos <py — 116(a;' cos ip — y' sin tp) —
162(z' sin ip + y' cos v) + 221 = 0.
Collecting terms,' (9 cos' (p 24 sin 
(162 sin + 116 cos ,p)x' +

¥>
(116 sin p- 162 cos p)?/' + 221 = 0.

Now, in order that the x'y' term shall
*X vanish, its coeflBcient must be Hence0.

24 sin^* p — 24 cos'' *j + 14 sin ^ cos ^ = 0.
Or -24 cos 2
^l_-^ = yj'-^ = I.
And cos Ip
+A 4
Substituting these values for sin and cos (p in the above equation </>
and simplifying, 25y" - 190a;' - 60^' 221 = 0. +

EXERCISES
1. Transform the equations y' = 2px and x' = 2py by rotating -the
coordinate axes through an angle of 90°.
2, Transform the following equations by rotating the coordinate
axes through the angle given in each case:
(1) y' =4x. V = 45°.
{2) x' + 3x -2y + 6 =0. *. = 30°.

(3) 4a;2 - Axy + y^ -\-2x - &y - \Q = 0. ip = sin IV5.

(4) 9a;2 + \2xy + 43/^ + 10a; - 68 = 0,
542/ -
2*> = tan"' -1^.
3. Derive the equation of the parabola whose directrix is the line
4a; + 3y + 2 = 0, and whose focus is at the point (2, 3).
4. Simplify the following equations, and plot. First rotate the coordi-
nate axes to free of a;^-term, then translate to change to the standard form.
(1) x^ - 2xy +[y' - 6x - 6y + 9 = 0.
(2) 2x' + 8xy + Sy'' +x+y +3 = 0.
(3) a;2 + 2xy + y^ - 12x + 2y - S = 0.
91. Equation of parabola in polar coordinates. —Starting
with the definition of article 81, the
equation of parabola in polar co-
ordinates can be easily derived.
In Fig. 75, let be the fixed point
(focus), and D'D the fixed line (direc- *-x
trix). Choose as pole and OX,
perpendicular to D'D, as the polar
axis. Let P{p, 6) be any point on the
locus. Draw MP and NP perpen-
dicular to PJt and D'D respectively.
By definition, OP = NP.
But OP = p, andNP = QM = p + p cos d.
Hence p = p-\- p cos 0.
Solving for p,
This is the polar equation of a parabola referred to its focus

and axis.
EXERCISES
P
1. Given the equation p = -> transform it to rectangular
1 — cos e
coordinates and by translation of axes derive the equation y' = 2px.
2. By taking the focus at the left of the directrix, derive the equation
P
of the parabola
'^ in the form p = -
1
—;
-I- cos 9
•
3. Change the following equation into polar coordinates with the

pole at the origin, and the polar axis on the positive part of the x-axis:
!/= = 2vx + p2.
4. Show that if the vertex of the parabola is taken as pole and the axis
of the parabola as polar axis, the equation of the parabola in polar
coordinates
.... is p —
= 2vr-^
cos
—
sinê
B
•
n
"
92. Construction of a parabola. —First

method. —The directrix D'D and the
focus F are supposed known. >-x
Place a right triangle, Fig. 76, with
one side CB on the directrix as shown.
Fasten one end of a string whose length
is CA, at the focus F and the other at FiQ. 76.
A. With a pencil at P, keep the string
taut and move the triangle along the directrix Then FP = CP,
and the point P will generate a parabola. Why?
Second method. As before, —
the directrix D'D and the
focus F are supposed known.
In Fig. 77, draw MX
•through F and perpendicular
to D'D. Draw any number
of Unes A'A, B'B, etc., par-
'*-X allel to the directrix, and
intersecting in Mi, M%, MX
etc. With F as center and a
radius equal to MMi, strike
arcs intersecting A'A
in Pi
and Qi. In like manner, with
MMi as a radius, strike arcs
intersecting B'B. Continue
in like manner for the other
lines drawn. Then the points, thus determined, lie on the
parabola. Why? In this way the parabola can be located
as accurately as desired.
EXERCISES
1. Construct a parabola by the second method, in which p = 1 in.
In which p = -J in.
2. Construct a circle of radius 8 in., and a parabola with its vertex at
the center of the circle, and its focus on the positive a;-axis at the point
midway between the center and
circumference. Write the equa-
tion of each in the standard
forms, and compute the coordi-
nates of the points of inter-
section of the curves.
3. Explain how the con-
struction shown in Fig. 78,
determines a parabola.
APPLICATIONS
93. Parabolic arch. —
The cable of a suspension -^^^ 7g
bridge hangs in the form
of an inverted parabolic arch. Arches for bridges, when the
weight is uniformly distributed, are properly constructed in
the form of a parabola. In metal-arch bridges the loading is
practically uniform on the horizontal, and so such bridge
structures are in the form of parabolic arches. The arches
^Y of concrete bridges
are seldom if ever
built in the form of a
parabola, for, in such
structures, the load-
ing cannot be uni-
formly distributed on
the horizontal. .
In the piarabolic
arch, Fig. 7Q, AB =
2s is the span, and CO = his the height.
If the origintaken at the vertex of the parabola, and the
is
axis along the y-axis,' the equation is of the form x^ = 2py.

To find the value of p, we know that the point B{s, —h) is
on the parabola. Substituting these coordinates in x^ = 2py,
gives s^ = —2ph, and p = — Hence the equation of

2h
the parabola is x^ = —"fry, and from this y — — -j
The height of the arch at any distance x from the center is
NP = NM + MP = h + y = h - -^^
s
EXERCISES
1. A parabolic arch has a span of 120 ft. and a height of 25 ft. Derive
the equation of the parabola, and compute the heights of the arch at
points 10 ft., 20 ft., and 40 ft. from the center.
2. A parabolic arch has a span of 40 ft. and a height of 15 ft. Find
the height of the arch at intervals of 5 ft. from the center.
3. The distance between the supports on the river span of the Brooklyn
suspension bridge is about 1600 ft., and the vertex of the curve of the
cables is 140 ft. below the suspension points. Find the equation of the
curve if the lowest point is taken as origin.
4. The towers supporting a suspension bridge are 320 ft. apart and rise
80 ft. above the roadbed. The lowest point of the parabola formed by
the cables is 20 ft. above the roadbed. Find the equation of the curve
of the cables using as origin the point in the roadbed below the vertex of
the parabola.
94. The path of a projectile. —A projectile starting at the

origin, Fig. 80, with an initial
velocity of v ft. per second,
and making an angle a with
the horizontal, would after t
seconds have the position x
= V cos at and y = v sin at,
ifthe action of gravity and
the resistance of the air were
not considered. If the action of gravity is considered, y is
decreased by ^gt^ ft. in t seconds. Then the coordinates of
the projectile at time t are
x = V cos at, and y = v sin at — \gt^. (I)

The equation of the path of the projectile in rectangular

coordinates is found by eliminating t between these equations
and is
y = t&Txa-x - „ „ ^ „ x^- (II)

2v^ cos^ a ^ '
EXERCISES
1. Eliminate t between the equations (I) and derive equation (II).
2. Show that equation (II) is a parabola with its vertex at the point
(v^ sin 2a! v^ sin' a\ cos' a
^ld p =
, v'^
'
n n ) '
3. Find the ^-intercept of (II), and thus find the range on the horizontal
»'sin2Q!'
to be
g
4. Find the height of the projectile when at a horizontal distainqe
equal to one-fourth the range. '
6. Find the horizontal range when v = 2000 ft. per second and, (1)
a = 45°, (2) a = 30°, (3) a = 60°. Use g = 32.
6. Show
that a projectile with a given velocity and at aii angle of
60°, rises three times as high as it -would if the angle were 30°. ( ,
7. What must be the initial velocity w of a projectile, if with ,3,n

angle of elevation of 20°, it is to strike an object 80 ft. above the horizon-
tal plane of the starting point, and at a horizontal distance of 1000 yd.T
GENERAL EXERCISES
1. The formula for the height of a bullet shot vertically upward
with a velocity of 2000 ft. per second is s = 2000« - 16i'. Find the
coordinates of the vertex, and plot the curve from which the height s,
at any time i may be rea(J.
2. When one variable varies directly as the square of' another, the
equation connecting the two variables will represent a parabola. The
length of a pendulum varies as the square of the time of a beat. This
gives the formula i' = '-i, where t is time in seconds, a is 32, and l\&
-^
:. > 'g^ >'"
length in feet. Plot a curve from which can be read the time of a beat for
lengths up to 20 ft.
In a parabplic reflector, such as used for an automobile headlight,

3.
the source of light is placed at the focus of the parabola that is a section
of the reflector. Find the position of the source of light in a reflector
10 in. in diameter and 5 in. deep.
Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the parabola
4.
a;' 8y and the line 3x - 2y - S = 0.
=
5. Find the equation of the straight line passing through the focus
of the parabola y' = 8x and making an angle of 45° with the axis of the
parabola.
6. What value must be given to A; if the line Sx + 2y + k = is to
be tangent to the parabola x' = —6y? Plot.
Suggestion. —
EUminate ?/ between the two equations. Since a tangent
meets the curve in two coincident points, the two values of x in the
resulting equation must be equal. Hence put the discriminant of this
quadratic equation equal to zero and solve for values of k.
7. Find the points of intersection of the following curves: a; — 3^ =
and y' - 3x - Qy 14: == 0. +
8. For what values of m is the straight line y = mx 2 tangent to +
the parabola a;" - 6x 8j/ 41 = 0?
+ +
9. One end of a chord through the focus of a parabola is at the point
(10, 10). Find the coordinates of the other end if the parabola has its
vertex at the origin and its axis on the positive part of the x-axis.
10. Transform the following equations in polar coordinates into
rectangular coordinates and simplify:
^^) " = 1 + cos e ® " = 5 - 5 cos 6

^^^ " = 1 + cos B
11. Plot the following curves given in polar coordinates and find the
coordinates of their points of intersection:
(1) , COS . = 4, p = ^-3^^. (2)p=4, P=r+V,-

12. Show that the equation p = 8 sec^ JS is that of a parabola, and
sketch the curve.
13. Find the equation of the circle circumscribing the segment of
the parabola y^ — 2px, cut off by the latus rectum.
14. An equilateral triangle having one vertex at the origin is inscribed
in the parabola y' = 2px. Find the length of a side of the triangle.
15. Show that x^ + y^ = o* is the equation of a parabola. Sketch
the curve.
16. Find the equation of the parabola with x y = +
ae directrix, and
focus at (io, ia). Express in the form given in the previous exercise.
CHAPTER VII
THE ELLIPSE AND CERTAIN FORMS OF THE SECOND

DEGREE EQUATION
95, The equation of the ellipse. —By the definition of
article 81, the ellipse is the locus of a point whose distance
from a fixed point, the focus, is to its distance from a fixed
straight Une, the directrix, in a constant ratio e, less than 1.
In Fig. 81, letF be the focus and D'D the directrix. Choose
as a;-axis the line X'X, through F and perpendicular to D'D
at R.
PS'.v^
N >
J R VY Fj
J!/
(-a 1^-
ay
FiQ. 81.
Since e< 1, there are two points V and V on X'X such that
VF
-zr=f =
FV
e and ^^77- = e. Hence the pomts V and V are on
KV KV
the locus.
Choose 0, the point midway between V and V, as origin,
and Y'Y through 0, parallel to D'D, as j/-axis.
Let the length of VV = 2a.
Then VO = OV = a.
117
.
It is necessary first to find the equation of the directrix and

the coordinates of the focus.
From the definition of the ellipse,
VF = e-RV, ova-FO = e{RO - a), (1)
and FV = eRV, or a + FO = e{RO + a). .(2)
Adding equations (1) and (2),
2a = 2eR0, or RO = -•
e
Then the equation of the directrix is x ==
Subtracting equation (1) from equation (2),
2F0 = 2ae, or FO = ae.

Then the coordinates of the focus F are — ae, { 0).
Now to derive the equation, let P{x, y) be any point on the
locus, and draw FP, and NP
perpendicular to D'D.
By definition, FP = e-NP.
But FP = Vix + aey + y^, and NP = ^

e
+ x.
Then \/{x + ae)^ + 2/^ = e
(^ + a;)
Squaring and arranging, this becomes

x^ y^
^ J
w' a^(l — e^)
Since e < 1, o^(l —

e^) is positive and less than a^. Let it
be represented by b^ and the equation of the ellipse is
This is a standard form of the equation of the ellipse, and is
the form in which the equation of the ellipse is usually written.

Its simple formdue to the choice of the coordinate axes. A
is
different choice of axeswould give a less simple form of the

equation, but the locus itself would be unaltered.
Since b^ = a^l - e'), e = ^'^ -

THE ELLIPSE AND CERTAIN FORMS 119
Equation [32] is the required equation of the ellipse. For it
has been proved true for every point on the elHpse, and it
can be readily proved that it is not true for any point that is
not on the locus. The proof of this is left as an exercise.

96, Shape of the Ellipse. —
The shape of the ellipse and its
position relative to the coordinate axes can be readily
determined from the equation -^ + rj = 1.
Solving for x, x ±.^Vb^ - y^
Solving for y, y = ±- y/aP- — x"^.
(1) values of y such that 6^ — j/^ > 0, a; has two real

For all
values, numerically equal but opposite in sign. When «/^ = V,

a; = 0. For all values of x such that oP- — x"^ > Q, y has two
real values, numerically equal but opposite in sign. When

x^ = aP,y =
Hence the curve is symmetrical with respect
0.
to both coordinate axes and the origin, and its intercepts are
a and — a on the a;-axis, and 6 and — 6 on the 2/-axis.
(2) For all values of y such that &'' — 2/^<0, a; is imaginary;
and for all values of x such ^
that aP — a;2<0, y is im-
aginary. Hence no part of
the curve lies outside of the
rectangle bounded by the
four lines x = ±a and
y = +fc-
(3) As X increases from

—a to 0, the positive value
of y increases from to 6,
p^^ g^.
and the negative value of
y decreases from to — fe. As x increases from to a, the
positive value of y decreases from h to 0, and the negative
value of y increases from —6 to 0.
The ellipse has the shape shown in Fig. 82.
>
The formula 6^ = a^{l — e'^) can now be readily interpreted

geometrically. For in the right triangle FOB, Fig. 82, FO = ae
and OB = b.
Then FB^ = (aey+b^-

But from 6^ =, ^2 (j _g2)^ ^^ = (ae)^ + 6^.
Hence o^ = FB^ or a = F5.

97. Definitions. —The center of symmetry of the ellipse is
called the center of the ellipse.

The chord through the focus and center of an ellipse is called
the major axis. Its length is 2a.
One-half of the major axis is
semimajor axis.
called the
The chord through the center
*-x of the ellipse
and perpendicular
to the major axis is called the
minor axis. Its length is 26.
One-half of the minor axis is
called the semiminor axis.
The chord of the ellipse through the focus and perpendicular
to the major axis is called the latus rectum. Its length is —

26^
for the abscissa of the focus is- —ae, and when x = —ae,
b'
The points on the ellipse at the ends of the major axis are
the vertices of the ellipse.
In Fig. 83, V'V is the major axis, B'B the minor axis, and P'P the
latus rectum.
An ellipse can be readily sketched

if the position and lengths
of the axes are known.

98. Second focus and second directrix. Theorem. An —
ellipse has two foci and two directrices.
In Fig. 84, on OV
take OF' = FO and OR' = RO. Draw
E'E parallel to D'D. Then F' is also a focus and E'E the
corresponding directrix of the ellipse.
THE ELLIPSE AND CERTAIN FORMS 121
Proof. —^Let P be any point of the ellipse. Through P

draw PN parallel to the a;-axis and intersecting D'D in N.
Because of the symmetry of the ellipse, PN intersects the
eUipse at a second point P' and the line E'E at N'. Draw PF
and P'F'.
From the symmetry of the figure, FP = F'P', and NP = P'N'.
FP =
But ^ e.
F'P'
P'N'
= e.
Then the ellipse is also the locus of a point P' whose distance
from F' divided by its distance from E'E is e.
Therefore F' is a focus and E'E is the corresponding

directrix of the elUpse, and the ellipse has two foci and two
directrices.
The coordinates of the foci are (±ae, 0), and the equations
of the directrices are x = ±—
N
(4)
§100] THE ELLIPSE AND CERTAIN FORMS 123
9. Find the distances from the foci of the eUipse

'^ f- —=
16
1 to a
25
point on the ellipse, whose abscissa is 2.
10. The minor axis of an ellipse is 24, and the foci and origin divide
the major axis into four equal part^. Find the equation of the ellipse.
11. Assume the equation of the ellipse, —+z- =1, and phow that
the sum of the distances of any point on it from its foci is 2o.
12. Regard the circle as an ellipse with a = b, and find its foci, direc-
trices, and eccentricity.
13. Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the elUpse
2x' + 3y^ = 14 and the parabola y' = ix.
14. Find the locus of the vertex of a triangle if the base is 2a, and
the product of the tangents of the angles at the base is —

6*
Suggestion. —Take the a;-axis on the base and the origin at the center.
15. Find the locus of the vertex of a triangle if its base is 2b and the
sum of the other sides is 2a. Take the s-axis on the base and the origin
at the midpoint.
y^
16. Discuss the equations — + y^
a;2
— =0, and
x'
— +— = — 1. The first
6= 62
of theseis the equation of a point ellipse and the second is that of an

imaginary elUpse.
100. Equation of ellipse when axes are translated. —

x^ v^
Transform the equation —+—= 1 by translating the coor-
a 0^
dinate axes to a new origin at a point 0'{ — h, k), using [12],
and we have Y
jx' - hy iv' - ky ^
a-" ^ 62
This is the equation of an ellipse

having its center at the point' {h, k)
referred to the new coordinate axes,

and having its axes parallel 're-
spectively to the a;'-axis and the
Fig. 86.
i/'-axis,. as shown in Fig. 86.
If the primes are dropped, this equation becomes
(^ - h)' , (y - k)' ^ .
[34] _2 "r . o •I
which is a second standard form of the equation of the

ellipse, and is a convenient form for writing the equation of
an ellipse with center at the point {h, k) and major axis

parallel to the a;-axis.
Similarly, the equation of an ellipse with center at (h, k)
and major axis parallel to the y-axis is of the form

(y - k)^ _^ (X - h)
[34i]
a^
—
Example. Find the equation of an ellipse with semimajor axis 5,
semiminor axis 4, center at point (3, —2), and major axis parallel to
the X-axis.
(x - 3)2 _^(y + 2y
101. Equation of the form Ax^ Cy^ Dx Ey F =0. + + + +

Every equation of the form Ax^ Cy^ -\- Dx Ey -\- F = Q, + +
where A and C have like signs but different values, represents
an ellipse with axes parallel to the coordinate axes.
Proof.— Given Ax^ + Cy^ + Dx + Ey + F = 0.
Completing the squares in x and in y,
./ D\ 2 , ^/ E\'' Cb^ + AE^- iACF
,
Dividing by the second member of this equation,
(^ + 2z) .
{y + 2c)
CD'' + AE^ - 4ACF ^ "^ nrtf.
CD'' I Ann
+ AE^ - 4ACF
,1 1715 A *•
4A^C AAC^
This is in the form of [34] if A<C where
D , . E , CD^ + AE''- 4ACF
^ = ~2A' ^ = ~2C' " = iZ^C '
^""^
CD" + AE'' - 4ACF

° ~ AAC
and therefore represents an ellipse with axes parallel to the
coordinate axes if A and C have like signs so that 4A^C and
4AC have like signs. It is of the form of [341] if A <C
From the preceding, it follows that the equation of an ellipse
in the form Ax" + Cy" + Dx + Ey + F = can be trans-
formed into one of the forms [32] or [33] by a suitable trans-
lation of the coordinate axes, the new origin being at the
point {-^, -^)-

Example 1. —Transform to the second standard form, the equation
of the ellipse 24^= + i9y' - 96a; + 294y - 639 = 0, find the coordinates
of the center, foci, and vertices, the length of the semimajor and semi-
minor axes, and the equations of its directrices. Plot.
Solution. —
Completing the squares in x and in y,
2i(.x" -ix+i) + 49(2/2 + 62/ + 9) = 639 + 96 + 441,
or 24(x -
2y + 49(2/ + 3)2 = 1176.
Dividing by 1176 and putting in the form of [34],
(x - 2)' (2/ + 3)' ^
49 "^ 24
. . ;
This is an ellipse (Fig. 88) with center at the point C(2, —3) arid
axes parallel to the coOTdinate axes. The semi axes are a — 7, and
b = 2\/6. /
^2Zl^N
mi.
The ±
eccentricity /fe
•j. va^ — b^ =)=
/= — \5
I a Ji
The distance from--the"centerw) the foci is ae = 5, and the foci are
F{1, -3) andF'(-3, -3).
The vertices are F(9, -3) and y'(-5, -3).
equations of the directrices are x = ¥-

and X = — ^^
The ellipse is as shown in the figure.
—
Example 2: Find the equation of
the ellipse whose axes are parallel to
the coordinate axes and which passes
through the points (-2, 7), (2, 4),
(-2, 1), and (-6,4).

Solution. —The required equation
^ is of the form
Ax' + Cy' + Dx + Ey + P = 0.
If this is divided by A the, equation is of the form

x' + C'y-" + D'x + E'y + F' = Q,
and therefore contains only four arbitrary constants, which can be found
from four equations.
Dropping the primes and substituting the coordinates of the four
given points,
4 + 49C - 2D + 7£; + f = 0,
4 + 16C + 21) + 4.B + F = 0,
4+ C-2D+E+F = Q,
- 6D + 4£r + =
36 + 16C /i" 0.
/
Solving, C =V> D = i,E = -i|i. F =H^-
The required equation is
x^ + îy' +Ax - ^w + ^t* = 0, :

f'
or 9a;'' + 16y' + 36a; - 128y + 148 = 0. '
Example 3. —Translate the coordinate axes so that the equation of the

elUpse ^x'':+9y' - 24a; - 36y + 36 = is in the form 132].
Solution. —(jompleting, the squares in x and in y, ;,j
4(a;2 - 6a; +9) + Q{y'. - 4?/ + 4) = -36 + 36 + 36. {^-"

(x - 3)2 - 2)2
Whence + , (2/
'
= 1.
9
Putting a; - 3 = aj', or a; = a;' +3 and y - 2 = y', or y = y' + 2,
9
"^
4 ~ ^
This is of the form [32], and is an ellipse referred to coordinate axes
that are parallel to the old coordinate
axes, and with the new origin at the
point (3, 2).
The ellipse is as shown in Fig. 89.
The transformation could evi-'

dently be made by substituting
X = x' + h and y = y' + k, and ^X
proceeding as in the example of
Fig. 89.
article 89.
EXERCISES
1. Express the equations of the following ellipses in the form [34] or
[34i], find the coordinates of the centers, foci, and vertices, the lengths
of the semimajor and semiminor axes, and the equations of the directrices.
Plot each.
(1) + 162/2 + 14a; - My - 41 = 0.
7x'
(2) + 4:y' - 64a; - 8y + 68 = 0.
8x'
(3) ix' + dy" -8x + I8y + 12 = 0.
(4) Sx" + 9y^ + 16a; - 54?/ - 1 = 0.
2. Transform 6x' + 7y^ - 36x + 14?/ + 53 = to new axes parallel

respectively to the old axes, with the new origin at (3, —1).
3. Transform each of the ellipses of exercise 1 to the form [32] or
[33], find the coordinates of the foci, and the equations of the directrices
referred to the new coordinate axes.
4. Find the equation of the ellipse with major axis parallel to the
a;-axis, and center at the point ( — 3, 4), eccentricity |i and passing
through the point (6, 9).

6. Find the equation of the ellipse with one focus at the point (6, 2),
corresponding directrix the line x = 12, and eccentricity J-
6. Transform the following equation to one in which there are no
X and y terms, and plot: 9x^ + 12j/' — 18a; — 72y + 9=0.
7. Find the equation of the ellipse with eccentricity i, a focus. at
the point (2, 0), and the corresponding directrix the line a; + 2 = 0.
102. Equation of ellipse when axes are rotated. —In article

90 it was seen that when the coordinate axes were rotated
through an angle tp, a term in xy appeared in the equation of

the parabola. Likewise if the equation of an ellipse with axes
parallel to the coordinate axes, Ax^ + Cy'' + Dx +Ey + F = 0,
is transformed by using formulas [13], the equation takes the
form Ax^ + Bxy + Cy'^ + Dx + Ey + F = 0. This is
the most general form of an equation of the second degree in
X and y, where B^ - 4AC<0. (See Art. 122.)
Conversely, starting with an equation containing an xy-
term, rotation through a properly
chosen angle will cause the xy-term
to disappear by having its coeffi-
cient zero.
Example 1. —Transform the equation
9a;2 + 162/2 - 36a; - 9Qy + 36 = 0, by ro-
tating the coordinate axes through an
h*-X
angle of 30°. Sketch the ellipse.
Solution. —Using formulas [13],
a; = a' cos 30° - y' sin 30° =

Fig. 90.
and ^ = i' sin 30° -|- y' cos 30°

iVSx' - W
= *(V3^' - y').
= |a;' + iV^y' = 4(a;' + V^v')-
Substituting these values in the given equation and simplifying,
43a;'2 +14V3xy -1-572/"' -24(3V3+8)a;' -24(8-v/3 -3)2/' 144 = 0. +
The ellipse and the two sets of coordinate axes are sketched in Fig. 90
EXERCISES
1. Transform the following equations by rotating the coordinate axes
through the angle given in each case:
y2
(1) -i-—
-1-52 =
 = 45°.
(6) 6a;i'
+ ixy + Qy^ + 5x - 8y = 0. <p = tan-i J.
Transform the following equation to the standard form by rotating

2.
the axes: 29a;2 -|- 16a;^ 4- 4l2/^ - 45 = 0. Sketch the ellipse with both
sets of axes.
3. Simplify the following equation by first translating the axes to
remove the a;-term and the jz-term, then by rotating through an angle
that will remove the xy-teim. Sketch the curve and the three sets of
coordinate axes: x^ xy y' + + + 2x + 3y — S = 0.
103. Equation of ellipse in polar coordinates. —In a manner

similar to that of article 91, the equation of the ellipse in
polar coordinates may be derived.
EXERCISES
1. Derive the equation of an ellipse with the pole at the focus to
the right of its corresponding directrix, and the polar axis perpendicular
to the directrix. Also derive the equation when the focus is taken at
the left of its corresponding directrix. Let p equal the distance from the
focus to the directrix.
2. Transform the results of exercise 1 to rectangular coordinates,
and change to the standard form by translation of axes.
3. Derive the polar equation of an elhpse, the pole being at a focus,
(^ q\2 yi
by starting with the equation j [- rj- = 1, and then putting
a' b'
X = y = p sin 8, c = ae, and 6^ = (1 — e')a'; finally solving the
p cos B,
quadratic equation for p.

4. Derive the polar equation of an ellipse, the pole being at the center
and the polar axis along the major axis.
6. Show that pe in exercise 1 is one-half the latus rectum.
104. Construction of an
ellipse. — First method. — The
length of the major axis 2a and
the foci F and F' are supposed
to be known. I y' \
V \-^x
Ona drawing board fasten
the ends of a string of length 2a
at F and F', Fig. 91. Place a
pencil point, P, in the string ^^ gj
and move it about keeping the
string taut. Then the point P will generate an ellipse.
This construction depends upon the following:
Theorem. — The sum of the distances from any -point on an
ellipse to its foci is constant and equal to the major axis.
This may be proved as follows: In Fig. 92, from the

definition of an ellipse,
:
PF' = eN'P = e(j + a;) = a + ea;,
and PF = ePN = e(^-x) = a — ex.
Adding, PF' + PF =2a = major axis.

Second method. —The
major axis, 2a, and the minor axis,
26, are supposed to be known, as well as the position of the
center and direction of axes.
With the center of the ellipse as a center describe two
circles of radii a and b respectively. Fig. 93. Draw any radius
intersecting the inner circle in R and the outer circle in Q.
Through R draw a line parallel to the major axis, and through
Q a line parallel to the minor axis. Then the point P where
these lines intersect is a point on the ellipse. In this manner
any number of points on the ellipse can be determined.
That the point P is on the
ellipse with its major axis on
the a;-axis can be proved
follows
*-x
Hence the equation is satisfied and the point P is on the

ellipse.
EXERCISES
1. By the second method construct an ellipse having semiminor and
semimajor axes 1 in. and 1| in respectively. .
2. Prove that the projection of a circle upon a plane making an acute

angle with the plane of the circle is an ellipse.
APPLICATIONS
105. Uses of the ellipse. —The ellipse is involved in many
practical considerations, as well as being frequently used in
mathematics and its applications.
It was believed by the ancient Greeks that the sun was the
center of, the universe in which we live. Kepler (1571-1630)
stated that the orbits of the planets are ellipses. Newton
(1642-1727) showed that the law of gravitation determines
the orbits to be ellipses.
In architecture, because of the beauty of its form, the
elliptic arch is frequently used. Some noted structures were
built in the form of an ellipse. The Colosseum at Rome was
of this form.
In bridge structures, many of the most noted stone-arch
bridges of the world are elliptical.
In machinery, elliptical gears are often used where change-

able rates of motion are desired, as in shapers, planers, and
Blotters where the cutting speed is less than the return motion.
In the study of electricity and mechanics, the ellipse is
frequently used.
EXERCISES
1. The Colosseum at Rome is in the form of an ellipse 615 ft. long
and 510 ft. wide. Find the equation of the ellipse and the position
of the foci.
2. A stone-arch of a bridge has a span of 200 ft. and a height of 42 ft.
The arch is in the form of a semi-ellipse. Find the equation of the
ellipse and the position of the foci.
3. In exercise 2, find the heights of points 50 ft. and 25 ft. from one end
of the arch.
4. In considering equipotential surfaces in electricity, the equation
+— r- = 1 is used. If a > 6 and X denotes an arbitrary con-

o" +X 62 +X
stant, such that X > —
6* show that the equation represents a system
of ellipses having thesame foci.
6. An arch is in the form of a semi-ellipse with major axis horizontal.
The span is 80 ft. and the height is 30 ft. Find the distance of the
arch below the level of top for each 10 ft. of the span.
its
6. The an ellipse with the sun at one focus. The
earth's orbit is
major axis is 185.8 million miles and the eccentricity is about ^

Find the difference between the greatest and the least distance from the
_
earth to the sun.
7. Show that, if two equal elliptical gears turn on mountings at
corresponding foci, they are always in contact.
8. If two equal elliptical gears have major axes and minor axes of
12 in. and 8 in. respectively, and revolve once in 10 seconds, find the
greatest and the least linear speed of a point on the driving ellipse.
Suggestion. —
Use the greatest and the least radius on which a point
is turning.
The driving gear has uniform angular velocity, and the mountings
are at corresponding foci.
GENERAL EXERCISES
1. Find the equation of an ellipse in the form of [32] having the sum
of its axes 20, and the difference 4.
Find the equation of an ellipse in the form of [33] if its major axis
2.
is 24, and its minor axis is equal to the distance between the foci.
3. Find the equation of an ellipse in the form of [32] if the minor
axis is 12, and the distance between the foci is 12.
4. Find the equation of the elhpse in the form of [33] in which a — 8,
and the foci bisect the semimajor axes.
Find the semi-axes, coordinates of foci, eccentricity, and the equa-
tions of the directrices of each of the following ellipses:
5. 16x2 -f- 9j/2 = 144.
6. 24x2 + 36j/2 = 864.
7. 16x2 + 25J/2 - 64x -|- lOOy = 236.
Transform each of the following equations to axes parallel respec-
tively to the old, thenew origin being at the point given in each case.
Plot the curve and both sets of axes.
8. 9x' + 4^/2 + 36a; - 2iy + 36 = 0. (-2, 3).

9. 25a;2 + IQy^ + 50a; + 32v - 359 =0. (-1, -1).
10. Derive an equation that will represent all ellipses having foci at
the points (3, 0) and (-3, 0).
11. Derive the equation of the ellipse with a focus at (3, 1), /eccentricity
equal to f , and with 3a; — 4?/ + 6 = as directrix.
12. Show that the latus rectum of an eUipse is a third proportional to
x^ y'
the two axes. Find the latus rectum of the ellipse — -\ = 1 by
^
25 16
this method.
CHAPTER VIII
THE HYPERBOLA AND CERTAIN FORMS OF THE

SECOND DEGREE EQUATION
106. The equation of the hyperbola. —By the definition of
article 81, the hyperbola is the locus of a point whose distance
from, a fixed point, the focus, is to its distance from a fixed
straight Kne, the directrix, in a constant ratio e, greater than 1.
The method used in deriving the equation is exactly the

same as that for the ellipse, Art. 95. In Fig. 94, let F be the
focus and D'D the directrix. Choose as a;-axis the line X'X
through F and perpendicular to D'D at R.
Since e > 1 there are two points V and V on X'X such

VF V'F
that r^Yr —
liV
^^^ ttTf, =
fi
V K
e. Hence the points V and V are
on the locus.
Choose 0, the point midway between V and V, as origin,
and Y'Y, parallel to D'D, as y-a,xis.
Let the length of V'V = 2a. Then V'O = OV = a.
134
§106] THE HYPERBOLA AND CERTAIN FORMS 135
As with the ellipse it is necessary to find the equation of

the directrix and the coordinates of the focus.
From the definition of the hyperbola,
VF = eRV, or OF -d = e(a - OR), (1)
and VF = eV'R, or OF + a = e{a + OR). (2)
Subtracting equation (1) from equation (2),
2a = 2ePR, '
or OR = - e
Then the equation of the directrix is a; =—

e
Adding equations (1) and (2),
20^?" = 2ae, or OF = ae.
Then the coordinates of F are (ae, 0).

To derive the equation of the hyperbola, let P(x, y) be any
point on the locus, join F and P, and draw NP perpendicular
to D'D.
By FP = eNP.
definition,
But FP = Vix - ae)2 + j/^, and NP = x --.
Then V{x - ae)^ + 2/' = e{x -^

Squaring and arranging, this equation becomes
a^ a^{e^ — 1)
Since e>l, a^{e'^ — 1) is positive. Let it be represented by

b^ and the equation of the hyperbola is
This a standard form of the equation of the hyperbola,

is
and the form in which the hyperbola is usually written.

is
Its simple form is due to the choice of the coordinate axes.

A different choice of axes would give a less simple form of the
equation, but the locus wouldjbe- unaltered.
^'
Since b' = a^{e' - 1), e = '^"'^
+ -
- a '
^
Equation [35] is the required equation for it has been proved

true for every point on the hyperbola, and it can be readily
proved that it is not true for any point that is not on the locus.
107. Shape of the hjrperbola. — The shape of the hyperbola
and its position relative to the coordinate axes can be readily
determined from the equation —

y = 1.
Solving for x, + y'
Solving for y, y = + -s/x^

(1) For all values of y, x has two real values, numerically
equal but opposite in sign. For all values of x such that
*.X'
(-O.0) o (o,0)l (oe,0)
Fig. 95.
x^ — a^>0, y has two real values, numerically equal but

opposite in sign. When x^ = a^, y = 0. Hence the curve is
symmetrical with respect to both coordinate axes and the
origin,and its intercepts on the x-axis are a and — a.
(2) For all values of x such that x^ — a^<0,y is imaginary,
but no value of y will make x imaginary.

(3) As a; increases from + o or decreases from — a, the positive
values of y increase and the negative values of y decrease.
The hyperbola has the shape shown in Fig 95.
— — '
108. Definitions. —The center of symmetry of the hyperbola

is called the center of the hyperbola.
The hne through the focus and perpendicular to the directrix
is called the principal axis of the hyperbola.
The points in which the hyperbola intersects the principal
axis are called the vertices of the hyperbola.
The portion of the principal axis lying between the
vertices is called the transverse axis of the hyperbola. Its
length is 2a.
The conjugate axis of the hyperbola has a length 26, is
perpendicular to the principal axis, is bisected by it, and
passes through the center.
The chord of the hyperbola through the focus and perpen-
dicular to the principal axis iscalled the latus rectum. Its
length is
— > for the abscissa of the focus is ae, and when
6_2
X = ae, y = ±
a
109. Second focus and
second directrix. The hy-
.--«* y^
perbola — ^^ = ~>K
'^
-=
x._a^
_a ^ 0^
b^
1
-
llbas a
second focus at the point

(—ae, 0), and a second direc-
trix which is the line x = .
e
The proof is similar to that
of article 98 for the ellipse and is left as an exercise for the
student.
In Fig. 96, F and F' are the foci, and the lines-D'D and E'E
are the directrices.
110. Hyperbola with transverse axis on the y-axis. The —
equation of an hyperbola whose transverse axis is on the
j/-axis and whose center is at the origin is obtained by inter-
changing x and y in the work of article 106. The equation is
then
[36]
H^re the transverse axis is 2a; the conjugate axis is 26; the
coordinates of the vertices are
(0, the coordinates of the
±o);
foci are (Oi +ae); and the equa-
a
tions of the directrices are «/ = +-"
6
(See Fig. 97.)
EXERCISES
1. In each of the following hyperbolas,
find the length of the transverse axis
and the conjugate axis, the coordinates
of the foci, and the equations of the
Fig. 97. directrices.. Sketch each hyperbola.
''^'
25 16 ^• (4)
^ '
^
64
-^ =
36
1.
^^^
36 100 ^• <«!'-! = '
(3) 16a;'' - 9y' = 144. (6) 9y' - =
26x'i 225.
2. Write the equation of the hyperbola with center at the origin, and
transverse axis on the Xraxis, having given:
(1) a = 6, 6 = 4. I
(4) 6 = 3, ae = 5.
(2) a = 4, e = 2. (5) o = 9, e = |- _j
(3) 6 = 8, ae = -^VB- (6) 6 = 6, a* = VSS.
3. In the hyperbola - —
a;' V'
72 ~ ^' ^^ *J*^ value of y when a; = 3,
when X = 5, when x = 2.
x^ V^
4. Find the lebgth of the latus rectum of the hyperbola =1.
36 16
Of the hyperbola
y .^ = 1.
62
6.Find the equation of an hyperbola with transverse axis on the

center at origin, and passing through the points (6, 4) and ( — 3, 1).
a;-axis,
6. Find the equation of the locus of a point moving so that the differ-
ence of its distances from the points ( +6, 0) is 8.
§111] THE HYPERBOIiA AND CERTAIN FORMS 139
7. Derive equation [36] from [35] by rotating the coordinate axes

through an angle <p — 90°.
8. Find the semi-axes, eccentricity, and the latus rectum of each of
the following hyperbolas:
mh-hr
16 9 <n
(2) ^x^ - 3y' = 24. (5) px^ - qy' = pq.
(3) 16a;2 - v^ = 16. (6) x' - qy' = s.
9. Find the semi-axes, coordinates of foci, eccentricity, and equations
of directrices of each of the following hyperbolas:
(1) lea;" - 92/2 = 144. (2) 24x2 _ 362,2 = 864.
10. Find the equation of an hyperbola with transverse axis on the
2/-axis, center at the origin, eccentricity equal to 2, and passing through
the point (3, 2).
j/z
11. Assume the equation

a;2
— 1 of the hyperbola, and show
that the difference of the distances of any point on it from the foci is 2a.
12. Show that the latus rectum of an hyperbola is a third proportional
to the two axes.
13. What does the equation x^ — y^ = 16 become when the coordinate
axes are rotated through an angle <p = —45°?
14. Find the equation of an hyperbola if its center is at the origin,
transverse axis is 24, and the distance between its foci is 32.
15. Find the equation of an hyper- „» a,

bola if its center is at the origin,
transverse axis is 24, and its con-
jugate axis equals one-half the dis-
tance between its foci.
111. Asymptotes. —In Fig. 98,
P'P is a line passing through thex-
center of the hyperbola and in-
tersecting the curve in P' and P.
If P is made to move off to
infinity along the curve, the line
P'P, continually passing through ^'
the center, will turn about and
FlQ
will approach one of the two
lines A'A or B'B. These lines are called the asymptotes^ of
the hyperbola.
' This is not the general definition for asymptotes, but is true for the
hyperbola.
140 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY I§111
The equation of any line P'P through the origin is y = mx.

The coordinates of its intersection with the hyperbola
-^— ^ = 1 are found by solving the equations as simultaneous
equations.
Solving for x.
ab
X = +
Vb" - a'^m'''
Now as P moves off to infinity along the curve x becomes

infinite. Therefore the denominator of the fraction must
approach 0.
This gives b" — a'^m^ = 0, or m= +—

Hence the equations of the asymptotes are
[37] and y
'
= x.
a
These equations can be
combined into the single
equation
-„-f-„
r = 0.
a' 62
The conjugate axis B'B,

Fig. 99, can now be brought
into a closer relation to the
hyperbola. If through the
extremities of B'B lines are
drawn parallel and through the ex-
to the transverse axis,
tremities of the transverse axis V'V lines are drawn parallel
to the conjugate axis, a rectangle is formed with its diagonals
on the asymptotes of the hyperbola.
It can readily be shown that if the transverse axis of the
hyperbola is on the y-axis, the equations of the asymptotes are
a a
= j-x, and y
By the help of the asymptotes, a simple and fairly accurate

method for sketching an hyperbola is as follows: Locate the
vertices and draw the asymptotes, then draw the 'hyperbola
so that
the curve continually
r
approaches the asymptotes as it
moves off toward infinity.
Example. —Sketch the hyperbola
16a;2 - 25j/2 = 400.
First put 16a;2 - 25y^ = 400 in the
form -^ = 1.
25 16
Then a = 5, 6 = 4, the foci are at
the points (5, 0) and ( — 5, 0), and the
equations of the asymptotes are
y = ix and y = -^x.
The curve is as shown in Fig. 100.
From article 111, it is seen that the asymptotes of each are
y — ± -X. Therefore two conjugate hyperbolas have the same

Q> *
asymptotes.
The formula 6= = a2(e2 - 1) can now be readily interpreted
geoinetrically. For in right triangle OVN, Fig. 101, OV = a,
Vlif b, and ON = OF = ae.
= OB =
113. Equilateral hyperbola. If a = b, the hyperbola —
-^ - |-2 = 1 becomes x^ - y^ = a". This is called an
equilateral h3rperbola.
The equations of its a,symptotes are y = ±x, and are
evidently perpendicular to' each. other and make angles of 45°
with the axes of the hyperbola.
An equilateral hyperbola is also called a rectangular
hyperbola.
It may be noted that the equilateral hyperbola is the
simplest of hyperbolas, just as the circle is the simplest of
ellipses, being the ellipse in which the major axis and minor
axis are equal.
EXERCISES
1. Find the equations of the asymptotes and sketch the curve for each
of the following hyperbolas;
(1)
18
^' _ 1? = 1
12
(4) yi
25
-^
16
= 1
(2) 9x' - 18y^ = 16. (5) x' - y^= 12.

(3) 9x' - 18y' = -16: (6) x' - y^~ -12.
2. One of two conjugate hyperbolas is 12a!' 192, find the — 16^' =
other. Find the coordinates of the foci and the equations of the direc-
trices of each.
3. Show that the four foci of two conjugate hyperbolas, and the four
points of intersection of the tangents at their vertices, all lie on a circle
whose center is at the common center of the two hyperbolas.
4. Show that is -y^.
the eccentricity of an equilateral hyperbola
5. Transform the equation iyperbola x^ — y'^ = cfi,
of the equilateral
by rotating the coordinate axes through an angle ^ = —45°. This
'refers the hyperbdla to its asymptotes as axes.
§li4] THE HYPERBOLA AND CERTAIN FORMS 143
6. Find the equation of the hyperbola whose vertices are at

( ±4, 0)
and the angle between whose asymptotes is 60°.
7. If ei and e^ respectively are the eccentricities of two conjugate
hyperbolas, show that aei = he^ and that —„ -\ -„= 1.
8.Plot the equilateral hyperbolas x'^ — y^ = o' and y^ — x^ = o'

and locate their foci. With the same coordinate axes plot the circle
a;2 +2/2 = 2a'^. Also plot x^ - y^ = on the same set of axes.
9. Prove that in any hyperbola the distance from a focus to an asym-
ptote equals the semi-conjugate axis.
10. Prove that in any hyperbola the distance from the center to the
foot of the perpendicular from a focus to an asymptote equals the semi-
transverse axis.
H. Find the value of 6 in order that the line y = 2x +b shall be
tangent to the hyperbola = 1.
12. Find the value of to in order that the line y = mx +2 shall be
tangent to the hyperbola — — —

'
I
x^ y^
= 1.
16 9
114. Equation of hyperbola when axes are translated. —
By a method identical to that of article 100 for the ellipse^
the equation
[38] —^, -1^^- - 1
is found for the hyperbola with its center at the point (h, k),
and whose transverse axis is parallel to the a;-axis. This is

a second standard form of the equation of the hyperbola.
If the transverse axis is parallel to the y-a,xis the equation is
[38i]
— -, p— - 1.
EXERCISES
1. Write the equations of the following hyperbolas:
(1) Center at (4, — 3),o =5, 6 = 3, andtransyerseaxisparalleltoa-axis.
(2) Center at (—6, —2), a = 2, 6 = 4, and transverse axis parallel
to 3/-axis.
2. Find the coordinates of the vertices and the foci, and the equations
of the directrices of each hyperbola of exercise 1.
3. Find the equation of the hyperbola with center at (—2, 7), one
directrix the line y = 5, and eccentricity equal to j.
4. Find the equations of the hyperbolas that are conjugate hyperbolas

with those of exercise 1.
6. Find the equations of the asymptotes of the hyperbolas of exercise 1.
115. Equation of the form Ax^ Cy^ Dx Ey F = 0. + + + +

Every equation of the form Ax^ Cy^ Dx Ey +
F = 0, + + +
where A and C have unlike signs, represents an hyperbola with
axes parallel to the coordinate axes.
Proof. — In a manner identical to that of article 101 the
equation takes the form
(^ + ^)' ,
jy + ^y . ,
CD'' + AE^ - 4ACF ^ CD^ + A^' - AACF

44^0 4AC2
This is of the form of [38] or [38i] for the denominators
have unhke signs since A and C are unlike in sign and therefore
4A^C and AAC^ are unlike in sign.
If the second denominator is negative, the transverse axis
is parallel to the x-axis. If the first denominator is negative,
the transverse axis is parallel to the j/-axis.
From the preceding proof it follows that the equation of an
hyperbola in the form Ax* Cy^ Dx +
Ey F = can + + +
be transformed into the standard forms, [35] or [36], by a
suitable translation of the coordinate axes, the new origin
—
Example. Express the hyperbola 36a;* - 25y^ + 216a: lOOj/- 676=0 +
in the form of [38]. What are the coordinates of its center, foci, and
and the equations of its directrices
vertices; the lengths of the semi-axes;
and asymptotes? Plot. Finally, translate the coordinate axes so as to
change to the form [35] and answer the same questions with reference to
the new axes.
SolvMon. —Completing the squares in x and in y,
36(a;2 + 6a; + 9) - 25(2/» - 4?/ + 4) = 676 + 324 - 100,
or 36(a; + 3)? - 25(2/ - = 90C. 2)^'
Dividimg by 900 and putting in the form [38],

{x + 3)' _ (y - 2)' ^
25 36
This is an hyperbola with its center at the point C( — 3, 2) and trans-

verse axis parallel to the a;-axis.
The semi-axes are 5 and 6.
rpv,
The ^ .
eccentricity e
.^
= Vc^+b' = VeT
5 a
The distance from the center to the foci is ae v/61, and the foci are
F(-3 +\/61, 2) and F'(-Z - VBT, 2).
Fig. 102.
The vertices are F(2, 2) and F'C-8, 2).
The distance from the center to the directrices is :> and the
Voi
5 5
equations of the directrices are x = —3 -\ y=^, and x = —3 ^=^-
vol vol
The asymptotes have slopes of f and — f respectively, and pass through
C(— 3, 2). Their equations are by [15],
y -2 =U^+3).aJxdy -2 = -|(a; -1- 3),
or 6a; - 52/ + 28 = 0, and 6x + 5y + 8 = 0.
The hyperbola is as shown in Fig. 102.

To change to the form of [35], put x + 3 = x' and y — 2 = y'. Then
{x + Sy (y - 2y
the equation = 1 becomes -rz — -zz = 'i-, referred
25 36 25 36 '
to CX' and CY' as axes. The center is C(0, 0); foci are f(V61, 0)
and F'( — VsT) 0); vertices are F(5, 0) and F'( — 5, 0); equations of
5 5
directrices are x = —;== and x = 7==; and asymptotes are
V61 V6T'
6x — 5y =0 and 6x + 5y = 0.
10
EXERCISES
1. Express the equations of the following hyperbolas in the form
of [38] or [38i]. Find the coordinates of the centers, foci, and vertices;
the lengths of the semi-axes; and the equations of the directrices and
asymptotes. Sketch each curve.
(1) 9x' - 162/2 - 108a; + 96y 36 = 0. +
(2) 162/2 - x' -6x - 80y + 75 = 0.
(3) Sx" - 282/2 - 8a; - 28y - 61 = 0.
(4) 8a;2 - Qy' - 16x + 542/ - 1 = 0.
(5) 3y^ - 4a;2 - I6i - 24y - 52 = 0.
2. Transform 9x' - 25y' + 54a; + lOOy 206 = by translating to+
new coordinate axes parallel respectively to the old axes, with new
origin at (—3, 2), and sketch the curve.
3. Transform each of the hyperbolas of exercise 1 to the form of
[35] or [36]. Find the coordinates of the foci, and the equations of the
directrices referred to the new coordinate axes.
4. Find the equation of the hyperbola with conjugate axis parallel
to the a;-axis, center at the point ( — 3, 4), eccentricity fi and passing
through the point (9, 4 SVS). +
6. Find the equation of the hyperbola whose axes are parallel to
the coordinate axes and which passes through the points (3, 4), ( — 7, 4),
(8, 4 4\/3), and (-12, 4 - 4\/3^.
+
6. Find the equation of the hyperbola having a focus at (6, 2), a
directrix the line a; — 12 = 0, and e = 2.
116. Equation of hyperbola when axes are rotated. —In

like manner to that for the parabola (Art. 90) and the ellipse
(Art. 102), the equation Ax^ + Cy' + Dx + Ey + F = 0,
which is that of an hyperbola with axes parallel to the coordi-
nate axes, transformed by using equations [13] to the form
Ax^ + Bxy
is
+Dx W+ +
Ey F '^ 0. This is the most
general form of the second degree' equation in x and y, where
+
B^-4:AC>0. (See Art. 121.)
Conversely, starting with an equation containing an xy-term,
rotation through a properly chosen angle will cause the
icy-term to disappear by having its coefficient zero.
EXERCISES
1. Transform the following equations by rotating the coordinate axes
through the angle given in each case:
(1) a;2 - j/« = 16. *. = -45°. (2) "! - f:'

= 1. <p = 90°.
(3) xy =8. <p = 45°. (4) Qy' - IQx' = 144. <p = 60°.
(5) x^ - Axy +y' +Q =0. = 45°. <p
(6) x' - ixy + 2/2 + 4V2a; - 2V2y + 11 = 0. ,p = tan-i 1.
Transform the following equations into the standard form rotating

2.
the axes through a proper angle, and sketch the curve in each case:
(1) x" + 4xy +y' = 16.
(2) 9x' + U\/Sxy - 5y^ - 48 = 0.
Simplify the following equation by first translating the axes

3.
to remove the a-term and the y-ixxm, then by rotating through an
angle that will remove the xy-term. Sketch the curve and the three
sets of coordinate axes.
x^ + 2xy — y' +8x +^y -8 = 0.
Siiggestion.—i'iad <p = 22|°. Then use sin 22 J° = | \/2 - \/2 and

cos 224° - i V2TV2.
4. In the hyperbola of exercise 3 find the coordinates of the center
and the foci, and the equations of the transverse and conjugate axes,
and asymptotes, referred to the original axes.
117. Equation of hyperbola in polar coordinates.^Here
the procedure is similar to that for the parabola and ellipse,
and the equations of these three conies should be compared.
EXERCISES
Derive the equation in polar coordinates of the hyperbola with
1.
the pole at the left hand focus and polar axis along the transverse axis.
Let p equal the distance from the focus to the directrix.
2. Plot the following hyperbolas and draw the asymptotes:
(^^ " = 1 - e sin e

^^' " - 1 +e sin 6
3. Transform a;* + j/' = eîx + p)' into polar coordinates.
4. Show that in the equation of the hyperbola, p = -i

COS "
:j
J. 6,
the inclination of the asymptotes is cos"' ( ±-j •
5. Find the '^

polar intercepts
'^ of the conic p = :;
— -, and show
1 e cos
that the transverse axis of the hyperbola is —26V ^, and the major axis of
e J,
the ellipse is
^ _^ -
—
6. Transform the polar equation p^cos2e = c? into rectangular coordi-

nates, having the origin at the pole and the x-axis along the polar axis.
7. Show that p* = is an ellipse if e < 1; and that
.,
1 - „; „„„; ^
e* cos* e
-6^
1 - ei* cos2 e'
ris an hyperbola if e > 1. Sketch each curve.
118. Construction of an h3rperbola. First method. —The

length of the transverse axis, 2a, and the foci F' are F and
supposed known. On
a drawing board place two tacks at
F and F', respectively. Fig. 103. Tie a pencil firmly at point
P near the middle of a string. Pass one part of the string
Y
P('.v)
Fig. 103. Fig. 104.
under the tack at F and over the tack at F', and the other
part over the tack at F'. Adjust the string so that
PF' - PF = 2a. Hold the parts of the string firmly together
at Q and pull downward. The point P will generate an arc
of an hyperbola. By arranging the string properly other
arcs of the hyperbola may be generated.
This construction depends upon the following.
—
Theorem. The difference of the distances from any point on
an hyperbola to its two foci is constant and equal to the transverse
axis.
This may be proved as follows: In Fig. 104, from the
definition of an hyperbola,
PF' = e-N'P = e{x + -^ = ex -^ a,
and PF = e-NP = e{x - ") = ex - a.

Subtracting, BF' — PF = 2a = transverse axis.

—
Second method. A focus, the corresponding directrix, and
the value of e are supposed known.
In Fig. 105, let F be th^ focus, D'D the directrix, X'X the
axis through the focus and intersecting D'D in A, and let the
lines QR and TS be drawn through A with inclinations respec-
tively equal to tan-^ (+e). Also draw a series of lines
parallel to D'D.
Fig. 105.
Then the points P and P' of the ciirve, on any one of these
parallels, are found by striking arcs with the focus as center
intersecting the parallel lines and using as a radius the length
MN of that particular parallel. Show why this is so.
EXERCISES -
1. Locate a directrix and a focus and construct an hyperbola with

e = |. With e = |. With e = \/3.
2. Construct a parabola by the same method. '
3. Using the same method, construct an ellipse with (1) e = f,
(2) e = iV3, (3) e = i-

4. The difference of the distances of a point on an hyperbola from

the foci is 4; and the foci are at the points (3, 0) and (—3, 0). Use
the theorem of Art. 118 and derive the equation of the hyperbola.
APPLICATIONS
119. Uses of the hyperbola. —
Whenever the law connecting
two variables is an inverse variation it gives rise to the equa-
tion xy = k, where x and y are the variables and k is a constant.
This relation often occurs in physics, chemistry, and engi-
neering.
Boyle's Law which states that for a perfect gas the pressure
varies inversely as the volume, gives rise to the equation
po = k.
This is not used so much in practical work as is some slight

variation of it. (See Art. 124.)
Then again, if the law governing the location of a point is
y such as to fulfill the conditions of

..£ the theorem of article 118 the locus
isan hyperbola.
These and other appHcations are
best illustrated by examples.
—
Example 1. Given 20 c.c. of air at 1
atmosphere pressure. If the volume v
varies inversely as the pressure p, derive
the equation showing the relation be-
P tween the volume and the pressure.
Plot the curve tor values of p from 1
atmosphere to 20 atmospheres.
Solution. —
Since v varies inversely' as
the pressure, pv = k. .
'
When p = 1, w =
hence 1-20 = fc, or fc = 20.
20,
Therefore the equation showing the relation between p and v is
pv = 20. I
This isthe equation of an equilateral hyperbola referred to its asympr

totes as axes, and can be plotted, as accurately as desired, by points.
It is plotted in the first quadrant only because both volume and pressure
must be positive. (See Fig. 106.)
V
3. Find the locus of the center of a circle tangent externally to two

given circles.
4. Find the locus of the center of a circle having one of two given
circles tangent to it internally and the other tangent to it externally.
6. The base of a triangle is fixed, and the difference of the angles at
the base is Jtt. Find the locus of the vertex opposite the base.
6. Three instruments for recording sound are located at three points,
A, B, and C, in a straight line. From A to B is 300 ft. and from B to
C is 500 ft. A sound, such as the report of a cannon, is recorded at B
0.05 second after it is recorded at A, and at C 0.35 second after it is
recorded at B. Find the location of the source of the sound in distance
and direction from the point midway between A and B.
Suggestion. —
Choose the origin of coordinates at the point midway
between A and B. Derive the equations of the hyperbolas and solve as
simultaneous equations. Note that only one branch of each hyperbola
is possible.
The equations of the hyperbolas will be found to be

27.7a;2 - 2/' = 21716,
and- (a; - 400)" - l.Gy" = 38416.
The solution of these equations gives
a; = - 70 and y = 337.7.
GENERAL EXERCISES
1. Find the semi-axes, the eccentricity, and the coordinates of the
foci of the hyperbola 2x^ — Sy^ = 12. Also find the equation of the
hyperbola that is conjugate with this.
2. Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the hyperbola
2x2 _ syi = 12 and the circle x' y^ = 16. +
3. Find the semi-axes, coordinates of foci, eccentricity, and equations
of directrices of the hyperbola 9x^ — iy' — 54a; 16y 209 = 0. + +
4. Show that the following equation represents two straight lines
parallel respectively to the coordinate axes: 12xy -|- 8a; — 27y — 18 = 0.
Transform the following equations as indicated, illustrating each
by a drawing:
6. x' - lOxy +y''+x+y l =0to 32a;2 - 48^' = 9.
+
6. x' - 2xy - y' - 2 = to x^ - y' y/2 = 0. +
7. Find the equation of the locus of a point that moves so that the
difference of its distances from (—4, 2) and (4, 2) is always equal to 8.
x^
8. Given the hyperbola — — —
V^
=1, find the coordinates of the
25 16
point on the hyperbola, with abscissa double the ordinate.
a;2 y2
9. Find the distances from the foci of the hyperbola = 1 to a
25 16
point on the hyperbola, with abscissa 10.
10. Find the equation of an hyperbola whose axes are parallel respec-
tively to the coordinate axes and which passes through the points (0, 0),
(1,1), (-2,-1), and (-2, 2).
11. The lines x — 2y = and x 2y =+ are the asymptotes of an
hyperbola that passes through the point ( — 5, 3). Find its equation.
12. Prove that for all values of a the point (o sec a, b tan a) is on the
x' y'
hyperbola —,- t. = 1-
a' 0'
13. Prove that sec a is the eccentricity of an hyperbola with asymp-
totes including an angle 2a.
14. Prove that the portion of an asymptote of an hyperbola, which
is intercepted between the directrices is equal to the transverse axis.
CHAPTER IX
OTHER LOCI AND EQUATIONS
120. General statement. —In the previous chapters, for
the most part, equations of the first and second degree in two
variables, and their loci are considered. In the present
chapter a consideration will be made of other equations also
and their loci, where they are of importance in the study of
more advanced mathematics; or are of use in immediate
and engineering.
applications to science
Such equations and loci are of infinite variety and form.
They may be divided into two classes, (1) algebraic and
(2) transcendental.
Algebraic curves the degree of whose equations is higher than
the second, and all transcendental curves that lie wholly in a
plane, are often called higher plane curves.
In Cartesian coordinates an equation that can be expressed
in a finitenumber of terms of the form Qx^'y"', in which the
variables are affected by constant exponents and Q is a con-
stant, is called algebraic, all others are called transcendental.
121. Summary for second degree equations. —The most
general equation of the second degree in two variables may be
written in the form
Ax^ + Bxy + Cy^ + Dx + Ey +F = 0.
Theorem. —In rectangular coordinates, the equation of the

second degree in two variables represents a conic section.
To prove this it is only necessary to show that, by a suitable
change of the coordinate axes, the equation reduces to a form
already discussed.
Given Ax^ + Bxy + Cy^ \- Dx -\- Ey +F = 0.
154
§121] OTHER LOCI AND EQUATIONS 155
From [13] substituting a; = a;' cos ^ — y' sin <p,
and 2/ = a;' sin ¥> + y' cos (p,
A{x' COB <p—y' sin<py-\-B{x' QOS(p — y' Bm(p) {x' smtp+y' Qos<p)-\-
C{x' sin 2/' cos ^) ii" = 0.
+ +
Expanding and collecting terms,
x'^{A cos^ ^ + jB sin ^ cos (p + C +
sin'' (p)
x'y'{ — 2A sin ^ cos ^ + 2C siii (pcoscp — B sin'' + 5 cos^ +

p)
y'^(A sin^ ^ — S sin ^ cos ^ + C cos^ + <p)
a;'(D cos ^ +£
sin <p) -\- y'{E cos <p — D sin + F = 0. <p)
In this equation the x'y' term will vanish if
— 2A sin ^ cos (p + — B sin^ ^ + B cos^ ^ = 0.

2C sin - cos ip
Or if B(cos^ ip — C)2 sin ^ cos ^.

sin'' tp) = [A —
By trigonometry, this becomes B cos 2^5 = (A — C) sin 2*5.
[39] .
•
. tan 2^ = ^-^•
Since the tangent of an angle may have any value from
— 00 to + 00 , it is always possible to rotate the coordinate
axes through such an angle that the x'y' -term, will vanish.
Further, since the smallest positive value of 2^ is less than
180°, ^ is an acute angle. This value of <p can always be
chosen for the rotation.
The general equation then reduces to the form
A'a;" + C'y^ + D'x + E'y + F' = 0.
From the considerations of the previous chapters, this

equation represents one of the conic sections as follows:
(1) A circle if A' =^ C.
(2) A parabola E' 9^ 0, and
ii A' = 0,?^ 0, C
or if C
9^0,D' 7^ 0, and A' = 0.
(3) An ellipse if A' and C
are of like signs and unequal.
(4) An hyperbola if A' and have unKke signs. C
Theorem. The — general equation of the second degree in x
and y, Ax^ -\- Bxy + Cy^ + Dx + Ey +F = 0, represents a
parabola, an ellipse, or an hyperbola according as B^ — 44 C

equals zero, is less than zero, or is greater than zero.
Proof. —Using the values of A', B', and C,
A' = A cos'' ^ + B sin ^ cos ^ + C sin^ (p, (1)
B' = B(cos'' V - sin" <p) - {A - C)2 sin ,p cos <p, (2)
C = A sin^ — B sm. (3)
Adding (1) and (3),

A' +C=A+ C. (4)
Subtracting (3) from (1),
A' - C = {A - C) cos 2>p + B sin 2^. (5)
Squaring (2) and (5) and adding,

B'^ + {A' - Cy = B-'^- {A - Cy. (6)
Squaring (4) and subtracting from (6),
B'2 - iA'C = B^- AAC. (7J
But, if V is chosen so that tan 2 B' = 0.
Hence B^ - 4AC = -4A'C\

From this it follows that
(a) B^ - 44C = if either A' = or C" = 0,

(b) B^ - 4:AC<0 if A' and C have like signs,
(c) B^ - 4AO0 if A' and C have unlike signs.
These are respectively the conditions necessary for a parabola,
an elUpse, or an hyperbola.
Example.— Given x^ + 24xy - 6y^ + ix + .48?/ + 34 = 0. (1) Deter-
mine whether represents a parabola, an ellipse, or an hyperbola; (2)
it
transform so as to free of the xy-iena; (3) teduce to the standard form;

(4) plot and show the three sets of axes.
Solution.— (I) B' - iAC = 24^ - 41(-6) = 600.
Therefore the equation represents an hyperbola.
(2) tan
^ _ ^ = -V.
2 = VKI + cos 2»>) = VMI + A) = I-
Then the formulas [13] become x — ^x' — ^y', and ^ = fx' + ^y".
.
Substituting in the equation, — fj/')" + 24(fa;' — |j/')(fa;' + iv')

(fa;'
- + ^y'y + 4(|a;' - iy') + 48(|a;' +
6(fa;' + 34 = 0. fi/')
Simplifying, lOa;'" - IS^/'" + 32a;' + SQy' + 34 = 0.
(3) Putting x' ^ x" +h and = y" + k, and simplifying,
j/'
10a:"2 - 15y"' + (20h + 32)a;" - (30fc - 36)j/" + IQh' - 15k' +

32h + 36A; + 34 = 0.
Equating coefficients of a;" and y" to 0, and solving,
20h + 32 = 0, 30fc - 36 = 0. .-. h = -|, and fc = f
Substituting these values and simplifying,
y"' a;""
2a;"» - 32/"2 +6
This is an hyperbola with its center at the origin and its transverse
axis along the j/"-axis.
(4) The three sets of coordi-
nate axes and the curve are as
shown in Fig. 108.
Remark. —The values of

h and k could have been
found by completing the
squares in x and y. In .
the solution given above,

the rotation of axes was
made first; but the work
would have been shortened
somewhat if the axes had
Fio. 108.
been translated first.
122. Suggestions for simplifying second degree equa-
tions. — If the equation is that of an ellipse or hyperbola,
,
translate the axes to remove the terms of the

first first degree,
and then rotate the axes to remove the xy-term.
If the equation is that of a parabola, first rotate the axes to
remove the xy-term, and then translate to remove the constant
term and one of the terms of first degree.
It may be that the locus is a point, that it is composed of
straight lines, or is imaginary. These forms are often called
degenerate forms and are best discovered from the simplified
equation.
EXERCISES
Test each of the following equations as to whether it is a parabola, an
ellipse, or an hyperbola. Simplify each and plot showing all sets of
coordinate axes.
1. 6x' + Mxy - + 50y - 55 = 0.
2/2
2. 25a;2 _ Uxy + 25y^ + 142a; - 178y + 121 = 0.

3. x^ + xy + y^ - 3y + 6 = 0.
4. 32a;2 - 48xy + ISy' + 35x - 120y + 200 = 0.
6. 13x^ - QVixy + 7y' - 64 = 0.
6. x' - 1y/%xy + 32/2 - eVSa; - 62/ = 0.
7. 2x2 + 6x2/ + 102/2 - 2a; - 6y + 19 = 0.
8. 6a;2 + 13x2/ + 62/2 - 8x - 7^ + 2 = 0.
9. 4x2 ^ + 4j; _ 3j/ + 4 = 0.

-^. 4a;2, 2,2
10. 9x2 _ 12x2/ + 42/2 - 20x - 302/ - 50 = 0.
ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS
123. Parabolic type. —Equations of the form y = ax",
where a is a constant and n is positive, are said to be of the
parabolic type.
(1) When n = y = ax^. The locus is the ordinary
2,
parabola with its axis on the j/-axis, and has
already been discussed.
(2) When n = 3, y = ax^. The locus is
called the cubical parabola. It has the form

shown in Fig. 109, for a = 1.
"^"^
Discussion. —When x = 0, 2/ =
and the curve 0,
passes through the origin. not symmetrical
It is
with respect to either coordinate axis, but is sym-

metrical with respect to the origin. Why?
For any positive value of x, y is positive; and for
any negative value oi x, y is negative. Hence the
curve Ues whoUy in the first and third quadrants.
This information together with a few points makes
it possible to sketch the curve with considerable
accuracy.
(3) When n = i, y = axi. The locus is called the semi-

cubical parabola. It has the form shown in Fig. 110, for
a = 1.
§124] OTHER LOCI ANt) EQUATIONS 159
Discussion. —
When x = 0, y = 0, and the curve passes through the
origin. Writing y = x^ in the form y' = x^, it is seen that the curve
is symmetrical with respect to the aâxis.
For any positive value of x, y has two values

numerically equal but opposite in sign. For any
negative value of x, y is imaginary. Hence the curve
lies wholly in the first and fourth quadrants.
124. Hyperbolic of the

type. —Equations
form y = ax", a constant and n is
where a is
negative, are said to be of the hyperbolic

type.
(1) When n = —1, y = ax~^, or xy = a.
The locus is the ordinary equilateral hyperbola
lying in the first and third quadrants.
(2) When n = —2,y = ax~^, or x^y =f a.
The locus has the form shown in Fig. Ill, for
a = 1. Fig. 110.
Discussion. —No finite value of x will make y = 0, and no finite

value of y wiU make x = 0. Hence the curve does not meet either of
the coordinate axes.
=^X'
*-jr
Fig. 111. Fig. 112.
Since x is affected only by an even exponent and y only by an odd

exponent, the curve is symmetric only to the 2/-axis.
For all positive finite values of y, x has two finite values equal numeri-
cally but opposite in sign. For all negative values of y, x is imaginary.
As y becomes large positively, x approaches zero both from the positive
and the negative side. As x becomes large either positively or negatively,

y approaches zero from the positive side.
The curve lies in the first and second quadrants, and is asymptotic
to both coordinate axes.
(3) When n = -% y = ax'^, or xij/ = a. The locus has

the form shown in Fig. 112, for a = 1.
The discussion is left as an exercise.
EXERCISES
Plot each group of the following equations upon the same set of
coordinate axes, by first discussing the equation and then finding a
few points.
1. (1) y= x\ (2) y = x\ (3) y = x:
2. (1) y=x, (2)y = x>, (3) y= xK
3. (1) y = si, (2) y = s*, (3) y = xi.
4. (1) y = xi, (2) y = a'.
5. (1) y = 3r\ (2) y = XT'.
6. (1) y = 3r\ (2) y = XT*.
7. (1) y = x-i, (2) y = x-^.
8. (1) y = ar*, (2) y = a-'.
9. If p is the pressure and t the absolute
^-^ temperature of a gas in adiabatic expan-
T
sion, p = kP ~ ^, where a constant and
fc is
7 = 1.41 for air. If = 2700 when

p
t = 300, find k, and plot the equation for
values of t from 200 to 400.
10. In a mixture in a gas engine expand-
ing without gain or loss of heat, it is f oimd
that the law of expansion is given by the
equation pti'-" = c. Given that p = 188.2
when » = 11, find the value of the constant
Hia. 116.
g^ g^j^jj pjjj^ ^jjg gjjryg (jf tjjg equation using
this value of the constant. Consider values of v from 10 to 25.
125. The cissoid of Diodes.— In Fig. 113, OT is the

diameter of a fixed circle. At T a tangent is drawn, while
about a secant revolves meeting the tangent in Q and the
circle in R. The point P on the line OQ is taken so that
OP = RQ. The locus of the point P is the cissoid of Diodes.
To derive the equation of the cissoid, choose as origin and

the a;-axis along OT.
Draw MP and NR perpendicular to OT.
Denote the coordinates of P by {x, y).
Let the radius of the circle be a.
From the definition of the cissoid, OP = KQ.
And evidently OM =.NT.
But OM
= X, hence NT- = x and ON = 2a — a;.
Also NR is a mean proportional between ON and NT.

Hence NR = \/x{2a — x).
By similar triangles, OM ON = MP NR. : :
Substituting values, x :2a — x = y : \/x{2a — x).

From this y^ = ^
— , the equation required.
^Qi X
The curve may be plotted from the definition given above,
or from the equation.
Note. —By means problem of the dupli-
of the cissoid the
cation of the cube can be solved. This problem, to find a cube
that is double a given cube, was one of the famous problems of
antiquity.
126. Other algebraic equations. —An unlimited number of
definitions of loci could be given that would result in algebraic
equations. There are many such curves that are of more or
less historical importance as well as of value in mathematics
and other sciences. Also there are an unlimited number of
algebraic equations that may be discussed and their curves
plotted. It should be remembered that an algebraic equation
as truly defines a locus in terms of rectangular coordinates,
as does the definition of the preceding article define the
cissoid.
Example —Discuss and plot the equation y = 8a

1.
^
^
—When = y =
Intercepts. a; The curve does not meet the
0, 2a.
a;-axis, no
since value x
finite make y = of will 0.
Symmetry. — Since only an even power x occurs the curve sym- of is
metrical with respect to the 2/-axis.
11
.
Extent. —
If a positive number, y is positive for all real values of
a is
X, and the is 2a when x = 0.

largest value of y As x becomes very-
large in absolute value, y becomes very small but always positive.
Hence the curve is asymptotic to the x-axis in both directions.
Or, solving for x, x = +2a -v/ - y
2a - y <0.
Hence x is imaginary when
y
is true when j/<0 or when y>2a.
This
Hence the curve Ues in the first and second quadrants, is symmetrical
with respect to the 2/-axis, and lies between the a>axis and the line y = 2a.
Points on the curve and in the first quadrant can be found by choosing
positive values for x.
X
17. Two fixed points F' and F are 2a units apart. Choose the
origin at the center of the line joining F' and F, and the a;-axis along this
line. Find the equations of the loci of the point P{x, y) when
FP
(1) pTp = ^ constant not unity,
(2) FP + F'P = a constant,

(3) FP -F'P = a constant,
(4) FP XF'P = a, constant, fc.
In (4) the locus is called a Cassinian oval, and its equation is

(a;2 + 2/2)2 - 2a2(a;2 - y^) = k^ -^ a*.
18. Sketch the loci of (4) of the preceding exercise when a = 1, and
k has successively the values 0, 1, and 2.
19. Write the equation of (4) of exercise 17 when k = a^, and plot
the curve. This curve is called a lemniscate.
20. Express the lemniscate in polar coordinates, using the positive
part of the x-axis as polar axis.
21. A uniform beam of length I, fixed in position by being held at
one end, supports a weight at the other end. The deflection y at any
distance x from the fixed end is given by the equation i/ = k(ilx^ —kx^)- i
Find k for a beam 12 ft. long if the weight deflects the outer end 18
in., and plot a curve showing the shape of the beam for its entire length.
Choose the fixed end as the origin and consider y positive when measured
downward.
TRANSCENDENTAL EQUATIONS
127. Exponential equations. —An equation of the form
y = 5^^ where 6 is any positive constant, is called an expo-
nential equation. If the exponent is fractional and involves
even roots of h, only the positive values of these roots are

used.
—
Example 1. Discuss the equation y w b' when 6>1. Plot the curve
when b = 1.5.
Intercepts. — When
x = 0, y == b" — 1. This shows that the curve
pa,sses through the point (0, 1) for any value of b.
If 2/ = 0, b' = 0, which is impossible for any finite value of x. This
shows that the curve neither meets nor crosses the a;-axis. However,
for sufficiently large negative values of x, the value of 6* can be made
to- become as near zero as desired. The curve is then asymptotic to
the s-axis in the negative direction.
—
Symmetry. Since changing x to —x or y to —y changes the equation,
the curve is not syjnnjetrical with respect to either coordinate axis.
Extent. —Since no integral value of x can make y negative, and since

only positive values of b" are to be
taken when x is a fraction, the curve is
wholly above the a;-axis.
Further, since y is not imaginary for

any value of x, and increases as x in-
creases, the curve lies in the first and
second quadrants, exists for all values
of X, and continually rises from left to
right.
Plotting. —
The curve oi y = 1.5" can
be plotted as accurately as desired by
finding points. Taking logarithms of
Fig. 116. both sides of the equation,
logy = X log 1.5 = 0.1761a;.
The following points are readily found, and the curve is as shown
:
a and k are constants that may be determined in particular

applications. This function is often called the "law of organic
growth," or the "compound interest law," arid is a function
where the rate of increase or decrease at any instant is directly
proportional to the value of the function at that instant.
Just what the applications are cannot well be shown here,
but the following uses are suggestive
(1) To express the pressure of the atmosphere at any height.
(2) In physics and electricity, it is used in considering
damped vibrations.
(3)In medicine and surgery, to express the progress of the
healing of a wound.
(4) In biology, to determine the number of bacteria in a
culture at any given time.
(5) In chemistry, to express the progress of a chemical action.
(6) In mechanics, in connection with the slipping of a belt
on a pulley.
Numerous applications will be discovered by the student
as he progresses in his studies.
Because of its frequent occurrence in problems involving
'
conditions in nature, the base e is sometimes called ' a constant
of nature."
129. Logarithmic equations. —The logarithmic equation is of
the form y = log!, x, where 6 is a positive number different from 1.
By the definition of the logarithm of a number, the equation
y = l6g6 X can be written in the exponential form x = b".
This is the same as the equation of article 127 with x and y
interchanged.
It is evident then that the discussion of the logarithmic
equation y = \ogbx follows that of the exponential equation
X = &", and gives the following when b > 1:
The a;-intercept is at the point (1, 0).
There is no j/-intercept for as x approaches 0, y becomes

— 00 , that is, the curve is asymptotic to the j/-axis in the
negative direction.
The curve is not symmetrical with respect to either axis.

When X > 1, y >0, and as x becomes <» y becomes °° also. ,
When X <l,'y <0, and there is no value of which will make «/
X negative.
Example 1. —Plot the curve oi y = logic x.
The following points are found, and the curve is (1) of Fig. 116. The
unit on the y-axis is taken twice that on the x-axis.
X
3. Discuss the effect upon the curve oi y = b" when &> 1 and increases
from 1.
4. Plot the curves of the following:

(1) y = 1-'. (2) y = 2-'. (3) y = x^, x>Q. (4) y = tr".
6. Plot the curves of the following:
(1) y = logs X, where e = 2.718. (2) y = log4a;. (3) y = 21og3a;.
6. Discuss and plot the curve ol y = ^
Suggestion. —First plot yi = fe"^ and y^ = fe"". Then plot
y = —— n by adding' the ordinates yi and y^ to find y for the

dfferent values of x.
- _£
Discuss and plot the curve of j/ = ia(ea
7. e <z ). This is the +
equation of the catenary, the curve assumed by a flexible cord sus-
pended between two points.
8. A is suspended from two points in
wire, weighing 0.2 lb. per foot,
a horizontal Une 50 ft. apart. The horizontal tension at each end
is 10 lb. Plot the catenary formed by the wire. The constant a
X X
in the formula, y = +e
" ), is found by dividing the horizontal
\aiea
tension by the weight per unit length of the wire.
9. Plot the curve of i = 6e~"', where i and t are the variables. Choose
6 = 1.5 and a = 0.4.
10. If a body is heated to a temperature Ti above the surrounding
bodies, and suspended in air, its excess of temperature T above the
surrounding bodies at any time, t seconds thereafter, is given by Newton's
law of cooUng expressed by the equation T = Tie-"', where o is a
constant that can be determined by experiment. Given Ti = 20 and
a = 0.014, plot a curve showing the temperature at any time t up to
100 seconds.
11. The dying away of the current on the sudden removal of the
electro-motive force from a circuit containing resistance and self-induc-
_ ?'
tion, is expressed by the equation, i = le i, where i is the current
at any time, t seconds, after the e.m.f. is removed, R is the resistance,
and L the coefEcient of self-induction. Plot a curve to show the current
at any time from t = to t = 0.2, if / = 10 amperes, 7J= 0.1 ohm,
and L = 0.01 henry.
TRIGONOMETKIC EQUATIONS
130. The sine curve. —Discuss the equation y = sin x,
and plot the curve.
Intercepts. —When x = 0, y = 0. Hence the curve passes

through the origin. When y = 0, sin a; = 0, and x = rnr
radians, where n is any integer either positive or negative.
—
Symmetry. Putting —y for y or —x for x, changes the
equation. Hence the curve is not symmetrical with respect
to either axis. But putting —y for y and —x for x, does not
change the equation. Hence the curve is symmetrical with
respect to the origin.
Extent. —Since there is a sine of any angle, the curve extends
indefinitely in both the positive and negative directions.
Since the sine of an angle not greater than 1 nor less than
is
— 1, the curve does not extend above the line y = 1 nor below
the line y = —1.
Plotting. —Any length can be chosen as a unit on the coordi-
nate axes. What may be called the proper sine curve is
Fig. 117.
plotted by choosing as a unit on the j/-axis the same length

that is chosen to represent one radian on the a;-axis. The
curve is shown in Fig. 117.
X
called a cycle of the curve. The change

in the value of the
variable necessary for a cycle the period of the func-
is called
tion. The greatest absolute value of the ordinates of a periodic
function is called the amplitude of the function.
In engineering and other practical applications of mathe-
matics, there are many phe-
nomena that repeat. It is for
this reason that the periodic
functions are of great import- *-x
ance. By a suitable choice of
periodic functions almost any
periodic phenomenon can be
Fig. 118.
represented by a function.
132. Period and amplitude of a function.
Example 1. —Find the period of sin nx, and plot y = sin 2x.
Since, in finding the value of sin nx, the angle x is multipUed by n
before finding the sine, the period is —

2ir
The curve for y = sin 2x is shown in Fig. 118. The period of the
function is ir radians, and there are two cycles of the curve in 2ir radians.
Definition. —The number n
in sin nx is called the period-
icity factor.
—
Example 2. Find the amplitude
of 6 sin X, and plot ^ = 2 sin x.
Since, in finding the value of
6 sin X, sin x is found and then
multiplied by b, the amplitude of
the function is 6, for the greatest
value of sin a; is 1.
Fig. 119. The curve for y = 2 sin x is shown
in Fig. 119. The amplitude is 2.
Definition. —The number 6 in 6 sin x is sometimes called
the amplitude factor.
By a proper choice of a periodicity factor and an amplitude
factor a function of any amplitude and any period desired can
be found.
133. Projection of a point having uniform circixlar motion.

Simple harmonic motion.
Example 1. —A point P,
Fig. 120, moves around a vertical circle of
radius 3 inches in a counter-clockwise direction. It starts with the
point at and moves with an angular velocity of 1 revolution in 10

A
seconds. Plot a curve showing the distance the projection of P on the
vertical diameter is from at any time t, and find its equation.
Plotting.—List OP be any position of the radius drawn to the moving
point. OP starts from the position OA and at the end of 1 second
Fig. 120.
is in the position OPi, having turned through an angle of 36° = 0.6283

radians. At the end of 2 seconds it has turned to OPi, through an
angle of 72° = 1.2566 radians, and so on to the positions OPz, OPi, • •
,
OPio.
The points Ni, N2, • • are the projections of Pi, Pi, • respect-
ively,on the vertical diameter.
Produce the horizontal diameter OA through A, and lay off the seconds
on this to some scale, taking the origin at A.
For each second plot a point whose ordinate is the corresponding
distance of N from 0. These points determine a curve of which any
ordinate y is the distance from the center of the projection of P
upon the vfertical diameter at the time t represented by the abscissa
of the point.
It is evident that for the second and each successive revolution, the
curve repeats, that is, it is a periodic curve.
Since the radius OP turns through 0.6283 radians per second, angle
AOP = 0.6283J radians, and ON = OP- sin 0.6283«. Ory = 3 sin 0.6283«,
the equation of the ciuê.
In general, then, it is readily seen that if a straight line of

length r starts in a horizontal position when time, t = 0, and
revolves in a vertical plane around one end at a uniform
angular velocity w per unit of time, the projection y of the
moving end upon a vertical straight line has a motion
represented by the equation
y = r sin lat.
Similarly, the projection of the moving point upon the hori-

zontal is given by the ordinates of the curve whose equation is
y = r cos cat.
The motion of the point iVis a simple harmonic motion.
If the time is counted from some other instant than that

from which the above is counted, then the motion is
represented by
2/
= r sin {cot + a),
where a is the angle that OP makes with the line OA at the

instant from which t is counted. As an illustration of this
consider the following:
Fig. 121.
—
Example 2. A crank OP, Fig. 121, of length 2 ft. starts from a posi-
tionmaking an angle « = 40° = îr radians with the horizontal line
OA when t = 0. It rotates in the positive direction at the rate of 2
revolutions per second. Plot the curve showing the projection of P
upon a vertical diameter, and write the equation.
Plotting. —
The axes are chosen as before, and points are found for each
0.05 second. The curve is as shown in Fig. 121.
The equation is y = 2 sin (4ir< + |ir).
Definitions. —The number of cycles of a periodic curve in a

unit of time is called the frequency.
It is evident that
where / is the frequency and T is the period.
In y = r sin {ut + a), / = s" and T = —

The angle a is called the angle of lag.
134. Other applications of periodic functions. —^The illustra-
tions already given are by no means the only uses of periodic
functions. Many uses occur in connection with sound, light,
and electricity. Periodic curves are traced mechanically on
smoked glass in experiments in sound and electricity. Such
curves are also traced by instruments for recording heartbeats,
breathing movements, and tides.
Any periodic motion can be represented exactly, or can be
closely approximated,by functions involving sines and cosines.
and periodic functions combined. The
136. Exponential —
curve represented by the equation, y = be'"' sin {nx + a), is
important in the theory of alternating currents, in representing
the oscillations of a stiff spring, the damped oscillations of a
galvanometer needle, or the oscillations of a disk suspended in
a liquid, such as is used to compare the viscosities of different
liquids.
The curve
is most readily plotted by first plotting the curves
represented by the exponential function and the periodic

function separately on the same set of axes, and then finding
the ordinates for various values of x by multiplying together
the ordinates for these values of x in the exponential and
periodic functions.
,
It will be noted that the curve is periodic, and that the
amplitude of the successive waves gets less and less while the
wave length remains the same.
Example. —Plot the curve showing the values of y for any value of x
from X = — Jir toz = 2t for the equation, y = e~»-'"' sin (2x + Jtt).
The curve is readily plotted by first plotting yi = e""-"'" and
2/2 = sin (2a; + Jt), and then finding various values of y from the
relation y = yiy^. In Fig. 122, (1) is the exponential curve, (2) the
sine curve, and (3) the final curve. Note that (3) and (2) intersect
the X-axis at the same points.
Fio. 122.
EXERCISES
Plot ^ = sin «, using several different lengths on the x-axis as units.
Discuss and plot y = cos x. Give its period.
Discuss, and plot y = tan x, and y = cot x on the same set of
axes Give the period of each.
4. Plot y = sin X + cos x.
Suggestion. —Plot yi = sin x and yi = cos x on the same set of axes.
Then find y from y = yi + 2/s, by adding the ordinates for various
values of x.
6. Plot y = sin^ x and y = cost's on the same set of axes.
6. Plot y = sin~' x and y = cos~' x.
7. Plot y = sec X and y = esc x, and give the period of each.
8. Plot y = sin fa;, y = sinx, y = sin 2a;, and y = sin -â; on the same
set of axes.
9. Plot y = i sia X, y = sin X, y = 2 sin x, and 2/ = f sin a; on the
same set of axes.
10. Plot = sin 2x + 2 cos x, and give the period.

2/
11. Plot y = sin X -\- X. Is this periodic?

12. A crank 18 in. long starts from a horizontal position and rotates
in the positive direction in a vertical plane at the rate of jx radians
per second. The projection of the moving end of the crank upon a
vertical line oscillates with a simple harmonic motion. Construct a
curve that represents this motion, and write its equation.
13. A crank 8 in. long starts from a position making an angle of 55°
with the horizontal, and rotates in a vertical plane in the positive direc-
tion at the rate of one revolution in 3 seconds. Construct a curve showing
the projection of the moving end of the crank in a vertical line. Write
the equation of the curve and give the period and the frequency.
14. Plot the curves that represent the following motions:
(1); y = 12 sin (1.88* + 0.44), (2) y = 2.5sin(|7r< + W). Give the
period and frequency of each.
15. Plot y = r sin î and y = r sin (IttJ }ir) +
on the same set
of axes. Notice that the highest points on each are separated by the
constant angle Jir. Such curves are said to be out of phase. The
difference in phase is stated in time or as an angle. In the latter case
it is called the phase angle.
16. Plot y'=r sin Jjri, y = r sm {\irt — jir), and y = r cos \wt all on
the same set of axes. What is the difference in phase between these ?
17. What is the difference in phase between the curves of ?/ = sin x
and y = cos x? Between y = cos x and y = sin (i Jtt)? +
18. Plot the curve y = e'" sin x for values of x from to 27r.
19. Plot the curve i = e~J' sin (2« Jx) for values of t from —2
+
to 8.
20. In ah oscillatory discharge of a condenser under certain con-
ditions, the charge q at any time t is represented by the equation,
q = 0.00224e-«»«' sin (8000^ +
tan"' 2), where q is in coulombs and t
in seconds. Plot the curve showing values of q for values of t from to
0.0012 second. What is the period?
Suggestion. —Choose 0.0001 second as a unit on the
i-axis, and 0.001
coulomb as a unit on the g-axis; and let the length representing a unit
on the g-axis be about twice that for the unit on the <-axis. Plot the
exponential curve first, and then the sine curve choosing as a unit on
the g-axis the length representing 0.001 coulomb.
EQUATIONS IN POLAR COORDINATES

136. Discussion of the equation. —As in the ease of equa-
tions in rectangular coordinates, in polar coordinates the dis-
cussion of an equation helps greatly in learning the properties

of the curve. The discussion is exactly similar to that iii
rectangular coordinates.
(1) Intercepts. —
(a) The intercepts on the polar axis are
found by putting 6 = 0°, 180°, 360°, nl80°. (b) The • • •
intercepts on the 90°-line are found by putting 8 = 90°, 270°,

etc. (c) Putting p = and solving for 9, gives the values of 6
for which the curve passes through the pole.
(2) Symmetry. —
(a) If the form of the equation does not
change when — p is substituted for p, the curve is symmetrical
with respect to the pole. (&) If it does not change when —6
is substituted for 6, the curve is symmetrical with respect to
the polar axis, (c) If it does not change when x — ^ is
substituted for 6, the curve is symmetrical with, respect to

the 90°-line.
Show why each of these is true. Are their converses true?
(See Art. 138.)
(3) Extent. — If the equation is solved for p in terms of 0, the
following can be determined: (a) Values of 9 for which p has
maximum or minimum values. In general this can be done
readily when trigonometric functions are involved. (&)
Values of 6 for which p becomes infinite. These values
determine the direction in which the curve extends to infinity,
(c) Values of 9 for which p is imaginary, that is, for which there
is no curve.
137. Loci of polar equations. —Since some of the conditions
of the previous article are sufficient but not necessary, care
must be taken in determining symmetry and extent of curves.
On the whole, however, the plotting very similar to that in
is
rectangular coordinates, and is best illustrated by examples.

It will be found convenient to use polar coordinate paper.
Example 1. —Discuss and plot p = 1 + 2 sin 5.

Discussion. — Intercepts on
(1) polar axis, 9=0, p = 1; 9 = 180°,
p = 1. Intercepts on 90°-line, 6 = 90°, p = 3; fl = 270°, p = -1.

When p = 0, sin 9 = -i, and B = 210° or 330°.
(2) Condition for symmetry with respect to the polar axis does not
hold; but the curve is symmetrical with respect to the
90°-Une since
sin (tt — e) = sin B.
(3) = 1 + 2 sin the maximum value of p will occur when

Since p fi,
sin 9 = 1, or 9 = 90°; and the minimum value of p will occur

when sin
e = -1,0 = 270°. No value of 6 makes p imaginary.
PhUing.—On account of the symmetry it is only necessary to find
points for values of 6 from 0° to 90° and from 270° to 360°. The curve
is shown in Fig. 123.
e
e
—
139. Spirals. Definition. —The locus of a point that

revolves about a fixed point, and, at the same time, recedes
from or approaches this point according to some law, is called
a spiral. The fixed point is
called the center of the spiral.
When an angle is used in an
equation and is not involved in
*-jr
a trigonometric function it is
considered to be expressed in
radians.
Example. —Discuss and plot the
equation p =a',p = a> \. This is the
logarithmic spiral.
IHscvssion. — (1) When 6 = 0, p = l.
^°- ^2^-
(2) Thereno symmetry.
is
(3) As e increases toward + t°

, p increases toward + 0° As . O' de-
creases toward — «> p approaches 0.
,
Plotting. —The curve is readily plotted from a series of points. For

a = l.S it is as shown in Fig. 125.
e
.
Solution. —Choose as pole, OT as polar axis, and let OT = 2o. Let

the polar coordinates of P be (p, 6).
Then since OBT is a right angle, PQ = OR = 2a cos 6.
Since OTQ is a right angle, OQ = -•
no = nr^ nn = 2a _ 2a sin^ B
^ — PQ — 2a cos 9,
IT = OP p =
„ -—
Hence p '^ 00 ^ or '
cos e cos 9
This may be transformed to rectangular coordinates and obtain
3/2 = jj
) the equation of the cissoid of Diodes derived in article 125.
Compare the derivations of the equation by the two methods.

EXERCISES
Discuss and plot the following equations:
1. p
'^
= :;
—
-• A parabola.
^
1 cos 9
2. p sin 9 tan 9 = 4a. A parabola.
3. p2 cos 29 = a^. An equilateral hyperbola.
4. p = 3 cos 9+2. Transform to rectangular coordinates.
5. p = a tan^ 9 sec 9. Semi-cubical parabola.
6. p = a cot^ 9 CSC 9. Semi-cubical parabola.
7. Transform equations of exercises 5 and 6 to rectangular coordinates
and compare with article 123.
8. p = a — 6 sin 9 when a<6, when a = 6, and when a>6. Limagons
of Pascal.
9. p' = a^ cos 39. Is the curve symmetrical with respect to the
90°-line? Does the test apply?
Sketch the following roses by first drawing the radial Unes corre-
sponding to values of 9 which make p = 0, and for values of 9 which
make p maximum in numerical value; and then determining the changes
in the values of p between these successive values of 9.
10. p = a sin 29. 11. p = a sin 39. 12. p = a sin 49.
13. p = a cos 39. 14. p = a cos 49. 15. p = o cos 59.
In plotting the curves of the following equations, it should be noted

that in polar coordinates it is sometimes necessary to carry the angle
beyond 360° in order to secure the complete locus.
16. p = a sin3 \e. 11. p = a sin |9. 18. p'^ cos 9 = a' sin 39.
19. p =,a(sin 29 + cos 29). 20.
21. p = a(l + cos 9). The cardioids.
Discuss and plot the following spirals:

22. p9 = a. Hyperbolic or reciprocal spiral.
23. p = a0. Spiral of Archimedes.
24. p" = ae. Parabolic spiral.
ISO ANALYTIC GEOMETRY [§141
26. p'e =3 a. The lituus or trumpet.

26. Derive the equation of the locus of a point. such that:
(1) Its radius vector is inversely proportional to its vectorial angle.
Ans. The hyperbolic spiral.
(2) Its radius vector is directly proportional to its vectorial angle.
Ans. The spiral of Archimedes.
(3) The square of its radius vector is directly proportional to its
vectorial angle. Ans. The parabolic spiral.

'
(4) The square of its radius vector is inversely proportional to its

vectorial angle. Ans. The lituus.
(5) The logarithm of its radius vector is directly proportional to its
vectorial angle. Ans. The logarithmic spiral.
27. Find the equation of the locus of the midpoints of the chords of
the circle p = 2r cos B, and passing through the pole.
28. Chords of the circle p = 2r cos 6 and passing through the pole
are extended a distance 26. Find the equation of the locus of the
extremities.
PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS OF LOCI
141. Parametric equations. —When the coordinates of
points on a locus are expressed separately as functions of a
third variable, these equations are called the parametric
equations of the locu^.
The new variable introduced in finding the parametric
equations is called a parameter.
The parameter may be introduced either for convenience or
as a necessity, since in some cases it is easier to obtain the
coordinates of points on a locus as functions of a third variable
than it is to obtain a single equation connecting the coordi-
nates of the points; and frequently two equations using the

parameter can be obtained where it is not possible to obtain
a single equation connecting the two, variables.
As will be seen, the parameter can be chosen in a great
variety of ways, but it is usually chosen because of some
simple geometric relation, or it is the time during which the
point tracing the curve has been in motion.
—
Example 1. The parametric equations x = xi + nt and y = yi + mt
represent the straight line which passes through the point (xi, yi) and
has the slope — .
n
That this is so can be seen by assigning values to t and plotting the

values of x and y, or by eliminating t and obtaining the equation
y - yi = — (.X - xi),
P(<'-v)
which is the equation of a straight hne.
—
Example 2. Consider a circle with center
at the origin and radius r as generated by a »-x
point P starting on the i-axis- and moving
counter-clockwise. Then it is evident from
Fig. 127 and the definitions of the sine and
cosine, that the parametric equations Fig. 127.
X = r cos 9 and y = r sin 6,
where 8 is the angle generated by the radius to the point P, represent the
circle.
Also, squaring and adding the equations, x^ + y^ = r^.
Example 3. —The equations x
= t" and y = 2t are parametric equa-
tions of the parabola y' = 4a;, as can be seen by eUminating t from the
two equations. The curve can be plotted by assigning values to t and
computing the corresponding values of x and y.
t
:
the first by' o, the second by b, squaring, and subtracting the second
from the first gives
•
-5 - ri = see" B - tan" 9 = 1.
Example 6. —Equations
(1) given in article 94, x = v cos at and
y = V sin at —
parametric equations of a parabola. Here
igt', are
t is the number of seconds the point has been moving.
EXERCISES
Write parametric equations of the straight Une through (—3, 2)
1.
and having a slope of 2. Plot the line from these equations.
2. Write parametric equations of the circle with center at (2, 3) and
radius 5.
3. Represent the parabola j/" = 4a; by several pairs of parametric

equations.
Suggestion. —
Either x ov y can be represented at pleasure, but the
other must be determined in accordance with this. For instance, if
a; = «2 + 1, 3/ = 2 y/P + 1.
Plot the following parametric equations. In each case eliminate
the parameter and find a single equation representing the same curve.
i. X =i -t\y =t -1.
6. a; = 5 cos B, y = S sin B.
B. X = 2 + sin B, y = 2 cos B.
1. X = t + t^ y = t - t'.
8. a; = 5 + 2 cos e, = 4 + 3 sin 9. 2/
9. a; = 1 — cos = J sin §9.fl, 3/
10. X = cos 8, y = cos 29.

11. a; = o sin 9 + 6 cos B, y = a cos 9 — b sin 9.
12. X = a cos' B, y = b sin' B.

142. The cycloid. —The plane curve traced by a fixed point
on a circle as the circle rolls along a fixed straight line is
called a cycloid. The rolling circle is called the generator

circle and the fixed straight hne the base.
The parametric equations of the cycloid can be derived as
follows
In Fig. 129, let OX be the fixed straight line, C the generator
circle of radius a, and P{x, y) the tracing point. Also suppose
the circle is rolling towards the right.
Choose OX as the a;-axis and the origin where the tracing
point is in contact with the fixed hne. Also choose as para-

meter the angle 6, through which the radius to the tracing
point turns. Draw the lines shown in the figure.
Then x = ON = OM - NM = OM - PQ,
and y = NP = MC - QC.
O N >2
Pig. 129.
But OM = arc MP = ad, PQ = a sin 6, MC = a, and

QC = a cos 6.
Substituting these values gives

X = a(e - sin e),
^*"^
y = a(l - cos e),
These are the forms of the equations most frequently used

in dealing with the cycloid. If B is eliminated the equation
in X and y is
X = a vers~^ - — '\/2ay — y^,
a form that is seldom used.

EXERCISES
1. Plot the cycloid from the parametric equations. Is the curve
periodic?
2. Construct a figure in which 90°<e<180°, and derive the equation
of the cycloidfrom it.
Derive parametric equations for the locus traced by a point on a
3.
fixed radius and at a distance 6 from the center of the circle rolling as
in generating the cycloid. First, suppose b<a; second, suppose b>a.
4. Plot the curves of exercise 3. Such curves are called trochoids.
143. The hypocycloid. —The plane curve traced by a fixed

point on a circle as the circle rolls along a fixed circle internally
is called an hypocycloid.
The derivation of the parametric equations is as follows:

In Fig. 130, let be the fixed circle with radius a, and C the
generator circle with radius h.
Let P{x, y) be the tracing
point.
Choose as origin and OX
as a;-axis. Also let the trac-
ing point start at A where
*-x the a;-axis intersects the fixed
Choose as parameters
circle.
the angle d, through which
the line of centers of the two

circles turns, and the angle (p,
through which the radius of
Fig. 130.
the generator circle turns.
Draw the lines shown in the figure.
Then x = OM = OB + BM = OB -^ NP,
and y = MP = BN = BC - NC.
But OB = OC cos e = (a-b) cos e,
and NP = CP sin PCN = b cos (^ - 6).
Also BC = OC sine = (a - b) sin 8,
and NC = CP cos PCN = b sin (^ - 0).
X = (a — b) cos 6 -\- b cos {<p — 0),
and y = {a — b) sin 6 — b sin {<p — d).
To eliminate the parameter (p, notice that

ad
arc AQ = arc PQ, or a6 = b<p, and hence ^ = ^
Substituting the value of <p in the above equations,
X = (a
^â — b)
DJ cos -t- b
4- D cos
COS
/a
(
———b\ i-
j 6,
[41]
y = (a — b) sin e — b sin ( —— r-
j e.
The hypocycloid is a closed curve only when the diameters

of the two circles are commensurable.
a = 26,
If = a cos 6 and y = Q.
equations [41] become x
Therefore when the radius of the generator circle is one-
half the radius of the fixed circle, the tracing point moves in
a straight line.
T|ie most important special case of the hypocycloid is the

fouii-cusped hypocycloid, which a = in 46. The curve is
shown in Fig. 131. Here the parameter

can be eliminated and a single equation
in X and y obtained.
Putting 6 = ia in equations [41],

a; = f a cos B -\- \a cos 39,
and 2/
= fa sin e — \a sin ZB.
But from trigonometry
cos 39 = 4 cos' 9—3 cos 0,
and sin 39 = 3 sin 9 — 4 sin'9.

FiQ. 131.
Substituting and simplifying, x = a cos' 9 and y = a sin' B.

Affecting by the exponent f and adding, gives the equation
in X and y,
[42] X' + y^ = as
144. The epicycloid. —The plane curve traced by a fixed

point on a circle as the circle rolls along a fixed circle externally
is called an epicycloid.
Using a and b as the radii of the fixed circle and the generator
circle respectively, and 9 and <p as shown in Fig. 132, the
equations of the epicycloid are
= + b) —
[43]
X (a cos 6 b cos (-
b h'
y = (a + b) sin e - b sin r + b)
/a 7"
6.
An important special case of the epicycloid is the cardioid, in

:
which a = 6. The curve is as shown in Fig. 133. The

equations here become
X = 2a cos — a cos 29,
and y = 2a sin — a sin 29.
P(x.y)
.,, Fig. ia2. Fig. 133.
145. The involute of a circle. — If a string is wound around

a circle, the curve in the plane of the circle, traced by a point
on the string as it is unwound
and kept taut, is called the
involute of the circle.
The parametric equations
P(x.V)
may be derived as follows
•fX Choose the aâxis through the
point where the tracing point is
in contact with the circle, and

the origin at its center. The'
parameter 9, Fig. 134, is the
Fig. 134.
angle through which the radius
to the point of tangency of the string has turned.
Then from the figure,
x = OM
= OB-\-BM = 0B^ LP,
and y = BL = BT - LT
= MP
But OS = a cos 9, LP = TP sin 9 = a9 sin 9,
and BT = a sin 9, LT = TP cos 9 = a9 cos 9.

X = a cos 6 + a6 sin 6
[44]
y = a sin — aO cos 6.
EXERCISES
1. Derive the equation of the four-cusped hypocycloid.
2. Derive the equation of the epicycloid.
3. Derive the polar form of the equation of the cardioid from the
parametric equations given in article 144.
—
Suggestion. In the polar form of the equation the pole is at A, Fig.
133. Notice that Z XAP = Z XOC, and hence the parameter is
equal to the polar coordinate 6.

First, square and add the-equations of Article 144, then translate to
new origin at A (a, 0), finally, transform to polar coordinates and de-
rive the equation p = 2a (1 — cos 6).
CHAPTER X
EMPIRICAL LOCI AND EQUATIONS
146, General statement. —In common every day affairs, in
business, in the sciences as physics, chemistry, and biology,
and in engineering, questions often arise involving the relations
of variables. Values of these variables can be plotted accord-
ing to some system of coordinates, and, in this manner, curves
obtained that give valuable information. Often the desired
facts can be discovered directly from the curve ; but frequently,
especially in the sciences and in engineering, it is of the utmost
importance to find a mathematical equation representing the
curve more or less accurately.
The determination of the equation may be a comparatively
simple matter, but often it is very laborious and involves
methods beyond the scope of this text.
A curve that is plotted from observed values of the related
variables is called an empirical curve or locus.
The equation of an empirical curve is an empirical equation.
Usually the empirical equation represents a curve that only
approximates the empirical curve more or less accurately.
147. Empirical curves. —
Innumerable examples of empiri-
cal curves could be given. For many of these there may be no
necessity nor reason for finding equations representing them.
The rise and faU a certain stock may be
in the price of
represented graphically by using the
price each day as the
ordinate of a point of which the date is the abscissa. The
curve drawn through these points will show at a glance the
fluctuations of this particular stock.
If the weight of a child is taken from month to month, a
curve can be plotted by using the weights as ordinates and
the corresponding dates as abscissas of points.
188
§147] EMPIRICAL LOCI AND EQUATIONS 189
Empirical curves are often traced mechanically by instru-

ments designed for that particular purpose. In this manner,
at a weather bureau station, a curve is traced showing the
relation between the temperature and the time. In Fig. 135,
is a similar curve that shows the per cent of carbon dioxide
Fig. 135.
in the flue gas from a power plant. The variables are the
time and the per cent of carbon dioxide. The system of
coordinates is apparent.
In Fig. 136, are plotted several curves showing the changes
in the cost of living from July, 1914 to November, 1919. The
data was taken from the Research Report issued by the
National Industrial Conference Board.
In such curves as these the information desired is gaiiied

directlyfrom the curve, and no attempt would be made to
derive an equation.
1914 1915 Year 1916 1917 1918 1919

Change in prices from 1914 to 1919.
(1) Shelter; (2) Heat and light; (3) Sundries; (4) Cost of living; (5) Food; (6) Clothing.
Fio. 136,
148. Experimental data. —In laboratory experiments and

practical tests, pairs of simultaneous values of two varying
quantities are measured. When these pairs of values are
plotted, a curve is determined from which useful information
may be obtained. The problem of finding the empirical
equations representing such curves will now be considered.
AH data that is a result of measurements must be assumed
to be subject to some degree of error, hence the endeavor will
always be to approximate as closely as possible, both in the
curve and in the equation.
Sometimes in a problem of this kind the general form of
the equation of the curve is known beforehand, and sometimes
nothing at all is known but the coordinates measured in the
experiment. If the general form of the equation is known, the

computations for finding the definite equation can be made at
once; but, if the general form of the equation is not known, the
points are plotted so as to discover the general form if possible.
149. General forms of equations. The forms of equations —
frequently used are the following. Most of these have been
studied in previous chapters, and should be reviewed, if
necessary, so that their forms may be clearly in mind.
(1) y = mx + h, straight line.

(2) y = ca;", n>0, parabolic type.
(3) y = ca;", n < 0, hyperbolic type.
(4) y = ah'' ov y = ae'"^, exponential type.
(5) y = a + bx + cx^ + dx^ + + qx". • •
For the parabolic type it is often necessary to use
y — k = c{x — h)", n> 0,
where the vertex is at the point (h, k) ; and for the hyperbolic
type
y — k = c{x — hY, n < 0.
150. Straight line, y = mx + b. —This is the form of the

empirical equation when it is known
that the relation between
the variables is that of a direct variation. Since in the
equation y = mx + h there are but two arbitrary constants,
two pairs of measured values would be sufficient to deter-
mine the equation completely provided the values could be
measured accurately. Since this is not possible, a larger
number of pairs of values are measured, and from these an
equation is determined that represents the straight Hne lying
most nearly to all the points. The method used in the follow-
ing example for securing the equation ij called the method of
least squares. The theory underlying the method is too

difficult to be given here.
—
Example. Find the equation of the straight line that is in the form
y = ms +
6, lying most nearly to the points determined by the follow-
ing measured values of x and y:

X
151. Method of least squares. The method of least —

squares given in the previous article becomes tedious when
there are many observations and the numbers are large. A
sufficiently accurate resultmay be obtained by plotting the
points, and obtaining the arbitrary constants of the equation
by using two points that lie on the straight line that appears
to be the best. If none of the plotted points lie on this line,
use coordinates of points that do lie on the line.
The method of least squares is quite mechanical, while the
best straight line if determined by plotting is a matter of
judgment and a good eye.
The method by least squares for finding the empirical
equation is stated in the following:
Rule. — First, substitute each 'pair of observed values of the
variables in the general equation.
Second, if there are just as many equations as there are con-
stants to be found, solve these equations for the constants. If
there are more equations than there are constants, multiply each
equation by the coefficient of the first constant in that equation,
and add the resulting equations to form one equation. Proceed
likewise for each other constant, and thus find as many equations
as there are constants.
Third, solve these equations for the constants.
Fourth, substitute the constants, thus found, in the general
equation and obtain the required empirical equation.
EXERCISES
1. A wire under tension is found by experiment to stretch an amount I,
in inches, under a tension T, in pounds, as given in the following table.

Assume the relation I = kT (Hooke's law) and find the equation which
best represents the relation between I and T.
T
2. Find the empirical equation in tlie form oi y = mx 6 best +

representing the relations between the values given in the following
table:
12 15.3 17.8 19
24.4 29 32.6 34.2
3. Find the equation of the straight line lying most nearly to the
points determined by the following pairs of measured values:
12 15 18 21 24
24.4 28.6 32.7 37.1 41.2
4. Find the empirical equation connecting B and t from the following

table of experimental values. B is in ohms and t in degrees centigrade.
The equation is assumed to be in the form B = mt + b.
t
7. Plot the 6, and draw a line that, in your

data given in exercise
judgment, liesmost nearly to all the points. Select two points that
lie as nearly on the line as any, and determine the equation from the
coordinates of these points. Compare the result with that of exercise 6.
In the following table,
8. W
is the weight of potassium bromide which
will dissolve in 100 grams of water at t degrees centigrade. Find the

empirical formula in the form W
= mi + b, connecting W and t.
t
Example. —Q is the quantity of water, in cubic feet per second, that

flows through a right isosceles triangular notch when the surface of the
still water is at a height H feet above the bottom of the notch. The
values of H
and Q in the following table are measured. Find the equa-
tion connecting H and Q.
H
Substituting the values for x and y in the equation y = nx + b, the

following equations are obtained:
0.4200 = On +6,
0.8603 =0.1761n + b,
1.1761 = 0.3010n b, +
1.4150 = 0.3979n + 6,
1.6128 =0.4771n + 6,
1.9263 = 0.6021n + 6.
Solving these equations by the method of least squares,
n = 2.5 and b = 0.4208.
Substituting in equation (2), log Q = 0.4208 + 2.5 log H.

Then log Q = log 2.635 + log H^-K
Or log Q = log (2.635ff2.5).

Q =
'
.'. 2.635ff'-', the required equation.
The equation can be tested by computing values of Q for the several

observed values of H, and comparing with the observed values of Q.
153. Hyperbolic type y = ex", n < 0. —Data that are

known to give an equation of this type can be handled in
precisely the same manner as the parabolic type. The only
difference that will arise will be that the value of n is
negative.
154. Exponential type, y = ab* or y = ae^*. The data —
from certain experiments, such as those involving friction,
give rise to exponential equations. As with the other types
the data can be plotted on rectangular coordinate paper and
the general form of the equation determined. If it is thought
to be of the exponential type, it can be tested by taking the
logarithms of both sides of the equation and plotting on
rectangular coordinate paper. If the points lie on a straight
line, the assumed equation is correct.
In order to express the form y = a6* in the form y = ae'"' it is

only necessary to put h = e*, whence log 6 = fc log e, or
fc = I^Si = 2.3026 log b.

log e
Example. —From the following data determine the relation between

W and e.
e
Substituting the pairs of values of 6 and y in equation (2),

0.728 = 1.57TO + B,
0.854 = 3.14m + B,
0.980 = 4.71m + B,
1.107 = 6.28m + B,
1.234 = 7.85m + B,
1.360 = 9.42m + B,
1.489 = 11m + B.
Solving these by the method of least squares, gives
m = 0.0807 and B = 0.6005.
Then a = 3.985 and b = 1.204.
.". W = 3.985 X 1.204*, the required equation.
This expressed in the form W = oe*' gives,

W = 3.985e»-"S89.
155. Probability Curve, y = ae"''*'. The curve that is —

perhaps the most widely used of any in dealing with experi-
mental data is one variously called "the probability curve,"
"the error curve," and "the normal distribution curve."
It is represented by the equation
y = aer'"',
where a and b are constants to be determined from the data.

It is evidently symmetrical with respect to the y-a,xis. While
Y
beyond the scope of this chapter,

definite uses of this curve are
it may
be stated that it is used wherever a most probable
correct value is to be determined from a large number of
independent measurements or observations. It is used in
the study of statistics, in astronomy, biology, and chemistry,

and in the study of theory of measurements.
The form of the curve is shown in Fig. 142.
156. Logarithmic paper. —Because
of the frequent occur-
rence of formulas of the parabolic and hyperbolic types, con-
100
siderable use is made in
90 engineering practice of.
logarithmic paper, that is,
1 1
1
1
1
[/HI
paper that is ruled in lines
whose distances, horizon-
tally and vertically, are
proportional to the loga-
rithms of the numbers 1,
2, 3, etc.
Logarithmic paper can
be used instead of actually
looking up the logarithms
of the numbers as was
done in the example of
article 152. For if the
values of H and Q are
i plotted as shown in Fig.
3,5
143, a straight line is de-
termined just as when the
logarithms of H and Q
were plotted on rectangu-
lar coordinate paper.
Semi-logarithmic
paper
uniformly the
is ruled
same as ordinary coordi-
nate paper in one direction,
and in lines spaced as on logarithmic paper in the other direc-
tion. Semi-logarithmic paper may be used to advantage when
testing an exponential type. In Fig. 144, the values of 6 and
W of the example of article 154 are plotted into a straight line.
:
EXERCISES
1. Solve the equations of article 152 by the method of least squares
and check the results given.

2. Determine the equation of the hyperbolic type connecting x and
y from the following pairs of values
X
D
8. In the following table are given the measurements taken in an

experiment on friction, where m is the coefficient of friction in a certain
bearing running at a velocity of V feet per minute. Determine a formula
of the form n = aV" connecting V and it.
V
terms need be used. If the arrangement of the points is
more irregular, more terms must be assumed.

Example. —The following measurements at different depths were made
to determine the rate of flow in a river, where x is the fractional part
of the depth from the surface and y is the rate of flow. Determine
a formula of the form y = a + bx + ex' connecting x and y.
X
to all the points. most nearly on the curve,

Select the three points lying
and use the coordinates b, and c.
of these to find the values of a, Com-
pare with the result given in the solution by the method of least squares.
2. Determine an equation of the form y = a + bx + cx^ + dx' from
the following experimental values. Solve both by the" method of least
squares and by using the coordinates of four points.
X
CHAPTER XI
POLES, POLARS, AND DIAMETERS
158. Harmonic ratio. —
two points A and B divide a
If
line segment MN and internally in ratios that

externally
have the same numerical values, then A and B are said to
divide MN harmonically. A and B are called harmonic
conjugates with respect to the line segment MN.
—
Theorem. If the -points A and B, divide the line segment
MN harmonically, then the points M- and N divide the line seg-
ment AB harmonically.
o e s
Af A N B
Fig. 146.
T, ^ T, u .X.
MA -
MB
Proo/.— By hypothesis, 2^= ^W'
Taking this proportion by alternation, -^j^ = —-ni^'
Multiplying both sides of this equation by — 1, and replacing

— MA by AMand —BN
by NB
gives the required proportion
AM ^ AN
MB NB'
159. Poles and polars. —
Definition. —
If a line drawn through
some point Pi is allowed to rotate about Pi while cutting a

conic in the variable points M
and N, then the locus of all
points harmonically conjugate to Pi with respect to and N\s M
called the polar of Pi with respect to the conic, and Pi is
called the pole of the locus.
206
'
§159] POLES, POLARS AND DIAMETERS 207
. To find the equation of the polar of Pi with respect to an

ellipse, suppose the ellipse in Fig. 147 is given in the standard
form,
"^
a^ b^
If Pi is the conjugate of Pi with respect to the ellipse and

P1P2 is any line cutting the
ellipse in the points M and N,
then M and N are harmonic
conjugates with respect to the
line P1P2. vx
If the coordinates of Pi are
{xi, 2/1) and the coordinates
of P2 are {x^, 2/2) ; then by [4] the
coordinates of M are Fig. 147.
/r^Xi + riXi
n+ Ti n+
and of N are
(TiXi — T1X2 1 - nyi \
Tl — Ti \ —n I
Since M and N are points on the ellipse, their coordinates
must satisfy the equation of the ellipse, therefore
i TiXi + ria;2 \ ^ I nyi + rjyj ^

^
\ Ti -\- Ti ) : \ ri + r2 /
+ = 1,
and
riX2 \
"
/ TiVi — riy2 \
\ ri r2 / \ Ti — Ti I
+ = 1.
Clearing each equation of fractions and subtracting the

second from the first gives the equation
46''rir2a;ia;2 + 4aVir2!/i2/2 = ^rir^^)"^.
Dividing both sides of the equation by 4?-ir2 and dropping

the subscripts for the coordinates of the point Pi gives the

equation of the polar of Pi
h^xix + a^yiy = a^6'-
. x^ yiy ^
• •
"^ 62
a^*
This shows that the polar of a point with respect to an

ellipse isa straight line. If the point Pi is outside the ellipse
the line drawn through Pi will not always intersect the ellipse.
Algebraically the points of intersection of such a line and
the ellipse have imaginary coordinates, but the coordinates
of the point conjugate to Pi with respect to these points
with imaginary coordinates are real. Hence that part of the
locus obtained outside of the ellipse is also included as part
of the locus.
In like manner it can be shown that the polar of a point
Pi with respect to the hyperbola
is
Xix yiy ^
o2 62
Also the polar of Pi with respect to the parabola

j/2 = 2px
is
yiy = px + pxi.
Likewise the polar of a point Pi with respect to the general
conic
[45]
Ax^
Axix+
+ Bxy
B
+
gXiy +
Cj/"
B
gXyi
+ Da;
+
+
Cyiy
Sy
DDE
+ P = is
+ 2X + -2X1+ gY +
|yi +F = o.
The similarity should be noticed between this equation

and the general equation of the conic written
.
Axx
•
B
+ B-^xy + '^xy
, ,^,D,D,E,E,„.
+ Cyy+-^x + + -^ + + ^ = -^x 2;2/ 0.
—— —
§160] POLES, POLARS, AND DIAMETERS . 209
These equations show that the polar of a point Pi with

respect to any conic is a straight hne.
160. Properties of poles and polars. Theorem 1. If two —
"points are so situated that one lies on the polar of the second,
the second lies on the polar of the first.
Suppose the conic is the ellipse —2 +h = 1, and the point

is Pi(xi, yi).
Then the polar of Pi is ^+^ =

a' 0^
1.
If Pi Hes on the polar of Pi its coordinates will satisfy that

equation, hence
X1X2 , ytyi _ -
'^
a^ ¥ '•
But this is precisely the condition that Pi shall satisfy the

equation
"^
a" 62
which is the equation of the polar of P2.

This proof can easily be extended to the general equation
of the second degree.
Theorem 2. If tangents can be drawn from a point to a
conic, the polar of this point passes through the points of contact
of the tangents.
In Fig. 147, the tangent PiR meets the conic in two co-
incident points at R. Since the conjugate to Pi lies between
these two coincident points, it must coincide with R. Likewise
the polar must pass through S.
Theorem 3. Tangents to a conic at the points where a line
cuts the conic pass through the pole of the line.
This follows at once from theorem 2 in conjunction with
the assumption that only one tangent line can be drawn to
a conic at a given point.
Example. —Find the pole of the line x + 2y = 1 with respect to the
conic 3x^ + 42/2 = 6.
14
. The polar of the point (a;i, yi) with respect to the eUipse 3x^ + Ay^ = 6
is 3iia; + 4j/i2/ = 6.
Since this equation and x + 2y = 1 are equations of the same line the
coefficients of x, y, and the constant term must be prcJportiohal, then
3a;i 6 , 4j/i 6
x= i'
^""^
^=r
Hence Xi = 2, yi = 3, and the required pole is the point (2, 3).
EXERCISES
Find the equations of the polars of the points in exercises 1-8 with
respect to the conies following.
1. (2, 3) Sx" + ^y' = 6.
2. (-1,6) 2x^ +y^ = -3.

3. (-1,2) 3aj2 -2y' = 1.
4. (1, -3) 2x» - 4y2 = -5.

6. (1, 2) y" = 6a;.
6. (-3, -2) K" = 4y.

7. (1, 2) x^ - xy +y' -6x -3y + 2 =0.
8. (3, -4) xy +3y^+3x + 7y + l = 0.
Find the coordinates of the poles of the lines in exercises 9-16 with
respect to the conies following.
9. 2x + 4j/ = 1, 6a;'' + iy' = 3.
10. 2x+2y -1=0, 2x' + 5y' = 5.
11. 2x -3y -6 = 0, 4a;2 - 3y^ = 12.

12. X - 2y + i = 0, y' -2x = 0.
13. x + y + 1 =0, x^ + 6y =0.

14. 4a; + 5j/ = 2, x'> + xy + y^ = 3.
n. 3x + 5y +2 = 0, x^ +2y^ +x+y = 0.
16. 2a; + 1 = 0, x' + 2xy + 2y - 2 = 0.
17. Find a point which with (2, 4) divides the line joining (1, 1) to
(4, 10) harmonically.
18. Prove that in any conic, the polar of the focus is the directrix.
161. Diameters of an ellipse. Definition. The locus of the — —

middle points of a set of parallel chords of a conic is called a
diameter of the conic.
To find the diameter of an ellipse, let its equation be given
in the form of [32] and suppose that the slope of the parallel
chords is mi. Unless mi is infinite, the equations of these
chords have the form y = mia; c, where mi is constant for +
§161] POLES, POLARS, AND DIAMETERS 211
any one system of parallel chords, but c will have different

values for different chords of the system.
Suppose MN, is one of these chords, the coordi-
Fig. 148,
nates of M N
can be found by
and
solving simultaneously the equations
y = rriix +c
*X
and ^
_5 ~r
_i_ 2/^
j,2
_ 1
••
Eliminating y between these equa-

tions gives FiQ. 148.
(6'' -\- a^mi^)x'^ + 2aHmiX + a^c^ - aW = 0.
The two roots of this equation are the abscissas of the

-points M and N. Half their sum is the abscissa of Pi{xi,y^,
the middle point of MN.
By a well-known theorem, Art. 4, the sum of the roots of
the quadratic equation
Ax" -\- Bx -]- C = Q
is equal to — -j-
Hence ^ ^ a^cm-i
To find j/2, substitute this value of x^ in the equation
y — m\X + c.
Then 2/2 = rr-.

—— „
;•
The relation between X2 and any one, and therefore

2/2 for
for every one, of these parallel chords must be independent
of c. Hence eliminate c by dividing 2/2 by x^. This gives '
X2 a^mi
Dropping the subscripts for Fa gives the following equation
of the diameter which bisects all chords of slope mi:
y = — i"^^'
This is the equation of a straight line passing through the

center of the ellipse.
If mi is infinite, the parallel chords are all parallel to the
j/-axis and the symmetry of the ellipse shows the x-axis to be
the diameter.
If TOi = 0, the parallel chords are all parallel to the x-axis,
and the symmetry of the ellipse shows the y-axis to be the
diameter.
Since mi can have any value, any line passing through
the center of the ellipse is a diameter.
The length of a diameter of an elUpse is the distance be-
tween the points where the diameter cuts the ellipse.
162. Conjugate diameters of an ellipse. The slope of the —
diameter bisecting all chords parallel to the diameter
y = —— i ^ (1)
IS
= mi,
and its equation is
y = miX (2)
But the diameter (2) is the diameter of the ellipse parallel

to the set of parallel chords of article 161. Hence the diameter
(1) bisects all chords parallel to diameter (2), and the diam-
eter (2) bisects all chords parallel to diameter (1).
Two diameters such that each bisects all chords parallel
to the other are called conjugate diameters. Hence diam-
eters (1) and (2) are conjugate diameters.
If nii is the slope of (1)
b^
o^mi
or
rnxnii = --2-
163. Diameters and conjugate diameters of an hyper-

bola. —Methods exactly similar to those in articles 161
and 162 show that all diameters of an hyperbola pass through
its center The diameter of -^ — r^ = 1, which bisects all
chords of slope mi, Fig. 149, is
b
y = X.
The slopes of two conjugate

diameters of an hyperbola are
connected by the relations
6=
mim2 = Fig. 149.
The length of a diameter of an hyperbola when the

diameter meets the hyperbola is the distance between the
points where the diameter cuts the hyperbola. If the di-
ameter does not cut the hyperbola, its length is defined as the
distance between the points where it
cuts the conjugate hyperbola.
164. Diameters and conjugate
diameters of a parabola. ^Let the —
.^x slope of the parallel chords be mi,
Fig. 150, and let their equations be
y = miX c, +
where c will have
different values for different chords.
The ordinates of the points of in-
Fig. 150.
tersection of the parabola y^ = 2'px,
and these parallel chords are given by the equation

miy^ — 2py + 2pc = 0.
If j/2 is the ordinate of any one of their middle points

V
Since this equation is independent of c, it is the condition

214 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY (|165
that all points on the diameter must satisfy. Hence dropping

subscripts, the equation of the diameter of a parabola is
" mi
This shows that the diameter of a parabola is a straight
line parallel to its axis. Since mi may

have any value except
0, any line parallel to the axis of a parabola is a diameter.
As m\ approaches 0, the system of parallel chords approaches
parallelism to the axis of the parabola, and y increases without
limit. Hence the diameter bisecting chords parallel to the
axis of a parabola does not lie in the finite part of the plane.
166. Diameters and conjugate diameters of the general
conic. —Since the unchanged by trans-
slope of a line remains
lation of axes, all the results obtained so far hold good after
translation for conies whose axes are parallel to the coordinate
axes, providing that in the ellipse and hyperbola the major
and the transverse axis respectively, and in the parabola the
axis of the parabola are parallel to the a;-axis.
Formulas obtained for conjugate diameters, and equations
of diameters do not hold true for rotation of axes unless
account is taken in mi and mz of the change made by the
rotation.
EXERCISES
1. Find the equation of the diameter of the ellipse 3x^ + Ay'^ = 6,
which bisects chords of slope 3. Chords of slope — f.
2. Find the equation of the diameter of the hyperbola 2x^ — iy^ = 1,
which bisects chords of slope 3. Chords of slope — f.
3. Find the equation of the diameter of the parabola y^ = 4a;, which
bisects chords of slope 3. Chords of slope — \.
4. Find the equation of the diameter which bisects chords of slope 3,
for the ellipse 2x^ + Zy^ - ix - 12y + 2 = 0.
Suggestion. —Translate axes to center of conic, and then translate
back to the original axes.
6. Find the equation of the diameter which bisects chords of slope 3,
for the hyperbola 2x'^ - 3y' - ix + 12y - 22 = 0.
6. If (2, 1) is one extremity of a diameter of the ellipse ix' Qy' + = 25,

find the coordinates of the extremities of the conjugate diameter.
7. If the point (1, 2) is one extremity of a diameter of the hyper-
bola 25a:'' — iy' = 9, find the coordinates of the extremities of the con-
jugate diameter.
8. If (Xi, 2/i) is an extremity of a diameter of the ellipse — +r; =

; 1,
what are the coordinates of the extremities of the conjugate diameter?

9. Prove that the sum of the squares of any two semi-conjugate
diameters of an ellipse is constant and equal to a' b\ +
x^ v^
10. If (a;i,2/i) is an extremity of a diameter of the hyperbola— — r^ = 1,
what are the coordinates of the extremities of the conjugate diameter?

11. Prove that the difference of the squares of any two semi-conjugate
diameters of an hyperbola is constant and equal to a^ — 6'.
12. Find the equation of the chord of the hyperbola 2x' — 3y' = 6,
through the point (4, 1) which is bisected by the diameter y — 4x.
13. Find the equation of the chord of the ellipse x" -|- 2y^ = 4, through
the point (6, 3) which is bisected by the diameter Zy -\- x = 0.
14. Find the equation of the chord of the parabola y^ = ix through
the point (1, 6) which is bisected by the diameter y = 3.
16. Prove that the polar of any point Pi{xi, yC) on a diameter of an
the conjugate diameter.
ellipse is parallel, to
16. Two connecting a point on an ellipse with the ends of a
lines
diameter are called supplemental chords. Prove that supplemental
chords are always parallel to a pair of conjugate diameters.
17. Prove that if a parallelogram is inscribed in an ellipse its sides are
parallel to conjugate diameters.
18. Find the locus of the middle points of chords which connect the
ends of pairs of conjugate diameters of a fixed ellipse.
CHAPTER XII
ELEMENTS OF CALCULUS
166. Introductory remarks. —As has been stated, the
discovery of the methods of analytic geometry during the
first half of the seventeenth century gave the first great start
in the development of modern mathematics. During the
latter half of the same century Newton and Leibniz, building
upon the writing and teaching of Isaac Barrow and others,
discovered the method of the infinitesimal calculus. In this
subject are studied very powerful methods of investigating
functions and problems concerning variables. It is in the
calculus that we find the greatest development of mathe-
matical analysis and its applications in almost every field of
science and engineering. Some of these methods and
applications will now be considered.
Here, as always the case in the study of mathematics, it
is
is necessary to understand clearly what is under consideration
and how it is represented in mathematical symbols.

167. Functions, variables, increments. Example 1. If a— —
suspended coiled wire spring has a weight attached to its
lower end, the spring will be stretched. The amount of
stretching will depend upon the weight, the greater the weight
the greater the elongation. The elongation is then a function
of the weight. If the weight is not so great that the elastic

limit of the spring is exceeded, the elongation varies directly
as the weight. The law connecting the variables is then stated
by the linear equation
y = kx,
where y is the elongation, x the weight, and k a constant.

216
§167] ELEMENTS OF CALCULUS 217
That is, 2/ is a function of a;, and a change in the variable x
produces a corresponding change in y.

A change in the weight is called an increment of the weight,
or an increment of x, and is represented by the symbol Aa;
(read "increment of x" or "delta x"). A corresponding
change in the elongation is called an increnient of the
elongation, or an increment of y, and is represented by Aj/.
Here x represents the independent variable and y the de-
pendent variable.
It is evident that for every Aa; there is a Ay. Their relation
may be shown as follows:
For any particular value of x as Xi, y\ = kxi. (1)
If a; = a;i + Ax, j/i + Aj/ = fc(a;i + Ax). (2)
Subtracting (1) from (2), Ay = fcAa;.
That is. Ay varies directly as Ax,

and is independent of the value of x.
This is shown graphically in Fig.
151. The locus of y = A;x is a
straight line with slope fc. P\ is a
*-jr
point on the line with coordinates
(xi, j/i). MN = P\Q = Ax, and Fig. 151.
QR = Ay.
No matter what the magnitude of Ax,
Ay = Ax tan QPiR = fcAx.
Example 2.—The distance s that a heavy body near the

earth's surface falls from rest in time t is given by the formula
= h
If t = ti, Si = ^gtl (1)
If i = <i + At, si + As = k(<i+ AO^ (2)
Subtracting (1) from (2), As = |g(2«iA« + At").

That the value of As depends upon both t and A*.
is,
This is shown graphically in Fig. 152. The locus of s = ^gt^

is a parabola. The point Pi has coordinates (ti, Si), and
218 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY .[§167
At and As are as shown in the figure. It is evident from th^

figure thatAs depends upon both t and At.
Definitions and notation. —
If y is a function of x it may be
written y = f{x), which is to be read "y equals a function
of x" or "y equals / of x." For convenience other symbols
may be used for functions, as F{x)',
fix), etc.
<p{x),
In the equation y = f{x), that is,

when the equation expresses y explicitly
is an explicit function of x.
in terms of x, y
two variables are involved in an
If
^t equation in such a manner that it is
necessary to solve the equation in order
to express either explicitly in terms of the
other, then either variable is said to be an implicit function
of the other.
. Thus, in x' + y^ = r', y is an implicit function of a; and x is an implicit

function of y.
If this is solved for y, y = ±\/r^ — x^, in which y is an explicit func-
tion of X.
If solved for x, x = ±-\/r' — y^, in which x is an explicit function
oiy.
Implicit functions of x and y may be written /(a;, y), F{x, y),

<p{x, y), etc.
In the same discussion or problem the same functional symbol

is used to represent the same function.
Thus, if }{x) = 2x^ + 3a; + 1,
then /(a) = 2a' + 3o + 1,
and /(3) = 2-3" + 3-3 + 1 = 28.
If fix, y) = Zx' + ^y - y,
then /(2, 3) = 3-2^ + 4-2-3 - 3 = 33,
and /(j/, x) = Sy' + 4xy - x.
EXERCISES
1. If 2/ =
lOs and Xi is any particular value of x, find Ay when x
takes the increment Ax. Find Ay when si = 4 and Ax = 2. Find Ay
for any other value of x and Ax = 2. Plot so as to show these graphically.
2. It y = 2x' + 1 and a;i = 2, find Ay when Ax = 0.5. Find Ay when

Aa; = 0.01. Plot.
3. Express the area A of a square as a function of its side x. Find
AA for X = Q and As = 1. Illustrate by means of a square.
4. Express the area A of a circle as a function of its radius x. Find
AA for a; =
10 and Ax = 0.5. Illustrate by means of a circle.
5. Express the area of a square as a function of its diagonal. Express
its diagonal as a function of its area.
'
6. Express the circumference of a circle as a function of its area.
Express the surface of a sphere as a function of its volume.
7. Express the volume of a right circular cylinder as a function of
its radius and altitude. Express the altitude as a function of its volume
and radius. Express its lateral area as a function of jts volume and
diameter.
8. If /(x) = x8 + 3x^- 2x - 4, find/(0),/(3),/(-4).
9. If = Vx^ + 1, find F{0), F(-3), F{Ws).
F{x)
10. If v{x) = logic X, find *.(100), ¥'(47.62), *>(0.012).
11. lifix) = cos s, find /(30°),/(ix),/(240°).
12. lifix,y) = 3x'y + ixy' - 2y^6iidf{-x,y),f(.x, -y)J(-x, -y).
13. If f{y). = 3", prove /(a;) -fiy) = /(x + 2/)-
14. Iif{x) = sina;andF(x) = cos x, prove that
f(x + y) = f{x)F(y) + F{x)f(.y).

15. If = sin X, express x explicitly in terms of y. liy = 2", express
2/
X explicitly in terms oi y. , , , .
In each of the following equations express each variable explicitly in

terms of the other, if it can be done by methods previously studied.
23.
^^^^-^ = e-K
16-S+P=^-
17. X* + = a^. J/*
24. <p^ cos 29 = a'.
18. x^ + yi = a^. 26. (p sin e tan e = 4a.

19. x(x - 2a)2 — ay^ = 0. 26. <p^ cos 8 = a^ sin 39.
20. xV + 4x* = 16. 27. Iogiox-Iogio2/H- 31og,oa= 0.
21. 4x^ +y^ — 8x-2y +1 = 0. 28. sin-i x - sin-i y = 45°.
T.2«2 xV X — 1
30. If s = IQt^Sindti = 2, find As and —

As
when A< = l;whenAi = 0.1;
As
when At = 0.01; when At = 0.001. What value does — seem to be
approaching as At becomes smaller?

Aw
31. l(y = x'andxi = 1, find Ay and ^ when Ax = 10;, when Ax = 1;
when ^x = 0.1; when Ai = 0.01; when Ax = 0.001. What value does

Av
-^ approach? What then is the slope of the tangent at the point where
a: = 1 of the curve oi y = a;'? Plot.
LIMITS
168. Illustrations and definitions. —Considerable use has
been made of limits in elementary geometry, trigonometry,
and algebra, but much greater use is necessary in the study
of calculus. The following are simple examples of limits:
(1) The variable which takes the successive values 1.3, 1.33,
1.333, has as a limit 1|. That is, the more figures
• •
there are taken, the more nearly the number approaches 1^.
(2) The number \/2 is the limit of the successive values
1.4, 1.41, 1.414, 1.4142, • • •
. The diagonal of a unit
square is the limit of the line lengths represented by this
series of numbers.
(3) If A of the line AB, Fig. 153,
a point starts at the end
and during the second moves half the length of the line
first
to C; during the next second, half
I
|--^^ 1
—
of the remaining distance to D;
1
continuing in this way to move

Pj^ ^gg
half the remaining distance dur-
ing each successive second, then the distance that the point
is from .4 is a variable of which AB is the limit.
12
(4) If J/ = „ 2 ^^^ a; is a variable approaching 2 as a limit,
,
then evidently y a variable approaching 3 as a limit.

is
Definitions. —When
a variable changes in such a manner
that its successive values approach a constant so nearly that
the difference between the constant and the variable becomes
and remains less, in absolute value, than any assigned posi-
tive number, however small, the constant is the limit of the
variable.
The variable is also said to approach the constant as a limit.
If the variable is represented by x and the constant by a, then
the statement "x approaches o as a limit" is written thus,

X = a.
The form ^^^ [/(a;)] = A is read "the Hmit of f{x) as x
approaches a as a hmit is A."

When a variable changes in such a manner that it becomes
and remains greater than any assigned positive nimaber,
however great, it is said to increase without limit or to become
infinite.
The notation to represent this is a; = <», which is read
"a; increases without limit" or " x becomes infinite."
The form ^^^ [/(a;)] = A is read "the limit of f{x) as
x becomes infinite is A."

169. Elementary theorems of limits. The following theo- —
rems will be found useful in dealing with limits. They are
given here without proof.
(1) // two variables that approach limits are equal for all their
successive values, their limits are equal.
(2) The limit of the sum of a constant and a variable that
approaches a limit is the sum of the constant and the limit of
the variable.
(3) The limit of the product of a constant and a variable that

approaches a limit is the product of the constant and the limit of
the variable.
(4) // each of a finite number of variables approaches a limit,

the limit of their sum is the sum of their respective limits.
(5)If each of a finite number of variables approaches a limit,
the limit of their product is the product of their respective limits.
(6) // each of two variables approaches a limit, the limit of

their quotient is the quotient of their limits, except when the
limit of the divisor is zero.
If. the limit of the divisor is zero the limit of the quotient
may have a definite finite value or the quotient may become
infinite, but it is not determined by finding the quotient of
the limits of the two variables. The calculus determines such

limits as these exceptional cases.
—
The fundamental conception of differ-
170. Derivatives.
and one that is of the greatest importance in
ential calculus,
mathematics, is the derivative of a function. Using the
notation of this chapter the derivative is defined to be the
Ay
limit approached by the quotient -r- as Ao; approaches zero.
If the curve, Fig. 154, represents the function y = /(a;).

Aw
the quotient -r- is the slope of the secant line PiP.
If Pi remains fixed and Ax approaches zero as a limit,

the point P moves along the curve
and approaches Pi as a limit, and
the secant PiP turns about Pi to
the limiting position QR, which is
defined to be the tangent to the
curve at the point Pi.
*x Hence, the slope of the tangent is
precisely the quantity called the
derivative.
It is evident that the value of the derivative depends upon
the position of Pi on the curve.
Definition.— The slope of a curve at any point is the slope of
the tangent to the curve at that point.
The notation for the derivative is -j-> read "the derivative
of .J/ with respect to a;." Then by definition

dy _ lim pAy"!
dx ~ Ax = LaxJ'
Of course, the independent variable and the function may
rp, „„ du lim rAw-|
be represented by other letters,
^^""''^ÂtôlAtr
dt
dy dy,
The notation
dz x = xi
is used to indicate the value of y for
ax
the particular value Xi otx.
Example.— Given y = x^, find ^! ^^ and thus find the slope of the
tangent to the parabola at the point (2, 4). Also find the equation of
this tangent and plot.
Solution. —
(1) Given y = x".
(2) When x = 2, y = 4.
(3) If x takes an increment Ax, y + Ay = {2 + Ax)' = 4 + 4Aa; + Ax^-
(4) Subtracting (2) from (3), Ay = 4Aa;+ Ax'.
(5) Dividing by Ax, —^ = 4 ^ Ar
-I- •
Ax
(6) Letting Aa; =0, = 4.
dx\x = 2
Hence the slope of the tangent to the para-
bola at the point (2, 4) is 4.
The equation of this tangent by [15] is
1
y — i = 4(a; — 2), or 4a; — y = 4.
The plotting is shown in Fig. 155.
171. Tangents and normals. It — fol-

lows from the preceding article and [15]
that the equation of the tangent to the
curve y = f(x) at the point (xi, yi) is
dy
[46] (x - Xi).
y-y^=di X=Xi
(4) Subtracting (2) from (3), SsiAa; + 4Aa;i' + ISyiAy + 9Ay^ = 0.
(5) Transposing and arranging, ^= -

igj/i + 9Ay
Passing to the limits and noticing that Ay = as Aa; = 0,
dy\ _ _ 4x1
dx\x=xi 92/1
Substituting ih [46], the equation of the tangent is
y -yi= - 9^ (=^ - =^1^'
or Axix + Qyiy = 4x-^ + Syi'.

Since by (2) \xx^ + 92/i= = 36 the equation of the tangent is
+ 9vi2/ = 36.
4x-i.x
Similarly the equation of the normal is
9vi , -
-y' = 4^
y ^"^ - '''^•
When a: = 2, y = ±f Vs.
Pl(2,«4Vl)
^X
Pi'(2-«4\r5)
Fig. 156.
Substituting these values for xi and j/i in the equation of the tangent,
the equation of the tangent at (2, f-\/6) is
4-2a; + g-fVljf = 36, or 4a; + Zy/5y = 18.
And the equation of the tangent at the point (2, — f\/5) is
4-2a: + 9(-fV'5)?/ = 36,
or 4a; - ZVly = 18.
Likewise the equations of the normals are, by [47]:

at the point (2, W&), W5x
- I2y = lO-y/S;
and at the point (2, -Ws), dVSx 12y = 10\/5. +
The plotting is shown in Fig. 156.
EXERCISES
1. Given y = x', compute the values of Ay and -r^ when x = 0.5 and
Ax = 1, 0.1, 0.01, and 0.001 respectively.
Find the slope of the tangent and normal to

2. t/ = ix' at the point
where X = 0.5.
3. Given 2/ = a;' + 2, find^l ^ and write the equation of the tan-
gent and normal at this point. Check the result by plotting.
Find J- at the point (asi, 2/1) for each of the following:'
4. 3/= 3a;2 - 1. 10. y = x' + 2x' + 5.

6. 2/= a;' + 4. 11. y ^ 3x' - \x^ + 6a;.
6. 2/= 2a; + 6. 12. a;^ + ly^ = 16.

7. xy = 4. 13. 4x2 _ Qyi = 35
8. y' = 2pa;. 14. y^ = 4:X + 8.
n 1 <c 3! + 1
16. Given the parabola y^ = 2px, find the equations of the hnes tangent
to the parabola at the extremities of the latus rectum, and show that
they meet on the directrix.
17. Find the slope of the circle x'^ + y^ = 25 where a; = 2, (o) when
the point is in the first quadrant, and (6) when the point is in the fourth
quadrant.
18. Find the angle that the line Sa; — 42/ + 7 = makes with the
circle x^ + y' = 25 at their point of intersection in the first quadrant.
19. At what angle does the circle x^ + y' — 16 intersect the circle
x^ + y^ = 8x at their point of intersection in the first quadrant?
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
172. Differentiation by rules. —The process of finding the

derivative of a function is called differentiation.
The method used in the preceding articles in finding the
derivative is called the fundamental method since, it is based
directly upon the definition of a derivative. The derivative
of any function can be found by this method, but the work
can be greatly shortened by using rules or formulas which
can be established by fundamental methods or otherwise.
The rules needed in differentiating algebraic functions will be
15
)
considered first, and later some of those necessary to

differentiate trigonometric, exponential, and logarithmic
functions.
In the formialas, x, y, u, and v denote variables, which, of
course, may be functions of variables, and a, c, and n denote
constants.
173. The derivative when f(x) is x. Since the equation —
y = X represents a straight line with slope equal to 1, and by
article 170, -^ is the slope of the curve at any point, it follows
that
I. ^
dz
= 1.
In general, the derivative of a variable with respect to itself is
unity.
174. The derivative when f (x) is c. —Since y = cis the equa-
tion of a straight line with slope equal to 0, it follows that
II. ^
dx
= 0.
In general, the derivative of a constant is zero.

175. The derivative of the sum of functions. —Given
y = u + V, where u and v are functions of x, and let Ay, Am,
and Av be the increments of y, u, and v, respectively, corre-
sponding to the increment Aa;.
Let x = xi, then yi = Ui + Vi.

Let X = Xi + Ax, then i/i -|- Aj/= Mi -|- Am + i;i -|- Av.
Subtracting, Ay = Am -j- Av.
T^- u A
Ay Am At;
AiÂi + Ki'
-J-
Dividmg by Aa;,
Let Ax = then
_ du dv
0, -^
X = Xi dx X = Xi dx X = Xi
It is evident that any number of functions can be treated
in a similar manner, then
d(u -I- V w + + - • •
_ du dv dw
^^^*
dx ~ dx "^
dx
•"
dx
"•"
§1761 ELEMENTS OF CALCULUS 227
Or, the derivative of the sum of any number of functions is

equal to the sum of their derivatives.
Example. — If y = a;' + Sa;^ — 4a; + 3,
dy ^ d(x') _ d(3a;') _ d(4a:) _ d(3)
dx dx dx dx dx
176. The Derivative of the product of two functions. —

With the notation as in the previous article, given y = uv.
Let X = Xi, then j/i = UiVi.
Let X = Xi-\- Ax, then yi + Ay = (ui + Au)ivi + Av).

Subtracting, Ay = uiAv + ViAu + AuAv.
^. ,. . , .
Aw Av , Au , . Av
Dividing by Ao;,
A^
= "^
Ai + '^ A^ + ^" Ax'
Let Aa; = and notice that Au-^ also approaches zero as
a limit,
then dy _ dv du
dx x=xi 'ax
dx x=xi '
ax x=xi
dx
TT,
IV. . .
d("v)
,
dx
dv
dx
du
= Uj h v^r-
dx
— ,
•
Or, the derivative of the product of two functions is equal

to the first times the derivative of the second plus the second
times the derivative of the first.
Example.— li y = {x - 2)(a;2 + 1),
177. The derivative of the product of a constant and a

function. —Given y = cu, where c is a constant. By the
previous article
dy . du :, dc
dx dx dx
But ^:
= 0. BylL
V .
d(cu) _ du
^- • •
~d^ ~ d?
' •
Or, the derivative oftfie product of a constant and a function
is equal to the constant times the derivative of the function.
Examples. — If y = 4(a; — 2), -j- = 4 j— —

du
= u-!
re dy X
It y j^ = - j"
a dx adx
178. The derivative of the quotient of two functions. —Given
u
--
y =
Let X = xi, then yi — —

Let X = xi + Ax, then j/i + Ay = -^ ^^
. + Am - -
Ml Ml viAu — MiAj;
_, , ,
Subtracting,
, .
Ay = ^-^^ =
-^^J^;^-^'
Am M
At
Dividing by A^, -=
Aqj A3J
„^(„^ ^ ^,)
•
dM dw
~ "1J
I
dy I
_ îa: a;=a;i aX\x=Xi I
— — —
Writing ii»-i as the product wm"-",
-f.
= l^n-l [- u\ M"-2 - \- u -^ -
ax ax L dx dx A
n „ ,du , .diu"-^)
ax dx
When this process is performed n times the last term will
contain —-j— > which is zero by II.
^r,-, d(u") , du
dx dx
(b) When n is a fraction, — , where p and q are positive integers.
V
Given i/
= u^
Raising both sides of the equation to the gth power,
Then 32/'"' t^ = pw""'-?- • By (a) of this article.
~ , . . dy dy pu^~^ du
Solvmg for -^> -r- = ^^vr j-
qy^~^ dx
dx dx
pu'^^ du p ^-1 du
= -^ T— = "' J
E(5_i) dx q dx
qu^
p
.
^(wQ = Pj--'' ^.
' '
dx q dx
(c) When n is negative, either integral or fractional.
Let n = — m.
Then «/ = "-" = —
Clearing of fractions, ^/W" = 1.
du „dy
Then myw^^ S
dx
+ S
dx
=,
w*" 0- By IV, VII, and II.

—
c , dy dy myW^'^ du
. .
Solving for 3^,

dx
^
dx
=
M"
-j-
dx
,du -„ 1 du
" dx dx
^^—- = —
d{u~^) du .
OTM-"~' -T-.
dx dx
Therefore formula VII is established when the exponent is
a positive or negative integer or fraction. It is expressed in
the following rule:
The derivative of a function affected by an exponent n is equal
to n times the function affected by the exponent n — 1, times the
derivative of the function.

'^^'^' "*" ^^
Examples.— H y = (x' + x + l)*, ^ = 4{x' +x + 1)°
"^^
-
180. Summary of formulas for algebraic functions.

The formulas here summarized enable one to differentiate
algebraic functions.
I. ^
dx
= 1.
II. ^
dx
= 0.
TTT
d(u + V + w H ) ^ du dv dw
"^
"^ "^
dx dx dx dx
A /'11TT^ AxT All
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
.
181. Examples of Differentiation. — If the formulas and

rules of differentiation are well learned, their application is
one of the easiest processes in mathematics.
Example 1. —Given y = 7x\ find -^-
Example
1= ^
2.
= 7^ = 7.Zx^ g =
—Given y = x' + 2x' — 5x +

21:r».
6, find
By
^
V, VII, and I.
dy _ d(x>) d(2x') d(5x) d(6)

g jjj
dx dx dx dx dx
= 3x2 + 4a; _ 5. By VII, V, II, and I.
Example 3.— Given y = {x^ + 2a;) (3a; - 2), find^-
= (a;2 + 2a;)3 + (3a; - 2)(2a; + 2) = Qa;" + 8a; - 4.
By I, II, III, V, VII.

2 dy ^2
Example 4. —Given y = ^—:^' fiud^.
_|_
- ByVL
dx (3a; 1)^
_ (3a: - l)(2a;) - + 2)3 ^ Sa:^ - 2a; -

(a;" 6
(3a; - 1)2 (3a; - 1)"
Example 5. —Given y = \^x' + 3x, find t--
^ _ d^x'
~ + 33: _ d(x^ + 3a:)^ ^ , -_3 d(x' + 3x)
'^ "^
dx dx dx ' dx
= i,.. + S.rH2x+3)=^^=,
t
EXERCISES
In the following find the derivative of the function with respect to
the independent variable.
1. 2/ = ZxK 6. 2/ = 4V5. 11. y = -nVx^-
i. y = 5x*. 7. y = 3-^. 12. y = -2-^x*.
3. 2/ = 7xK 8. 2/ = v^'. 13. s = Jff«'-
4. 2/ = ox?. 9. ^ = 3x-5. • 14. s = 44*.
6. 2/ = fxi. 10. y = -4x'. 15. « = Ji*.
16. 2/ = a;* + 3x2 + 2. 17. 2/ = 3x2 - 2x + e.
18. 2/ = a;' - 22. y = (3a;« + 2)* - 2x.

23. y = (2x+ 3)i - 3a;.
24. y = \/2a;* - 7x.
59. Show that the parabola y' = iax and the cissoid v = t;
2a — X
intersect at right angles at the origin.
60. The heat H, required to raise a unit weight of water from 0°C.
to a temperature t°, isgiven by the formula
H = t+ 0.00002«2 + 0.0000003*'.
Find -TT and compute the value of -^^ where f — 35°C.
at at
In the previous
182. Differentiation of implicit functions. —
exercises, the dependent variable in each was expressed as an
explicit function of the independent variable. Often it is
either not convenient or not possible to express one variable
as an explicit function of the other. In such a case the usual
rules for finding the derivative can be applied and the desired
derivative found as an implicit function of the variables
involved. The method can be best illustrated by examples.
Example 1. —Given x^ + y^ = 25, find -p as an implicit function of
X and y.
Since y is a function of x, the left hand member is the sum of two
functions of x.
Differentiating, 2x + 2y ^ =0.
dy_ _ X
' '
dx y
Example 2. —Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve

x^ — yi + x' — y = a,t the point (1, 1).
Sotoiora.— Differentiating, 5x* - 5y*^ + Bx' - -£_ =0.
dy dy 5x^ + 3a:'
^ . .
Solvmgfor^,
,
^= + 5^,4 i
"
- dy i
When X = 1
1
and y = 1, ^
dx 3.
Then the slope of the tangent at (1, 1) is f.
Hence the equation of the tangent is y — 1 = f (a; — 1),
01 4x -3y -1 =0.
EXERCISES
In the following find the derivatives as implicit functions.
1. X' + y^ = a\ find ^
2. 2/' + 2/ = a;' + a;, find ^•
3.
u*
?_' _L 2^ _ 1 aÂ #
§183] ELEMENTS OP CALCULUS 235
FURTHER USES OF THE DERIVATIVE

183, Discussion. —By methods of analytic geometry the
properties of the locus that are most conveniently discussed
are the intercepts, symmetry, and extent. (See Art. 43). By
means of the derivative other properties may be discussed.
Some of these will be considered in the following articles.
The discussion will be confined to equations (1) whose
curves have no break, at least in the part of the curve con-
sidered; and (2) where for each value of the independent
variable there is but one point on the curve. Such curves,
as well as the functions giving rise to them, are said to be
continuous and single-valued.
184. Properties of a curve and its function. If the curve, —
Fig. 157, is thought of as traced by a moving point passing
from left to right, the following properties may be noted:
(1) The curve is falling from A to B, from D to F, and from

H to J; and the corresponding function is decreasing.
(2) The curve is rising from B to D, from i^ to H, and from

J to K; and the corresponding function is increasing.
(3) If the curve rises to a certain position and then falls,
such a position is called a maximum point of the curve. D
and H
are such points. The ordinate, that is, the value of
the function, at such a point is called a maximum ordinate
or maximum value of the function.
(4) If the curve falls to a certain position and then rises, such
a position is called a minimum point of the curve. B, F, and
J are such points. The ordinate, that is, the value of the
function, at such a point is called a minimuin ordinate or a
minimum value of the function.
(5) The curve is concaveupward between A and C, E and G,
and I and K. It is concave downward between C and E, and
G and /.
(6) Points C, E, G, and I where the concavity changes, are

called points of inflection.
Curves may have other peculiarities, but these will not be
considered here.
185. Curves rising or falling, fimctions increasing or
decreasing. —Since by definition, Art. 170, the slope of a curve
at any point is the same as the slope of the tangent at that
point, it follows that when the slope is positive the curve is
rising, and when the slope is negative the curve is falling.
This is, of course, when passing from left to right.

Stated with reference to the function this becomes the
following very useful principle:
When the derivative of a function is positive, the function
increases as the independent variable increases; when the derivor
live is negative, the function decreases as the independent variable
increases.
It also follows that the ratio of the change of the function
at any point to that of the variable is equal to the value of
the derivative of the function with respect to the variable,, for
that point.
—
Example 1. For what values of a; is the curve y = x' rising and
for what values falling?
Solution. —
Given y = x'.
Then T^ = 2a;.
ax
Now 2x is positive when x is positive, and negative when x is negative.
Hence the curve is rising when x>0, and falling when x<0.
—
Example 2. For what values of x is the function y = x' increasing
and for what values decreasing?
Here -^ = 3a;', which is not negative for any value of x.
ax
ELEMENTS OF CALCULUS 237
Hence the function is never decreasing.

Is it always increasing?
—
Example 3. For what values of x is the curve y = fa;' — ^x' — 6x
rising and for what values falling? For what values of a; is j/ increasing
6 times as fast as x?
Solution.—Given y = fa;'— ix'— 6x.
Then ^= - -
ax
a;^ a; 6.
Factoring, ^= + - (a; 2)(a; 3).
Then -j- is positive when x<—2 and when a;>3, and negative when
-2<a;<3.
Hence the curve is rising when x<—2 and when a;>3, and falling when
-2<a;<3.
The values of x for which y is increasing 6 times as fast as a; can be
found by putting a;^ — a; — 6 = 6, and solving for x.
This gives x = 4 or —3.
EXERCISES
Passing from left to right, for what values of x are the loci of the
following equations rising and for what values falling?
1. y = 3x — 6. 8. y = x^ — x' — 2x.
2. y = ix' + 16a; - 7. 9. y = x' - 2x^ +x - 3.
Z. y = -y/Ii. 10. 2/(1 + x^) = x.

4. y^ = 8x'. 11. y(x^ - 1)^ = a;'.
B. y = x^ + 3. 12. 6y = 2x' - 3x' - 12a; - 6.
6. xy = 15. 13. y = X* - 6x' + 8a; + 6.
y = x^ - 9x. = -
'
7. 14. 2/ {x^ ly.
1^ In exercise 8, how many times as rapidly sa x is y increasing
when X = 10? When x = 3? -When a; = -1? When a; = 0?
16. In exercise 9, for what values of a; is ^ increasing 7 times as rapidly
as a;? For what values oi x is y decreasing 4 times as rapidly' as x is
increasing?
186. Maximum and minimum.—From the definitions of

article 184, it is clear that if a curve is plotted in rectangular
coordinates, the curve is rising at nearby points on the left of
a maximum point, and falling at nearby points on the right.

For a minimum point the curve is falling for nearby points on
:
the left and rising on the right. The student can readily-
state this with reference to the function.
It is evident that at a maximum point or a minimum point
like those shown in Fig. 157, the tangent line is parallel to
the i-axis, that is, its slope is zero.
It follows that these points can be determined from the
function as follows
(1) Equate -^ to zero and solve for x.

ax
dv
(2) Determine whether 3- is positive or negative for nearby
points on the left and right.
A point where -3- = is a maximtun point if -jr >0 for
nearby points on the left and -3- < for nearby points on the
right.
d'u dij
A point where j- = is a minimum point if -# < f or
d'u
nearby points on the left and -7- > for nearby points on the
right.
It is distinctly understood that these
tests determine only such points as are
illustrated in Fig. 157. For cusp maxi-
mum and niinimum points as shown in
Fig. 158, the tangent is perpendicular
Fig. 158.
^^ ^^^ ^_^^jg ^^^ ^ênoe ^
ax
= CO .
Example. —Determine the maximum and minimum points of the func-

tion y = x^ —3a;* + 4 and plot the curve.
SolvMon. —Given y = x^ — Sx' +4.
^ = 3x' - &x = 3x{x - 2).
. . 3^ = for 2; = 0, and x = 2.
ax
When a; < but near 0, t^ > and the curve is rising.
When a; > but near 0, ^^ < and the curve is falling.
. . the curve has a maximum point when a; = 0.
When x< 2 but near 2, -3^ < and the curve is falling.
When X > 2 but near 2, ~ > and the curve is rising.
. . the curve l)as a minimum point when x = 2.
Plotting. —When x = 0, y = ^. .
•
. (0, 4) is
a maximum point;
When x= 2, y = Q. .
" . (2, 0) is a minimum
point.
Factoring, y = (a; + l)(a; — 2) — 2). (a;
. . the a!-intercepts are — 1, 2, and 2.

A few other points will make the plotting
fairly accurate. See Pig. 159.
X
Thus, in Fig. 160, the tangent line turns counter-clockwise in passing

from A to D, and the slope increases from a negative value at ^ to a
positive value at D.
Likewise, in Fig. 161, the tangent turns clockwise in passing from
AtoD, and the slope decreases from a positive value at .4 to a negative
value at D.
Fig. 160. Fig. 161.
It remains to determine how the concavity of a curve can be

determined from its function.
Since the derivative of a function of x is itself a function
of X, it is evident that the derivative of this first derivative
may be found. It is called the second derivative of y with

respect to x.
H y = f{x), the second derivative is jtIj^) and is
represented by the symbol -j-j
Thus, iiy = x' -+ \2x - 3.

Qx"
% = Zx^-l2x + l2,
and 3-| = 6a; — 12.
From the foregoing, it is evident that when -3-^ is positive,
J- is increasing; and when ^-^ is negative, -^ is decreasing.
Or, if ?/ = fix) is the equation of a curve, the slope of the

tangent is increasing when passing from left to right and the
curve is concave upward for the values of x that make -r^
positive.
Likewise, the curve is concave downward when t^ is
negative.
From (6) of article 184, it is evident that a point of inflection
is a point on a curve at which the concavity changes from
upward to downward or vice versa. A point of inflection can
be determined by finding the values of x for which -~ changes
sign, providing the function is finite for that value of x.
—Investigate y = - 3x^ + x + 2
Example. x' for concavity and
points of inflection.
Solution. — Given y = x' — 3x^ + x + 2.
P
ax
= 3x' -6x + 1.
g= 6. - 6 = 6(. - 1).
Since when x<l, 6(x — 1) is negative; and when x>l, 6{x — 1) is

positive, the curve is concave downward at the a; = 1, and concave
left of
upward at the right of a; = 1. Therefore, it has a point of inflection
at the point (1, 1).
EXERCISES
In exercises 1-10 investigate for concavity and points of inflection.
1. y = xK 6. 2/ = (x 2)(x - 2){x -
+ 3).
2. 2/ = X*. 7.,y = 3x* - 4a;' - 1.
3. 2/ = xK 8. y = x^ - 4a;2 + 4a; - 1.
4. 2/ = 3a; - x'. 9. y = x* - 2x^ +40.
6. 2/ = a;* - Oa;". 10. y = 3x* - 16a;' - 6x' + 48a; + 17.
11. In the example. Art. 187, find the slope of the tangent to the
curve at the point of inflection, flnd the maximum and minimum points,
and plot the curve.
12. In the example referred to in exercise 11, it the curve is being
traced by a point moving from left to right, for what values of x does
y increase at the same rate as a;? How rapidly is the curve rising when
X = 3 if a; is increasing at the rate of 2 inches per second?
13. Investigate the greatest possible number of points of inflection
of the curves of
(1) y = ax^ +bx + c,

(2) y = ax' + bx^ + ex + d,
(3) y = ax* + bx' + cx^ + dx + e.
16
In exercises 14-19 plot the curves showing the values of y, y-' and
cPy
-j-ji using the same set of axes for the three curves of each. What
facts can be read from these curves?
14. y = ixK 17. y = (x + 2)(.x - 2){x - 3).
15. y = 3a;*. 18. y = x^ - 12x + 7.
16. y = 3x - x'. 19. y = X* - 2x^ - 8.
DIFFERENTIALS
188. Relations between increments. —When two variables
are so related that the ratio of their corresponding increments
is constant, either variable is said to change uniformly with
respect to the other.
When the variables are related by an equation of the first
Ay
degree, as y = mx -yh, where Ay = mAx, then TZ = "*•
That is, either variable changes uniformly with respect to the

other.
N
corresponding increments is variable, either variable is said to

change non-uniformly with respect to the other.
If the variables s and t are related by the equation s =
f sf<^
then As = M^tAt +
M^). See Art. 167, example 2.
A,
.-. "^^ = y(2t + At).
As
Here ^ is* a variable for it varies with t, that is, differ-
As
ent values of t give different values of -rr, and the change is
non-uniform.
189. Differentials. — If two variables are so related that
one is dependent and the other is independent, then for
corresponding values of the variables:
(1) The differential of the independent variable is the value
of its increment.
(2) The differential of the dependent variable is what would

be its increment, if at the corresponding values considered,
its change became and remained uniform with respect to the
independent variable.
The differential of a variable is denoted by writing d before
it.
Thus, differential x is denoted by dx. Also dy, d{x'),

d{x^ + 2x + 1), and df(x) denote the differentials of y, a;',
x^ -\- 2x -\- \, and /(a;), respectively.
190. Illustrations. —
It follows from the definitions that the
differentials of variables that. change uniformly with respect
to each other, are their corresponding increments.
Thus, ]i y = mx +
b, dx = Ax and dy = Ay, for y changes
uniformly with respect to x.

It should be noted that dy = Ay when, and only when, the
graph of 2/ = fix) is a straight line.
If the rectangle of constant altitude, Fig. 163, is increased in
area by increasing the base by the length CM, the area is
increased by the rectangle CMND. Here evidently the area,

A, is a function of the base a;. Since A and x change uniformly

with respect to each other, CM
= dx and the rectangle
CMND = dA.
Consider the curve y = f{x), Fig. 164, as being traced by
a point starting from the origin and moving to the right and
upward. The direction that the tracing point is moving at
any point is along the tangent line
at that point.
Let (x, y) be the coordinates of
the moving point.
Evidently, y is changing non-
uniformly with respect to x.
Suppose the moving point has
reached Pi. Here y is evidently
changing at the same rate it would
if the point were moving along the
tangent line at Pi. If then the change in y is to become and

remain uniform with respect to x, the point must move
along the tangent.
It follows that at the point Pi, if the increment of x is
Ax = MiM, dx = Ax, and dy = QT.
It is to be noted that the corresponding increment of y is
Ay = QP.
Further, if the slope of the tangent, -3-, that is, the deriva-
tive, is represented hy f'{x),
dy = f (x)dx.
Since dy and dx are finite quantities, dividing by dx,
This is an extremely important and useful relation, for it

states that the derivative and the ratio of the differentials can
be used interchangeably.
Again, referring to Fig. 164, if s is the length of the curve
traced, then corresponding to dx and dy, the change in s, if

this change becomes and remains uniform, is ds= PiT, and
ds" = dx" + dy2.
The triangle PiQT is called the differential triangle.
—
Example. A point is moving along the parabola y = 3a;*. When it
has reached the point whose abscissa is 2, find dy and ds corresponding
to dx = 0.1.
Solution. —First find the derivative of y with respect to x.
Given equation y = 3x'.
dx
.". = 6x-dx, for any value of x.
dy
When X = 2 and dx = 0.1, dy = 6 20.1 = 1.2. -
And ds = Vdx' +dy^ = VO.l^ + 1.2= = 1.2042-.
EXERCISES
1. The right triangle, Fig. 165, is being generated by the altitude

moving uniformly to the right. If the variable base is x and the area
A, show that dA corresponding to dx is the rectangle MxMQPi.
2. The area of the upper half of the area of
the parabola y^ = 4a; is being generated by the
ordinate moving toward the right. If A is the
variable area, show that dA = 2\/x dx for any

value of X. Draw the figure.
3. If the upper half of the area of the circle
a;2 +2/2 = r^ is being generated by the ordinate
moving uniformly toward the right, show that

dA = Vr* - x^ dx.
4. The area above the a>axis between 2/ = sin a; and the a;-axis is being
generated by its ordinate. Show that dA = sin x dx. For the part
below the a;-axis show that dA = —sin a; da;.
5. A point is moving on the circle x' y' = 25. +
Find dy and ds.
corresponding to a change in a; of da; = 0.2 at the point in the first
quadrant where a; = 3.
x^ y^
6. A point is moving on the ellipse 35 + jg = !• Find dy correspond-
ing to dx = 0.4 at the point in the first quadrant where a; = 2. In the

second quadrant where a; = — 2.
In the following find dy for any x.
7. y = 3x' + 2a; - 1. 11. y = Vx' + 4.

8. y = x' +4x +2. 12. a' + j/* = 4.
9. y = X* - 3x^ + 2xK 13. x* + yi = 2.

16 9 "
Vx^+5
15. The distance s that a body will fall in t seconds is given by
the formula s = igt'. Find ds for any value of t. Find ds when t = 2
and corresponding to dt = 1. (Use g = 32.)
INTEGRATION
191. The inverse of differentiation. —Just as division is
the operation that is the inverse of multiplication, and the

extraction of a root is the inverse of raising to' a power, so
differentiation has its inverse operation. Here, as usual, the
inverse operation is the more diflBcult. In fact, it is frequently
impossible to do the inverse of a differentiation except
approximately.
The process of doing the inverse of a differentiation is
called integration. The result obtained is called an integral.

The methods of integrating can be dealt with here to only a
very limited extent. In general, an integral is found by
knowledge acquired from differentiation, by reversing the
rules of differentiation, or by reference to a table of integrals.
Integration has very many applications to problems arising
in the sciences and in engineering as well as to problems in
mathematics.
The symbol, J", indicates that the differential before which
it is written is to be integrated.
Thus, J'2xdx indicates that a function of a; is to be found whose
differential is 2xdx. The function is evidently x" + C, where C is any
constant, for
d(x^ + C) = ^^^±-^dx = 2xdx.
Since the differentialof any constant is zero, the function

sought when integrating may contain a constant no indication
of which appears in the given differential. For this reason
the integral of a differenfal in general, indefinite,

is, and is
called an indefinite integral.
The constant C that is supplied when integrating is called
the constant of integration.
192. Determination of the constant of integration.— The
constant of integration is determined by-
having some fact about the fimction
given besides its differential. This can
be best illustrated by examples.
—
Example 1. Find the equation of a curve
such that the slope of its tangent Une at any
point shall equal to the abscissa of .the point
if,further, it is given that the curve passes
through the point (2, 4).
dy
Solution. —Since —
dx
= slope of tangent, and
= abscissa of point of tangency,
dy _ Fig. 166.
dx
dy
Considering -f- as the ratio of dy to dx, and multiplying by dx,
dx
dy = xdx
Then Xdy =
fxdx, and y — Jz^ + C.
Here C is any constant, and the equation represents all parabolas
having their axes on the 2/-axis and opening upward. Some of these are
represented in Fig. 166.
It is evident that one such parabola can pass through any particular
point of the plane. The one sought passes through (2, 4), and there-
fore these values must satisfy the equation y = ^x^ C. +
Substituting (2, 4) in this equation,
4 = i22 + C. :. C = 2.
The equation of the curve satisfying both conditions is then

y ==W ^ 2.
Exam-pie 2. —Find
the area enclosed by the parabola y^ = 4a; and
the double ordinate corresponding to a; = 8.
Solution. —
The parabola y^ = 4x is shown in Fig. 167, and is sym-
metrical with respect to the a;-axis. Then one-half of the area is above
the z-axis and is the area OMC.
.
Consider the area A as generated by an ordinate moving from the

origintoward the right. When it has advanced any distance x
dA = y dx.
But y = +2-\/x since y is positive.

Then dA = 2V'x dx.
Integrating, A = |a;^ +C (1)
A further fact about the area is that = 0. when x =

A A
Substituting these values in (1) gives
= + C. :.C = 0.
Hence for any value oi x, A =_ fs* + 0.
And for = 8, A = |#=^v'2 =30.17-.

a;
. . the total area = 2A = 60.34 — square

units.
t-*-X
193. Methods of integrating. —
While a knowledge of differentiation
enables one to write at once the in-
tegrals of many differentials, the
following formulas will help in inte-
Fio. 167. grating forms that occur frequently.
(1) ,
/u"du = ~^ + C.
Here u may be any function of which du is the differential,

and n is not equal to — 1.
That (1) is true can be readily proved by finding the differ-
,,n+l
ential of
n +1+ C.
—
Example 1. Find fx^dx.
Here x = u, dx = du, and ra = 4.
.
•
. fx*dx = Ja;» + C.
Example 2.— Find /" (a;' + x'y(3x^ + 2x)dx.

Here x" + x^ = u, (3x^ + 2x)dx = du, and n = 2.
.-. fix' + x'')''(3x' + 2x)dx = fuHu = \u'-\-C = \{x> + z')' + C.
—
Example 3. Find f-\/x'^ — 1 2xdx.
Here x^ — \ = u, 2xdx = du, and n = f
.-. y-v/s^^n 2xdx = fu^du = |«8 + C = |(a;» - 1)5 + C.
(2) =
/cdu c/du.
This states that a constant can be written either before or

after a sign of integration.
Proof. —Since d{cu) = cdu. By differentiation.

Then cu = J'cdu. By definition of an integral.
But J'du = u. By (1) where n = 0.
And cSdu = cu. Equating values of cu
.'. J'cdu = cj'du.
Example.— J'QxHx = 6fxHx = 6-ix* + C. +C= W
(3) r (du + dv)
= ydu + fdv.
Proof. —
d(u + v) = du + dv. By differentiation.
Then y(dM + dv) = u + v. By definition of an integral.
But u = J'du and v = J'dv. By (1).
J'{du + dv) = J'du + J'dv.
.
*
.
This can readily be extended to the integral of the sum of

any number of differentials.
Example. — Jix^ + Sx' — x + l)dx

= fxHx + fZx'^dx - fxdx + fdx By (3).
= \x* +x' - ix^ -\-x + C. By (1) and (2).
Here C is the sum of the several constants of integration.
EXERCISES
Find the indefinite integrals in exercises 1-10, and check by differ-
entiation.
1. dy = ^dx. 6. dy = (2a; + l)dx.
2. dy = xHx. 7. dy = (2x^ +x + 2)dx.
3. dy = 4:x'dx. 8. dy = {x - l){x + l)dx.
4. dy = x^dx. 9. dy = (x + lydx.
6. dy = x^dx. 10. dy = {x + l)idx.
11. Find the equation of the curve whose slope at any point is equal
to three times the abscissa of that point, and which passes through the
point (2, 6).
to the square of its abscissa at that point, and which passes through
the point (1, 1).

to the square root of its abscissa at that point, and which passes through
the point (2, 4).
14. Find the area enclosed by the parabola y' = 2x and the double
ordinate corresponding to s = 4.
16. Find the area enclosed by the parabola y' = 3x, the a;-axis, and
the ordinates corresponding to a; = 2 and x = 8.
16. Find the area between the curve y = 2x and the a;-axis from
the origin to the ordinate corresponding to a; = 10. Check by finding
the area considered as a triangle.
17. Find the area between the curve y = x^ and the i-axis from the
origin to the ordinate corresponding to a; = 4.
18. Find the area between the curve y = x' and the z-axis from the
ordinate corresponding to a; = —3 to the origin.
19. Find the area enclosed by the semi-cubical parabola y = x^ and
the double ordinate corresponding to a; = 4.
20. Find the area enclosed by the curve y = x~^, the a>axis, and
the ordinates corresponding to a; = J and a; = 8.
21. Find the area that is below the s-axis and is enclosed by the
parabola y = a;'' — 4a; + 3 and the x-axis.
22. Find the area that is below the a;-axis and is enclosed by the
curve y = x^ — ix^ + 3a; and the a;-axis.
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
194. So far in the calculus a study has been made of alge-
braic functions only. The trigonometric functions will now
be considered to a limited ex-
tent. The sine and cosine will
receive the chief attention, the
formulas of the others will be
given for completeness only.
195. Derivatives of sin u and
cos u. — ^Let be a unit circle
generated by the point P {x, y)
moving in the positive direction,
Fig. 168.
Fig. 168.
Let u be the measure of the
angle XOP in radians, and let s be the measure of the arc
XP in linear units.
Then u = s, x = cos u, and y = sin u.
Differentiating, du = ds, dx = d(cos u), and dy = d(sin m).
—
ELEMENTS OF CALCULUS 251
In the differential triangle PQT,

dx = PQ, dy = QT, and ds = FT.
Also the angle at T through which the tangent has turned
is equal to u.
Now dy = ds- cosu, cosu and dy having the same sign.
But dy = d(sin u) and ds = du.
. . d(sin u) = cos u du.
Dividing by dx gives the derivative formula:
XTTTT
VIII.
d(sin u)
-^^ = cos u 3du
'-
dx dx
Also dx = —ds sin u, sin u and dx having opposite signs.
But dx = d(cos u) and ds = du.
.'. d{cosu) = — sin udu.
Dividing by dx gives the derivative formula:
T„
IX.
d(cos
—^^-3
ti)
= — sm u du
3— .
dx dx
be noted that the derivation of VIII and
It is to IX requires
that the angle shall be in radians.
Example 1. —Given y = sin (3a;'' + 4a; — 1), find -^-
Solution.
— —
greater than ir, —sin x is negative. Hence the curve is rising before and
falling after= 2mr. x
.
maximum points are the points for which x = 2nT.
' .
Likewise minimum points are the points for which x = (2n + l)jr.
Example 3. —Find the area enclosed by an arch the curve y of = sin x

and the x-axis.
Solution. —The curve y — i sin is shown
in Fig. 169. The area sought extends from
-*-jr a; = to a; = TT.
Ht dx
Consider this area A as being generated
169.
jjy g^jj ordinate moving toward the right.
Then dA = ydx = sin x dx.
And ydA = ysin x dx.
.' A = —cos X + C. By the
. inverse of differentiation.
When X = 0, A = 0.
= -cos + C, or C = 1.
. .
When X = A = —cos ir + 1 = IT, 2 = number of square units in area.

Derivatives of other trigonometric functions. The
196. —
following formulas are stated for completeness. Their deriva-
tion is not difficult and may be performed as exercises.
X. %°-^
dx
= secû^.
dx
__ d(cotu) du „
XI. -^^-j - = — cscû^—
dx dx
^„
XII. — d(sec u)
^^-j - = sec u tan
.
u
du
^
dx dx
XIII. ^
d(csc u)
dx
= — CSC u cot u
du
3—
dx
_--.,
XIV. -~
d(vers u) du
= sm u ^—
.
dx dx
du
d(sin~' u) _ dx
XV.
dx Vl - u"
du
d(cos-^ u ) dx
XVI. -
dx "
Vl û^
§197] ELEMENTS OF CALQULUS 253
d(tan->
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
XXI.
= tan' 5x.
8. y 16. y = sin^ aiVseo z.
= X sin x.
9. y 16. y = m cot"ga;.
10. = sin (a;' + x').
2/
^„ _ 1 — cos a;
11. ^ = sin ix" +3x - 4). ^ ^ ~ 1 + cos x'

12. y = co s' (3a: + 2). 18. p = tan + sec 36.
3fl
13. y = Vsin 3a;. 19. P = i tan^ $ - t&n + 0.
14. y = sin'a; cos'a;. 20w i/ = 3 sin a; — 4 sin' x.

21. Given x = a{0 — sin 9) and j/ = a(l — cos 9), find dx and dj/, then
by division find ^-
22. Find the area enclosed by one arch of the curve y = cos x and the
a;-axis.
23. Find the slope of the tangent to the curve y = sin x at the point
where x = \ir. Where x = 2.
24. Find the slope of the tangent to the cycloid x — a(0 — sin 6),
y = o(l — cos 9) at the point where 9 = Jir. Where 9 = ir. Where
9=0.
26. Find the maximum and minimum points, and the points of inflec-
tion of the curve y = sin x.
Find the indefinite integrals in exercises 26-33.
26. y sin 3a; dx. 30. S sin x cos x dx.

27. y sin (3a; — Vjdx. 31. S sin' x cos x dx.
28. y cos 4a; dx. 32. S cos' x sin x dx.
29. y cos (4a; — 2)dx. 33. y sin» x cos dx. a;
34. Find the equation of the curve passing through the point (tt, 0),
if the slope of the tangent at any point is equal to the cosine of the
abscissa of that point.
EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
198. Derivative of logeU. —We will first find -r-

dx
when
y = logeX.*
tet Pixi, yi) be a point on the curve.

Then 2/i = logea;i or Xi = e"'.
Let X = Xi + Ax, and a;i + Aa; = esi+Aw.
Subtracting, Ax = e»'+^» — e"' = e''^{e^v _ i).
* In log«a;, e = 2.71828 • •
, the base of the natural system of
logarithins.
J
§199 ELEMENTS OF CALCULUS 255
Dividing hyAy,—- = -ma

Ay
—Ay r = Xi
Ay
Or ^
Ax
= 1.
Xi e^"
^y
— 1
rr,.„ lim rAz/l 1 lim f ^V a 1 •

n
L^^^^Tj' ™"^ ^^ =
^^^"^ ^
Ax ^ olAxl =x,AyÔ
when Aa; = 0. ^
Or ^=1XiAy = Ole'"' — iy
dx
lim r Ay ]
But it can be shown that . -^^

^^ 1 = 1.
Ay = « —
f , .,
L e^* 1
Then, dropping the subscripts, ^ = -, or dy =- dx.

Evidently, if y = log^w, then dy = - du.
u
^. ,. dy 1 dw
.
Dividing byda;,^ =
, ,
-^-
XXII. .-.
dC^^ldu
dx u dx
199. Derivative of logaU. — ^Let a be any base. Since by

a theorem of logarithms, logoW = logewlogae.
Then #«)_fflM)l„g^. ByV.
ziin. .•.%!-'-Va^.»i.e. B.xxn.

If, inXXIII, a = 10, logiow expresses the common logarithm
of u, and
dQogiou) ^ 1 duj^^
dx u dx '
where M= logioe = 0.4343 -.
200. Derivative of a" and e". — ^Let y = a".
Then log^y = u logâ.

,
Taking the derivative of each side of. this equation by

XXII and V,
1 dy _ du.
y dx dx
_, dy du
XXIV. .-. ^=a"^logea.

•
dx dx
If a is put equal to e, and noting that logee = 1, XXIV
becomes
XXV. ¥^=e"^
dx dx
201. Derivative of u'. — y= ^Let m", where u and v are
functions of x.
Then log^y = v logeW.
Taking the derivative of each side of this equation by XXII

and IV,
\ dy _ V du dv ,
y dx u dx dx
dy V du , dv ,
Tx^y-uTx^y-dx^''^'''
„vdu , „ dv ,
u dx dx
XXVI ...^.„.-,.g + „.g,.,..
The application of formulas VII, XXIV, and XXVI should

be carefully distinguished. Formula VII is used when a
variable is affected by a constant exponent; XXIV is used
when a constant is affected by a variable exponent; and XXVI
is used when a variable is affected by a variable exponent.
It is customary in calculus to omit the base when writing

logarithms to the base e, and to express the base when it is
not e.
Thus, log 5 means loggS.

202. Illustrative Examples.
Example 1. —Given y = log {x^ + 3a;), find -j--
dy 1 d{x^ + 3a;)
By XXII.
dx a;' -f 3a; dx
= ^(2. +3). By III, VII, V, L
. ^= 2a; + 3
' '
dx a;2 + 3a;'
Exam-pie 2. —Given y = logio(l + Zx), find ^-
By
=
Y^^ '°eioe. III, V, I.
dy 3 ,
dx 1 + 3x logioe.:
Example 3. —Given y = e' ', find j-^

dx
-;» _ fX'-rx -\~ I -/
, By XXV.
(2a; (ia;
= e^'^' (2a; + 1). By III, VII, I.
-•.J=(2a; + l)e
Example —Given 4. 2/ = log sin'a;, find ^•

dy ^^_ d(sin'a;)
^
By XXII.
da; sin^ da;
= 45-2sin:rco8a;. By VII, VIII, L
.• .-— =2 cot a;,

da;
2. _—
Example 5 —Given the catenary y = |a(e« +e «), (see exercise 6,
page 167), find the slope of the curve at the point whose
abscissa is 0.
17
Solution. —Given j/ = ia(e" +e ")•
By III, XXV.
X_ _X_
= hale"- - e "-) By V, I.
\ a a)
'
dx
And = Ke" - c») = 0.
dx\x =
. . the slope of the catenary at the point where a; = is 0.
203. I ^> ycdu, and ya"du.—These integrals are readily
evaluated and occur frequently.

du
lOgeU + C.
/u
dii
For diloQeU + C) = By XXII.
V dA
I
>X
M
I i
N
I I I I
I
<i*
Fig. 170.
ye"du = e" + C.
For d(e" + C) = e"dM. By XXV.
/a"du = r^
log a
+ C.
For d(j^ + c) = aMw. By XXIV.
•
Example. —
Find the area bounded by the equilateral hyperbola ^
xy = the s-axis, and the ordinates corresponding to a; = 1 and x = 8.

4,
Solution. —
The hyperbola is shown in Fig. 170, and the area sought
isMNQB.
Consider the area A as generated by the ordinate moving toward
the right.
Then dA = ydx.
And J'dA = Sydx = J -dx = 4j—

A = 4 log + C. a;
When a; = 1, A = 0. = 4 log 1 + C, or C = -4
. ' . log 1.
When a; = 8, A = 4 log 8 - 4 log 1.

A = 4 X 2.079 -4X0 = 8.316.
Therefore the area sought is 8.316 square units.
EXERCISES
In exercises 1-20 find the derivatives of the dependent variables
with respect to the independent variables, and the differentials of the
dependent variables.
1. y = log (x^ + 7x). 7. y = e^''**.
2. y = logio xK 8. y = e" sin x.
3. 2/ = log 9.y= a'".

I-
4. 2/ = logic x-K 10. y = x-lO'^'-^'.
5. y = e^K 11. 2/ = (3x - 2)"..
6. 2/ = e'\ 12. y = i{e' + e'').

13. i = be-". (See Ex. 9, page 167.)
_Rt
= le L. (See Ex. 11, page 167.)
14. i
15. = e-' sin x. (See Ex. 18, page 174.)
2/
16. i = e"*' sin {2t + |ir). (See Ex. 19, page 174.)
n. y = x + log (1 + 19. y = (Sx + 2)e-'^.
a;'').
18. y = C2x+ log 20. y = {x'^ + 1)^«+^

a;)''.
21. Find the slope of the tangent to the curve = e' at the point ?/
where = 0. Where = 2.
a; a;
22. Find the slope of the tangent to the curve y = logio x at the
point
where x = 1. Where x = 10.

23. Find the minimum point of the curve y = log (x=
- 2x + 3).
24. Find the maximum and minimum points of
the curve whose equa-
tion is = 2y? - log X.

2/
25. that the rate of change of y with respect to x for any

Show pomt
on the curve y = a^" is proportional to y. (See Art. 128.)
26. Find the area bounded by the equilateral hyperbola xy = 1, the

X-axis, and the ordinates corresponding to x = 1 and x = 10.
27. Find the area bounded by the curve y = x + -> the x-axis, and
the ordinates corresponding - x = 2 and x = 4.
Find the indefinite integrals in exercises 28 to 37.

'
28. f-^-
JX — I 33. P-^+'
J x'
dx.
29. f-dx. 34. yd - x-i)(i - x-2)dx.

x
30. f^-i^dx. 36. J-a^'dx.

I X
</ sm X
32. fe'^^dx.
'
37. /(e^'+i + x)dx.
38. Find the equation of the curve passing through the point (0, 1)
if the slope of any point of the curve is proportional to the ordinate
of the of that point.
Suggestion, — -^
dx
= ky. .'. — = kdx.
y
39. Find the equation of the curve passing through the point (0, 1)
if the slope of any point of the curve is equal to xy.
dv
„
Suggestion.
.
— dy
-r- = xy. .' -^ = ,
xax.
CHAPTER XIII
SOLID ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
204. Introduction. —In plane analytic geometry, all the

points an^ lines are confined to one plane. In solid analytic
geometry this restriction is removed, points and lines are
considered as anywhere in space. In addition a new element
is introduced, a surface of which the plane is a particular
instance.
Since plane analytic geometry is a special case of solid
analytic geometry, expected that the formulas obtained

it is
for plane analytic geometry can be

obtained as special cases of the
formulas for solid analytic geometry.
Such reductions and resemblancfes
should be constantly sought.
206. Rectangular coordinates in
space.— If at the origin of the coor-
dinate system in plane analytic —|. ^4^-4
II
^-^^x
geometry a line is erected perpendic-
ular to the plane of the axes, this Mj
line will serve as a third axis for a
space coordinate system, and is called yig. 171.
the 2-axis. It is customary in a space
depiction to draw the a;-axis. Fig. 171, horizontal, the z-axis
vertical and the as coming toward the observer. In
j/-axis
order to give space perspective to the figure, the positive

y-axis is drawn so as to mak'e an angle of 135° with the posi-
tive z-axis, and the unit on the j/-axis is taken equal to half
the diagonal of a square whose side is a unit on the a;-axis.

The three axes determine three coordinate planes, the
261
xy-plane, zz-plane and yz-plane. These three coordinate

planes are mutually perpendicular to each other and all
pass through the origin 0.
If through a point P in space, Fig. 171, planes are drawn
perpendicular to the x, y, and a-axes, respectively, these three
planes will form with the coordinate planes a rectangular
parallelepiped. The edge RP perpendicular to the j/3-plane.
and parallel to the a;-axis is called the x coordinate of P. It is
considered positive if measured to the right, and negative if
measured to the left.

The edge NP perpendicular to the a;z-plane and parallel
to the 2/-axis is called the y coordinate of P. It is considered
positive if measured toward the observer, and negative if
measured away from the observer.
The edge KP perpendicular to the xy-pla,ne and parallel
to the z-axis is called the z coordinate of P. It is considered
positive if .measured upward and negative if measured
downward.
These three coordinate lines uniquely determine a point P,
since they determine three mutually perpendicular planes,
MP, HP, and LP which intersect in one point P.
In place of drawing a rectangular parallelepiped to rep-
resent a point in space it is customary to draw a broken line
consisting of three of its edges.
Thus, the p'oirit P, Fig. 171, would be represented by the broken line
OHKP.
The three coordinates of a point are written (x, y, z.)
Thus if P, Fig. 171, is the point (2, 3, 4), its coordinates are
X = 0H = 2,y = HK = Z,a,nAz = KP = 4:.
The three coordinate planes divide all space into eight

octants. The octant in which the point lies is denoted by
the sequence of signs for the three coordinates.
Thus, the (+, +, — ) octant is the octant to the right of the

2/z-plane, in front of the az-plane, and below the xjz-plane.
§206] SOLID ANALYTIC GEOMETRY 263
EXERCISES
1. If P, in Pig. 171, has the coordinates (2, 3, 4) what are the coordi-
nates of H, K, M, R, L and iV?
2. Plot the points (1, 1, 1), (-1, 2, 3), (2, -3, 1), (-2, -1, -3).
3. Draw the triangle whose vertices have the coordinates (2, 1, 4),
(-1, 3, 2), (2, -1, -3).
4. Where are all the points for which x = Qt y = 01 z = 0?
6. Where are all the points for which x = —27 y = 31 z — —2?
6. From the point (xi, yi, zi), perpendiculars are drawn to the coordi-
nate planes. Find the coordinates of the feet of these perpendiculars.
206. Geometrical methods of finding the coordinates of a

point in space. — Since any point P in space can be regarded
as the vertex of a rectangular parallelepiped which has the
opposite vertex at the origin, the coordinates of P can be
found geometrically in a number of different ways of which
the following are the most useful.
(1) From P draw a Hne, Fig. 171, perpendicular to the

a;j/-planeand meeting it in K. From K draw a line perpendic-
ular to the X-axis and meeting it in H.

Then OH = x, HK = y, and KP = z.
(2) From P drawplanes perpendicular to the x, y, and
and let the axes intersect these planes in
2-axes, respectively,
the points H, M, and L, respectively.
Then OH = x, OM = y, and OL = 2.
(3) From P draw lines perpendicular to the x, y, and z-axes
meeting them in the points H, M, and L respectively.
Then OH = x, OM = y, and OL = z.
207. Distance between two points. —The distance between

two points Pi{xi, j/i, Zi) and P2{x2, 2/2, Z2) is found by con-
structing a rectangular parallelepiped, Fig. 172, having as
opposite vertices Pi and Pi, and whose edges are parallel to
the coordinate axes.
Then P1P2 is the length of a diagonal of this rectangular
parallelepiped.
Since P1SP2 is a right triangle, = PiS^ + SPt^

PiPi"
Since PiRS is a right triangle, =
P^" P^^ + RS\
Therefore P^^ = p^2 + ^2 + gp^2^
Substituting P1P2 = d, PiR = X2 — Xi, i?/S = 7/2 — Vi, and
SPi = Z2 — Zi, and extracting the square root of both sides
of the equation, gives the distance formula
[48] d = V(Xi-X2)='+(yi-y2)''+(zi z^y
i2
O^
*-X
Pig. 172. Fig. 173.
208. Coordinates of a point dividing a line segment in

the ratio ri to it. —As in plane analytic geometry, the ratio
—= -5-5- will be considered positive for internal division
and negative for external division. Let Pi and Pi, Fig. 173,
be the end points of the segment and let Po be the point of
division. Through Pi, Pj, and Po draw planes perpendicular
to the a;-axis meeting it in the points N\, Ni, and No respectively.
By a familiar theorem in solid geometry,
PiPo îVWo
P0P2 NoNi
But NiNo = ONo - ONi,ONo = a;o, and ONi = xi, Art. 206.
Hence N\No = Xo — Xi.
Similarly Aô^2 = Xi — xo.

Substituting these values and replacing p^p" by - ,

gives
—
266 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY [§20^
13. Prove analytically that the straight lines joining the mid-points
of the opposite edges of a tetrahedron pass through a common point and
are bisected by it.
14. Prove analytically that the straight lines joining the mid-points
of the opposite sides of any space quadrilateral pass through a common
point, and are bisected by it.
209. Orthogonal projections of line segments. —In general

two lines in space will not intersect. If parallels to these lines
are drawn through any point, the angle made by these inter-
secting lines is defined as the angle
made by the non-intersecting lines.
If through a point P in space a

plane is constructed perpendicular to
a given line, the point P' where the
plane meets the line is defined as the
orthogonal projection of the point P
on the line.
If the orthogonal projection of the

end points Pi and P2 of a line seg-
ment, Fig. 174, on a line I are Pi' and P2', then the line
segment Pi Pi is said to be the orthogonal projection of the
linesegment P1P2 on I.
With these definitions it is easy to derive formulas for the
projection of a line segment on a given line.
Let P1P2, Pig. 174, be a line segment of length d, let Pi'P2'
be its projection on the line I, and let d be the angle between
P1P2 and P/P2'.
Through Pi draw a line parallel to I and meeting the plane
passing through P2, perpendicular to line I in the point Pa".
Join P2P2", P2"P2', and PiPi'. Then 6 is the angle Pi"PiPi,
and
Pi'Pj' = P1P2" = P1P2 cos = d cos e.
This gives:
Theorem 1. The -projection of a directed line segment on
a given line is equal to its length multiplied by the cosine of the
angle between the lines.
—^
Another theorem which is useful in soHd analytic geometry

is the following:
Theorem 2. The projection on any line of the straight
line joining any two points is equal to the algebraic sum of
the projection of any broken line
joining these points.
Proof. —Let P1P2, Fig. 175, be
the straight line joining Pi and
• Pi, let I be the line on which
P1P2 is to be projected, and let
P1P3P4P6P2 be any broken line
joining Pi to P2. If the points
P/, P3', Pi', Ps', Pi are the pro-

jections of the points Pi, P3, Pi,Y*
Pi, Pi, respectively, then Fig. 175.
Proj. P1P3 + proj. P3P4 + proj. P^^t, + proj. P5P2 =

.Pi'Ps' + P.'Pi' + P4'Pb' + Pi'Pi' = Pi'P^'-
But proj. P1P2 = Pi'Pi'.
This proves the theorem.

210. Direction cosines of a line. — ^Let the angles which
any line in space makes with the
positive X, y, and 2-axes be re-
spectively, a, ;8, and 7. These
angles are called the direction
angles of the Une. Their cosines,
cos a cos |3, cos 7 are called the
,
^x direction cosines of the line.

If Pi and P2, Fig. 176, are any
two points on a line and d is the
distance P1P2, the direction cosines
Fig. 176.
are given by the formulas
Z2 — Zi
[50] cos a = —
X2
-. cos /3 = yi
> cos 7 =
To prove this, let the projection of P1P2 on the a;-axis be

P1T2', then
Pi'Pa' = d cos a.
But Pi'Pz' = OP2' - OPi' and OP2' = Xi and OPi' = x^.
Art. 206.
Therefore
Xi — Xi = d cos a,
—5
or
cos a = —
X2
a
a;i
The remaining two formulas are-found by projecting PjPa

on the 3/-axis and the 2-axis respectively.
These three direction cosines are not independent, for squar-
ing each equation and adding gives
cosâ + cos^/S + cosV =
{X2 - XiY + (t/2 - yiY + (22 - ziy ^d^ ^
d^ ~d^
Therefore
[51] cos^Qi + cos2|3 + cos^T = 1.
Example. —
Find the direction cosines of a line if they are proportional
to the numbers 2, —9, 6.
SolvMon. —Since cos a : cos fi : cos 7 =2 : —9 :

6,
.
EXERCISES
Find the direction cosines of the lines joining the points in exercise
1-3, and the projections of these lines on the three axes.
1. (4, 2, 3) to (5, 3, 4). 3. (-5, 1,4) to (-3,4, -2).
2. (-2, 1,7) to (5, -3,2).
Find the direction cosines which are proportional to the numbers in
exercises 4-7.
4. -6, 2, -3. 6. 4, 3, -12.

5. 6,-7, 6. T. -10, -6, 15.
Find the orthogonal projection of the line joining (7, 6, —2) to

8.
(5, —3, 4) on the :c-axis; on the ?/-axis; on the z-axis.

9. What are the direction cosines of the i-axis? Of the 2^-axis? Of the
z-axis?
10. What are the direction cosines of a line parallel to the i-axis?
Perpendicular to the a-axis?
11. Where do all the lines lie for which (a) cos a = |, (6) cos ^ = |,
(c) cos a = J and cos /3 = i, (d) cos a = 0, (e) cos a = 1?
12. A Une makes an angle of 60° with both the x and the j/-axis, what
angle does it make with
the z-axis?
13. A line makes an angle of 75° with the a;-axis, and 45° with the
3/-axis, what angle does it make with the z-axis?
14. The equal acute angles which a line makes with the a-axis and
the 2/-axis, are each one-half the angle which it makes with the z-axis.
Find the direction cosines of the Une.

15. angles not greater than 90° which
The
a line makes with the x, y, and z-axes are
proportional to 1, 2, and 3. Find the direc-
tion cosines of the line
211. Polar coordinates of a point.

—If the distance OP, Fig. 177, of a ^)-*
point P from the origin is called p,

and if the direction angles of OP are
a, |8, and y, then (p, a, p, y) are called
Fig. 177.
the polar coordinates of P. The re-
lations between the polar coordinates of P and its rectangular
coordinates are obtained by replacing {xi, yi, zO of article 210
by (0, 0, 0) and (x2, y^, z^) by {x, y, z).
Since d = y/x^ + y' + z', formula [50] gives the polar

coordinates in terms of the rectangular coordinates.
9
= 8-2
_J_
y2 + z^
X
cos a = -»
[62]
±Vi + y2 + :« z"
cos 5 = y
±V's + y2 + z^
z
cos Y
:\/x^ + y^ + z''
Note that the radicals must be taken either all positive or all
negative.
Replacing -s/x^ + y^ -\- z^ by its value p, and clearing of
fractions gives the rectangular coordinates in terms of the
polar coordinates.
X = Q cos a,
[53] y = e cos 5,
z = p cos y.
Note that the direction cosines are not independent but are
connected by the equation cosâ cos^jS cos^7 = 1. + +
212. Spherical coordinates.—Ânother method of locating a
point in space is by means of spherical
coordinates. From P, Fig. 178, drop
a Une perpendicular to the xy-plane
meeting it in M. Join 0, called the
pole, to P, and to M. Then the
spherical coordinates of P are p, d,
and <l>, which are written (p, 6, 4>),
where p = OP is the distance of P

from the origin; 6 = angle is NOM
the angle through which the positive
a>axis would have to rotate to coincide with OM; and
4> = angle ZOP is the angle which OP makes with the positive
z-axis.
The quantity p is taken positive if measured along the radius
vector, and negative if measured along the radius vector

produced through the origin. The angle 6 can have any
value from 0° to 360°. The angle is restricted to values
<t>
from 0° to 180°.
The relations between spherical and rectangular coordinates
are then
z = 9 sin cos 6,
<p
[54]
y = e sin ^ sin e,
z = p cos <p
[54i] & = +\/x2 + y2+z2,

e = tan -iZ sin~
X ± Vx^ + y^
<p= COS"
+ Vx^ + y2 + 2^
The convention with regard to signs is that either all the
upper signs must be used, or else all the lower.
If the pole of a spherical coordinate system were taken
at the center of the earth, the z-axis passing through the

north pole, and the a;z-plane passing through the meridian of
Greenwich, then the spherical coordinates of a point in. the
northern hemisphere can be so
chosen that p will give the distance
of the point from the center of the
earth, d its longitude and v its co-
latitude.
between two lines.
213. Angle —
Let the two lines be h and h Fig.
179, with direction angles ai, î, 71,
and oii, 02, 72, respectively, and let Fig 179.
6 be the angle between h and h-
In order to find 6, draw two lines OPi and OP2 through
parallel to h and h respectively, also draw ON, NM, MPi,
the coordinates of Pi, and let OPi = pi.
By article 209, the angle between OPi and OP2 equals 6,
Project OPi and the broken line ONMPi on OP2.

By theorem 2, Art, 209,
proj. OPi = proj. ON + proj. NM + proj. MPi.
By theorem 1, Art. 209,
proj. OPi on OP2 = pi cos 6,

proj. ON on OP2 = a;i cos az,
proj. NM on OP2 = 2/1 cos jSj,
proj. MPi on OP2 — Zi cos 72.
Therefore picos S = a;icos aa + j/icos /Sz + Sicos 72.

•
Replacing Xi, jji, Zi by their equivalents, [53], and dividing
both sides of the equation by pi, gives the required expression
for e,
[55] cos = cos tti cos 02 + cos gi cos §2 + cos y, cos y^'
If the two lines are perpendicular to each other,
cos ai cos a2 + cos Pi cos 182 + cos 71 cos 72 = 0.
If the two lines are parallel to each other, evident that

it is
either ai = a2, /3i = ^2, and 71 = 72, or ai = 180° — a2,

Pi = 180° - ft, and 71 = 180° - 72.
Example 1. —Find the polar coordinates of the point (1, — 1, — •\/2).

From [52], p = -y/i = 2, cos a = |, cos = —i, /3 cos 7 = — |-\/2
.
•
. a = 60°, = 120°, y = 135°.
|8
Then the polar coordinates of (1, -1, - V2) are (2, 60°, 120°, 135°).
If the negative sign is taken with p the polar coordinates are
(-2, 120°, 60°, 45°).
Example 2. — Find the spherical coordinates of (1, —1, — -y/a).

From [54], p = Vi = 2,
""^^ =
e = tan-i (- 1) = sin-i —^ = 315°, and v = cos-' 135°.
Then the spherical coordinates of (1, —1, —\/2) are (2, 315°, 135°).
If the negative sign is taken with each of the radicals the spherical
coordinates are (—2, 135°, 45°).
—
Example 3. Find the direction cosines of a line which is perpendicular
to two lines having direction cosines proportional to —1, 2, 6 and
1, 4, 3 respectively.
If cos a, cos /3, cos 7 are the required direction cosines, [55] and [61]
give the three equations:
— cos a +2 cos 0+6 cos 7=0,

cos a + 4 cos 0+3 cos 7=0,
cos* a + cos^ + cos* 7 =
/3 1.
Solving these equations, gives cos a = t, cos = — f, cos 7 =|, or

cos a = — ?, cos /3 = f cos 7 = — f. ,
—
Example 4. Find the projection o£ the line segment h joining the
points ( - 1, 3, 6) and (3, 7, - 1) on the line U joining the points (3, 1, -2)
and (6, 7, 0).
From [50] the direction cosines of li are t, |, —J and of ^2 are
f, hi
If B is the angle between the two lines, by [55],
cos e
12 + 24 - 14 22
l63 63
The length of Zi by [48] is d = 9, and the projection of U on U by
9 X 22
— w^—
22
theorem 1, Art. 209, is equal to d cos B = = -=-
EXERCISES
Find the polar coordinates of the points in exercises 1-3, if their

rectangular coordinates are:
I. (1, V2, -1). 2. (4, -4, 4-V/2). 3. (1, 1, 1).
the polar coordinates of a point are (3, 60°, 60°, 7), find 7.
4. If
Find the spherical coordinates of the points in exercises 5-7, if
their rectangular coordinates are:
5. (2, 2V3, 4V3). 6. (-3, v/3, -2). 7. —
\/6, Ve, 2). (-
8. Find the acute angle between the two lines having direction cosines
proportional to 11, —10, 2 and —5, 2, 14.
9. Find the direction cosines of a line which is perpendicular to two

lines having direction cosines proportional to 2, 4, —3 and —1, 4, 3,
respectively.
10.Find the projection of the line segment joining (3, —1, 4) to
(4, 1, 6) on the line joining (4, 2, -5) to (-2. 4, -2).
II. Find the projection of the line segment joining (7, 2, —3) to
(2, 4, 3) on the line joining (1, -4, 3) to (7, -11, -3).
12. Find the projection of the line segment joining (2, 1, —3) to
(-2, 3, 1) on the line joining (3, -10, 4) to (12, 8, -2).
13. Verify the conventions used with regard to signs in article 212.
18
SURFACES
214. Locus in space. — If an equation in two variables is
given in plane analytic geometry, values can be assigned at

pleasure to one of these variables, and then the other is
determined. The locus of all points' satisfying such an
equation is found in general to be a curve.
On the other hand, in solid analytic geometry, if an equation
in three variables is given, values can be assigned at pleasure
to two of the variables and then the third variable is deter-
mined. For instance, in the equation z = x^ y^, to every +
pair of values of x and y there corresponds a value of z. Hence
for every point in the xy-'plane there will be a corresponding
point in space for the locus of 2 = a;^ + y^- If these points
are thought of as a whole, obvious that they all lie on a
it is
surface. In general then the locus of a single equation in

space is a surface. Sometimes one or even two variables may
be missing in an equation, in which case such an equation
will give rise toa special surface.
215. Equations in one variable. Planes parallel to the
—
axes. The equation a; = a, is satisfied by all values of y and
2, since these variables can be regarded as entering into the
equation a; = a with zero coefiicents.

Hence all the points satisfying x — a will lie in a plane
parallel to the 2/2-plane and cutting the a;-axis at the point
x = a.
the equation has the form J{x) = 0, the locus will consist
If
of a series of planes, all parallel to the 2/2-plane and cutting
the a;-axis at points whose abscissas are the roots of f{x) = 0.
Like considerations hold for equations which contain only
the coordinate y-, or only the coordinate 2.
216. Equations in two variables. Cylindrical surfaces. —
A cylindrical surface is generated by a straight line which
moves so as to be always parallel to some fixed line, while
intersecting a- fixed curve. The fixed curve is called the
directrix of the cylindrical surface, and the moving hne in
any one of its positions on the surface is called an element of

the cylindrical surface.
A plane can be regarded as a particular case of a cylindrical
surface whose directrix is a straight line.
Consider the equation x^ y^ = 25, Fig. 180.

+ In two
dimensional space this is the equation of a circle with center
at the origin and radius equal to 5. In
three dimensional space, the coordinate
2 can be regarded as entering the equa-
tion with a zero coefficient. Hence with
any value of x and y which satisfies the
equation, say a; = 3 and y = 4, there can
be associated any value of z. Thus, the ^x
points (3, 4,-1), (3, 4, 0), (3, 4, 2), and,
in general, (3,4,3) where z has any value,
will all be points on the surface. These
FiQ. 180.
particular points all lie on a line per-
pendicular to the xy-plane and passing through the point
a; = 3, j/ = 4 in the xy-pla,ne.
In like manner through every point on the circle x^ + y^ = 25

in the xy-plane there passes a line perpendicular to the xy-
plane, and every point of this line satisfies the equation
3.2 _j_ y2 _ 25. Hence the locus of the equation x^ + y^ = 25
is a cylindrical surface with elements perpendicular to the xy-
plane, in other words parallel to the z-axis, and having the
circle x^ -\- y^ = 25 as directrix.
Another illustration is the surface 2^ = x. Its elements are
parallel to the y-axis and its directrix is the parabola z* = a;
in the a;z-plane. This is' called a parabolic cylindrical surface.

In general an equation f{x, y) ^ represents in space a
cylindrical surface whose elements are parallel to the z-axis,
and whose directrix is the curve f{x, y) = in the xy-plane.
The equations f{y, 2) = and f{x, z) = represent cylin-
drical surfaces similarly situated with reference to the x and
the 2/-axes, respectively.
217. Spheres. — ^Let C{h, k, T) be the center of a sphere of

radius r. Since every point P on the sphere is at the constant
distance r from its center
CP = r.
Or Vix - hy + {y- ky + {z - lY = r.
[56] .'. (x - h)2 + (y - k)2 + (z - 1)'' = t\
This is the equation of the sphere with center at C and
radius r.
218. Surfaces of revolution. —A surface formed by revolv-

ing a curve about a line in its plane is called a surface of
revolution. The simplest
cases are where the
those
curve is revolved about one
of the coordinate axes. Sup-
pose it is desired to revolve
the parabola y^ = x about the
a;-axis.Let P, Fig. 181, be
any point on the parabola.
Fig. 181.
As the curve revolves about
the a;-axis, P describes a circle of radius NP. When P is in
the xy-plane, NP^ = x.
When P takes another position, say P' then NP = NP and
,
'
therefore 'nP''' ^ x, but NP' = \nM^ + MF^ = ^Jy^ + z^.

Replacing NP' by its value gives {y/y^ + z^)^ = x, or
2/2 -I- z^ = a;.
Since P' can be any point on the surface, this is the equation
of the surface of revolution.
This equation was obtained by replacing y by "s/y^ -\- z^.
If f(x, y) = is the equation of any curve in the xy-ph,ne
which is to be revolved about the a;-axis, the same method of

reasoning shows that f{x, y/y^ z^) = is the equation of+
the surface of revolution. In like manner the equation of the
surface of revolution obtained by revolving /(a;, 2/) = about
the j/-axis is /(A/a;" -|- 2^, j/) = 0.
§218] ,
SOLID ANALYTIC GEOMETRY 277
Thus a y^ = X is revolved about the y-axis, the equation

2/^ = -s/x^
of the surface of revolution is z^, or y^ = x^
+ z^. +
Similar formulas hold true if the curve is given in one of the
other coordinate planes and revolved about the corresponding
coordinate axes. For instance if the curve f{y, 2) = is
revolved about the z-ax is, the equation of the surface of

revolution is fi-\/x^'+~y^, z) = 0. .
If a circle and a line are in the same plane, and the line
does not intersect the circle, the surface formed when the
circle revolves about the line is called an anchor ring or torus.
EXERCISES
1. What is the equation of the plane parallel to the s^-plane and 3
units above it? 4 units below it?
2. What is the equation of the ajz-plane? Of the as-plane? Of the
2/z-plane?
3. What the equation of the locus of a point distant 3 units from
is
the X-axis? 4 units from the z-axis?

Find the equation of the locus of a point determined by the conditions
in exercises 4-9.
4. Equidistant from the points ( — 1, 2, 3) and (3, 4, —2).
6. Equidistant from the x^-plane and the xz-plane.
6. Equidistant from the x-axis and the y-a,Tas.
7. Equidistant from the x-axis and the 2/z-plane.
8. Equidistant from the point (2, —4, 3) and the x-axis.
9. The sum of the squares of its distances from the point (1, 1, 1)
and (2, —1, 3) is constant and equal to 17.
10. Find the equation of a sphere with center on the x-axis, radius
equal to 9, and which passes through the point (2, 4,-8).
11. Find the equation of a sphere with center in the xjz-plane, radius
equal to 7, and which passes through the points (3, 4, 6) and (7, 3, 3).
12. Find the equation of a sphere passing through the points (2, 3, —6),
(5, 3, -5), (5, -2, 10), and (-3, 6, 6).
Find the equations of the surfaces of revolution obtained by revolving
the curves in exercises 13-24 about the axes as indicated.
13. y = X, about the x-axis.
14. y = z, about the y-asiis.
16. y = x', about the x-axis.
16. z' = X, about the x-axis.
17. x' = 2z, about the x-axis.
18. x^ = 2s, about the z-axis.

19. x^ — 2z +z' = 0, about the x-axis.
20. x" - 2z +z^ = 0, about the z-axis.
21. y = sin z, about the z-axis.
22. y = sin z, about the y-axis.
23. The ellipse —^ + rj = Ij about its major axis. This surface is
called a prolate spheroid.

X^ 7/2
24. The ellipse , fi
0^
—+ = li about its minor axis. This surface is
a'
called an oblate spheroid.
26. What is the equation of the anchor ring obtained by revolving
the circle lying in the xy-pla,ne, with center at the point (0, 4) and
radius 2, about the i-axis.
Sketch and describe the following surfaces.
26. X -y =0. 31. x^ + iz' = 4.
27. a;' + 2/2= 4. 32. a;" - 4z2 = 4.
28. x" -2x +y^ = 0. 33. a;^ + 2/^ + z" - 2a; - 2?/ - 2z - 6 = 0.
29. y' -2y +z^ = 0. 34. a;" - 3a; + 2 = 0.
30. 2/2 - 2z = 0. 36. 2/' - 1 =0.
CURVES IN SPACE
219. Equations of curves. Since a single equation in three —
dimensional space the equation of a surface, two equations
is
will be satisfied simultaneously by all the points lying on the

intersections of the two surfaces. In other words, it takes two
equations in solid analytics to define a curve.
Thus, y = is not suflacient to define the equation of the
a;-axis, for every point in the xz-plane satisfies this equation.
Neither is z = sufficient, for this is satisfied by every point
in the xy-plane, but y = and 2 = are satisfied only by
those points comnjon to the a;z-plane and the xy--plane, namely,
the a;-axis. Therefore, y = and z = are the equations of
the a;-axis.
Similarly a; = and j/ = are the equations of the z-axis;

and a: = and z = are the equations of the y-axis.
Since evident geometrically that an unlimited number
it is
of surfaces can be passed through any curve, and that any

two of these surfaces will be sufficient to define the curve, any
space curve can be represented by an unlimited number of

pairs of equations. Thus a circle in space has for its pair of
equations, the equations of any two spheres passing through
it, or the equation of any sphere and the equation of the
plane in which the circle lies. Even this does not exhaust all
the possibilities of representing a circle, since any two surfaces

passing through the circle will define it.
220. Sections of a surface by planes parallel to the coordi-

nate planes. — The curve in which a surface is cut by a coordi-
nate plane called the trace of the surface in the coordinate
is
plane. Thus, the sphere x^ y^ z'^ = 25 +

and the plane +
z = define a curve, the circle formed by the intersection of
the sphere and the xy-plane. If z is put equal to zero in the
equation of the sphere, it becomes x^ y^ = 25. This is the +
equation of the trace of the sphere in the xy-plane.
By putting y = or x = the ^
trace of the sphere in the a;z-plane
or the j/z-plane is obtained.
Consider the two equations
x^ y^ + +
z^ = 25 and z = 3.
The curve AB, Fig. 182, com- .. ,- , ^
^^
mon to these two surfaces is
known from solid geometry to

be a circle. If z= 3 is substi-
tuted in X' + y^ + z^ = 25, it
^^^ ^32
becomes a;^ + j/^ = 16. This
is the equation of a circular cylinder.^ Since every point
satisfying the equation of the sphere and the plane satisfies
the equation of the cylinder, this cylinder must pass through
the circle AB. Hence substituting z = 3 in the equation of
the sphere x'^ + y^ + z'^ =
25, gives the equation of a cjdinder
passing through the intersection of the plane z = 3 and the
sphere x' + y'' + z'^ = 25.
^ For brevity the words cylindrical surface are often replaced by the
word cylinder.
The meaning of this substitution can be regarded from

another standpoint. The equation x^ -\- y^ = 16 is the
equation of the circle CD in which the cylinder cuts the
a;2/-plane. All the elements of the cylinder are perpendicular
to the a;?/-plane and pass through the circle AB. Hence the
circle CD is the projection of the circle AB in the a;j/-plane.
In other words, substituting z = 3 in the equation pf the
sphere x^ -\- y^ -{- z^ = 26, gives the equation of the projection
on the a;!/-plane of the curve common to the plane z = 3 and
the sphere x^ + y^ + z^ = 25.
In general, the substitution z = c, where c is some constant,
in the equation of a surface can be regarded either as giving
the equation of a cylinder passing through the intersection
of z = c and the surface or as giving the equation of the
projection on the xy-plane, of the curve of intersection of the
plane z — c and the surface.
By giving c different values, the shape of different cross
sections of the surface in planes parallel to the xy-pla.ne are
obtained.
Like considerations hold for the substitution of a; = a or
y — b in the equation of a surface.
221. Projections of curves on the coordinate planes. —
When a curve is delBned in space by two equations, it is
desirable sometimes to know what are the equations of its
projections in the three coordinate planes.
Consider the curve defined by the equations
x'+ y^ + z^ = 49, (1).
x' + 32/2 - z' = 39. (2)
If z is eliminated between these two equations, the resulting

equation
2a;2. + 42/2 = 88,
or x^ + 2?/' = 44 (3)
represents an elliptical cylinder. Furthermore any point

whose coordinates satisfy equation (1) and (2) will also
satisfy equation (3), therefore the cylinder (3) passes through

the curve defined by the equations (1) and (2).
From another standpoint x^ +
2j/^"= 44 is the equation of
the directrix of the cylinder x^ +
2j/2 = 44, and since the
elements of this cylinder are perpendicular to the ajjz-plane,

the equation a;'' +
2j/^ = 44 is the equation of the projection
on the a;?/-plane of the curve defined by equations (1) and (2).

In general, to find the equation of the projection on the xy-
plane of the curve defined by the equation fiix, y, z) = and
f%{x, y, z) = 0, elminate z between these two equations. The
resulting equation g{x, y) = is the equation of the projection
on xy-pldne of the curve that is defined by the equations
the
fi{x, y,z) =0
and fi{x, y, z) = 0.
Proof. —
Every point which satisfies simultaneously the
equations fi{x, y, z) = and fi{x, y, z) =0 will also satisfy
Oiî 2/) =0 ^^d

therefore gix, y) =0 will pass through the inter-
sections of these two surfaces. But g{x, y) = Ois the equation
of a cylinder whose elements are perpendicular to the a!?/-plane.
At the same time. g (a;, j/) = is the equation of the trace

of this cylinder in the ajy-plane. Therefore, g{x, y) = m
the equation of the projection on the a;j/-plane of the curve
defined by the equations fi{x, y, z) = and fi{x, y, z) = 0.
In like manner it can be shown that to find tHe equation
of the projectionon the xz-plane of a curve defined by the
equations fi{x, z) = y, and fîx, y, z) = 0, eliminate y
between these two equations; and to find the projection on
the 2/3-plane eliminate x.
For example, the projection on the xy-p\a,ne of the curve defined by

equations (l) and (2) is the ellipse x^ +
2z^ = 64, and projection on the
^»-plane is the equilateral hyperbola z^ — y^ = 5.
EXERCISES
Discuss and draw the traces on the three coordinate planes of the
surfaces in exercises 1-3.
1. x^ + 2y^ + 3z' =6. 2. x^ + xy + z = 0. 3. x" + y^ - i = 1.
Find the equations of the projections on each of the three coordinate

planes of the curves in problems 4^9.
4. x' -y^ +z' = 4, 7. x^ +y^' = o",
2a;2+y' - 3z2 = 6. x' +z' = aK
5. x' - y = 0, 8. x' +y' = a\
21* + 2/
— g' = 0. 2 = mx.
6. I* + + 22
3,2 = a\ 9. y' +z' = 4ax,
a;2 + = 2/2 oa;. 2/* = aa;.
x^ v^
10. Show that sections of — — j t^ = z are hyperbolas if perpendicular
to the z-axis, but parabolas if perpendicular to the x-axis or 2/-axis.
DISCUSSION OF EQUATIONS OF SURFACES

222. Surfaces in space. It is much more difficult to vis- —
ualize a surface in solid analytic geometry from its equation
than to visualize a curve in plane analytic geometry from its
equation. The following discussion similar to the one in the
plane case is helpful.
(1) Symmetry.
(2) Intercepts on the axes.
(3) Traces on the coordinate planes.

(4) Sections of the surface by planes parallel to the coordi-
nate planes. See Art. 220.
(1) Symirpetry. —To test the symmetry of a surface with

respect to the coordinate planes,
(a) replace a; by —x,
(b) replace j/ by —y,
(c) replace 2 by — z.
If the equation of the surface remains unchanged in case
(a) it is symmetrical with respect to the yz-plane, in case
(6) with respect to the a;z-plane, in case (c) with respect to
the xy-pla.ne.
To test for symmetry with respect to the axes
(a) replace y hy —y and z by —z,
(b) replace zhy —z and a; by —x,
(c) replace a; by —a; and y hy —y.
If its equation remains unchanged in case (a) it is symmetri-

cal with respect to the a;-axis, in case (6) with respect to the
2/-axis, in case (c) with respect to the 2-axis.
To test for symmetry with respect to the origin replace

X by —X, y by —y, z by -z.
If its equation remains unchanged, its surface
is symmetrical
with respect to the origin.

(2) Intercepts on the axes. —
To get the intercepts on the
a;-axis, set both y and z equal to zero in the equation of the
surface and solve the resulting equation for x. The solutions

of this equation are the intercepts on the a;-axis. Similar
considerations hold true for the y-axis and the z-axis.
(3) Traces on the coordinate planes. —To get the trace of a
surface in the xy-plane set z = 0. The resulting equation is
the equation of the trace of the surface in the xy-Âane. Similar

considerations hold true for the traces in the xz-plane and
the j/3-plane. See Art. 220.
—
Example. Discuss and draw the locus of th6
equation x^ +
2y^ = «•
(1) This surface is symmetrical to the yz-pl&ne,
the a;z-plane and the z-axis.
(2) Its intercepts on the three axes are 0.
(3) Its traces are as follows:

In the xy-pla,ne, the point ellipse x' 2y^ + = 0.
In the a;2-plane, the parabola x^ = z.

In the 1/z-plane, the parabola 2y' = z.
(4) Taking sections by planes z = c shows the
projections of these sections to be the ellipses
^^
_L ^ -'
_ 1 Fig- 183.
c+ ic
If c<0, these ellipses are all imaginary, hence no part of the surface
lies below the xv-plane.
If c = 0, the equation x" + 2y^ = 0, shows the section to be a point
ellipse.
As c increases from without limit, the ellipses increase in size without
limit, the semimajor axis being vV and the semiminor axis |V'2c, hence
the surface is as pictured in Fig. 183. In this case it is not necessary
to take sections parallel to the other coordinate planes.
:
QUADRIC SURFACES OR CONICOIDS

223. General equation of second degree. —The locus of
the general equation of the second degree,
Ax^ + By^ + Cz^ + Dxy + Eyz +Fxz+Gx+ Hy + Kz+L = Q,
iscalled a quadric surface. It is also called a conicoid because
every section of a quadric surface by a plane is a conic. By
rotation and translation Of axes it can be shown that this
equation has for its real locus, five distinct types of surfaces
besides cylinders, cones and degenerate forms like planes,
lines and points. These five types will now be considered.
XZ yZ x"
224. Ellipsoid. 5,2 T^ K2 T^ ri = 1.
This surface. Fig. 184,

(1)
is symmetrical to all the
coordinate planes, all the
coordinate axes, and the
origin.
(2) Its intercepts on the

axes are x = +a, y = ±b,
z = ±c.
Fig. 184.
(3) Its traces are as follows
In the xy-Tpila,ne, the ellipse ^ 4-

"^ 6"
M_^ = 1
a^
x' z-
In the a;z-plane, the ellipse = 1.
In the 2/z-pIane, the ellipse r+ 1.
(4) Sections of the ellipsoid by the planes z = k are the

ellipses
^^
+— ,
?/'
=
.
1 -^k^ z =k.
,2 52
a" C2>
or
+ y = 1, z = k.
^(c^ - k^) rCc" - k^)
These ellipses have their centers on the z-axis, semimajor

axes equal to -"Vc^ — A;^, and semimibor axes equal to
c
- Vc^ — fc^- Here it is assumed that a > b. lia <b, the axes
are interchanged.
As k increases numerically from to c, the axes decrease
from a tb 0, and from b to 0, respectively. When k is numeri-
cally greater than c, the ellipses become imaginary. Hence
the ellipsoid is contained between the planes z = —c and
z = c.
A similar discussion for the other axes shows that sections

parallel to the other coordinate planes are ellipses, and that
the ellipsoid contained between the planes y = —b and
is
y = b, and between the planes x = —a and x = a.

The surface can be thought of as generated by a variable
ellipse moving parallel to the a;j/-plane, with its center always on
the 3-axis, and the end points of its axes always on the ellipses
-, + -,= l,andp- + -, = l.
Special forms of the ellipsoid are the prolate spheroid when

b = c and a>b, and the oblate spheroid when b = c and
a<b.
^2 y2 -
2,2
225. The hyperboloid of one sheet, -i + r-j — 75 = 1-
(1) This surface, Fig. 185, is symmetrical to all the coordi-

nate planes, all the coordinate axes and the origin.
(2) Its intercepts on the axes are x = +a,y= ±6.
In the x^-plane, the ellipse "l + p" = 1 •
In the x3-plane, the hyperbola —^ ^ = 1.

Qi C
V^ Z^
In the yz-pl&ne, the hyperbola rj- j =. 1.
286 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY [-§225
(4) Sections of the surface by the planes a = fc are the

ellipses
fc2
a'
+^
b
= 1 + k.
t
or
+ y = 1, z = k,
^(c^ + k^) -,{c^ + k')
These ellipses are real for all values of k, increasing in

magnitude as k increases numerically from to <». The
Smallest ellipse is the one for which
fc = 0, and this is the trace in the
xy-plane. The intersections in
planes parallel to the other axes
are hyperbolas.
This surface can be thought of
as generated by a variable ellipse
moving parallel to the xy-plane,
with its center on the z-axis, and
the end points of its axes on the
hyperbolas
y^ z
= l.andrj- - -5 = 1.
The hyperboloid of one sheet

FiQ. 185. has the property that through
every point on its surface there
can be drawn two lines which lie wholly in the surface. The
surface can be covered with a net work of two sets of lines.
No two lines of the same
set intersect each other, but any
line of either set intersects every line of the other set. This
surface can be. generated by a line moving in such a way that
it always intersects three other non-intersecting lines in space.
It is called a ruled surface, because through every point on

its surface, there can be drawn at least one line which lies
wholly on the surface.

:
226. The hyperboloid of two sheets. -, - L -^= 1.

a.' b'' c^
(1) This surface, Fig. 186, is symmetrical to all the coordi-
nate planes, all the coordinate axes, and the origin.
(2) Its intercepts on the a;-axis are ±a. The intercepts on
the y-axis and the z-axis are imaginary.
In the xy-plane, the hyperbola -^ —^ = 1.

a-' b'
In the a;2-plane, the hyperbola -^ ^ = !•
7/ Z
In the 2/z-plane, the imaginary ellipse r^ + -^
c
= -1.
'>-X
FiQ. 186.
(4) Although the trace in the 2/z-plane is imaginary the

form of the equation suggests that sections parallel to the
2/2-plane might be ellipses. Since it is easy to picture a surface
in terms of increasing or decreasing ellipses, sections will be
taken parallel to the !/z-plane. Sections of this surface by such
planes parallel to the yz-plane as a; = fc, are the ellipses
X = k.
or V + -= 1, X = k.
a') iik' - a')
These ellipses are imaginary if —a<k<a. Hence there is

no surface between the planes x = —a and x = a. As k
increases numerically from a to », the ellipses increase
indefinitely in magnitude.
Sections by planes parallel to the other axes are hyperbolas.
The surface can be thought of as generated by a variable
ellipsemoAdng parallel to the 2/z-plane, with its center always
on the X-axis, and the end points of its axes on the hyperbolas
x^ y^ x^ z^
~li~ Ti.
— l.and—; "o
= 1-
227. Elliptic paraboloid.

a" b"
(1) This surface, Fig. 187, is symmetrical to the j/z-plane,
the xz-plane, and the z-axis.
(2) Its intercepts are x = 0, y = 0, and z = 0.
In the xy-p\a.ne, the point ellipse -^ +g = 0.

a' b
In the a;z-plane, the parabola x^ = a^s.
In the j/z-plane, the parabola y^ = 6^z.
(4) The trace in the xyrplane sug-
gests that sections parallel to this plane
might be ellipses, in fact, the sections
of this surface by the planes, z = fc are
the ellipses
X^ fl#2
72 "t" S2 ~ *> Z = K,
*-x or
^-ull= 1 z = k.
If fc < 0, the ellipses have an im-

Fig. 187.
aginary locus, hence no part of the
surface lies below the o^-plane. As fc increases from
to 00 , the ellipses increase in size indefinitely. The sur-
face can be thought of as generated by a vanable ellipse
moving parallel to the xy-pleme whose center is on the g-axis

and the end points of whose major and minor axes are on the
parabolas x^ = a^g and y^ = b^z.
228. Hyperbolic paraboloid. -^ — ^= z.
(1) This surface, Fig. 188, is symmetrical to the j/g-plane,

the ajg-plane, and the 2-axis.
(2) Its intercepts are x =• 0, y = 0, and z = 0.

X^ ji2
In the xy-pla,ne, the -; rs = 0.
two lines —
a' b'
In the a;z-plane, the parabola x^ = ah.
In the yz-pla,ne, the parabola y^ = — 6^z.
Pig. 188.
(4) Since no trace suggests an ellipse, and since it is easier to

think in terms of moving parabolas instead of moving hyper-
bolas, sections are taken by planes parallel to the j/z-plane.
Sections of the surface by the planes x = k are the parabolas
These are parabolas, symmetrical to the a;z-plane, opening
downward, and with vertices Uc, 0, —^) lying on the trace
x^ = ah of the hyperbolic paraboloid in the a;z-plane. All

of these parabolas are congruent. Hence thfe hyperbolic
19
:
paraboloid may be thought of as generated by a parabola

opening downward of latus rectum 6", moving with its vertex
on x^ = aH so that its plane is always parallel to the yz-plane.
Sections parallel to the a;3-plane are parabolas opening
upward, and sections parallel to the a;j/-plane are hyperbolas.
This hyperbolic paraboloid has the property that through
every point on its surface there can be drawn two lines which
lie wholly in the surface. The surface can be covered with a
network of two sets of lines. No two lines of the same set
intersect each other, but any line of either set meets every
z line of the other set. Hence the
hyperbolic paraboloid is also a ruled
surface.
This surface can be generated by a
line moving always parallel to a fixed
plane, while always intersecting two
*-x
non-intersecting lines in space.
229. Cone. - ;r2

= 0-
(1) This surface, Fig. 189, is sym-

metrical to the three coordinate
planes, the three coordinate axes,
Yia. 189. and the origin.
(2) Its intercepts on the axes are x = Q, y = 0, and 2 = 0.
In the a;u-plane, the point ellipse -5 + f^ = 0.
In the a;z-plane, the two lines —„ i = 0.
In the 2/2-plane, the two lines j-z -» = 0.

0'' c^
(4) Sections of the cone by the planes z = fc are the ellipses
+ = 1.
-2
.
As the numerical value from to oo the of k increases ,
increase in magnitude indefinitely. Hence

•ellipses the surface
can be thought of as generated by an ellipse moving parallel to
the xjz-plane, with the ends of its axes in the lines -^ "2 = 0»
Oi c
and the lines -r^ 2 = 0- This cone is also a ruled surface,
but it is covered by a single set only of lines, all of which pass

throxigh the origin.
EXERCISES
Discuss and draw the surfaces in exercises 1-15.

1. x' + 4:y' + 4z2 = 9. 8. a;^ + y^ = 4z.
2. x' - 42/2 + 4z2 = 9.
•
9. x' - y^ = 4z.
3. x^ - 42/2 - 4i32 = 9. 10. a;2 + 2/2 - z2 = OL

y2 22 11. xy + xz + yz = 0.
4.
9
'"
4
"*"
l6 " ^"
12. cos a = 0.
z'
~16 _i
a;2
*•
9 '4 2/"
~ ^- 13. cos ^ = I-
®-
9 ~ 4 ~ 16 ~ ^-
14. cos e = ^.
Discuss and draw the curves or straight Unes in exercises 16-20.

16. a; = 3, 2/ = -2. 19. x = y = z.
17. cos a = /3 = 0.
cos 20. cos 9 = J, cos = f.
18. 2/ = a;, a;2 + 2/2 = 4.
the sum of the squares of its distances from the x and the ^-axis equals 4.
Discuss and draw the locus.
22. A point moves so that the sum of the squares of its distances from
two fixed points is constant. Prove the locus to be an elUpsoid.
Suggestion. —
Take the line through the two points to be the aâxis,
and a point midway between them as the origin.
23. A point moves so that the difference of its distances from two
fixed points Prove the locus to be an hyperboloid.

is constant.
24. Find the locus of a point equidistant from the point (p, 0, 0)
and the a;2-plane.
THE PLANE IN SPACE

230. Equation of a plane. —
Some of the conditions that
determine a plane in solid geometry are three points in the
plane, or a point and a line in the plane. Unlike the straight
line in two dimensional space, these simple conditions do not
lend themselves readily to deriving the equation of a plane in
three dimensional space. * Rather, one of the simplest ways of
deriving the equation of a plane is by using the length of
the perpendicular from the origin to the plane and the direc-
tion cosines of this perpendicular. This perpendicular is called
the normal to the plane.
231. General equation of a plane. —Every equation of the
first degree in x, y, and z as
[57] Ax + By + Cz + D •=
represents a plane.
Let Piixi, j/i, zi) and P2{Xi, yt, z^ be any two points whose
coordinates satisfy [57].
Then Axi + By^ + Czj + 2) = 0, (1)
and Axi + + Cza + D =

-Bj/z 0. (2)
Take any two constants r^ and r^, multiply equation (1) by

—-£— J multiply equation (2) by —^— , and add,
^ riXj + r-zXi ^ riya + rgj/i „ r^Zj + r2Zi ,

^ ^ q
ri + Ti ri + »-2 ri + 7-2
This shows that any point on the line joining PiPj also
equation [57]. Since Pi and P2 are any two points
satisfies
on the surface [57], this shows that every line joining two
* The equation of a plane through three points can be expressed
in
determinant form. If the three points are Pi, Pj, and Ps, the equation is
X y z 1
xi yiZi 1 ^
X2 2/s Z2 1
Xi yt zi 1
points on the surface lies wholly in the surface, and since

this property is characteristic of the plane alone
Ax + By + Cz +D=
is the equation of a plane.
Normal form of the equation of a plane. ^Let the
232. —
length of the perpendicular OR, Fig. 190, from the origin to
the plane be p, and let its direction angles be a, /3, 7. If P is
any point in the plane, the projection of OP on OB will be
constant and equal to p. By theorem 2, Art. 209, the projection
of OP equals the sum of the projections of the broken line
ONMP on OR.
Therefore proj. ON + proj. NM + proj. MP = p.
But proj. ON on OR = x cos a,
proj . NM on OR = y cos /3,
proj. MP on OR = 2 cos 7.
Substituting these gives

[58] X cos a + y cos + z cos y =
<} P-
This is called the normal

form of the equation of a
plane.
In article 231, it was shown
that every equation of the
first degree in x, y and 2 is
the equation of a plane. This

article proves the converse of
that theorem, namely, that
every equation of a plane is
of the first degree in x, y,
and 2.
Fig. 190.
233. Reduction of the
equation of a plane to the normal form. —The equations
Ax + By + Cz + D = and
X cos a + y cos + z cos
fi 7 — p =
will be the equations of the same plane if they differ only by

a constant factor. Suppose that k is such a factor, then
kAx + kBy + kCz + kD = 0. (1)
And therefore kA = cos a,

kB = cos /3,
kC = cos y.
Squaring each equation and adding gives
1
Or fc = + /
Va^ + b^ + c^
Substituting this value of k in equation (1), gives
Ax+ By + Cz + D = 0,
±VA^ + B^ + C^
where
= A
cos a
+ V'A2 + B2 + C2
[59] „ = B
'^
' cos g
+ V'AM^"B2+ C^
= C
COS Y
±VA=i+ B2 H-c'
-D
±V'A2+ b^ + c^
234. Intercept form
of the equation of a plane. ^Let the —
plane cut the the point where x = a, the y-axis in the
a;-axis in
point where y = b, and the z-axis in the point where z = c.

These three quantities are called the intercepts of the plane
on the axes. If they are given and none of them is zero, the
plane is uniquely determined, for this is equivalent to giving
the three points on the plane (a, 0, 0), (0, b, 0), (0, 0, c). To
find the equation of the plane, substitute these three coordi-
nates in succession in the general equation
Ax + By + Cz +D= 0. (1)
—
This gives the three equations:
Aa + D = 0,
Bb + D = 0,
Cc + D = 0.
From which
A = ' B = — _, c = —
a c
Substituting these values in (1),
_Dx Dy Ds
f^
a b c
+D = 0. (2)
-^
Dividing by —D
[60] ?
a
+ ?+?
D c
= 1.
This is called the intercept form of the equation of a plane.

Note that this form is not valid if any of the intercepts
are 0, that is if the plane passes through the origin.
235. Equation of a plane determined by three conditions.
The general equation of a plane,
Ax + By + Cz +D -- 0,
involves four constants, A, B, C, and D. Any three con-

ditions that' determine a plane give three relations between
these four constants. These three equations can be solved
for three of the constants in terms of the fourth providing that
the fourth is not zero. Then after substitution the equa-
tions can be divided through by the fourth constant as in
equation (2), Art. 234.
If the fourth constant should be zero, the three equations
will turn out to be inconsistent. In such a case solve the
equations in terms of another constant.
236. Angle between two planes. ^Let the two planes be —
Aix + Biy + Ciz H- Di = 0,
and Aix + B^y + dz Da = 0. -|-
— ,
The angle 6 between these two planes is the angle between

their normals. Hence by [55] and [59],
TRn ,„^ = A1A2 + B1B2 + CiCa
Loll cos ft = _ / ^ =-
iVAi" + Bi^ + Ci^ VAa^ + B22 + Cs"
The two planes are perpendictdar to each other if
,
•
A1A2 + B1B2 + C1C2 = 0.
The two planes are parallel if their normals have the same
direction cosines, that is, if -j- = -h" = 79-

A2 JJ2 'î
237. Distance from a point to a plane. — ^Let Pi(a;i, j/i, 21)
be the given point and Ax -\- By -\- Cz -\- D = he the given

plane. Pass a plane through Pi parallel to the given plane,
and find the difference between the normals to the planes.
It is then found that the distance d is given by the formula
[62] d =
Axi + Byi + Cz, + _D
+ VA2 + B2 + C2
where the sign is chosen to make d positive.
Example —
Find the equation of a plane passing through the points
1.
(2, 1, 7) and (4, —1,-2) at a distance 2 from the origin.

Use the normal equation of a plane,
X cos a+ y cos /3 +z cos 7 — p = 0.
Since the distance of the plane from the origin equals 2,
p = 2.
Since the plane passes through the points (2, 1, 7) and (4, —1, —2).
2 cos a + cos + 7 cos 7—2=0,
|3
4 cos a — cos /3 — 2 cos 7—2=0.

Solving these equations with the identity
cos* a + cos' 3 + cos'' 7 = 1,
gives cos a = 4, cos p = —f , cos 7 = f

or cos a = fi, cos & = Hi, cos 7 = -tIb-
Therefore, there are two solutions to this problem and they are
Zx - 62/ + 2z - 14 = 0,
and 105x + lUy - 2z - 310 = 0.

.
Example 2. —Find the equation of the plane bisecting the angle between
the planes 3a; —
y + 2z = 4, and 2a; + 3^ — « = 4.
any point on the bisecting plane, its distance from each of
If P{x, y) is
the two planes is the same. Equating these distances gives
3a; - 3/ + 2z - 4 _ 2a: + 3;/ - z - 4
~
±Vl4 ±Vl4
This gives the two planes
X - 42/ + 3z =0,
and 5x + 22/ + z - 8 = 0.
EXERCISES
Write the equations of the planes in exercises 1-4 in the normal
form and the intercept form.
1. a; - 22/ - 2z = 4. 3. 4x + 72/ - 42 + 3 = 0.
2. 2a; + 2/
- 2z = 9. 4. X2x - y + 12z = 18.
Find the equations of the planes which satisfy the conditions of the
exercises 5 to 16.
6. Passing through the points (1, 1, 1), (-3, 3, 8), (-2, -3, -2).
6. Passing through the points (2. -1, 0), (4, -2, 4),(-1, 3, -1).
7. p= 5, cos a = i, cos ;3 = —f
8. a = i -f, c = 2.
b =
9. Passing through the points (4, 0, —1), (6, 3, 3) at a distance 2
from the origin.
10. Passing through the point (1, —2, 1) and parallel to the plane
2/- 3a; + 4z - 5 = 0.
H. Passing thrpugh the points (1, 1, 1), (2, —1, 2) and perpendicular
to the plane 3a; 42/ - 7z 10 = 0. + +
12. Passing through the point (—2, —1, 3) and perpendicular to each
of the planes 2x - 2y - 7z 3 = 0, and 4x 2/
- 4z - 1 = 0.
+ +
13. Passing through the point (1, 1, 2) and perpendicular to the line
joining (3, -4, 2) to (4, -6, 3).
14. Perpendicular to the Une joining (7, —6, 3) to (1, 2, —5) at its
middle point.
15. Parallel to the a>axis and passing through the points (2, 1, 2) and
(-3,5,5).
16. Having the foot of the normal from the origin at the point
(-3, 4, -2).
li. Find the distance from the point (3, -4, 2) to the plane
5a; - 22/ - 14z + 15 = 0.
Find the angles between the planes in exercises 18-20.

18. X — y + z = 7 and x + y + 5z = 3.
19. 2x + y - z = 5 and ix - 2y - 2z = 3.
20. X +2y - z = 7 and 2x - y + 7z = 10.
Find the equations of the planes bisecting the angle between the
planes in exercises 21-23.
21. 2x +y-2z = 1 and 3x + &y - 2z = 7.
22. X + y + z = 4: and 5x — y — z = 2.
23. 2x — y — z = 3 and 5x — 5y + 2z = 4.
24. Determine fc so that kx + 6y - 7z - 22 = shall be two units
from the origin.
26. Find the point of intersection of the planes
3a; + y - =z 3,
x+ 52/ + =
7z 11,
4x + lOy -3z = -8.
26. At what acute angle does the plane 2x + 3y + Qz = 3 cut each,

of the coordinate planes?
27. At what acute angle does the plane 2x + 3y + Qz = 3 cut each
coordinate axis?
28. Prove that the planes
2x - y +3z = 4,
a; + —
6j/ 6z = 5,
8x +9y - 3z = 22,
have a Une in common.
THE LINE IN SPACE

238. Two plane equation of a straight line. —In article
219, it was seen that it takes two equations in three dimen-
sional space to define a curve. Hence the two equations
Aix + B,y + Ci3 + Di = 0, (1)

A^ + B^y + CiZ + Dj = 0, (2)
are the equations of a straight line. Equations (1) and (2)

are the equations ofany two planes through the line.
239. Projection form of the equation of a straight line. —
By eliminating in turn z, y, and x between equations (1) and
(2), Art. 238, the equations of the projections of the straight
—— — J
line on the xy, xz, and j/z-planes are obtained. If these

equations are
hx + hy +ls =0,
mix + + ms
rriiZ =0,
+ + ng
'
niy riiZ = 0,
any two of these equations are the equations of the straight
line, and any two of these equations are called the projection
form of the equations of a straight line.

240. Pointdirection form of the equation of a straight
line. Symmetric form.
Case I. The line is not parallel to any coordinate plane.
Let Piixi, yi, Si) be the point and let the direction of the
straight line be given by its direction cosines, cos a, cos ^
and cos y. Then, if P{x, y, z) is any point on the straight line,
and d is the distance from Pi to P, by [50]
X —T Xi y ~ Vi z — Zl
cos a = ——a
cos |3 = ,
; cos 7 = T ,,,
'^
(1) )
——
Solving each equation for d and equating the results,
f63j
^-^^^ =
cos a cos Y
y^ = ^îA\
cos 5 .
If cos a, cos /3 and cos y are replaced by any quantities

I, m, n proportional to them, the equation can be written
[63,] ^^ = 1
y-^y^ = ^-:^\
m n
Case II. The line is parallel to one or two coordinate planes.
Suppose the line is parallel to one of the coordinate planes,
say the yz-plane, but is not parallel to one of the coordinate
axes, then cos a = 0, cos ff 9^ 0, cos 7 ?^ 0. Equations [63i] and
[682] are not valid, but equation (1) can be written
f.
= ——
X 5 xi !
a
cos p
-
= y
- ——a—-!
yi
cos 7 = ——a—
z
J
Zl
giving the equations of the line to be

a; — a;i = 0,
y - yi = z - Zl
and 5-
cos p cos 7
—— ;
If the line is parallel to two coordinate planes, it is parallel

to one of the coordinate axes. If this is the 2-axis, then
cos a = cos i?
= 0, cos 7 = 1. Equation (1) can then be
written
= —— J
a
, = - —ar^> cos y = —a— ^
giving the equations of the line to be

a; — a;i = 0,
y - yi = 0.
Like considerations hold if the line is parallel to any of

the other coordinate axes or planes.
241. Two point form of the equation of a straight line.
Case I. The straight line is not parallel to any coordinate
plane. Let the two points through which the line passes
be Pi(xi, j/i, 2i) and ^2(2:2, 3/2, 22)- Since the direction cosines
of this line are proportional to X2 — Xi, j/2
— 2/1, and 22 — Zi,
the quantities I, m, and n of [682] can be so chosen that

I = Xi — Xi, m= y2 — 2/1, « = 22 — Zi,
which gives
[64]
x-xi ^ y-yi ^ z -zi
X2- xi y2 — yi Z2 — zi'
Case II. The line is parallel to one or two coordinate planes.

The discussion is similar to that given in article 240.
Example 1. —Reduce the equations that define the straight line,
3x + 2y - 2z +2 ^ 0, and 6x 7j/ - 6z - 3 =
+ to the symmetric
form.
Solution. —Reduce these equations to the projectiot. form by first
eliminating x and then z giving
3y - 2z -7 = 0,
3x - 2/ +9 = 0.
Solving each for y and equating,
This can be written in the form

X + 3 z +1
3
In order that th e denomina tors shall be direction cosines, multiply

each equation by + 1 + | = Y' and the equation becomes
Vi
x+S _y__ z + i
A A A
This shows that the line passes through the point (—3, 0, — |)
with direction cosines A, A, A- K desired, the point (-3, 0, -1)
can be replaced by a,ny other point on the line, say ( — 2, 3, 1), in which
case the equation of the line takes the form
X +2 _ y - 3 _ z - 1
—Find the equation a plane passing through the

Example 2. of line
^-3 -6
— — — — = +Q 2 and,,the pomt — —1, —6).
2a;
= y g z
,
.
(
,
1,
Solution. —This equation equivalent to the two equations

is
__
-3 _= ___,
2a: -6 y
and
y-6
-g- +2
= g-3-.
Simplifying
10a; - 42/ +9 = 0, and 3^/ - 5z - 28 = 0.
These are the equations of two planes passing through the given
line. The equation of any plane through the line of intersection of these
.two planes, and hence through the given hne, is evidently
10a; - 42/ + 9 + k{3y - 5z - 28) = 0.
To make this plane pass through the point ( — 1, —1, —6), substitute
these coordinates and solve for k. The result is
fc = 3.
Hence the required plane is
10a; - 42/ + 9 + 3{3y - 5z - 28) = 0,
or 2x +y - 3z - 15 = 0.
EXERCISES
Find where the lines in exercises 1-5 intersect the three coordinate
planes.
1. 4a;+2/+2-5=0, 2a;-2/+z-l=0.
2. X - y + z = 5, 5a; - 61/ + 4z = 28.
3. 4a; + - 6z = 10, 7x + 3y - 8z - 15 = 0.
2/
4. ix+ 3y + 2z = 2, -3x + 4^ + z - 6 = 0.
_a; — 4 +1 2/ z—2~'
^- -2 '-^
6. Reduce the equations in exercises 1 and 2 to the projection form,

the projecting planes being perpendicular to the xy and xz-planes.
7. Reduce the equations in exercises 3 and 4 to the projection form,
the projecting planes being perpendicular to the xy and j/3-planes.
8. Reduce the equations in exercises 1-4 to the symmetric form.
Find the equations in projection form of the straight lines in exercises
9-18. The projecting planes are to be taken perpendicular to the xy
and xz-planes whenever possible.
9. Passing through the points (3, —6, 4) and ( — 2, 5, 1).
10. Passing through the points (—2, 1, 2) and (3, —1, 4).
11. Passing through the points (2, 1, —3) and (2, 3, —4).
12. Passing through the points (2, 5, 6) and (2, 5, 7).
13. Passing through the point (1, —3, 4) with direction cosines in
the ratio 3 — 1 2.
: :
14. Passing through the point (3, —1, 2) and parallel to the z-axis.
16. Passing through the point (3, —1, 2) and perpendicular to the
z-axis.
16. Passing through the point (3, —1, 2) and parallel to the line of
exercise 1.
17. Passing through the point (3, —1, 2) and making right angles
with the plane x — 2y + z = Z.
18. Passing through the origin and perpendicular to the lines
x-l - ^-^-^ - L±i ,„H ^ ~

_ y + _
2 1 z-3
^3—
^ 1 - =2"' ^""^
^12 - -T- =
19. Find the cosine of the acute angle between the lines
X -3 = y + 2 — z - 6 .x-2 — y-5 — z
and
'"""
4 -8 1 4 ~ 4 ~7
20. Find the cosine of the angle between the Une 2x — 7y — 7z = —8,
X — 2y — z = 5, and the line 12x — Iby — 2z = 70, 5x — 5y — z = 24.
21. Prove that the two lines x + y z =0, 2x — y + 3z =7, and
+
3x +4:y +2z 3, -6x -|- 2v + lOz = meet in a point.
22. Prove that the planes 2x + 2y z + 4: =0, ix+y — z — 7= 0,
+
and 2x -1- 3y -H 2z -t- 9 = 0, meet in a straight line and find its direction
cosines.
Find the equations of the planes that satisfy the conditions of exercises
23-26.
23. Passing through the point (2, 1, 3) and the line
3x -h 62/ - 6z -H 9 = 0,
2x +2y -2z + 1 =0.
24. Passing through the point ( — 1, —2, —3) and the line
X — 1 _y + 1 _z 5 +
j '
§241] SUMMARY OF FORMULAS 303
26. Passing through the parallel lines

x-1 y-3 z + 1 J a; - 4 y-2 z+3
26. Passing through the intersecting lines
X y + 5 z+4 -7x' - 1 y 7z - 9
—1=^ J
g-'^'"^ 2 = l=~Tr-
27. Find the equation of a plane through the line
+ y -2z +2 = 0, X
3a; + 82/ - 6z + 4 = 0,
and perpendicular to the plane 7x + 2y + 2z — 10 = 0.
28. Find the equation of a line lying in the plane 2x — 2y + z + 11 =0,

passing through the point (-3, 2,-1), and parallel to the plane
2x +3y -4:Z + 5 =0.
SUMMARY OF FORMULAS
[1 (1) OP2 = OPi + P1P2. (2) PiPa = OP2 - OPi.
[2; P1P2 = Xi — Xi.
[2 ] P1P2 = X2- xi. [22] P1P2 = y2 - 2/1.
[3; d = \/(a;i - x^y + (2/1 - 2/2)^-
riX2 + TiXi ri2/2 + r2yi

^''=
n + r2' ^"^ n + T2'
[5: Xo = —+—
x\ 2 Xi
2/0 — —+
2/1
2 2/2
2/1-2/2
[6: m= ,
tan a =
Xi — Xi
m\ — m2
[7: tan and m2 = —-—
"^ ^ m2 mi
[lo: X = p cos 6, y = p sin 6, x^ + y^ = p^.
P = V^M^^fl =
[11 tan-i|-
[12 X = x' + h, y = y' + k.

[12 ] x' = X - h, y' = y - k.
[13 X = x' COS. v — y' sin y = <p, x' sin (p + y' cos <p.
[13i] x' = X cos + y sin y' =

<p <p, y cos <p - x sin <p.
[14] A = ^{xiyi - XiVi + X22/3 - Xayi + Xayi - Xiya).

[15] y — yi = mix — xx).
[16] y + b.
= mx
[17] y-yi = ^^(x-x^).
X\ — Xi
[18] ^
a
+ 1 = 1.
[19] X cos 8 + y sin 6 — p =0.
[20] Ax + By + C = 0.
Ax By C
^
±VA^ + 5=*
"^
±VA2 + S'' "^
+\/^'' + 52 ~ •
_ -C
, ^ -^^^ + Bm + c .
^ ^
±Va^ + b^
^
+ b,^
Va^^ - VaJTW"
[25] (a;- hy + [y - k)^ = r\
[26] x2 + = j/2 r-2. ,
[27] a;2+ y2 + + i)a; i/j/ +F = 0.

[28] 2/2 = 2pa;.
[29] a;" = 2pj/.

[30] {y - fc)2 = 2p(a; - A). •
[30i] {x - hy = 2p{y - k).
[31] p = ^—-„-
1 — cos
[32]
f-2
+ fi = 1.
[33]
S+g = 1.
—
SUMMARY OF FORMULAS 305
[34.] (^^(^^ = 1.
136] g_g= 1.
[37] 2/ = -a;, y = - -a;.
roc (y - fc)^ (a; - fe)"

_
[38i]1 ^, -p 1
1.
[39] tan 2^ = ~~-^.

[40] a; = a(e — sin ff), y = a(l — cos S).
a; = (a — 6) cos d + b cos ——
^^ ^ ^ 0,
[41]
2/ = (a — b) sin — b sin —
^^
=; - 6.
[42] a;' + J/*

= a'
a; = (a + 6) cos fl — & cos —— r 0,
[43]
^^
y = (a + b) sine -b sin ^°'
+ ».
r . .., f
^ = « COS 5 + a 5 sin 0,
[441 \
[
y = a sin — a cos 0.
[45] Aa;ia; + ^Bx^y + ^Bxyi + Cyij/ + ^Dx + ^Dxi +

Êy + Êyi + F = 0.
- = dy (x - Xi).
[46] y yi
dx X==Xi
1
[47] y -yi= - dy (x — Xi).
dx X = Xi
[48] d = V(xi- X2y + (t/i - y^Y + (zi - za)"-
20
—
rôi
\i\)\ Xo = '"1^2 + '"2^1
Vo = '"12/2 + Tii/i
Zo
_ nzf. + mi
+ r^
;
>
+ r2 >
+ Ti
:
ri " ri n i
[50] COS a = -~— -; = cos /3 j > cos y = —j—

[51] cos^ a+ cos^/8 + cos" 7 = 1.
[52] p = + Va;= + 2/" + zS cos a =

± Va;=' + 2/" + z"
2/ 2
cos /3 = , , cos y
±y/x^^-y^^z^ +Vx'' + 2/^ + 2'
[53] X = p cos a, y = p cos j3, z = p cos 7.
[54] a; = p sin ^ cos 6, y = p sin (p sin 9, z = p cos ip.
[54i] p = ±V^rqr-j,Tqr72^ e=tan-i^'

a;
2
= sin-1
- 1-„ ' ^5 = cos-1
x^ -Vy'
,
± y/x^ + 2/2 + 2='
[55] cos Q — cos ai cos ^2 + cos ^\ cos 182 + cos 71 cos 72.
[56] {x - hY + - hY + (2/ (z - ly = r2.
[57] Aa; + By + Cz + D = 0.
[58] a; cos a -\- y cos j3 + z cos 7 = p.
cosa = =
'
[59] , ) cosS . >
±y/ A^ ^- B^ -V C^ + S=' + C''

+\/A='
= C — p = -D
cos 7 , )
±Va^ + b^ + c'' ±Va^ + b^ + c^

^ôl-M + ^l
= AiAi + BiBi + C1C2
[61] cos e
+ 5i2 + Ci" VAi^ + 5,2 +
+ VAi" Cj"
[62] d = Axi + B2/1 + Czi + I>

+ \/A2 + 52 + C2
a: — a;i ^ y — yi ^ z — zi
. [63i]
cos a cos jS cos 7
a; — a;i ^ y — 2/1 ^ 2 — zi
[682]
Z m n
a; — xi _ 2/
~ 2/1 _ 2 — zi
[64]
a;2 — xi 2/2 — 2/1 22 — 2i
TABLES
I. FoTJR-PLACE Table of Logaeithms.
II. Table of Natural and Logarithmic Sines,

Cosines, Tangents, and Cotangents op Angles
Differing by Ten Minutes.
TABLE I.—COMMON LOGARITHMS
H.
TABLES 309
TABLE I.—COMMON LOGARITHMS.—Con«in««<l
R.
TABLES 311
TABLE n.—TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS—Contfnirtif

Angles
TABLE n.—TaiGONOMETRIO iUNCTIOI
TABLES 313
TABLE 11.—TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS—<7<mKn««J
TABLE II,—TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS—Continual
Angles
ANSWERS
Page 12. Art. 12.
I. 1, 6, -8, -10, -3, 11, -16, -13.
Pages 15, 16. Art. 17.
10. (5\/2, 5V'2), (IOV2, 0), (5\/2, - 5V'2).

II. X - y = 0, X + y = 0, 2x - y = 0.
12. (0,0), (a, 0), (ia, ±iaV3).

13. (8, 0), (4, 4V3J, (-4,4\/3., (-8, 0), (- 4,-4\/3), (4, -4V3).
Pages 18, 19. Art. 19.
1. (1) 15, (2) 18.385-, (3) 13.153-, (4) 16.279-.

6. (1) 8.602+, 8.062+, 12.369+. (2) 11.402-, 8.062+, 8.062 + .
7. (3, -2) or (3, 14). 8. (1, 3). 9. (-1, 3), (-3, 5), or (13,' -1).
10. (5 + 4\/3, 6 + 3\/3) or (5 - 4VU 6 - SVs).
11. x^ + y^ - 6x - 8y = 0.
12. 5x -7y -26 = 0. 15. 7.650 -.
Page 20. Art. 20.
1. 2| units to the right of Pi. 12 units to the left of Pi.

2. Division point between two points and 3 in. from first. Division
point beyond second point, 5 in. from first.
Pages 23, 24. Art. 22.
1. (-2, 2. (li, 31).

1). 3. (3, U). 4. (-22, 14). 6. (J, -i).
7. (i (^24, 28). 8. (U, -1), (-li, -2h, (-1, -4*;.

i),
9. (2^, 3?). 10. 10.050-, 11.180+, 12.806 + 13. (11, 14). .
14. (-1, 0), (-4, -2).
Pages 28, 29. Art. 28.
-3.1463.
1. (1) 1, (2) -1, (3) 1.732, (4) 0.1010, (5)
f^,
a + c'
(6)
2. (1) 45°, (2) 135°, (3) 60°, (4) 5° 46', (5) tan"'
^^^^ (6)107° 38'.
3. -^. 6. 5|. 7. 6. 8. Sx -2y ~2 = 0. 9. If.

315
10. 6x - y + 12 = 0. n. X + 2y - 1^ = 0, (-3, 7). 12. 60° 15'.
13. 2.375. 14. 86° 11'. 16. lOf. 16. 3.732.
19. (1^ 3iV). 20. 0.6584. 21. 74° 56'.
Pages 32, 33. Art. 30.
1.(SVI, 3V2,) (rV%-y/2), (-1, -IVS), (3V3,3),

(-1, IV3),(-4V'2, 4V2;,(- 2, 0), (0,-6).
2. (1.532, 1.286), (1.026, 2.819), (5.629, -3.250), (-0.7714, 0.9192),
(4.078, -1.902).
3. (8, 60°), (-8, 240°); (3\/2, 225°), (-3-\/2, 45°); (^34, 59° 2'),
(- VM, 239° 2'); (2V2, 120°), (-2V2, 300°). 6. 4.68.
Pages 36, 36. Art. 33.
2. (fv^, hV2),(.iV2, |\/2), (-5V2, 0),(3-v/2,-4V2).

3. (0, 0); (9, 2), (5, 11). 4. (7, 8).
6. 60°; (0, 0), (4, 0), (2\/3-l, "v/S + 2).

Pages 38, 39. Art. 36.
1. (1) 76, (2) 31, (3) 200i, (4) 10. 2. 160. 3. 18. 6. 72.
7. i[piP2 sin (Sj — 9i) + P2P3 sin (83 — ffs) + p»pi sin (fli — Si)].
8. 98.29.
Page 41. Art. 36.

1. (-3i 2).
Pages 41-43. General Exercises.

2. (0, 0), (8, 0), (0, 10), (-8, 10). 3. (-8, 0), (0, 0), (8, 10), (0, 10).
4. (4, 0), (0, 4^, (-4, 0), (0, -4). 6. (o + laVl, fo), (§aV3,Jo).
6. (0, -iaVs), (ia, faVs), (-Jo, iaVS) or (0, foVs),
(.ia,-iaV3), (-§a, -faVs). 7. 4.799. 8. 2:5.
,9. (6, -4), (14, -20). 10. (0, 9), (3, 0). 11. (1, 4).
12. (I, V)- 14- (7, 0) or (-2, 0). 16. 6 or -2.
16. (5.0), (0, -1). 17. (5,0), (-3,4). 19. -J. 20. -1.128.
21. -0.145. 22. 1.2337. 23. 2.25. 24. (0, 0), (4j^, lif), (0, 13),
(-4rV, llA). 25. (0, 0), (5,0), (4, 3), (-1, 3).
Page 49. Art. 44.
1. 5, -3i 2. ±6, +6. 3. ±4, ±8. 4. 1 + iVS, 1. 6. 0^ 0,
6. 0, 2 and 0. 7. -2, 1, 3 and iVB. 8. None.

ANSWERS 317
Page 64. Art. 48.
1. aV - 36 = 0. 2.. x2 — 4xy + iy' - 9 = 0.
3. x' — Sx^ + ISa; = 0. 4. a;' - x'y + xy" - y' - 16a; + 16y = 0.
6. x*y — 6a;' - 4xy + xy" - Qy' + 24 = 0.
Page 66. Art. 49.
I. (2\/2, — 2V^), (—2V2,2v^). 2. (f\/2, iVu), (fVi, -WW.

(-^V2,hVU),{-lV2, WTih 3. (24f, -12|), (3, 2).
4. aVio, iVl5>, (fVlO,- fViS), (- jVlO, fVlS),
(-jVlO, -i\/l5).
6. (3, 4), (3, -4). 6. 4V2.
Pages 67, 58. Art. 61.,
II. 22a; + 12y - 1 = 0. 12. x' + y^ + 12a; + 16y =0.

13. a;2 + - 6a; - 8^ = 0.
2/2 14. x^ + y' + 2x + 4y - 20 = 0.
16. 18a; + 20y + 51 = 0.
16. 4a; + 32/ - 25 = 0, 2a; - 62/ + 29 = 0, 3a; - + 2 = 0. 1/
17. 4a; - ^ = 0. 18. Sa;" + 8y' + H2a; - 30y + 347 = 0.

19. 2a; - 32/ + 24 = 0. 20. 7a;2 + 162/" - 112 = 0.
21. 6a;2 - iy' - 20 = 0. 22. 2a; - 62/ - 5 = 0, 2a; - 6^ - 15 = 0.

23. xy + 7x 4- 8y - = 4: 0.
Page 61. Alt. 64.
1. a; - 22/ - 8 = 0. 2. a; + +6 2/
= 0.
3. VSa; + ^ - Vl - 5 = 0. 4. 3x - 5y + 13 = 0.
6. 5a; + 32/ - 1 = 0. 6. a; - 3 = 0.
7. 2/ - 4 = 0. 8. a; - 22/ +5 = 0.
9. 3a; - 42/ - 11 = 0; 3x + 4y +5 = 0. 10. 12a; - 52/ - 26 = 0.
11. 11a; - - 16 =
2/ 0. 12. 7a; - - 5 = 0.
2/
Page 62. Art. 66.
1. x -2y + Q = 0. 2. 3x - y - 2 = 0.
3. 2x - 3y + 1 = 0; 2x -h 3y - 1 = 0. 4. 2a; + 32/ - 20 = 0.
6. X +y+ I = 0. 6. a; - 32/ - 5 = ,0.
Page 64. Art. 68.
1. 2x -
- 6 = 0.
3y 2. 6a; - + 6 = 0.2/
3. 4a; + 3^ - 2 = 0. 4. 3a; + 4^ + 1 = 0.
6. X + V3y -6=0. 6. X + VSy + 6 = 0.
7. X -y + 2\/2 = 0. 8. VSx + y + 2 = 0.
9. VSx - + 8 = 0. 2/ 10. \/3x - 2/ - 4 = Oi .
.

Pages 67, 68. Art. 62.
1. -f, 2. 2. I i. 3. I, 3. 4. 1, i. 6. f . 6. 2. 7. 2. 8. 3.
9. ^20. 10. ^y^. 11. a; cos 0° + ^ sin 0° + i

= 0, f
5 5
12. X cos 90° + s^ sin 90° - f = 0, f . 13. 3x - ^y + 0. 5 =
14. a; + 22/ + 4 = 0. 16. a; - 2?/ - 2 = 0. 16. a; + +2 =2/ 0.
Page 69. Art. 63.
1. f . 2. i. 3. 1.4142. 4. 0.232. 6. 1.828. 6. 4.427.

7. 2, U, T*. 8. 5.233, 6.871, 3.757.
Page 71. Art. 64.
1. a: - 3^ - 3 = 0. 2. 2x + 6y - 7 = 0.
3. X - 7y + 42 = Q. 4. 16a; - 4?/ - 17 = 0.
6. 30a; + 10!/ + 9 = 0. 6. 2a; + 2/
- 2 = 0.
7. 7x -9y = 0, 4x +' 6?/ - 21 = 0, 5a; + 2/ - 14 = 0.
8. X + 3y - 4 = 0, a; - 72/ - 19 = 0, 2a; - 17 = 0.
Page 72. Art. 66.
I. mx — y + 2m + 3=0. 2. y — mx — 0.
3. ma; - 2/
- 3to + 4 = 0. 4. f + | = 1.
6. mx — ^ — 4 = 0. 6. a; cos e .+ 2/ sin 9 — 3 =0.

7. a; cos 9 + 2/ sin 9 — 7 = 0. 8. 2a; + —6 = 2/ 0.
9. 3a; + 2/
- & = 0. 10. x + -6 =j/ or 2/ = wa;.
Pages 74, 76. Art. 66.
1. 3x + 42/ ± 6 = 0. 2. X - 22/ = 0, X + - 2/ 6 = 0.
3. 3z + 42/ + 5 = 0, 5x + 122/ - 13 = 0.
4. - 2 = 0, 4x - 3v - 10 = 0. 6. 2x - 2/ - 6 = 0.
2/
6. 2x + 2/ - 6 = 0: 7. X + 42/ - 4 = 0. 8. x - 2/ - 3 = 0.
9. X + 2/ - 4 = 0, 3x + 2/ - 6 = 0. 10. X 32/ - 6 = 0. +
II. X + y/Zy -6 = 0. 12. 3x - 4y + 10 = 0.
13. 4x - 32/ + 15 = 0, 4x + 32/ - 15 = 0.
14. 3x + 4^ ± 10 = P, 4x + 32/ ± 10 = 0.
16. 2x +^- 4 = 0.
X6. 2x - (3 - 2\/2)2/ + 4 - 4V2 = 0,

2x - (3 + 2\/2)2/ + 4 + 4V2 = 0.
ANSWERS 319
Page 77. Art. 67.
1. 4:x - 5y + 1 = 0. 2. 13a; + I2y - 62 = 0. 3. x - 2y +6 = 0.

4. 22a! + Uy - 14 = 0. 5. 5x + 15y - 34 = 0.
Page 78. Art. 68.
1. x'y — y' — xy + y' = 0.

2. x'y' - 3x'y - 3xy' + 2x' + 9xy + 2y' - 6x - 6y +4 = 0.
Page 79. Art. 69.
1. p cos (9 - 45°) =3. 2. p cos (9 - 60°) = -2.

3. psia e = 7. 4. p cos 9 = —4.
6. p cos - 135°) = -4.
(fl 6. p cos (9 - 315°) =3.
7. p cos (9 - 45°) = iV2. p cos 9 = 3.
8.
9. p sin 9 = -7. 10. p cos (9 - 30°) = 2.
11. p cos (9 - 300°) 3. 12. tan 9 = 2.
13. a; - 3 = 0. 14. 2/ - 4 = 0.
15. 3/ - 6a; = 0. 16. a; v - 2 + = 0.
17. a;+ - 3 = 0.
3/ 18. 4a; - 6?/ - 3 = 0.
19. Sx ± iy = 0. 20. 12a; ± 5^ = 0.
21. a; - + 2 = 0.
2/ 22. a; - V3y -6=0.
Pages 81-86. General Exercises.

2. (1) 2x -3y - 17 = 0. 3. (1) x - 7y - 33 = 0.
(2) 7x - 2?/ - 21 = 0. (2) y = mx + k - mh.
4. (1) i.
(2) 0.5883.
(3) V^
6. f i\/82, fiVei, yVs. _
6. AVTl; H Vl3, if \/l3, Aa/IS, tVViS-
7. (1) 7. 8. (1) a; + 8?/ - 58 = 0.
(2) -|. (2) 21a; - 6j/ - 58 = 0.
(3) + 9y 116
12x - = 0.
(4) 15a; + 62/ 110 - = 0.
9. 3a; - - 1 = 0, 7a: + 5^ - 16
2/
= 0, X - 42/ + 6 = 0, (H, ii).
12. X + VSy -4=0. 13. (1) X - + 2 = 0.
2/
(2) 2x_- 2/
- 1 = 0.
(3) \/3x + 2/ - 8 + 2V3 = 0.
15. 2x - 2/+ 6 = 0. 16. (f, f). 17. a:' - 5y'+ 4-n/2 = 0.
19. 4x - 5y + l s 0, 7x - 3v - 27 = 0, 3x + 22/ - 5 = 0.
32Q ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
20. X - y - 1 = 0. 21. X +y- 8\/2= 0.
22. 3a: + 42/ - 20 = 0. 23. 7x - ^y - 2 = 0.

24. a; - + 7 = 0, 13a; + 9^
3^ 2y + 2 = 0. - 5 = 0. 26. x -
26. X- (2- Vl)y -l + \/5=0,a;-(2 + VS)y - 1 -Vl = 0.
27. 3a; - 42/ + 24 = 0. 28. 3x + iy - 24: = 0.

29. a; - - 5 = 0, + - 13 = 0. 30. -2.0225.
2/ a; 2/
31. 3. 32. - 22/ + 7 = 0, + 32/ - 8 = 0.

a; a;
33. a;-(2+V3)s/+ll+6Vli=0, x-(2-V3)y-i- Vs = 0.

34. a;+ 32/ - 15 = 0, 3a; - ^ - 5 = 0.
35. IVS, (1, Y). 36. (3, 4). 37. 2a; - + 4 = 0. 2/
38. 3a; - 41/ = 0. 39. 3a; + 32/ - 13 = 0, 3a; + 3^ - 11 = 0.

40. 3a; - 42/ + 1 = 0, 3a; + 42/ - 7 = 0.
42. 4a; - 32/ + 6 = 0, 3a; - 42/ + 15 = 0.
44. X- VSy = 0, + VSy =0. 46. - + 1 = 0. a; a; 2/
46. X - Vly = 0. 47. = 4, = 3, = 2, = 3. J/ 2/ a; a;
48. (|, ^V 49. a; + (8 - 5 V3)2/ - 50 + 30 \/3 = 0.
60. (o + 6)a; — (a — h)y — he — ac = 0.

61. 3a;' + + 4 = 0.
52/'
62. 21a; + 772/ - 1 = 0, 99a; - 27y - 79 = 0.

64. (1) A = fi or C = 0. 66. (1) 116° 34'.
(2) A B. (2) 79° 42'.
(3) A+2B + C =0. (3) 60°.
66. 8 + 5V'3. 67. (-1, 1). 68. 3.
69. 8a; - 52/ + 30 = 0. 60. 175° 26'.
61. 18a; + 1292/ - 50 = 0, 138a; + 792/ - 210 = 0.
62. a;+ 3y - 30 = 0, + 32/ + 10 = 0. 63. ^ + 6 = 0. a;
64. (2, 4). 65. + - 2 = 0, - (2 + Vz)y - 2 - 2\/3 = 0,

a: 2/ a;
X - (2 - \/3)2/ - 2 + 2\/3 = 0.
Page 88. Art. 74.
1. (1, 2); 3. 2. (-2, 3); 1. 3. (-6, -3); 2. 4. (§, 2); |.

6. f);iV2.
(f, 6. (-1, -f);fV2.
7. (-i -|);0. 8. (a, 3a); 3a.
d. (-3o, -fa);iV7o. 10. (ô, ~\a); â.
Pages 90-92. Art. 76.
1. a;2 + ^2 - 6a; - 82/ + 20 = 0. 2. a:' + 2/' - 2a; + 62/ + 5 = 0.

3. a;2 +2/2 + 4a; - 4?/ + 3 = 0. 4, a;" + j/^ - 2a; - 22/ - 23 = 0.
.
ANSWERS 321
6. x'' + y^ + 2x + 2y -23 = 0. 6. x' + y^ - 4x - &y - 12 = 0.

7. x^ + y' -2y -12 = 0. 8. x' + y" - 2x - 24 = 0.
9. X' + - ix -8y + 10 = 0. 10. x' + y^ + ix - 8y + 10 = 0.
y''
11. x' +y' ±8x + 6y = 0. 12. + - 24x + lOj/ = 0. a;" j/^
13. x' + y^ = 20. 14. + y' - 2a; - 4jr - 8 = 0. a;2
16. a;2 + + 2a; - 6y = 0.

2/2 16. + y^ - 4a; - 6 = 0. a;^
17. a;!!+ ^2 - 4a; - 43/ - 17 = 0, x" + y' - 10a; - 22y + 121 = 0.

18. x' + y^ + 6x -2y - 15 = 0, x' + y^ - 10a; - Uy + 49 = 0.
19. a;2 + - 2a; - 82/ - 3 = 0. 20. x^ + y" + ix - 6y = 0.
2/2
21. a;!!+ - 2a; - 22/ - 3 = 0. 22. + y» - 6a; + 82/ + 9 = 0.

2/" a;2
23. a;2 + + 4a; - 82/ + 16 = 0. 24. x" + y^ - ix - 8y + 10 = 0.

2/2
25. a;2 + - 6a; - 62/ + 9 = 0. 26. x^ + y^ - 2x + 2y + 1 = 0.

2/2
27. x^ + y" + 4x - iy + 4 = 0. 28. x^ + y" + 6x - Qy +9 = 0.

29. a;2 + - 4a; - 42/ - 2 = 0. 30. + + 4a; - 63/ + 8 = 0.
2/2 a;2 j/'
31. 4a;2 + 4^2 + 20a; - 20y + 25 = 0,
a;2 + + 30a; - 30^ + 226 = 0.

2/2
32. a:2 + - 10a; - lOy + 25 = 0.

2/2
33. a;2 + - 10a; - lOy + 25 = 0,

2/2
a;2 + - 26a; - 262/ + 169 = 0.

2/2
34. 2a; - - 7 = 0.
2/ 36. - 23/ + 5 = 0; 2-s/S. a;
36. a; - 32/ + 5 = 0; 2\/io. 37. + ^2 - 85 = 0. a;2
38. 36a;2 + 363/2 + 84x - 12y - 675 = 0.

39. a;2 + = 65.2/2
Page 94. Art. 76.
1. x+2y-5 =0. 2. a; + - 1 = 0.
2/ 3. + 2y + 4 = 0.
a;
4. 5a; +32/ -7 =0. 6. 5a; + ISj^ - 34 = 0. 6. 7x +9y -18 =0.

7. a;2 + 2/2 - 3a; - 4^ +5 = 0. 8. + y2 _ ga; _ I3j, + 42 = 0.
a;2
Pages 96, 96. Art. 77.
1. Circle, center at origin, r = 3.

2. Circle, center = H/lO-
(J, |), r
3. Circle, center (Y, 0), r = f
4. Circle, center (tV, -!),'•= iVV65.

6. Two circles, centers ( ± I, 2), r = |. 6. '^.
7. Circle, center (0, 1), r = V29.
8. Two circles, centers (0, ±2\/3), r = 4.
9. Circle, center (-9, 0), r = 10.

10. Circle, center at origin, r = 3.
21
•

Page 97. Art. 78.
1 p = 2. 2. p = 10 cos e. 3. p ,8 cos B. 4. p = 6 sin 6.

6. p = -4 sin 6. 6. p = ±12 sin 9. 7. p = ±12 cos 6.
8. p = 6 cos (9 - ^)- 9. p = VI. 10. p = 3 sin 9.
11. p = — f cos 9.
12. p = 6 cos 9 + 8 sin 9.
13. sii
+ j/^ + ej/ =0; (0, -3); 3.
14. a;2 + 2/2 - 4a; = 0; (2, 0); 2.
15. a;2 + ^2 _ a; _ = 0; (I, J); i\/2.
J,
16. x^ + y^ =25; (0, 0); 5.
17. a;!! + j/i!

+ 2x + 3^ = 0; (-1, - |); iVlS-
18. x' + y^ + Zx+^y -& =Q; (- f, -2); J.
19. x'^ + y-' -9 =0; (0,0); 3.
20. ^2 + 2/2 - 4 = 0; (0, 0);2.
Page 103. Art. 86.
2. (J, 0), (-i, 0), (0, I), (0, -i); 2a; + = 1. 0, 2s - 1 = 0, 22/ +1 = 0,
2y - 1=0; 2. 6. (1) v' = 12a;; (2) a;^ = 242/; (3) 2/" = -16a;; (4)
a;2 = -82/. 6. (1) y^ = 8a;; (2) a;^ = y. 7. a;' = 50002/.
Pages 106, 106. Art. 86.
1. (1) 2/2 - 8a; - 82/ + 40 = 0; (2) 2/^ + 8a; - 62/ - 7 = 0;

(3) a;2 + 12x - 12y + 60 = 0; (4) a;2 - 4a; + 6^ + 22 = 0.
2. (1) (5, 4), a; - 1 = 0; (2) (0, 3), a; - 4 = 0; (3) (-6, 5), ^ + 1 = 0;
(4) (2, -4i), 22/ + 3 = 0.
3. y^ - + iy - 36 = 0, y' + lOx + 42/ + 44 = 0.

10a;
4. a;2 - + 8y + 25 = 0.
6a; 6. + 4a;' + Sy' + 32 = 0. a;'2
6. (1) 2/2 - 8a; - lOy + 57 = 0; (2) x' + 8x - 8y + 32 = 0;

(3) 2/2 + 8a; - 42/ + 36 = 0; (4) - 6a; + 82/ + 41 = 0. a;2
7. (1) y^ - 3a; - 6y + 15 = 0; (2) iy' + 25a; - 16y - 59 = 0;

(3) 2a;2 - 8a; + 9y - 19 = 0; (4) 5a;2 - 30a; - I62/ + 13 = 0.
Pages 108, 109. Art. 89.
1. (1) (3, 2), (4, 2), 2/

- 2 = 0, a; - 2 = 0; (2) (5, -4), (4^ -4),
^ + 4=0, 2x - 11 = 0; (3) (-li 2), (-1|, 3i), 2a; +
3 = 0,
4v - 3 = 0; (4) (6, -2), (6, -2|), a; -^ 6 = 0, 82/ + 13 = 0;
(5) (-A, (-IfJ, 2), 2/ - 2 = 0,

2), 6a; - 43 = 0; (6) (|, fi), (f, J|),
2a; - 9 = 0, 40?/ - 239 = 0.
2. 5a;2 - 9x - 2v + 4 = 0, (.^\, A), Wu -A), f

ANSWERS 323
3. 2/2 _ 12a; -sy + 28 = 0. 4. 3y' - 25a; + 18y + 77 = 0.

6. (1) y" = 4x'; (2) x" = -16y'; (3) y" 8a;'; (4) x'^ = iy'.
6. (1) 4a; - 3 = 0, a;' + = 0, (i,3), (1, 0), 4;
1
(2) 2/ - 5 = 0, 2/' - = 0, (4, -3), (0, -4), 16;
4
(3) a;- 3 = 0, a;' - = 0, (-1, 2), (-2, 0), 8;
2
(4) 422/ - 11 = 0, 12v' + 7 = 0, (-f, V-), (0, A), h
Pages 110, 111. Art. 90.
1. x'" = -2py', 2/'2 = 2px'.

2. (1) x" 2/'2 - W2x' + 4:\/2y' = 0;
+ 2x'y' +
(2) 3x'^ - 2VSx'y'+y" + (6\/3 -4)a;' - (4-\/3 + 6)y' + 24 =0;
(3) 5y'^ - 2VSx' - 2V5y' - 10 = 0;
(4) 13a;'2 - &Vl3x' - iWTSy' - 68 = 0.

3. 9x' - 24xy + 16y' - 116a; - 162y + 321 = 0.
4. (1) 2/"2 = 3V2a;"; (2) x"^ = -hs/ly"; (3) x"" = - W^y".
Pages 111, 112. Art. 91.
1 + cos 9
Page 113. Art. 92.
2. (3. 31, +7.28).
Page 114. Art. 93.
1. a;" = - 144 y, 24.31 ft., 22.22 ft., 13.89 ft.
2. 14' I", 11' 3", 6' 6 J". 3. a;2 = ^^^.

4. x^ = ^^{y - 20),
Page 116. Art. 94.

. 3v' sin* a
6. (1) 23.67 mi.; (2) 20.50 mi.; (3) 20.50 mi.

7. 401.5 ft. per sec.
Page 116, 116. General Exercises.

1. (62J, 62500). 3. IJ in. from back of reflector.
4. (4, 2), (8, 8). 6. x-y -2 =0. 6. - 6f. 7. (3, 1), (42, 14).
8. 3.±_V^_ 9_ (1^ _2j)_ 10. (1) 2/2 + 4a; - 4 = 0;

4
(2) 252/^ - 60a; - 36 =0; (3) y" + 24a; - 144 = 0.
11. (1) (12, 70° 32'), (12, 289° .28'); (2) (4, 90°), (4, 270°).
13. 2a;2 + 2y' - 5px = 0. 14. 4V3p.

^
Pages 122, 123. Art. 99.
i- (1) 3a; + 25 = 0;
5,4,1, (±3,0),
(2) ± 8), 2y ±25 = 0;
10, 6, i, (0,
(3) 3, 2, iVl, { + V5, 0), 5x ± 9V5 = 0;
(4) 4, 3,jV7_, ( ± V7, 0),_7a; + 16\/7 = 0;
(5) 2->/2, VS, iVS, ( + \/3, 0), 3x + SVS = 0.
(6) 3, VI, iVS, ( + V3, 0), X + 3V3 = 0.

2. a. 3. (1) ix" + 9y^ = 144; (2) x" + iy' = 16;
(3) 5x^ + 9y' = 81; (4) 20a;2' + 36y' = 1125; (5) 112a;2 + 2562/" = 3087;
(6) X-' + 4^2 = 64; (7) 2x' + 3y' = 18.
4. ± J\/2T, + 2f, 0, ± I V^n. 6. 2a;2 +_3y^ = 6.
8. (l; Ve, VS, i \/6,|\/6;(2) V2^ Vto^J \/2, V2m; (3) V«,
--V^, - V?(? - 1), - Vs; (4) V?, Vp, - Vq(q- p), -^ Vq-
9. 3.8, 6.2. 10. 3x^ + iy^ = 576. 12. (0, 0), a; = + co, 0.
13. (1, + 2). 14. h^x' + c2j/2 = a^h\

15. (a" - h')x^ + o'j/" = oHa* - 6').
Page 124. Art. 100.
1. (1) 9x^ + 252/" - 54a; - 2Q0y + 256 = 0.

(2) 48a;" + + 288a; + Uy + 445 = 0.
2/"
2. 4x" + 92/" - 40a: + 72y + 100 = 0,

9a;" + 42/" - 90a; + 32y + 145 = 0.
3. (1) (-1, 4), (7, 4), 4a: + 13 = 0, 4x - 37 = 0;
(2) (-3, -7 ± i \/l41), y =-7 +^ -v/iii:
4. 7a;" + 161/" - 140a; - 642/ + 512 = 0.
6. 16x" + 252/" - 96x - 200y + 144 = 0.
6. 2a;" + y' - 16a; - iy = 0.
Page 127. Art. 101.
(x + D" (y - 2 )"
1. (1)
16
^
' 7 =1; (-1. 2); (-4, 2), (2, 2); (-5, 2),
(3, 2); o = 4, 6 = V?; 3a; + 19 = 0, 3a; - 13 = 0.
(2) (^L^' + (y^'î. (4^ i;. (4^ 1+2V2); (4,-3),

(4, 5); a == 4, 6 = 2V2; - 1 + 4-1/2 = 0.2/
(3)—
J— +— 1; (1 -1); (l + kVs, -1); (^ -1),
(i, -1); o = i 6 = i; X - 1 ± A V5 = 0.
ANSWERS 325
(4) (^% (y-=^' = l; (-1, 3); (-1 ± i V5, 3);
( — 1 ± f VS, 3); a = iVl, b = \/lO; a; + 1 + iVs = 0.

2. 6x" + 7y'^ = 8.
iJ +
3. (1) 7"' = 1, (±3, 0), 3x' ± 16 = 0.
(2)
Y6+Y = ^' ^°' ±2 V2), J/' + 4 V2 = 0.
(3)
?^+t! = 1^ (± I VB, 0), 10a;' + 3 Vl = 0.
(4) |-' + f^' = 1, (± I VS, 0), 2a;' ± 9 V5 = 0.

4. 9a;2 + 25y' + 54a; - 200?/ - 873 = 0.
6. 3x^ + 4:y' - 24a; - 16j/ + 16 = 0.

6. 3x'^ + iy'^ = 36. 7. 3x' + iy' - 20a; + 12 = 0.
Pages 128, 129. Art. 102.
1. (1) (a' + + 2(0^ - b')x'y' + (.a^+b')y'^ -

b')x'^ 20%" = 0,
(2) 43a;'2 - uVlx'y' + 57y'^ - 576 = 0;

(3) a;'2 + 9y'^ - 36 = 0;
(4) 9a;'2 + 2V3x'y' + lly'^ + (6- 8 VS) + (6^3 + 8)2/'- 40 = 0; a;'
(5) 3a;'2 + y'^ + 3V2a;' - V2y' + 4 = 0;
(6) 38a;'2 + 12x'y' + 22y'^ + 2V5a;' - 21 VSy' = 0.
2. ^ + ^ = 1. 3. 9a;"2 + 3y"^ - 32 = 0.
Page 129. Art. 103.
_ ep _ ep. J _ «'( ! - e')

^- *• ~ 1 — e cos e'
**
1 + e cos e ' ''
1 - e^ cos^ e
Pages 131, 132. Art. 106.
i-($)^+£-^ = ^'(±^^^-«'°)- ' T& + 4S = -^'(±«°-^«'°)-
3. 36.37 ft., 27.78 ft. 6. 0.95+ ft., 4.02- ft., 10.16- ft.
6. 13,000 mi.
8. 45.1 in. per sec. 0.14 in. per sec.
Pages 132, 133. General Exercises.
^-
36 + 16" ^- ''•72+144 ^-
*'•
72 + 36 ^•
•
4.
g +|! = 1. 6. 4, 3; (0, ± V7); i V't; y ± Wt = 0.
6. 6, 2\/6; ( + 2V3, 0); iVS; s ± 6\/3 = 0.
7. 5, 4; (-1, -2), (5, -2); r, 3a; + 19 = 0, 3a; - 31 = 0.
8. 9a:'2 + 4y'^ = 36. 9. 252;'2 + l&y'' = 400.
1. o > 3.
a ii- 9
a'
11. 189a;i' 9Qxy + + 161y^ - 1494a; 258?/ + 2106 = 0.
12. 6.4.
Pages 138, 139. Art. 110.
1. (1) 10, 8, (±^41, 0), 41a; + 25\/4i = 0; (2) 12, 20, (+2V34, 0),
17a; + 9V34 = 0; (3) 6, 8, (±5, 0), 5x ±'9 = 0; (4) 16, 12, (0, ±10),
5j/ ± 32 = 0; (5) 2-^/2, 2^3, (0, +V5), 5y ± 2y/l = 0; (6) 10, 6,
(0, ±-\/34), 34y ± 25\/34 = 0.
a;2
2. (1) y' = 256;
36
-
^ '
16 9
^'^^)
81 "63- ^'^^^49-36 1.
3. 0, ± 5i, + I V^. 4 5i ^
5. 5a;2 - 9y' = 36. 6. Sa;^ - iy' = 80.
8. (1) 4, 3, i, i; (2) Ve, 2v'2, |\/2i, f VQ; (3) 1, 4, \/l7, 32;
(4) V2m, Vm, iVs, V2m; (5) Vq, Vp, - Vpq + qS —Vq;
(6) VI, ^\/^,V^M^, ^•

9. (1) 3, 4; (± 5, 0); |; 5a; + 9 = 0.
(2) 6, 2\/6; (± 2\/l5, 0); (J Vl5; 5x ± 6\/l5 = 0.
10. a;2 - 32/2 + 3 = 0. 13. a;'j/' = 8. 14. 7x^ - 9y^ = 1008.
15. a;2 - Sy' = 144.
Pages 142, 143. Art. 113.
1. (1) 2a; ±V&y = 0; (2) a; ±V2y = 0; (3) x ±V2y = 0;

(4) 5a; + 42/ = 0; (5) a; ± 2/ = 0; (6) a; ± 2/ = 0.
2. 3x' - 42/2 + 48 = 0, (+ 2-1/7, 0), (0, ±2-\/7), 7a; ± 8\/7 = 0,
72/ + 6V7=0.
5. 2x'y' = a', 6. X' - 3y' = 16.
11. +4\/2. 12. ±0.9014.

ANSWERS 327
Pages 143, 144. '
Art 114.
1. (1) 9x'> - 25y^ - 72a; - 150y - 306 = 0;

(2) X' - 41/2 + 12a; _ ley + 36 = 0.
2. (1) (-1, -3), (9, -3); (4 ± Vsi, -3);
34i; - 136 + 25V3i = 0.
(2) (-6, -4), (-6, 0); (-6, -2 ± 2\/5);

5y + 10 ± 2\/5 =0. ,;
3. 64a;2 - + 256-1; + 504?/ - 1283 = 0.

36y'
4. (1) 9a;2 - 25y' - 72x - 150y + 144 = 0;
ii (2) x^ - 42/2 + 12a: - 16j/ + 4 = 0.
6. (I) 3x - 5y -27 =0,3x + 5y + 3 = 0;
(2) a;- 2j/ + 2 = 0, + 2?/ + 10 = 0. a;
Page 146. Art. 116.
1. (1)
^~^' - ^^-^' = 1; (6, 3); (1, 3), (11, 3); (2, 3), (10,3);
a = 4, 5 = 3; 5a; - 30 + 16 = 0; 3x - 4j/ - 6 = 0, 3x + 4?/ - 30 = 0.
(2) (^^'_ i^+^' = 1; (_3, 5). (_3_ 1+ Vl7); (-3, |),
(-3, i); a = 1, 6=4; 34j/ - 85 + 2V'l7 = 0; a; - 4v + 13 = 0,

X + 42/ - 7 = 0. (3) (E^'-(^J^' = 1;
(i _ I). (_ J,
_ i)_
Q, -i); a + V7, -i); a =\/7, 6 =V2; 6x - 17 = 0, 6x + 11 = 0;
Uy + 7 = ± 2Vl4i + v/l4. (i)^^-^'- (^^' = 1; (1^ 3).
(1, 3 + \/l7); (1, 3 ±. 2\/2); a = 2V2, 6=3; 17y - 61 + 8\/i7 ='

0;
4x - 3\/22/ - 4 + 9-^/2 =0, 4x + 3V2y - 4 - 9\/2 = 0. .
a = 2\/7, 6 = V2i; y =0,y -8 = 0; 2x - Vh + 4 + 4\/3 =0,

2x + VSy + 4 - 4-V/3 ='0.
2. Ox'" - 25i/'2 + 225 = 0.
3. (1) - ^' = 1, (±5, 0), 5x' +16 = 0;

3J
(2) ^-^= 1, (0, + Vl7), 172/' ±\/l7 = 0;
(3) y-^' = l, (±3, 0), 3x' + 7=0;

(4) ^ -^ = 1, (0, +Vl7), ny' +8\/l7 = 0.
(5)
||-U = 1. (0> ±7), 2/ ±4 = 0.
4. 9a;« - 16?/» + 54a; + 128v + 1601 = 0.
6. 16a;' - 25^' + 64a; + 200?/ - 736 = 0.
6. 3a;2 - - 84a: + 42/ + 536 = 0.

j/î
Art. 116.
576;
ANSWERS 329
Pages 162, 163. General Exercises.
1. a = Ve, 6=2; J\/l5; (± VlO, 0); 3y^ - 2x^ = 12.

2. (±2\/3, 2),(± 2\/3, - 2). _
3. a = 6, 6 = 4; (3, 2 ± 2^13); i\/l3; 132/ - 26 ± ISVls = 0.
7. (y -2)2 = 0._
_
8. (nV39, uVm,'(-nV^, -uVsq).
9. 7.806+, 17.806+.
10. x' - Sy" - X + 3y = 0.
11. 4y2 - a;2 = 11.
Page 168. Art. 122.
1. Hyperbola, 3a:"' - 2y"' = 6. 2. Ellipse, 9x"' +

16y"^ = 144.
3. Ellipse, Sx'" j/''^ + 6=0.
+ 4. Parabola, 2^"" = 3x".
6. Ellipse, a;'2 + ^.y'^ = 16. 6. Parabola, y'^ = 3s'.
7. Imaâry ellipse, 1213;"" + Uy'" + 199 = 0.
8. Two lines, 2Sa;"2 - j/"» = 0. 9. Parabola, x"' = iVly".

10. Parabola, j/'^ = uVlSx^'.
Page 160. Art. 124.
9. k = 0.0000082, p = 0.0000082<3-^»». 10. c = 5028, p»i-" = 5028.
Page 162, 163. Art. 126.
17. X + a^ = 0;
Page 182. Art. 141. ,
1. X = —S + y = 2 + 2t. 2. — 2 = 5 cos ^ — 3 = 5 sin

t, a; 0, fl.
i. y' + x + 2y -3 =0. 6- ^' + ^' = ^•
6. 4x^ + y' - 16a: + 12 = 0. 7. x' + 2xy + y' - 2x + 2y = 0.

8. 9a;2 + 4y' - 90x - 32y + 253 = 0.
9. y' = ix. 10. X' = iiy + !)•
11. x' + y' ==a' + 12. ^

+(^y =1.
b^.
(fj
Page 183. Art. 142.
3. X = ae — b sin 6, y = a — b cos 8.
Pages 193-195. Art. 151.
1. I = 0.00102r. 2. y = 1.405a; + 7.527.

3. = 1.403a; + 7.54.
2/ 4. i? = 0.00313* + 9.8753.
6. H = 03119J + 606.00. 6. ^ = 0.1470W + 1.7957.
8. W = 0.5015« + 54.10.
Pages 201-203. Art. 156.
2. 2/= 0.9975a;~i-'' or, very nearly, y = a;"'-".

3. ff = 3.867Z)°"«, 659. 4. p = 30e-»ooooas».
e. II = 0.1374p-»-66'. 8. M = 0.00014F1-".
9. p«i-" = 147.
Pages 204, 205. Art. 167.
2. y = 0.5 + 0.02a; + 2.5a;2 - 0.3a;'.

3. < = 132 + 0.875a; + 0.01125a;2.
Page 210. Art. 160.
1. x + 2y -1 = 0. 2. 2a; - 62/ - 3 = 0. ,
3. 3a; + 4^ + 1 = 0. 4. 2x + 12y + 5 = 0.
5. 3a; - 22/ + 6 = 0. 6. 3a; + 22/ - 4 =-0.
7. 3a; + 4 = 0. 8. a; + Uy + 17 = 0.
9. (1, 3). 10. (5, 2). 11. (1, 2). 12. (4, 2). 13. (3, 1).
14. (3, 6J. 15. (1, 1). 16. (-1, 3). 17. (-2, -8).
Pages 214, 215. Art. 165.
1. X + 4y = 0,3x -2y = 0. 2. x + y = 0, x - 6y = 0.
3. 32/ - 2 = 0, + 4 = 0.
J/ 4. 2x + 92/ - 20 = 0.
—
ANSWERS 331
. 6. 1x. - 9^ + 16 = 0. 6. (I, -I), (-1, %•).
7.(f,f),(-^f,-|). 8.(f,-^^),(-f,^^')
13. 3a; - 22/ - 12 = 0. 14. 2a; - 3j/ + 16 = 0.

18. Ellipse concentriQ with original ellipse, major axis = V'2o, minor
axis = V26-
Pages 218-220. Art. 167.
2. 4.5, 0.0802. 3. A = a;", 13. 4. A = 7ra;2, 10.257r.
6. A = fd^ d = y/2A. 6. C = 2\/7i^, S = -^SfoF^.
7. y = rt-Â, A = ^. S = ^. 8. -4, 44, -12.
9. 1, Vib, 7. 10. 2, 1.6778, -1.9208. 11. h\/Z, 0, -^

12. Zx^ - 4xy^ - 2y', ixy'^ - Sxhj - 2y', -2y' - 3x^ - ixy''.
log y
15. a; = sin"* y, x =
log 2
16. a; = + ^Vb^ - y% y = ± ^Va^ - ;
17. X = (o* - y^)\ y = (a* - a;*)".

18. a; = (o' - 2/5)^ = 2/ (a^ - a;^)^
— 2a /
19. J/ = H
, a;
V oa;.
20. a; = ± jV'-23/2±2V2/* + 256, y =± -Vi - x*.

21. a; = + iVz +2y -y^y = 1 ± 2V'2x - a;^.
1
22. X = +^-±^\/l6 - 2/". 23. i = e"*' cos 2<.
24. *; = ± ,
a
,9 = i oos-i
—
d
*"'
Vcos 2e
26. <p = —
4a cos
„ „
e
)
.
= cos
_,
'
/ -2a
I
± V^' + <p ^\
I
•
26. ^ = + aVtan e(3 - 4 sin^ 9). 27. a; = ^,) 2/ = a'x.
28. a; = i\/2(2/ + Vl - 2/^), 2/ = §V2(a; - Vl - «')•
Page 226. Art. 171.
2. 4, -i 3. 2, 2a; - 2/ + 2v - 7 = 0.
+ 1 = 0, a;
4.6a;.. 6. 3a:.^ 6.2. 7.-^,- 8. |. 9.-^^7^.

332 ANALYTIC
ANSWERS 333
33 ^
dx
= _
(x -
5
3)2"
34
^
^=
dx (x'
1 -
+
x'
ly'
36. ^ = 21a;« - 24a^ + 12a;». 36, ^ =

dx '
' dx 2Vx + 1 2Vx - 1
37.
dy ^ 93:' + 14g - 3
~
dx 2-v/3a;' + Ta;" - 3a; + 2
38
dj/
~ 2ax + 6 1
*
dx 2^0X2 + 6a: + c 2Va: +d
39 ^ = 4a^ + lOx '
40 ^
^^
= _ ^^
~
da: vâ:' + 5
'
(^ 1)*
^
41.^= 42.$?=-
dx + - '
^^ -
43. ^*
<^«
=
(x
^L= +
2V«+1
l)Vx'
- ^
3-C^2<
1
- 3)2
44. ^*
<*<
= ir
2<*
V(.x'
-^ +
/'
a^Y
12«'.
46. ^=
da:
5a:* - 3a;2 +'2a;- 2.
46. T^=
ax
(i + a)"~'(a; — 5)"'->(ma: + nx + am — bn).
47. ^= (x +l)*(2x - l)!'(16x + 1).
"^^ = 2 - 4x
^g
dg n«»-»
48.
dx (x - 1)' d< (1 + <)»+'
ds 2t
60.
d« (ii! + 1) ^/^TZTi
61. 0, 3, 12. 63. 1:4, 1:8, 1:16.
64. X - 3/
- 6 = 0, + + 6 = 0;
X 2/
29i - 2/ - 38 = 0, X + 292/ - 582 = 0.
-4 ± .v/iS '
66. At the points whose abscissas are s
2 *
T; 1 '
Xl
66. y - Vi = (x - xi), y - yi = _ (x - xi).
^^; ^ ^^^
67. (-1, -6), 7X + + 2/ 13 =0.
68. At (1, 0) at 135°, at (-3, -4) at 18° 26'.
60. 1.0025025.
Page 234. Art. 182.
dy ^ _ x2
2 ^ = 3x'+ 1
dx y^' dx 3y' + l'
dy
dx ~
6^
a'y'
'
4^=_2^dp =
'
dv v
_
^ dy ^ 4x> - 8xy^, d^ ^ 8x'y - 3y'

'
dx 8x^ - 32/?
'
dy ~ 4a;' - 8xy^
dx 3;! dy yi '
dx yi
dy X + Va' - y"
dx y
d-p _ av — 2a6 — pv^ dv _ »'(» — 6) _
f.
'
d»
" v'(v — ft) dp aw — 2ab — pw'
10. 3x + 43/ - 25 = 0, 'ix -3y = 0.
11. a; -
6j/ + 17 = 0, 6a; + - 9 = 0. 2/
12. 8a; + 5V5y - 36 = 0, 25a; - 8^% - 18 = 0.
19. xVyi + yy/xi — Vokî = 0,

xVxi — y Vyi — xiVxx + y-iVyi = 0.
Page 237. Art. 186.
1. Rising for all values of x. 2. Rising for x>—2, falling for x < —2,
3. Rising for a;>0, never falling, 4. Rising for a;>0, falling for a;<0.
6. Rising for all values of x, except x = 0. 6. Falling for all values of x
except a; = 0. 7. Rising for x > s/S, and x < — -x/S, falling for
- Vs < "*"^ ^
a; < Vs. 8. Rising for a; >
o
and a; < "T, i
_ o
falling for ^ — < a; < s 9- Rising for> 1 and x<i, falling

a;
for I < a; < 1. 10. Rising for — 1 < a; < 1, falling for > 1 and < — 1. a; a;
11. Rising for — 1 < a; < 1, falling for a;> 1 and < — 1. 12. Rising for
a;
a;>2 and a;<— 1, falling for — l<s<2. 13. Rising for a;>— 2, falling
for a; < — 2. 14. Rising for a; > 1 and — Ka; <0, falling for a; < —1 and
0<a;<l. 16. 278, 19, 3, y decreasing twice as rapidly as x is increasing.
16. —=-5o '-

no real values of x.
Page 239. Art. 186.
1. Min. at a; = 0. 2. Min. at a; = 2. 3. Max. at a; = 3. 4. Max-

at (0, 2), Min. at (0, -2). 6. Max. at a; = f(l - -y/lS), Min. at
X = 1(1 +\/l3). 6. Max. at a; = 0, Min. at a; = 4f. 7. Min. at
"" ^'"^ ".
X = 16. 8. Min. at a; =3. 9. (4.5, 4.1). 10.
2?
Pages 241, 242. Art. 187.
1. Upward a;>0, downward x<0, Infl. at a; = 0. 2. Upward for all

values. 3. Upward a;>0, downward a;<0, Infl. at x = 0. 4. Upward
ANSWERS 335
x<0, downward x>0, Infl. at a; = 0. 5. Upward x>l and x< — l, down-

ward — l<a;<l, Infl. at s = +1. 6. Upward x>l, downward x<l,
Infl. at a; = 1. 7. Upward a;>f and a;<0, downward 0<a;<|, Infl.
at a: = and a; = |. 8. Upward a;>J, downward x<|, Infl. at a; = f.
9. Upward a;>J\/3 and a; < —iVs, downward — jVl <a; < |\/3.
Infl. at = ±i V's. 10. Upward x> ^ '^ ^^^ and x < ^ ~

a;
O Y^^'
O
downward 1^1-^ < :. < i±VI? j^g ^^ ^ ^ ^±Vl9 ^^

3 3 ' 3
-2, Max. at X = 1 - |\/6, Min. at a; = 1 + jVo. 12. 0, 2, 20 in.
per sec. 13. No points, 1, 2.
Pages 246, 246. Art. 190.
6. -0.15, 0.25. 6. -0.09428, 0.09428. 7. +

(6x 2)dx.
8. (3x2 + 4)da;. 9. (4a;3 _ g-jjs

+ 4x)dx. 10. ^5.
U. _^^L=. 12. -4dx. 13. -^dx.
^'
Vx2 +4 ,
^'
14. ^-+
V(a:^ 5)=
16. gtdt, 64.
Pages 249, 260. Art. 193.
11. x2 = iy. 12. x^ -3y + 2 = 0.
13. 2x^ - 32/ + 4(3 - V'2) = 0. 14. ^/\/2 square units.
16. YVs square units. 17. 64 square units.

18. 20j square units. 19. 25f square units.
20. 3 V2 square units. 21. | square units.
22. 2f square units.
10. ^ = + 2x) cos

(3a;2 {x> + x^).
11. ^ = + cos (2a; 3) (a;« + 3a; - 4).
12. ^ = -3 + sin (6a; 4). 13. ^ = f cot S^VsinSS.

14. ^=i
da;
sin 4a;. 16. ^
dx
= J tan a:\/sec^(3 cos^ x + 1).
16. j^ = — OTn3(cot"+' qx + cot""' ga;).
17. —
da;
=
(1
2 sin
+ cos a;)'
X.
18.
t = ,
— ^. ..
-
19. #. = tan* 9.
de 1 sin 36 de
20. ^ = 3 cos x(l - 4 sinS x). 21. ^ = cot Jff.
22. 2 square units. 23. 0.7071, -0.4161.

24. 1, 0, OD.
26. Max. at a; = (4»i + 1) g' Min. at a; = (4a; + 3) |' Infl. at a; = nir.
26. -i cos+ C. 3a; 27. -f cos (3a; - 1) + C.

28. i sin 4a; + C. 29. i sin (4a- - 2) + C. 30. J sin« a; + C.
31. i sin* x + C. 32. -J oos» + C. a;
33. —— 7sin»+>i + C.
n+ 1
34. « = sin a;,
Pages 269, 260. Art. 203.
d^ ^ 2a; +7 ^ (2a; + 7) da;

.
da; a;2 + 7a;'

^
,
x^ + 7x
2 dv ^ 0.8686 ^
, ^ 0.8686da;
da; X X
^ dy _ _1 ^ _ _d5
'
dx ~ X X
dy ~ 0.8686 ^
, ^ 0.8686da;
'
dx X X
6. ^
dx
=
2e^, dy = 2e''dx.
6. ^
dx
= 2x^\ dy = 2a;e''da;.
=
7.
^= 6a;e*''+*, dy 6a:e'''+*da;.
ANSWERS 337
8.
J-
= e*(sm X '+ cos x), dy = e^^siD. x + cos x)dx.
9. -^ = 2a^ loge a, dy = 2a^ loge adx.
10. ^= 4.6052a;-102''+», dy = 4.6052a:102«+»da;.
11. ^ = Zx{Zx - + (3a; - 2Y log (3a; - 2),

2)='-'
dy = [3a;(3a; - 2)"^-» + (3a; - 2)' log (3a; - 2)]da;.

12. -^ = §(e' - e-''), d2/ = |(e« - e-»)d«;.
13. '
— a6e-«', di = —abe-'^dt.
d«
14.
Ai
di
'' —BI jr-
Li
e
-^
L,
..
at = —RI Li
=r' 6
-^
^ dt. ,^
d^ —
16. e~''(cos a; sin x), dy = e~'"(cos a; — sin x)dx.
dx
16. ^
dt
+ cos 2t),
|e-J«(6 sin 2«
di = -Je-J'(6 sin 2t + cos 2t)dt.
17.
dy _ + 1)' (a;
^ (x + D'dx ,
dx x' + l^ ^ x^ + 1 '
18.
dx
= (4 + -) (2a; + log x), dy = U + ?) (2a; + log x)dx
19. (3 - 4a; - 6a;2)e- = (3 - 4a; - 6a;2)e-*'da;.
dx
+ 2a;' + 3a; + log +

20. ^ = 2(a;2 1)''+'
.
a;'' +1 (a;2 1)
dy = 2(a;2 + 1)2«+'
2a;2 + 3a; + log (a;' + 1) dx.
x^ +1
21. 1, 7.39. 22. 0.4343, 0.0434, 23. (1, 0.6931).
24. No Max. point, Min. (J, 1.193).
26. 2.3026 square units.
27. 6.693 square units. 28. log C(x - 1).
29. 3 log Cx. 30. + log Cx.

X
31. log C sin X. 32. ie^' + C.
33. ix^ -2x + log Cx. 3i.x-losCx+l-^,

36. + C. 36. X - ie-" + C.
3 log a
37. ^{e^+i + x") + G. 38. y = &'.
39. y' = e^'.

. .

Pages 266, 266. Art. 208.
1. 11. 2. 13. 8. Vei, VsB, Vi66.

9. (3, 4, 0). 10. (37, -36, 23). 11. 2: -1.
12. (i -1, -9).
Page 269. Art. 210
I. Vs, i \/3,
i 1 Vs, - iVs, - iVs, -
or i Vs; 1, 1, 1. _
2Â Vio, - T«B Vw, - i VTO, or - ,\ Vib, ^ \/io
I -s/lO; 7, - 4, - 5.
3. ^, ^, - f, or -f, - ^, I; 2, 3, -6.
4. -*,?, -f,or^, -I, f.
6- A, - A, A, or - A, A, - A-
6. A, A, -«, or -A, -A, H.
7. H,A, -H,or -H, -A,H-
8. - 2, -9, 6. 9. (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1).
10. (1, 0, 0,) (0, cos ft cos t). 12. 45° or 135°.
13. 48° 51' or 131° 9'. 14. iV2, i V2, 0.
15. i VS, J, 0.
Page 273. Art. 213.
1. (2, 60°, 45°, 120°) or (-2, 120°, 135°, 60°).

2. (8, 60°, 120°, 45°) or (-8, 120°, 60°, 135°).
3. (VS, 54° 44', 54° 44', 54° 440 or

(- VS, 125° 16', 125° 16', 125° 16').
4. 45° or 135°. 6. (8, 60°, 30°) or (-8, 240°, 150°).

6. (4, 210°, 120°) or (-4, 30°, 60°).
7. (4, 135°, 60°) or (-4, 315°, 120°).
8. 77° 66.6'. 9. f , - i, f , or - |, i,
- f.
10. f 11. - H- 12. -f
Pages 277, 278. Art. 218.
1. z = 3. z = -4. 2. a = 0. 2/ = 0. a; = 0.
3. y' + z' = 9. a;2 + 2/2 = 16. 4. 8x + iy - lOz - 15 = 0.
5. y - z = 0. 6. X' — y' = 0.
7. a;2 - 2/2 - z2 = 0. 8. x^ - ix + 8y - Qz + 2Q = 0.
9. X' + y' + z' -3x - iz = 0.
10. x' + y' + z' - 6x -72 = 0, x^ + y^ + z' - 2x - 80 = 0.
II. 17a;2 + 172/2 + 172^ - 90a; - 258y + 265 = 0.
x2 + yi + z' -2x -2y - 47 = 0.
12. a;2 + 2/2 + z2 - 2a; + 22/ - 4z - 75 = Q.
13. a;2 - 2/2 - z2 = 0. 14. a;2 - j/2 + gz = o,

22
. .
ANSWERS 339
15. a;* - 2/2 - z2 = 0. 16. x - - z' = 0.

y^
17. X* - 42/2 - 4«2 = 0. 18. a;2 + - 2« = 0.
2/2
19. X* + yi + z* + 2x'y^ + 2x'z' + lyH^ - 42/2 - 4z2 = 0.

20. a;2 + + 2/2 22 _ 23 = 0. 21. a!2 + 2/2 - sinâ = 0.
22. a;2 - {sar^yY + gS = 0.
23. -+»-+l=l 24— +^+-=1

25. (a;2 + 2/2 + ^2 + 12)2 _ 64(2/2 + g2) = 0.
Pages 281, 282. Art. 221.
4. 32/2 - 5g2 + 2 = 0, 3a;2 - 2z2 - 10 = 0, Sa;' - 22/2 - 18 = 0.

6. 32/ - 22 = 0, 3a;2 - 32 = 0, a;2 _ = 0. ,,
6. 2^ + a''!/^ - o^z2 = 0, 22 + oa; - a2 = 0, a;2 + 2/2 - aa; = 0.
7. 2/^ - 2" = 0, ^2 22 _ = 0, a;2 + 2/2 - 02 =0.

-f. (i2
8. m22/2 + z2 - a2m2 = 0, 2 - ma; = 0, a^ + - a2 = 0. 2/2
9. 22 - 32/2 = 0, 22 - 3aa; = 0, 2/2 - ax =0.
Pages 291. Art. 229.
21. a;2 -I- ^2 + 2z2 = 4. 24. a;2 + z^ - 2-px + p2 = 0.
Page 297, 298. Art. 237.
^•r-3^-3^-3 = °'4 + —2+^=1-

2.|. + 1,_|2-3=0,|+| + ^,=1.
3-1^ + ^2/ -1^ + 1 = 0,^ + ^+1= 1.
4 12 1 12 18^ % %_' z^
5. 2x - 3!/ + 22 - 1 = 0. 6. 3a; + 2^ - 2 - 4 = 0.
7. a; - 22/ + 2z - 15 = 0. 8. 6a; - 32/ +2- 2 = 0.
9. a; + 22/ - 2z - 6 = 0, 91a; - 1222/ + 46z - 318 = 0.

10. 3a; - - 42 - 1 = 0.
2/ 11. a; + y + z - 3 = 0.
12. 3a; - 42/ + 22 - 4 = 0. 13. a; - 22/ + 2 - 1 = 0.
14. 3a; - 42/ + 4z - 16 = 0. 15. 32/ - 4z + 5 = 0.
16. 3a; - 42/ + 2z + 29 = 0. 17. f

18. 56° 15' or 123° 46'. 19. 48° 11' or 131° 49'.
20. 67° 7' or 112° 53'.
21. 6a; - \\y - Sz + 14 = 0, 23a; + 25^ - 20z - 28 = 0.
22. a; - 22/ - 2z + 6 = 0, 4a; + V + 2 - 7 = 0.

23. a; + 22/ - 62 - 6 = 0, 11a; - 8v - z - 13 = 0.
24. ±6. 25. (2, -1,2). 26. 31° 1', 64° 37', 73° 24'.
27. 16° 36', 25° 23', 58° 59'.

Pages 301-303. Art. 241.
1. (1, 1, 0), (2, 0,-3), (0, 2, 3).

2. (2, -3, -3), (0, -4, 1).
0), (8, 0,
3. (3, -2,
0), (1, 0, -1), (0, 1, -f).
4. (-t, I 0), (-1, 0, 3), (0, 2, -2).
6. (1, iO), (2, 0,1), (0,1,
-1).
6. (1) X + - 2 = 0, 3a; + z - 3 = 0.
2/
(2) a; - - 8 = 0, + 2z - 2 = 0.
2j/ a;
7. (3) a; + - 1 = 0, y + 28 + 2 = 0.
2/
(4) 2a; - + 2 = 0, 52/ + 2g - 6 = 0.

2/
(2)| = |H^4_^1
2 1 - 1
a: — 1 + y_ _ s 1
(3)
2 -2~ 1 ~
+ l _y _ 2-3
(4)
9. 11a;
a;
12-5
+ 52/ - 3 = 0, 3a; - 5s + 11 = 0.
10. 2x + 52/ - 1 = 0, 2i - 5z + 14 = 0.
11. X - 2 = 0, + 23 + 5 = 0. 2/
12. X - 2 = 0, 2/ - 5 = 0.
13. X + 3v + 8 = 0, 2x - 3a + 10 = 0.
14. X - 3 = 0, 2/ + 1 = 0. 16.
16. X + 2/ - 2 = 0, 3x z - 11 = 0, +
17. 2x + 2/ - 5 = 0, I - z - 1 = 0.
18. 3x - 2y = 0, 2x - z = 0.
23. X - + 2z - 7 = 0.
2/
25. X + + z - 3 = 0.
y
27. 2x - 3y - 4z + 6 = 0.
INDEX
Numbers refer to pages.
Axis, conjugate of hyperbola, 137

Abscissa, 13, 14 major, of ellipse, 120
Algebra, formulas of, 2 minor, of ellipse, 120
Algebraic, equations, 154 of parabola, 102
hyperbolic type, 159, 197 of symmetry, 50
parabolic type, 158, 195 transverse, of hyperbola, 137
Algebraic functions, 225
Amplitude, of function, 169 B
factor, 169
Analytic, geometry, 1 Bisector, of angles formed by lines,
methods, 39 70
Anchor ring, 277 of angles formed by planes,
Angle of lag, 172 297
Angles, bisectors of, 70, 297 Boyle's law, 150
definition, 24
direction, 267 C
formed by lines, 24, 271
formed by planes, 295 Cardioid, 185, 187
tangent of, 27 Cassinian oval, 163
vectorial, 30 Catenary, 167
Applications, of ellipse, 131 Circle, equation, 86, 87, 96, 279
exponential functions, 164 imaginary, 87
hyperbola, 150 locus problems, 94
parabola, 113 point or null, 87
straight line, 79 radical axis, 94
Arch, parabolic, 113 satisfying three conditions, 88
elliptic, 131 systems, 92
Areas, by integration, 247, 252, Cissoid of Diodes, 160
254, 269 Concavity, 236, 239
of polygon, 38 Conchoid of Nicomedes, 162
of triangle, 36 Condition second degree equation
Asymptotes, 139 represents two straight
Axes, coordinate, 12, 261 lines, 77
polar, 30 Conditions for locus, 45
rotation of, 34 Cone, 290
translation of, 33 Confooal ellipses, 132
341
342 INDEX
Conic sections, 98 Curves, sine, 167
Conicoids, 284 slope of, 222
Conies, deflnitipn of, 99 tangent to, 222
degenerate, 157 Cycle of curve, 169
diameters of, 210, 214 Cycloid, 182
directrfx of, 99 Cylindrical surfaces, 274
eccentricity of, 99
focus of, 99 D
Conjugate, axis of hyperbola, 137
diameters, 212, 213 Degenerate forms of conies, 157
hyperbolas, 141 Derivatives, 222
Continuous functions, 235 of algebraic functions, 226
Coordinates, axes of, 12 of exponential functions, 254
cartesian, 12 of logarithmic functions, 254
obUque cartesian, 15 of trigonometric functions,
origin of, 9 250
polar, 12, 29, 269 Descartes, 1
rectangular in plane, 13 Diameters, conjugate, 212, 213
rectangular in space, 261 length, 212, 213
relation between, 32 of conic, 210
spherical, 270 of ellipse, 210
transformation of, 33 of hyperbola, 213
Constants, 44 of parabola, 213
arbitrary, 53 Differential triangle, 245
Construction of, ellipse, 129 Differentials, 242
hyperbola, 148 definition of, 243
parabola, 112 Differentiation, 225
Curves, concavity of, 236, 239 fundamental method, 225
cycle of, 169 of implicit functions, 233
empirical, 188 Direction angles, 267
falling, 236 cosines, 267
in space, 278 Directrices of, conic, 99
maximum point of, 235, 237 ellipse, 117, 120
minimum point of, 235, 237 hyperbola, 134, 137
normal to, 223 parabola, 100
periodic, 168 Discriminant, 2
points of inflection, 236, 239 Discussion of equations, 48, 174,
probability, 199 282
projection of, 280 Distance, between two points, 17,
proper sine, 168 19, 263
properties of, 235 from point to line, 68
rising, 236 from point to plane, 296
INDEX 343
Division, external, 19 Equations, locus of, 45

internal, 19 logarithmic, 165
of line segment, 19, 23, 264 of circle, 86, 87. 96
of curves in space, 278
of ellipse, 118, 121, 124, 129
of hyperbola, 135, 138, 142,
Eccentricity of, conic, 99 143, 144, 147
ellipse, 100, 118 of Ime, 59, 62, 63, 64, 65, 78
hyperbola, 100, 135 of parabola, 100, 102, 104, 111
parabola, 100 parabolic type, 158, 195
Ellipse, applications, 131 parametric, 180
center, 120 plotting, 46
conjugate diameters, 212 polar, 175
definition, 100, 117 transcendental, 154, 163
diameters, 210 trigonometric, 167
directrix, 117, 120 Exponential, equations, 163
eccentricity, 100, 118 type, 197
equation, 118, 121, 124, 129 Extent, 51
equation of tangent to, 234
focus, 117, 120
general equation, 128, 155
imaginary, 123 Focus of, conic, 99
latus rectum, 120 ellipse, 117, 120
major axis", 120 hyperbola, 134, 137
minor axis, 120 j parabola, 100
point, 123 Formulas, algebraic, 2
sum of focal distances con- differentiation, 230, 252, 255
stant, 130 integration, 248, 253, 258
vertices, 120 logarithmic, 2
Ellipsoid, 284 summary of, 303
Elliptic paraboloid, 288 trigonometric, 3
Empirical curves, 188 Frequency, 172
Epicycloid, 185 Functions, 216
Equations, algebraic, 154 algebraic, 225
discussion of, 48, 174, 282 amplitude of, 169
exponential, 163 continuous, 235
exponential type, 197 decreasing, 236
general, of second degree, 87, explicit, 218
106, 124, 144, 154 implicit, 218
graph of, 46 increasing, 236
hyperbolic type, 159, 197 maximum value, 235
linear, 65, 19J minimum value, 236
344 INDEX
Functions, of variables, 44
period of, 169
periodic, 168 Imaginary, circle, 87
quadratic, 107 ellipse, 123
single-valued, 235 number, 47
trigonometric, 7 Inclination of line, 25
Increments, 216
G Infinite, variable becomes, 221
Initial line, 30
Graph of equation, 46
Integral, indefinite, 247
Integration, 246
H constant of, 247
Harmonic, conjugates, 206 formulas, 248, 253, 258
motion, 170 methods of, 248
206
ratio, Intercepts, 49, 283
Higher plane curves, 154 Involute of circle, 186
Hooke's law, 80, 193
Hyperbola, applications, 150
asymptotes, 139
center, 137 Latus rectum of, ellipse, 120
conjugate, 141 hyperbola, 137
conjugate axis, 137 parabola, 102
conjugate diameters, 213 Least squares, 193
definition, 100, 134 Lemniscate, 163
difference between focal dis- Lima5ons of Pascal, 179
tances constant, 148 Limits, 220
directrix, 134, 137 theorems of, 221
eccentricity, 100, 135 Linear equations, 65, 191
equation, 135, 138, 143, 147 Lines, applications, 79
equation of tangent to, 234 directed, 8
equilateral, 142, 150 direction cosines, 267
focus, 134, 137 general equation, 65
general equation, 146, 155 inclination, 25
latus rectum, 137 initial, 30
principal axis, 137 in polar coordinates, 78
rectangular, 142 in space, 298
transverse axis, 137 intercept equation, 63
vertices, 137 normal equation, 64
Hyperbolic, paraboloid, 289 parallel, 27
type, 159, 197 perpendicular, 27
Hyperboloids, 285 point direction equation, 299
Hypocycloid, 183 point slope equation, 59
INDEX 345
Lines, polar equation, 78 Null circle, 87
projection equation, 298 Number, imaginary, 47
slope, 25, 65
slope intercept equation, 61 O
systems, 71
two point equation, 62, 300 Oblate spheroid, 285
Line segment, 9 Oblique coordinates, 15
addition and subtraction of, Ordinate, 13, 14
10, 11 Origin of coordinates,9, 29
division of, 19, 23, 264 Orthogonal projection, 266
magnitude of, 9
numerical value of, 9
projection of, 266
value of, 9, 16 Parabola, applications, 113
Lituus, 180 axis, 102
Loci, algebraic, 154 construction, 112
composite, 53, 77 cubical, 158
in space, 274 definition, 100
of equations, 45, 55 diameters, 213
of points, 45 directrix, 100
of polar equations, 175 eccentricity, 100
through intersection of loci, equation, 100, 102, 104, 111
75 equation of tangent to, 234
transcendental, 154 focus, 100
Logarithmic, equations, 165 general equation, 109, 155
paper, 200 latus rectum, 102
Logarithms, formulas of, 2 semi Cubical, 158
vertex, 102
M Parabolic type, 158, 195
Paraboloids, 288
Major axis of ellipse, 120 Parameter, 180
Maximum, 235, 237 Period of function, 169
test of, 238 Periodic, curve, 168
Method of least squares, 193 function, 168
Minimum, 235, 237 Periodicity factor, 169
test of, 238 Phase angle, 174
Minor axis of ellipse, 120 Planes, angle between, 295
determinant equation , 292
N equations, 292
general equation, 292
Newton's law of cooling, 167 in space, 292
Normals, 223, 292 intercept equation, 294
346 INDEX
Planes, normal equation, 293 Reflector, 115
normal to, 292 Revolution, surfaces of, 276
parallel to axes, 274 Rotation of axes, 34, 109, 127, 156
Point, circle, 87 formula for, 155
ellipse, 123 Ruled surfaces, 286, 290, 291
imaginary, 47
initial, 8
locus of, 45
Simple harmonic motion, 170
of inflection, 239
Sine curve, 168
polar coordinates of, 12, 29,
Slope, definition, 25
269
formula for, 25
rectangular coordinates of, 12,
Spheres, 276
261
Spherical coordinates, 270
spherical coordinates of, 270
Spheroids, 285
terminal, 8
Spirals, 178
Polar, coordinates, 12, 29, 174, 269
Archimedes, 179
equation of circle, 96
center of, 178
equation of ellipse, 129
hyperbolic, 179
equation of hyperbola, 147
logarithmic, 178
equation of line, 78
parabolic, 179
equation of parabola. 111
Supplemental chords, 216
Pole, definition, 29
Surfaces, 274
Poles and polars, 206
cylindrical, 274
properties of, 209
equations of, 274
Powers of e,5
of revolution, 276
Probability curve, 199
quadric, 284
Projectile, path of, 114
ruled, 286, 290, 291
Projection, orthogonal, 266
sections of, 279
of curves, 280
trace, 279
Prolate spheroid, 285
Proper sine curve, 168
Symmetry, 49, 175, 177, 282
algebraic properties, 50
axis of, 50
center of, 49
Quadratic function, 107

Quadric surfaces, 284
Tables, e' and e~', 5
R of logarithms, 308
of trigonometric functions,310
Radical axis, 94 Tangents, 223
Radius vector, 30 equations of, to conies, 234
Rectangular system, 13 Torus, 277
INDEX 347
Trace of surfaces, 279, 283

Transcendental equations, 154, 163
Transformation of coordinates, 33
Value of line segment, 9, 16
Translation of axes, 33, 107, 123,
Variables, 44, 216
143, 157
become infinite, 221
Transverse axis of hyperbola, 137
dependant, 46
Triangle, area of, 36, 39
functions of, 44
center of gravity, 40
independant, 46
Trigonometric equations, 167
Vectorial angles, 30
Trigonometry, formulas of, 3
Vertices of, ellipse, 120
functions of, 7
hyperbola, 137
Trocoids, 183
parabola, 102
Trumpet, 180
U W
Uniform circular motion, 170 Witch of Agnesi, 162

Palmer_analytical geometry

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Palmer_analytical geometry

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Palmer_analytical geometry

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE

SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND

3 1924 031 218 153

The original of tliis bool< is in

tlie Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in

Engineering 8 Mining Journal ^ Power

WILLIAM CHARLES KRATHWOHL

McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, Inc.

TEX: SIAP1.X: FlfEBB TOSK PA

thinks visually instead of abstractly, and it is for the average

(4) Fundamental concepts are dealt with in an informal

Geometbic Facts Expressed Analytically, and Convebselt

11. Line segment between two points ... 11

20. Internal and external division of a line segment . . .19

24. Inclination and slope of a line . .

25. Analytic expression for slope of a line ... 25

Loci and Equations

CHAPTER IV CX^ "^ '

The ElI/Ipse and Certain Forms of the Second Degree Equation

95. The equation of the ellipse 117

The Hyperbola and Certain Forms op the Second Degree

106. The equation of the hyperbola ... .... 134

169. Elementary theorems of limits. 221

172. Differentiation by rules .... 225 .

173. The derivative when J (a;) is X . . 226 . . .

174. The derivative when f{x) is c . . 226 .

175. The derivative of the sum of functions ... 226

179. The derivative of the power of a function 228

181. Examples of differentiation 231

183. Discussion of uses of derivative . 235 . .

184. Properties of a curve and its function 235

203. f—,f e'^du, and f a^du . . ... 258

Solid Analytic Geometry

204. Introduction 261

237. Distance from a point to a plane \. ..... . 296

equation, or algebraic representation.

Second, given numbers or equations, to determine the geo-

The expression b^ — 4ac is called the discriminant of the

(1) logMiV = logM + logiV.

The base e = 2.718281828459- • -. tt = 3.141592653589- - -.

(3) 1° = ^= 0.0174533 - radians.

(4) sin^ d + cos2 6 = 1.

(5) 1 +• tan^ e = sec'' 6.

(6) 1 + cot^ e = csc^ e.

(8) cos = ;;, and sec 9

(18) sin 20 = 2 sin 6 cos 0.

(19) cos 20 = cos^ e - sin fl = 1 - 2 sin^ B = 2 cos" 0-1.

(23) tan|» '-4 +— COS d

(32) (Sine Law.)

(39) sin (fr + 6) = -cos 6.

tan (It + 6) = -cot 6.

Values op e" from a; = to a; = 4.9

Table op Feequentlt Used Trigonometric Functions

GEOMETRIC FACTS EXPRESSED ANALYTICALLY, AND

Let X'X be a straight line of indefinite length, and

tegral, fractional, or irrational —which shows the humber of

Conversely, any real number corresponds tO a point which

The line X'X is a directed straight line if it is thought of as

9. The line segment. —