ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Alternating electric current flows through the solenoid on the left, producing changing
magnetic field. This field causes, by electromagnetic induction, an electric current to flow in
the wire loop on the right.

Electromagnetic induction is the phenomenon of production of induced

emf (and hence induced current) due to a change of magnetic flux linked with a
closed circuit

Michael Faraday is generally credited with the discovery of induction in

1831, and James Clerk Maxwell mathematically described it as Faraday's law of
induction. Lenz's law describes the direction of the induced field.

Faraday's law was later generalized to become the Maxwell–Faraday

equation, one of the four Maxwell equations in his theory of electromagnetism.
Electromagnetic induction has found many applications, including electrical
components such as inductors and transformers, and devices such as electric
motors and generators.

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FARADAY & HENRY EXPERIMENT

It all started through a series of experiments carried out by Faraday &

Henry. Faraday's Law of Induction was discovered through experiments carried
out by Michel Faraday in 1831 and by Joseph Henry in the United States at about
the same time.

The experiments performed by them are described below:

Experiment 1

When the N-pole of the bar magnet was pushed towards the coil, the
galvanometer showed a deflection indicating the presence of electric current in
the coil. The deflection continued as long as the bar magnet was in the motion.
The galvanometer showed no deflection when the bar magnet was held stationary.

Similarly, when the bar magnet was moved away from the coil, the
galvanometer showed a deflection but in the opposite direction. Indicating the
reversal of the current's direction.

Thus, it was proved by the experiment that it was the relative motion
between the magnet and the coil responsible for the generation (production) of
electric current.

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Experiment 2

In the second experiment, bar magnet was replaced by another coil & was
connected to a battery producing a steady current and a steady magnetic field.

When the second coil was moved towards the first coil, there was a
deflection seen in the galvanometer. When the coil was moved away, the
deflection was observed in the opposite direction. Thus it proved that, it was the
relative motion between the coils that induced the electric field.

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Experiment 3

In the third experiment, first coil was connected to a sensitive galvanometer

and the second one through a battery through a tapping key.

When the key is pressed, galvanometer shoed a deflection & then returned
to zero. When it is released, it again showed a deflection but in the
opposite direction.

Thus all the experiments performed by these genius minded scientists

brought a conclusion that electric current can be induced in a coil by flux change
in another coil or in itself.

Induced emf appears in the coil whenever the amount of

magnetic flux linked with the coil changes.

In both the cases , ΦB is proportional to I.

ΦB 𝛂 I

Where ΦB is the magnetic flux associated with the coil.

For a closely wound coil of N turns,

NΦB 𝛂 I

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where NΦB is the magnetic flux linkage.

NΦB 𝛂 I

NΦB = LI
𝐍𝚽𝐁
L= 𝐈

Here L is called the Inductance.

Thus inductance is the measure of the flux linkage produced by the

inductor per unit of current.

Its SI unit is Henry & it depends upon

o Geometry of the Coil

o Intrinsic material properties.

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SELF INDUCTION:

It is the property of the coil due to which the coil opposes any change in
the strength of current flowing through it by inducing an e.m.f in itself. In other
words, it is the production of the emf on changing the current in a coil in itself.

The property of the self inductance is a particular form of the

electromagnetic induction. In the case of self induction, the magnetic field created
by a changing current in the circuit itself induces a voltage in the same circuit.
Therefore, the voltage is self induced.

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Coefficient of Self Induction

Let I is the current flowing through the coil at any time.

Φ be the magnetic flux linked with all the turns of the coil at that time.

Φ𝛂I
Φ =LI

Here L is a constant of proportionality & is called coefficient of self-

induction or self inductance of the coil. L. varies with number of turns of the
coil, area of cross-section of the coil & nature of material of the coil.

If I =1A

Then Φ =L or, L= Φ

The coefficient of self induction of the coil can be numerically defined as

the amount of magnetic flux linked with the coil when 1 ampere of current flows
through the coil.

Now, by faraday's law:

𝐝𝚽
E=-
𝐝𝐭

𝐝(𝐋𝐈)
E=-
𝐝𝐭

𝐝𝐈
E = -L (Self induced emf)
𝐝𝐭

Thus the self-inductance of a coil may be defined as the induced emf set
up in the coil due to a unit rate of change of current through it.

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Experiment to demonstrate self-induction

Take a solenoid having a large number of turns of insulated wire wound

over a soft iron core. Such a solenoid is called a choke coil. Connect the solenoid
in series with a battery, a rheostat and a tapping key.

Connect a 6 V bulb in parallel with the solenoid. Press the tapping key and
adjust the current with the help of rheostat so that the bulb just glows faintly. As
the tapping key is released, the bulb glows brightly for a moment and then goes
out.

This is because as the circuit is broken suddenly, the magnetic flux linked
with the coil suddenly vanishes, i.e., the rate of change of magnetic flux linked
with the coil is very large. Hence large self induced emf and current are produced
in the coil which make the bulb glow brightly for a moment.

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SELF INDUCTANCE OF A LONG SOLENOID

Consider a long solenoid of length I and radius r with r << l and having n
turns per unit length. If a current I flows through the coil, then the magnetic field
inside the coil is almost constant and is given by

B = µ0nI
Magnetic flux linked with each turn
Φ = ΒΑ
Φ = µ0nIA
A = πr²
= the cross-sectional area of the solenoid.

Magnetic flux linked with the entire solenoid is

Փ = Flux linked with each turn x total number of turns

Φ = µ0nIA × nl
Φ = μ0n²lΑΙ

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 Փ = LI
Self-inductance of the long solenoid is

L=μ0n2lΑ
If N is the total number of turns in the solenoid, then

𝐍
n=
𝐥
𝛍𝟎 𝐍 𝟐 𝑨
L=
𝐥

If the coil is wound over a material of high relative magnetic permeability µ,

(e.g., soft iron)

L = µrµ0n2lA
𝛍𝐫 𝛍𝟎 𝐍 𝟐 𝐀
L=
𝐥

Factors on which self-inductance depends

Obviously, the self-inductance of a solenoid depends on its geometry and

magnetic permeability of the core material.

1.Number of turns. Larger the number of turns in the solenoid, larger is its
self-inductance.
L 𝛂 N2
2.Area of cross-section. Larger the area of cross- section of the solenoid, larger
is its self-inductance.
L𝛂A
3.Permeability of the core material. The self inductance of a solenoid
increases u, times if it is wound over an iron core of relative permeability

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Phenomena associated with self-induction.
1.Sparking
The break of a circuit is very sudden. When the circuit is switched off, a
large self induced emf is set up in the circuit in the same direction as the
original emf. This causes a big spark across the switch.

2.Non-inductive winding
In resistance boxes and post office boxes, different resistance coils have to
be used. Here the wire is first doubled over itself and then wound in the form of
a coil over a bobbin. Due to this, the currents in the two halves of the wire flow
in opposite directions as shown in diagram. The inductive effects of the two
halves of the wire, being in opposite directions, cancel each other. The net self-
inductance of the coil is minimum. Such a winding of coils is called non inductive
winding. The resistance coils having no self- inductance are called Non-inductive
resistance

3.Electromagnetic damping
When a current is passed through a galvanometer, its coil suffers few
oscillations before coming to rest in the final position. As the coil moves in the
magnetic field, induced current is set in the coil which opposes its motion. The
oscillations of the coil are damped. This is called electromagnetic damping. The
electromagnetic damping can be further increased by winding the coil on a light
copper or aluminium frame. As the frame moves in the magnetic field, eddy
currents are set up in the frame which resist the motion of the coil. This is how a
galvanometer is rendered dead beat, i.e., the coil does not oscillate – it deflects
and stays in the final position immediately.

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MUTUAL INDUCTION

When one circuit induces current flow in a nearby circuit, it is Mutual

Induction
It is the property of two coils due to which each opposes any changes in
the strength of current flowing through the other by developing an induced emf.

On pressing the key, current in A increases from zero to maximum value.

It takes some time to reach to the maximum value. During this time (rise of
current) current continuously increasing hence the magnetic flux associated with
the A also increases. Since B is nearby to A, magnetic flux associated with it also
increases, Thus an emf is induced in the coil and according to the Lenz's Law, the
induced current in B would oppose increase in current in A by flowing in a
direction opposite to the cell current in A.

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 Similarly, on releasing the key, the current in the coil A decreases hence the
magnetic flux associated with it decreases. As B is nearby, so magnetic flux
associated with B also decreases and hence an induced emf is developed. The
direction of the induced current would be in the direction of the cell current so as
to oppose the decrease in the current.

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Coefficient of Mutual Induction

At any instant,
magnetic flux with the secondary coil ∝ current the primary coil
Փ =𝐈
Փ = 𝐌𝐈

He proportionality constant M is called the mutual inductance or

coefficient of mutual induction of the two coils. Any change in the current I sets
up an induced emf in the secondary coil which is given by

𝐝𝚽 𝐝𝐥
𝛆= − =-M.
𝐝𝐭 𝐝𝐭

Then Փ = M Thus the mutual inductance of two coils is numerically equal

to the magnetic flux linked with one coil when a unit current passes through the
other coil.
𝐝𝐥
= 1, then 𝛆 = −𝐌
𝐝𝐭

The mutual inductance of two coils may be defined as the induced emf set
up in one coil when the current in the neighbouring coil changes at the unit rate.

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MUTUAL INDUCTANCE OF TWO LONG SOLENOID
As shown in diagram consider two long co axial solenoid S1 and S2 wound over
S1

l = length of each solenoid

r1 ,r2 = radii of the two solenoids

A = 𝛑𝐫𝟏𝟐
A = area of cross-section of inner solenoid S1
N1,N2 = number of turns in the two solenoids
First we pass a time varying current I2 through S2. The magnetic field set up
inside S2 due to I2 IS
B2 = 𝛍𝟎 𝐧𝟐 𝐈𝟐
Where n2 = N2 / t = the number of turns per unit length of S2
Total magnetic flux linked with the inner solenoid S1 is
𝚽𝟏 = 𝐁𝟐 𝐀𝐍𝟏 = 𝛍𝟎 𝐧𝟐 𝐈𝟐 . AN1
Mutual inductance of coil 1 with respect to coil 2 is
𝚽𝟏 𝛍𝟎 𝐍 𝟏 𝐍 𝟐 𝐀
M12 = = 𝛍𝟎 𝐧𝟐 𝐈𝟐 AN1 =
𝐥𝟐 𝐥

We now consider the flux linked with the outer solenoid S2 due to the
current I1 in the inner solenoid S1. The field B1 due to I is constant inside S1 but
zero in the annular region between the two solenoids. Hence
B1 = 𝛍𝟎 𝐧𝟏 𝐈𝟏
Where n1 = N1 / t = the number of turns per unit length of S1

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 Total magnetic flux linked with the inner solenoid S1 is
𝛍𝟎 𝐍𝟏 𝐍𝟐 𝐀𝐈𝟏
𝚽𝟐 = 𝐁𝟏 𝐀𝐍𝟐 = 𝛍𝟎 𝐧𝟏 𝐈𝟏 . AN2 =
𝐥
Mutual inductance of coil 2 with respect to coil 1 is
𝚽𝟐 𝛍𝟎 𝐍𝟏 𝐍𝟐 𝐀
M21 = =
𝐥𝟏 𝐥

Clearly M12 = M21 = M

𝛍𝟎 𝐍 𝟏 𝐍 𝟐 𝐀
M= = 𝛍𝟎 𝐧𝟏 𝐧𝟐 𝐀𝐥 = 𝛍𝟎 𝐧𝟏 𝐧𝟐 𝛑𝐫𝟏𝟐 𝐥
𝐥
Thus, the mutual inductance of two coils is the property of their combination. It
does not matter which one of them functions as the primary or the-secondary coil.
This fact is known as reciprocity theorem.

Factors on which mutual inductance depends

The mutual inductance of two solenoids depends on their geometry and the
magnetic permeability of the core material.

1. Number of turns. Larger the number of turns in the two solenoids, larger will
be their mutual inductance.
M 𝛂 N1N2

2. Common cross-sectional area. Larger the common cross-sectional area of two

solenoids, larger will be their mutual inductance.

3. Relative separation. Larger the distance between two solenoids, smaller will
be the magnetic flux linked with the secondary coil due to current in the primary

4. Relative orientation of the two coils. M is maximum when the entire flux of
the primary is linked with the secondary, when the primary coil completely
envelopes the secondary coil. M is minimum when the two coils are perpendicular
to each other

5. Permeability of the core material. If the two coils are wound over an iron
core of relative permeability their mutual inductance increases µr times.

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APPLICATIONS OF SELF AND MUTUAL INDUCTION
The applications of this Induction are everywhere. In transformers, AC's, eddy
currents etc. It is only this induction which is basis even for electric guitars which
completely changed the face of the whole music world. In details, the applications
are discussed below.

Inductive Transducers:
The inductive pick-up transducers are mainly used for displacement or position
measurement. Example of inductive pick-up based transducer is LVDT (Linear
Variable Differential Transducers).

The two secondary coils are connected opposite to each other. The connection
is in such a way that the outputs of the two coils are added together simply by
connection. The secondary coils are connected in the centre of the primary coils.
From an Oscillator, an AC current or voltage is applied in the primary coil.

The two secondary coils are connected in such a way that when the core is
at the centre position, equal voltage signal is induced in both the coils. When the
core is displaced right or left, the no. of turns in

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 The secondary coil exposed to the primary coil changes. Thus any
movement in the core causes the Mutual Inductance of each secondary coil to
vary relative to the primary coil. The variations of mutual inductance of each coil,
in effect, induce varied relative voltage in the secondary coils. Since the two
secondary coil windings are connected in opposite, as the core moves, the output
of one increase and other decrease.

Asynchronous AC Motors:

An induction motor (or asynchronous motor) is a type of alternating current motor

where power is supplied to the rotor by means of electromagnetic induction. The
induction motor was invented by Nikola Tesla in 1882 in France.
The basic difference between an induction motor and a synchronous AC motor is
that in the latter a current is supplied onto the motor.

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 The principle of operation of AC motors is similar regarding interaction of
the magnetic fields, but commutation is not required. The rotor winding of the
asynchronous AC motors have no external voltage applied; rather, voltages are
induced in the rotor windings due to the rotating fields around the stator. The rotor
rotates at slower speed than the rotary stator fields (called slip) making the
induction possible, hence the term asynchronous. Due to this, these are sometime
called Induction machines.
Induction motors are preferred due to their rugged construction, absence of
brushes (which are required in most DC motors) & the ability to control the
speed of the motor.

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Transformer
Transformers are used to increase or decrease AC voltages & currents in the
circuits

The transformer is based on two principles:

Firstly, that an electric current can produce a magnetic field (electromagnetism)

and secondly that a changing magnetic field within a coil of wire induces a
voltage across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic induction).

The basic principle involved in a transformer is Mutual Induction. A

change in the current in the primary coil changes the developed magnetic flux.
Thus a voltage is induced in the secondary coil by the changing magnetic flux.

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A magnetic field is created by the current passing in the primary coil. The primary
and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very high magnetic
permeability.

The voltage induced across the secondary coil is

𝐝
𝐕𝐬 = 𝐍𝐬
𝐝𝐭

Where V, is the instantaneous voltage, N, is the number of turns in the secondary

coil and equals the magnetic flux. Since the same voltage passes through both
primary and secondary coils, the instantaneous voltage across the
primary is given by

𝐝
𝐕𝐏 = 𝐍𝐏
𝐝𝐭

Dividing equation 1 by equation 2, we get

𝐕𝐒 𝐍𝐒
=
𝐕𝐏 𝐍𝐏
(it is the basic equation for the stepping up or stepping down.)

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CONCLUSIONS

The observations led by Michael Faraday and other scientists revealed

another face of our universe how it works. Applications of this Induction is almost
everywhere. It is the basis of the many basic amenities required in day-to-day life.
For example electric generators that power cities and transportation lines.
Induction furnace which is used in industries to melt metals at large scale also
makes use of this induction.

Self and mutual induction are fundamental concepts in electromagnetism,

enabling efficient energy transfer and storage in electrical systems. Self-induction
occurs when a changing current induces a voltage in the same coil, while mutual
induction occurs when a changing current in one coil induces a voltage in another
coil.

These phenomena have numerous applications, including transformers,

inductors, resonant circuits, and wireless power transfer systems. Self and mutual
induction improve system performance by reducing energy losses, increasing
efficiency, and providing reliable operation.

Advances in materials and technology will continue to enhance the

performance of self and mutual induction devices. As technology evolves, new
applications will emerge, expanding the impact of these fundamental concepts.
Understanding self and mutual induction is essential for designing and optimizing
electrical systems, enabling innovation and advancement in various fields.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY :
* WWW.Vedanthu.com
* https://Byjus.com
* WWW.Scribd.com
* WWW.Unacdemy.com
* https://www.electropicstutorials.co
* Meta AI

Books:
* NCERT Physics Textbook Class XII, Part - 1
* Resnick R; Halliday D; Krane K., Physics
* Resnick R; Halliday D; Walker J., Physics
* K; Gogia K., Pradeep's Fundamental Physics
* Sl arora part-1 class 12 physics

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