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SCOPE

 Moral Sphere:
o Ethical philosophy provides the foundational principles for personal morality,
guiding individuals in understanding what constitutes right and wrong.
o For example, questions about honesty, integrity, justice, and compassion are
explored within moral philosophy, offering standards for personal behavior
that go beyond societal norms.
 Social Sphere:
o In the social sphere, ethical philosophy shapes interpersonal relationships and
community values.
o It addresses issues like fairness, respect, empathy, and social justice, aiming to
promote harmony and reduce conflict within society.
o For instance, concepts like equality, human rights, and social responsibility are
grounded in ethical reasoning, influencing laws, social norms, and community
engagement.
 Religious Sphere:
o Ethical philosophy intersects with religious beliefs and practices, as many
religions have ethical teachings that guide adherents’ conduct.
 Political Sphere:
o Ethical philosophy plays a critical role in political theory and governance by
providing a moral basis for laws, policies, and leadership practices
o For example, debates on issues like wealth distribution, freedom of speech,
and civil rights rely on ethical reasoning to balance individual freedom with
collective welfare.
BRANCHES
 Descriptive Ethics
o descriptive ethics studies and describes how people actually behave and what
moral standards they follow.
o It is an observational branch that does not judge whether actions are right or
wrong but instead records and analyses moral practices across societies.
o Example: Descriptive ethics might examine cultural attitudes toward practices
like polygamy, examining how different societies perceive it without making
moral judgments. In one culture, polygamy may be widely accepted, while in
another, it may be viewed as unethical. Descriptive ethics simply reports these
differences.
 Normative Ethics
o Normative ethics focuses on establishing standards or norms for behaviour,
determining what people ought to do.
o It involves creating guidelines and principles for what is morally right or
wrong, often based on theories like deontology, utilitarianism, and virtue
ethics.
o Example: A normative ethical approach might conclude that “lying is wrong”
based on a principle of honesty. This branch would analyze why honesty is
considered morally superior and under what conditions, if any, lying could be
ethically justified.
 Meta-Ethics
o Meta-ethics explores the nature, origin, and meaning of ethical concepts,
questioning what “good,” “right,” and “moral” truly mean.
o Example: A meta-ethical question might ask, “Is morality objective or
subjective?” or “What does it mean for an action to be good?”
 Applied Ethics
o Applied ethics addresses specific, real-world moral issues and dilemmas,
applying ethical theories and principles to practical situations. It looks at
concrete cases and attempts to determine the ethical course of action in areas
like medicine, business, law, and environmental concerns.
o Example: Medical ethics, a subfield of applied ethics, deals with issues such
as euthanasia. Applied ethics would use normative ethical principles to decide
whether euthanasia is morally acceptable, weighing factors like autonomy,
quality of life, and harm.
THEORIES
 Virtue Theory
o Virtue theory, rooted in Aristotle's philosophy, focuses on the character and
virtues of the individual rather than on specific actions. It emphasizes
cultivating moral virtues (like honesty, courage, compassion) that lead to a
morally good character and thus to morally good actions. The goal is to
develop a virtuous character and lead a flourishing life.
o Example: Imagine a doctor faced with a terminally ill patient who is in
extreme pain and requests euthanasia. According to virtue theory, the doctor
would consider virtues like compassion, empathy, and wisdom when deciding
how to respond. The doctor might aim to relieve the patient’s suffering in the
most ethical way possible while balancing respect for life and compassionate
care, focusing on actions that align with the virtues that define good medical
practice.
 Rights Theory
o Rights theory, associated with philosophers like John Locke and Immanuel
Kant, centres on the belief that all individuals possess inherent rights that must
be respected. It argues that ethical decisions should protect and respect
individual rights, such as the rights to life, freedom, and privacy. These rights
are often viewed as universal and inalienable.
o Example: In a workplace scenario, if an employee discovers that their
manager is reading employees’ private emails without consent, they might see
this as a violation of the right to privacy. According to rights theory, the
manager’s action would be unethical, as it infringes upon the employees' right
to privacy. Rights theory would suggest that management should find other
ways to ensure productivity and integrity that do not violate these rights.
 Casuist Theory
o Casuist theory is a case-based approach to ethics, where each ethical dilemma
is analyzed by comparing it to previous similar cases. It does not follow a set
of fixed rules but instead looks at the specifics of each situation and the
outcomes of past cases to determine the best course of action.
o Example: Imagine a hospital facing a medical supply shortage, where there
aren’t enough ventilators for all patients in critical condition. Doctors must
decide which patients should receive ventilators and which patients will not.
Using casuist theory, the hospital ethics committee examines similar past
cases, such as situations during previous medical crises or pandemics, to guide
their decision-making.

Action vs. Mere Behavior


In philosophy, action is distinguished from mere behavior, emphasizing that there is more
involved than just physical movement. For example, a leg convulsion doesn’t qualify as an
action, whereas nervously tapping one’s foot does.
The Metaphysics of Actions
1. Causalism vs. Non-causalism:
The distinction lies in how we explain actions. Causalism asserts that desires, beliefs,
and intentions can provide causal explanations for actions. For example, "The bell
rang because someone pushed the button" shows a clear cause. In contrast, "The bell
rang because it was time to eat" does not imply a causal relationship.
2. The Individuation of Actions:
This examines how many actions occur in a given situation and their relationships.
For instance, if pushing a button causes a bell to ring, are these two separate actions or
one? The perspective here is that pushing the button and the bell ringing can be
considered a single action when one leads to the other.
3. Action and Determinism:
Determinism raises questions about freedom in human action. If an agent’s reasons
for acting cause their actions, it suggests that the agent is determined to act in that
way. However, one could argue that if the reasons cause the action, the agent is still
acting freely if guided appropriately by those reasons, even if the action is causally
determined.
The Epistemology of Actions
The understanding of actions is tied to epistemology, focusing on knowledge, its methods,
validity, and the distinction between justified belief and mere opinion. Individuals can know
their actions without direct observation, as in the case of a project director who can
effectively manage a project without constant updates, demonstrating "practical knowledge."
This concept extends beyond just knowing our actions to encompass our beliefs derived from
passive knowledge.

Linking
1. Moral Foundation: Ethical ideals are rooted in a broader moral understanding of the
universe. Ethics, as a discipline, seeks to define these ideals, which ties it to
philosophy.
2. Nature of Things: Ethical judgments are often based on the nature of the things we
are considering. This means ethics relies on philosophical ideas to better understand
these objects.
3. Understanding Assumptions: Philosophy examines basic ethical ideas, such as the
existence of God and the concepts of free will and an afterlife. Clarifying these ideas
is a philosophical task that supports ethical discussions.
4. Human Relationships: Ethics looks at people as conscious beings, while philosophy
explores their relationships with the world, God, and society. Thus, ethics often needs
philosophical insights for deeper understanding.
5. Organizing Knowledge: Philosophy helps to arrange and clarify both facts and
values. Since ethics focuses on values, its connection to philosophy is essential.
6. Philosophical Issues in Ethics: Many ethical questions overlap with philosophical
problems, so ethics needs to engage with these questions.
MODULE 2 :- ETHICS AT WORKPLACE
PROFESSIONAL ETHICAL CODES

Reason for unethical behaviour.


 The principles of the Fraud Triangle highlight vulnerabilities that can lead to unethical
behaviour,
 while professional ethics codes aim to create an environment that promotes ethical
conduct, accountability, and transparency.

 Opportunity –
o Opportunity refers to the circumstances that allow an individual to commit
fraud.
o Opportunities often arise from weak internal controls, lack of oversight, access
to assets, or vulnerabilities in organizational processes.
o Weak internal controls that fail to prevent unauthorized access to financial
systems.
o Lack of oversight or supervision that allows individuals to act without
scrutiny.
o Opportunities created by complex transactions that are difficult to understand
or monitor.
 Pressure –
o Pressure encompasses the motivations or incentives that drive individuals to
commit fraud.
o This can include financial difficulties, personal crises, or performance-related
stressors (such as meeting targets or deadlines).
o The pressure can be external (such as financial obligations) or internal (such as
personal ambitions or goals).
o Financial difficulties, such as medical bills or excessive debt, prompting
someone to steal funds.
o
 Rationalization –
o Rationalization is the psychological process by which individuals justify their
fraudulent behaviour to themselves.
o They may convince themselves that their actions are acceptable, not harmful,
or deserved.
o Common rationalizations include beliefs like "I’m just borrowing the money"
or "Everyone else does it," which help them maintain a positive self-image
despite engaging in unethical acts.
o An employee justifies stealing from the company by believing that they are
underpaid and deserve more compensation.
o Individuals may believe that the organization is doing unethical things, so they
feel entitled to act unethically themselves

Principles of ethical behaviour


 Honesty
 Fairness
 Objectivity
 Responsibility

Professional Ethical Codes


 A professional code of ethics offers employees a clear set of guidelines for making
ethical decisions in the workplace.
 It establishes a standard for what is considered socially acceptable behavior and
provides a framework for how professionals should address various challenges.
 Although developing such a code requires time, it promotes honesty and integrity
among employees, contributing to a more harmonious work environment.

What is a professional code of ethics?


 A professional code of ethics serves as a framework for professionals to navigate
moral dilemmas and make informed decisions.
 It articulates the mission and values of an organization, guiding employees in their
approach to problems and establishing the standards they are expected to uphold.

Why is a code of ethics important?


 promotes socially acceptable and respectful behaviour among employees,
 setting clear rules for conduct and
 emphasizing the expectation of universal compliance.
 It serves as a proactive warning mechanism for breaches of the code and acts as both
an internal guide for professional behaviour and an external declaration of a
company's values and commitments.
The components of the code of professional ethics:
Code of Ethics
 A code of ethics is a formal document that outlines the ethical principles and
standards of conduct expected of individuals within an organization.
 It serves as a guideline for behaviour, decision-making, and interpersonal interactions.
 The components of a professional code of ethics include essential principles that
guide employee behaviour in an organization.
o Respect for Others: Employees must treat everyone courteously and
respectfully, avoiding harassment, victimization, or any form of violence
towards colleagues, clients, and stakeholders.
o Integrity and Honesty: Employees are expected to act truthfully and
transparently, aligning their actions with the organization’s mission and
avoiding dishonest conduct or theft, which can lead to severe consequences.
o Conflict of Interest: Employees should ensure their interests do not conflict
with organizational objectives, avoiding actions that could harm the company,
whether for personal gain or in situations involving dubious practices.
o Justice: Fairness is paramount; employees should be objective in decision-
making, provide equal opportunities, and remain unbiased, while also being
just towards customers and vendors.
o Lawfulness: Adherence to legal requirements is fundamental, including
confidentiality and data protection policies, as well as compliance with laws
related to fraud, bribery, and assault.
o Competence and Accountability: Employees need to demonstrate diligence
and take responsibility for their work, acknowledging mistakes and working
towards rectifying them.
o Teamwork: Collaboration and willingness to assist others are encouraged as
part of a collective organizational effort, promoting a culture of shared
knowledge and support.

Recognizing Unethical Business Activities:


 Taking Things That Don’t Belong to You: This includes unauthorized use of
someone else’s property or misrepresentation to obtain property, such as using
company resources for personal use. Example - such as using the postage meter at
your office for mailing personal letters or exaggerating your travel expenses.

 Saying Things, You Know Are Not True: This involves lying about facts or blaming
others, particularly in competitive situations like promotions.
 Giving or Allowing False Impressions: Misleading customers by allowing them to
believe something false about a product, such as concealing damage, constitutes this
violation. A car dealer who fails to disclose that a car has been in an accident is
misleading potential customers.
 Buying Influence or Engaging in a Conflict of Interest: Conflicts arise when
personal interests affect professional duties, for example, awarding contracts based on
personal relationships rather than merit.
 Hiding or Divulging Information: Failing to disclose critical information, such as
harmful side effects of a product, or leaking proprietary information to competitors is
unethical.
 Taking Unfair Advantage: Exploiting consumers, particularly those lacking
knowledge or understanding, can lead to unethical business practices, prompting
consumer protections
 Committing Improper Personal Behaviour: Personal conduct outside of work can
affect professional performance and company reputation, such as substance abuse by
employees in safety-sensitive roles.
 Abusing Power and Mistreating Individuals: Harassment or public humiliation by
those in authority is a violation of ethical conduct.
 Permitting Organizational Abuse: Companies must avoid perpetuating labour
abuses in their international operations, such as child labour and unfair wages.
 Violating Rules: Ignoring organizational protocols can lead to unethical actions, even
if they seem cumbersome to employees.
 Condoning Unethical Actions: Tolerating the unethical behaviour of others, such as
embezzlement, without reporting it is itself an ethical violation.

Developing professional ethical culture


 Identify the gaps between the ethical behavior expected and actual
 Addressing these gaps through various plans, programs and interventions
 Develop indicators to ensure there is no degradation in ethical behaviour
 Leadership by example-
o Carry out their activities in a professional, ethical and responsible manner.
o Follow the Code of Ethics of the company.
o Comply with generally accepted accounting standards and principles.
o Maintain ethical and licit relationships with suppliers of goods and services.
o Aspire to excellence in the goods and services of the company.
o Not abuse a dominant or privileged market position.
o Treat employees with dignity, respect and justice
o Respect human rights and democratic institutions.
o Exercise sensitive professional and moral judgements in all their activities.
WORKPLACE RIGHTS & RESPONSIBILITIES (WHISTLE BLOWING)

 RIGHT - A right is something you are entitled to receive, e.g. to be treated in a fair,
ethical and legal way.
 RESPONSIBILITY - A responsibility is a duty or something you should do, e.g. to
treat others with respect.

Classification of Rights and Responsibilities:


 Legal Rights and Responsibilities: Defined by national laws, these ensure
individuals are treated equally without discrimination based on age, gender, marital
status, etc. Responsibilities include adhering to these laws.
 Social Rights and Responsibilities: This pertains to the fair treatment of workers by
employers, such as ensuring fair wages and preventing workplace bullying.
Responsibilities involve creating a supportive work environment.
 Environmental Rights and Responsibilities: This includes the obligation to provide
a safe and healthy workplace for employees, while also ensuring that business
practices do not harm the local environment.
 Ethical Rights and Responsibilities: Focused on moral principles, these involve
doing what is right, such as treating employees and suppliers fairly and engaging in
fair trade practices.

Rights of Employees Responsibilities of Employees


Employees are legally protected in various Employees also have responsibilities, either
areas of employment and have the right to legally or morally, to:

 Receive a fair day’s pay for a fair  Carry out their duties as stated in
day’s work. their contract of employment.
 Earn at least the minimum wage set  Arrive at work on time.
by law.  Be loyal to their employer and not
 Receive a contract of employment. disclose confidential business
 Adequate rest breaks. information.
 Holiday pay.  Treat customers, co-workers and the
 Work in a safe and respectful employer with respect and ensure
atmosphere, free from danger, they don’t bully or discriminate
bullying or discrimination. against other employees.
 Join a trade union.  Follow workplace rules and safety
instructions
 Wear any protective equipment and
uniform provided to them by the
employer.
 Attend all training provided by the
business.
Rights of Employers Responsibilities of Employers
 Decide on the objectives of the  Ensure that the workplace is safe
business. and maintains healthy working
 Hire suitable staff for their business. conditions for all employees.
 Dismiss dishonest or unsuitable  Provide employees with adequate
staff. training and adequate gears, if
 Expect loyalty from their staff. necessary.
 Provide employees with statutory
holidays and leave, e.g. maternity /
paternity / parental leave.
 Pay agreed wages. They must pay at
least the minimum wage to their
employees and equal pay to men and
women.
 Deduct necessary taxes from
employees’ pay, including Pay As
You Earn (PAYE), Tax Deduction at
Source (TDS), Pay Related Social
Insurance (PRSI), and Universal
Social Charge (USC). Maintain
accurate employment records,
including details of these deductions.
 Ensure all employees are treated
equally in the business and that
bullying/ harassment does not exist.
They must not discriminate when
advertising, recruiting or promoting
staff.
 Comply with all employment law
and give employees a written
contract of employment.
 Keep employee records which will
help in making decisions about pay
rises, promotions and dismissals.

How Organizations Influence Ethical Conduct


 People's decisions about right and wrong are shaped by their personal ethics and the
ethical environment established by their employers
 Poor business ethics can harm a company's reputation and incur significant costs.
 Organizations can mitigate liability risks by promoting ethical behavior through
o leading by example,
o implementing formal and informal programs, and
o educating employees about ethical standards.
 Leading by Example-
o Employees often follow the examples set by their managers. Leaders and
managers establish patterns of behaviour that determine what’s acceptable and
what’s not within the organization.
o While Ben Cohen was president of Ben & Jerry’s ice cream, he followed a
policy that no one could earn a salary more than seven times that of the
lowest-paid worker. He wanted all employees to feel that they were equal.
 Offering Ethics Training Programs:
o Organizations provide ethics training to raise awareness about ethical
dilemmas and the right responses.
o Effective programs help employees learn to resolve ethical issues by working
through real-life scenarios.
o According to a recent survey by the Ethics Resource centre. Most of the
modern organizations across globe provide some sort of ethics training for
employees
 Establishing a Formal Code of Ethics:
o Many companies create and distribute a code of ethics that outlines expected
behaviours and responsibilities towards colleagues, customers, and suppliers.
o These codes can vary from detailed guidelines to brief statements of
principles.
o When senior management actively promotes the code and adheres to its
principles, it positively influences employee behaviour.
 Whistleblowing:
o Whistleblowers are individuals who report illegal or unethical activities within
an organization.
o They are often motivated by a desire to stop wrongdoing, especially when
witnessing injustices.
o Research indicates that individuals are more likely to report misconduct if
others are aware of it, reducing the fear of retaliation for silence.
o Whistleblowing can have mixed outcomes; while some may be seen as heroes,
others may be viewed as traitors.
o Many professionals hesitate to blow the whistle due to the belief in the
obligation of secrecy, which complicates their loyalty to the employer versus
their duty to the public.
o To support whistleblowers, laws have been enacted to protect their rights and
ensure they can report violations without fear of retaliation.
o They have the right to file complaints when they suspect illegal actions or
significant risks to public safety.
CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
 What is corporate social responsibility?
o Acting in an ethical manner is the concern of businesses for the welfare of
society as a whole.
o It consists of obligations beyond those required by law or union contract.
o This definition makes two important points.
 First, CSR is both voluntary and law abiding.
 Second, the obligations of corporate social responsibility are broad.
They extend beyond investors in the company to include workers,
suppliers, consumers, communities, and society at large.

 Understanding Social Responsibility


CONFLICT OF INTEREST
 Conflict of Interest (COI) occurs when a person or organization has multiple
interests, and pursuing one of these interests may interfere with fulfilling their duties
to another
 There are three key elements in this definition.
o Personal Interest Conflict
 When personal relationships (like family or friendships) impact a
professional's ability to act impartially.
 Example: A hiring manager appointing a close relative to a position
without fair consideration of other candidates.

o Financial Conflict
 This type occurs when a person stands to benefit financially from a
decision or action taken in their professional capacity.
 Example: A government official awarding a contract to a company in
which they hold significant shares..

o Competing Commitments
 When an individual’s professional obligations conflict with
commitments to other organizations or causes.
 Example: A researcher working part-time for two companies with
competing interests, leading to a potential bias in research outcomes.
o
Self-Dealing:
 Example: You work in city planning and use your influence to award a construction
contract to a company you secretly own, violating ethical standards by putting your
own profit ahead of public interest. Alternatively, if you’re on a hiring committee and
arrange an interview for your cousin without following standard procedures, you’re
leveraging your position for personal gain.
Accepting Benefits:
 Example: As a purchasing manager, you accept a luxury watch from a supplier hoping
to secure a big contract with your company. While you may not explicitly agree to
favor them, accepting this substantial gift creates a perceived obligation, potentially
influencing your future decisions.
Influence Peddling:
 Example: You are a high-ranking government official, and a business owner offers
you a cash payment to expedite their permit approval. If you agree, you’re selling
your influence to unfairly benefit one party over others, compromising your
impartiality.
Using Employer’s Property for Private Advantage:
 Example: You work in IT and use company-provided software, licensed solely for
work purposes, to freelance on weekends. Even if the employer allows incidental
personal use of some resources, using software this way violates ethical boundaries
and potentially breaches licensing agreements.
Using Confidential Information:
 Example: You’re a financial advisor with access to confidential merger information
about a tech firm. If you act on this by purchasing stock in the company before the
merger is announced, you exploit privileged information for personal gain, which is
both unethical and illegal.
Outside Employment or Moonlighting:
 Example: You’re employed full-time as a corporate lawyer but also take on private
clients at night. If you’re too overextended to perform well in your main job, or if you
represent clients against your employer's interests, this conflicts with your primary
professional responsibilities.
Post-Employment Conflicts:
 Example: After resigning from a senior role in environmental regulation, you start a
consulting firm specializing in helping companies navigate environmental
compliance. If you lobby former colleagues in your previous department to fast-track
approvals, your prior position may give you undue influence, creating a potential
conflict of interest.
MANAGING BOUNDARIES AND MULTIPLE RELATIONSHIPS (SOCIALIZING
WITH CURRENT OR FORMER CLIENTS, MAKING REFERRALS)

 What are personal boundaries?


o Personal boundaries are the physical, emotional and mental limits people use
to protect themselves from being drawn too much into their clients’ lives and
from being manipulated or violated by others.
o They allow professionals to maintain psychological safety for themselves and
their clients, and make objective decisions about the therapeutic process to
most effectively assist clients to achieve their goals.
o Without these personal boundaries, professionals can run the risk of getting
too involved in clients’ issues and wanting to “rescue” their client from their
situation. While workers cannot “rescue” their clients, they can work with
clients to help them achieve their goals, which may include supporting them to
change their situation.
 What are professional boundaries?
o Professional boundaries are the legal, ethical and organisational frameworks
that protect both clients and employees, or workers, from physical and
emotional harm, and help to maintain a safe working environment.
o Sometimes we encounter challenging situations in our therapeutic work, which
can make maintaining these boundaries difficult. For example, if a client:
 Offers you gifts
 Invites you to a social function
 Wants to extend your relationship beyond the service provided, e.g., be
your friend
 Divulges information, which is not relevant to the business goals.
o Situations such as these require workers to have a clear understanding of their
role and ethical principles, and the organisation’s policies and code of conduct.
 Consideration for maintaining professional and personal boundaries
o Expectations - Set clear expectations with clients at the beginning of the
process about what they can expect from you, as the professional, and what
you expect from them, as the client. This includes acceptable behaviours,
mutual respect and a commitment to the therapeutic process.
o Your role - Be clear about your role and its limits.
o Assertiveness - Be assertive and let clients know if they are
behaving inappropriately
o Clear relationship - Only have one relationship at a time with a client,
wherever possible. Having both a professional relationship and a personal
friendship with a client at the same time can make it difficult to maintain
boundaries and a safe and appropriate working environment.
o Personal information - Avoid disclosing your personal information to a client.
o Unnecessary information - Do not seek unnecessary information from the
client that is not relevant to the therapeutic process.
o Objectivity - Maintain your objectivity with clients.
o Triggers - Understand how to recognise and manage your triggers
o Privacy and confidentiality - Maintain your clients’ privacy and
confidentiality.
o Critical reflection - Engage in regular critical reflection of your work.
 Socializing at a Work with Clients
o One should be very cautious when it comes to socializing with current or
former clients. Socializing with colleagues, clients or bosses during and
beyond work for conducting a business can be challenging. There are certain
actions that one can take to make the right impression and to make the event
enjoyable for all without challenging the business protocols.
 Keep the conversation appropriate. Do not tell jokes at a party or
gathering that one would never tell in the office. Offending the team
members may make them uncomfortable and could hurt their feelings
and that is something they may not forget anytime soon.
 Discuss non-work topics. Aim to keep the conversation away from
business. Get to know the team – ask them about their hobbies,
families, and interests. Talking about the report one just wrote, or
discussing his recent promotion, can be boring or annoying!
 Be a listener, not a talker. Most people feel special when
someone really listens to what they say. If you're the one doing all the
talking, people may perceive you as selfish and self-centred. So listen
first, and talk second.
 Spend time with new people - Company events are a great way to get
to know colleagues and clients, and bond as a group. Move around
and get to know people that are associated with the client which will
make client think positive about your abilities as a communicator.
 Relax... but not too much - Be yourself and have fun, but don't relax
so much that you say or do something you'll regret the next day. You
may feel more comfortable with your co-workers, but this doesn't
mean you can let go of all self-control. You still have to maintain your
reputation and keep the respect of others. Remember that you're
representing your company, so dress appropriately and be respectful of
everyone else.
 Deal with inappropriate behaviour, appropriately - If you see a co-
worker behaving inappropriately at the event, you should speak to
person and make him comfortable. Do not call out the misconduct
publicly as this could start an argument, which will not do you any
favours.



ORGANIZATIONAL LOYALTY
 What is Organization Loyalty?

 Qualities of a loyal employee

o
 Drivers of employees loyalty

o
 Significance of employee loyalty for business
o


MODULE 3: - ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
LEGAL ASPECTS OF PROFESSIONAL ETHICS
 What are Ethics and Professional Responsibility?
o Professional ethics are principles that govern the behavior of a person or group
in a business environment.
o Unlike values, professional ethics are often codified as a set of rules, which a
particular group of people use. This means that all those in a particular group
will use the same professional ethics, even though their values may be unique
to each person.
o Ethical principles underpin all professional codes of conduct. Ethical
principles may differ depending on the profession; for example, professional
ethics that relate to medical practitioners will differ from those that relate to
lawyers or real estate agents.
o However, there are some universal ethical principles that apply across all
professions, including:
 Honesty
 Trustworthiness
 Loyalty
 Respect for others
 Adherence to the law
 Doing good and avoiding harm to others
 Accountability.
 Relationships among Law, Licensure, and Ethics
o Professional associations' efforts to enforce ethics codes are bedevilled by
widespread confusion about the interrelationship among law, licensure rules,
malpractice, other civil law rules (such as contracts or regulatory
requirements), and ethics. Thus, a professional charged may protest: "You
can't charge me with unethical conduct: I was acquitted in my criminal case."
or an ethics committee member may say: "Of course he acted unethically; the
jury found malpractice." Alternatively, a complainant may say: "He isn't even
licensed, so you should get him for unethical conduct." All these statements
are illogical because they confuse the several intersecting realms in which
problems of professional misconduct can be addressed.








BASICS OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS, CONFIDENTIALITY &
UNINTENTIONAL BREACHES OF CONFIDENTIALITY
 What is an Intellectual Property?
o Intellectual Property – refers to creations of the mind, such as inventions;
literary and artistic works; designs; and symbols, names and images.
o Intellectual Property rights provide protection for creations and inventions, to
enable creators and inventors to earn recognition and financial benefit from
their work.

 Types of Intellectual Property


o 1. Copyrights
 Copyright" literally means the right to copy but has come to mean that
body of exclusive rights granted by law to copyright owners for
protection of their work. Copyright protection does not extend to any
idea, procedure, process, system, title, principle, or discovery.
 Copyright is the right to copy. This means that the original creators of
products and anyone they give authorization to, are the only ones with
the exclusive right to reproduce the work. A Copyright is granted for
60 years.
 What can be protected using copyright?
 Literary works such as novels, poems, plays, reference works,
newspaper articles.
 Computer programs, databases.
 Films, musical compositions, and choreography.
 Artistic works such as paintings, drawings, photographs, and
sculpture.
 Architecture; and
 Advertisements, maps, and technical drawings.

 What rights does copyright gives the author?


 Economic rights, which allow the rights owner to derive
financial reward from the use of their works by others; and
 Moral rights, which protect the non-economic interests of the
author.
 The economic rights owner of a work can prohibits or
authorize:
o Its reproduction in various forms, such as printed
publication or sound recording.
o Its public performance, such as in a play or musical
work.
o Its recording, for example, in the form of compact discs
or DVDs;
o Its broadcasting, by radio, cable or satellite.
o Its translation into other languages; and
o Its adaptation, such as a novel into a film screenplay.
o 2. Patents
 A patent is an exclusive right granted for an invention, which is a
product or a process that provides a new way of doing something or
offers a new technical solution to a problem.
 A patent protection is granted for a limited period, generally 20 years
from the filing date of the application.
 Protection offered through Patent –
 In principle, the patent owner has the exclusive right to prevent
or stop others from commercially exploiting the patented
invention. In other words, patent protection means that the
invention cannot be commercially made, used, distributed,
imported or sold by others without the patent owner's consent.

o 3. Trademarks
 A trademark is a sign capable of distinguishing the goods or services of
one enterprise from those of other enterprises. The term trademark
refers to a recognizable insignia, phrase, word, or symbol that denotes
a specific product and legally differentiates it from all other products
of its kind.
 A trademark exclusively identifies a product as belonging to a specific
company and recognizes the company's ownership of the brand. A
trademark is allotted for a period of 10 years.
 What constitute a trademark
 A word or a combination of words, letters, and numerals can
perfectly constitute a trademark.
 However, trademarks may also consist of drawings, symbols,
three-dimensional features such as the shape and packaging of
goods, non-visible signs such as sounds or fragrances, or colour
shades used as distinguishing features – the possibilities are
almost limitless.
 Rights that trademark registration provides –
 a trademark registration will confer an exclusive right to the use
of the registered trademark. This implies that the trademark can
be exclusively used by its owner or licensed to another party
for use in return for payment. Registration provides legal
certainty and reinforces the position of the right holder, for
example, in case of litigation.

o 4. Trade Secrets
 In general, to qualify as a trade secret, the information must be:
 Commercially valuable because it is secret,
 Be known only to a limited group of persons,
 The unauthorized acquisition, use or disclosure of such secret
information in a manner, contrary to honest commercial practices by
others, is regarded as an unfair practice and a violation of the trade
secret protection. A trade secret has an eligibility of 20 years.
 Information that is protected by a trade secret
 In general, any confidential business information which
provides an enterprise a competitive edge and is unknown to
others may be protected as a trade secret. Trade secrets
encompass both technical information, such as information
concerning manufacturing processes, pharmaceutical test data,
designs and drawings of computer programs, and commercial
information, such as distribution methods, list of suppliers and
clients, and advertising strategies.
 A trade secret may be also made up of a combination of
elements, each of which by itself is in the public domain, but
where the combination, which is kept secret, provides a
competitive advantage.
 Protection offered by Trade Secret
 Depending on the legal system, the legal protection of trade
secrets forms part of the general concept of protection against
unfair competition or is based on specific provisions or case
law on the protection of confidential information.
 A trade secret owner, however, cannot stop others from using
the same technical or commercial information, if they acquired
or developed such information independently by themselves
through their own

o 5. Industrial Designs
 An industrial design constitutes the ornamental aspect of an article.
 An industrial design may consist of three-dimensional features, such as
the shape of an article, or two-dimensional features, such as patterns,
lines or colour.
 Protection through industrial designs –
 The owner of a registered industrial design or of a design patent
has the right to prevent third parties from making, selling or
importing articles bearing or embodying a design which is a
copy, or substantially a copy, of the protected design, when
such acts are undertaken for commercial purposes.
 What it covers? –
 Industrial designs are applied to a wide variety of products of
industry and handicraft items: from packages and containers to
furnishing and household goods, from lighting equipment to
jewellery, and from electronic devices to textiles. Industrial
designs may also be relevant to graphic symbols, graphical user
interfaces (GUI), and logos.

o 6. Geographical Indications
 A geographical indication (GI) is a sign used on products that have a
specific geographical origin and possess qualities or a reputation that
are due to that origin. In order to function as a GI, a sign must identify
a product as originating in a given place. In addition, the qualities,
characteristics or reputation of the product should be essentially due to
the place of origin. Since the qualities depend on the geographical
place of production, there is a clear link between the product and its
original place of production.

 Rights provided by Geographical Indication –


 A geographical indication right enables those who have the
right to use the indication to prevent its use by a third party
whose product does not conform to the applicable standards.
For example, in the jurisdictions in which the Darjeeling
geographical indication is protected, producers of Darjeeling
tea can exclude use of the term “Darjeeling” for tea not grown
in their tea gardens or not produced according to the standards
set out in the code of practice for the geographical indication.

 What is covered under Geographical Indications? –


 Geographical indications are typically used for agricultural
products, foodstuffs, wine and spirit drinks, handicrafts, and
industrial products.

 Objectives of Intellectual Property


o The main objective of intellectual property law is to encourage innovation and
to provide incentives for innovation by granting protection to inventors that
will allow them to recover research and development investments and reap the
benefits of their inventions for a limited period of time.
o Why is IPR Important?
 Intellectual property protection is critical to fostering innovation.
Without protection of ideas, businesses and individuals would not reap
the full benefits of their inventions and would focus less
on research and development.
 Why promote and protect Intellectual Property?
o There are several reasons for promoting and protecting intellectual property.
Some of them are:
 Progress and the good of humanity remain in the ability to create and
invent new works in the field of technology and culture.
 IP protection encourages publication, distribution, and disclosure of the
creation to the public, rather than keeping it a secret.
 Promotion and protection of intellectual Property promote economic
development, generates new jobs and helps industries.
 Intellectual Property helps in balancing the innovator’s interests and
public interest, provide an environment where innovation, creativity
and invention can flourish and benefit all.
 Nature & Characteristics of Intellectual Property Rights
o Intangible property.
 IP does not cover the created physical object but retains the conceptual
development behind the physical object.
 IP is about a person’s ability to produce a new idea and put it before
the public. he product does not have any property as such but the
strength, judgment and initiative of the mind that is included in the
product.
o Rights & Duties.
 The owner of the IP has the right to perform certain functions in
relation to his work/product. He has the exclusive right to produce the
work, make copies of the work, market work, etc. There is also a
negative right to prevent third parties from exercising their statutory
rights.
o Creation of Statute.
 Intellectual property is derived from common law, and it is covered
under specific laws.
 In accordance with relevant legislation, IPRs are statutory rights.
 Intellectual property, to put it differently, is statute formation.
 The right holder is protected by proposals, technical solutions or any
other knowledge conveyed in a legally acceptable manner and subject
in some instances to registration procedures.
o Territoriality.
 Intellectual property laws are mainly territorial and apply only within
the relevant competence.
 Although the agreement sets the minimum standard in its respective
municipal laws for all nations, the IP laws around the world are not
harmoniously united.
o Assignable.
 They should obviously be granted (licensed), because they are
privileges.
 IP may be bought, sold or licensed, employed or affiliated.
o Dynamism.
 The IPR is constantly changing.
 The IP sector is also developing accordingly, as technology in all areas
of human activities is changing exponentially.
 In accordance with the demand for scientific and technological
advancement, the scope of its defence is being extended and new items
are being added to the IPRs sector.
o Subject matter of IPR Protection.
 Intellectual property rights eligibility depends solely on the protection
issue. The products specifically identified and acknowledged in the law
as the subject of protection are entitled to intellectual property rights.
 While the minimum requirements laid down in law may be included,
protection may still be denied if it is expressly omitted from the subject
matter entitled to protection.
o Different rights’ co-exist
 In relation to a particular job, different types of IPR will coexist.
An invention can, for example, be patented and an innovation drawing
may be copyrighted.
 Under the Design Law, a design can be covered and the design also
incorporated into a logo.
 There are many similarities and differences between different IP rights.
o Exhaustion of rights
 The definition of exhaustion is usually regulated by intellectual
property rights.
 Exhaustion essentially means that the right is terminated after the first
selling by the right holder or his exhalation authorisation and he can’t
stop moving goods further.
CONFIDENTIALITY
 Confidentiality is the obligation and right not to disclose information to unauthorized
individuals, entities, or processes if it would harm the organization, its business
relationships, or an individual.
 It's part of a duty of loyalty for the management.
 Confidentiality is the keeping of another person or entity’s information private.
Certain professionals are required by law to keep information shared by a client or
patient private, without disclosing the information, even to law enforcement, except
under certain specific circumstances. The principle of confidentiality is most
commonly expected in the medical field, and the legal field.
o Specific Situation: A patient visits a doctor to discuss their history of
substance abuse. The doctor is legally bound to keep that information
confidential, unless the patient poses a threat to themselves or others, in which
case the doctor may be required to breach confidentiality to ensure safety.

 What is confidentiality in an Organisation?


o Confidential information means personal communication or information
relating to an organisation's business that is unknown to the public and only
shared between a few people.
o Workplace confidentiality refers to any confidential information that you come
across in the course of business. This information comes into the possession of
the Organisation through its work. It is the crucial information about the
stakeholders and business processes used in specific decision making.
o There are three main types of information with any organization, leak of
which could lead to breach in confidentiality:
 The personal information of customers.
 Employee information that managers collect, and
 “Proprietary Information”

 Why is confidentiality important for an Organisation?


o Confidentiality builds trust between employer and employee and business
owners have an obligation to keep stakeholder’s information secure and
trusted. To have their information shared is not only a breach in privacy, but it
will destroy employee trust, confidence and loyalty. It may cause a loss in
productivity and legal repercussions.
o Failure to protect and secure confidential information may not only lead to the
loss of business or clients, but it also unlocks the danger of confidential
information being misused to commit illegal activity such as fraud. A key
element of confidentiality is that it helps build trust.

 Breach of confidentiality is a common law tort, which means it can be brought as a


civil lawsuit against the individual who breached the agreement. Penalties that may be
handed down include monetary damages, which could be quite substantial, depending
on the damage done by the breach, as well as an injunction ordering the individual to
stop disclosing protected information. If a breach of confidentiality occurs regarding
medical or legal information, the breaching individual may be subject to penalties by
his employer, or by the board that issued his professional license.

 Employee Consequences for Breach of Confidentiality


o Termination of Employment
 The first and the most obvious consequence is termination. No
employer will be willing to retain employees who maliciously or
carelessly lose confidential information, they're no longer assets for the
business. An employer is usually within his legal rights to terminate the
employment, even if there is no confidentiality clause signed up.
Breach of confidentiality is considered to be breach of employment
agreement.
o Paying Civil Lawsuit Damages
 The employer can even file a lawsuit and if successful, the employee
will be required to pay lawsuit damages. For instance, if some secret is
revealed to the competitor and the employer is able to prove the loss of
business or image, the employee has to pay the same. Even if the
employer is not able to prove the quantitative damage, he is entitled to
punitive damage.
o Standing Trial in a Criminal Case
 In extreme information, a breach of confidentiality can even lead to
criminal charges against the employee. It may happen if the employee
is involved in theft of proprietary data or Intellectual Property.
o Loss of Reputation
 In a specialized industry where businesses are well-aware about the
other businesses such acts of breach can permanently tarnish an
employee's reputation. This is a long-term consequence wherein an
employee's future job aspects maybe doomed.

 Unintentional Breach in Confidentiality


o Seen very commonly, the unintentional breach of confidentiality may occur
due to Carelessness and for legal reporting.
o There are various ways in which the confidentiality might be breached.
Perhaps the most obvious and common threat to confidentiality protection
arises from simple carelessness such as:
 Not removing identifiers from the data files,
 Leaving cabinets unlocked,
 Not encrypting files containing identifiers,
 Talking about specific respondents with others not authorized to have
this information, and so on.

o It is very important for the organizations to be alert to these issues, provide


employee guidelines for appropriate data management, and ensure that the
guidelines are observed.

o Some of the examples where breach in confidentiality is experienced are:


 Loyalty card – during billing, the executive asks your phone number in
public.
 Social Engineering, where people intentionally come close to fetch
crucial information.
 Loss of phone and other electronic gadgets.
 Using information without removing the identifiers. People will come
to know the respondents of information in case of research.
 The collected information may be shared to unintended people,
especially the managers, since they are part of the organization.
 A doctor, while discussing a complex case with a colleague,
accidentally mentions a patient's name and some personal health
details in a public space, such as a hallway or cafeteria, where others
might overhear. Although the doctor had no intention to breach
confidentiality, this unintentional disclosure compromises the patient's
privacy.
PRINCIPLES OF NATURAL JUSTICE
 Natural justice is identified with the two constituents of a fair hearing, which are the
rule against bias (nemo iudex in causa sua, or "no man a judge in his own cause"), and
the right to a fair hearing (audi alteram partem, or "hear the other side").
 Essentially, natural justice requires that a person receive a fair and unbiased hearing
before a decision is made that will negatively affect them.
 The three main requirements of natural justice that must be met in every case are:
o adequate notice,
o fair hearing and
o no bias.
 Sometimes, all three of these concepts are grouped together as “the right to a fair
hearing.”
o The notice requirement means that the people affected by the decision must
be told about the important issues and be given enough information to be able
to participate meaningfully in the decision-making process.
o The fair hearing requirement means that the people affected are given a
reasonable opportunity to present their point of view and to respond to facts
presented by others, and that the decision-maker will genuinely consider what
each person has told them when making the decision.
o The no bias requirement means that the person making the decision must act
impartially when considering the matter and must not have any relationships
with anyone that could lead someone to reasonably doubt their impartiality.



 Case of a University Disciplinary Panel: A student is accused of cheating in an


exam. One of the members of the disciplinary panel, however, is a faculty member
who has a personal vendetta against the student. In such a case, the principle of nemo
judex in causa sua requires that the biased faculty member recuse themselves from
the panel to ensure that the decision is made impartially. If the faculty member
proceeds to judge the case, the decision could be challenged on the grounds of bias, as
the principle of natural justice requires unbiased decision-making.

o Types of bias
 Personal Bias – personal connection with one of the parties involved in
the case, which influences their judgment.
 Example: A judge who has a close personal relationship with a
defendant or has previously had conflicts with the opposing
party may consciously or unconsciously favor one side due to
their personal feelings toward the parties involved. This could
result in an unfair judgment or decision.

 Pecuniary Bias - Pecuniary bias arises when a decision-maker has a


financial interest in the outcome of the case
 Example: A government official who is responsible for
approving a contract for a company in which they own shares
may be biased toward approving the contract, as a favorable
decision would result in personal financial gain.
.
 Subject Matter Bias - Subject matter bias occurs when the decision-
maker has a personal or professional involvement in the subject of the
case
 Example: A member of a regulatory body responsible for
approving a new drug may have previously worked as a
researcher for the company that is seeking approval. Even if
they are not directly involved in the approval process, their
previous involvement in the subject matter could raise
questions about their neutrality.

 Case of Employee Disciplinary Action: An employee at a company is accused of


misconduct, such as violating company policies. Under the principle of audi alteram
partem, the employee must be given notice of the charges against them and an
opportunity to explain their side of the story before any disciplinary action is taken.
They must be allowed to present evidence, question witnesses, and be heard during
the decision-making process.

 Case: R v. Secretary of State for the Home Department (1999)


This case involved a decision where an individual was detained without being
informed of the reasons for their detention. The court held that the individual had not
been given a fair hearing, and as a result, the decision was made invalid based on the
principles of natural justice. The right to a fair hearing (audi alteram partem) was
violated because the detainee was not given an opportunity to challenge the decision.
WORKING WITH MINOR





 Business and Engagement of Minors:
1. Potential Harm of Employing Minors
 Impact on Well-being: Employing minors can harm their physical and mental
health, as they are still in the process of growing and developing.
Inappropriate work environments can negatively affect their development and
overall well-being.
 Education and Future Livelihood: Employment at a young age often
interferes with a child’s education. A child who works instead of attending
school may not acquire the skills and qualifications needed for a successful
future career, thus limiting their long-term economic opportunities.

2. Minimum Age for Employment


 Age of Completion of Compulsory Schooling: The minimum legal working
age for minors should align with the age at which compulsory schooling ends,
ensuring that the child completes their education before entering the
workforce. In many countries, this is set to be at least 15 years old.
 International Labour Organization (ILO) Standards: All ILO member
states are obligated to abolish child labor, regardless of whether they have
ratified specific ILO conventions. This means that companies operating in
those countries must also contribute to the elimination of child labor within
their territories.

3. Minimum Age for “Light Work” and Hazardous Work


 Light Work: In some developing countries, a lower minimum age may be set
for "light work" (typically 12 or 14 years old). However, such work should not
interfere with the child's schooling, health, or overall development. Light work
refers to work that is less strenuous and does not harm the child’s health or
future prospects.
 Hazardous Work: Any form of work that endangers a minor’s health, safety,
or morals is categorized as hazardous. The minimum age for such work is
universally set at 18 years old. It’s essential to understand that hazardous
work can involve physical labor, exposure to dangerous machinery, chemicals,
or working in harmful environments. Countries are required to list hazardous
occupations and enforce legal protections against such practices.

4. Youth Employment vs. Child Labour


 Youth Employment: Not all work by minors is considered child labor. Youth
employment refers to situations where young individuals (between the legal
minimum working age and 18) engage in productive work that is not
hazardous or exploitative. These minors are often allowed to participate in
work that offers decent conditions and learning opportunities, such as part-
time work or internships.
 Child Labor: Child labor is defined as any form of work that is exploitative,
dangerous, or interferes with the child’s education. It includes tasks that are
beyond the child’s physical or mental capacity, or work that exposes them to
unhealthy or abusive conditions.
 The distinction is important because youth employment allows for work that
contributes to a young person’s development without exploiting or
endangering them, whereas child labor includes work that harms the child’s
development, health, or education.
REDRESSAL MECHANISM- ORGANIZATIONAL COMPLAINT PROCEDURE
MODULE 4; - GLOBAL ISSUES IN DIFFERENT SECTORS

 Globalization of MNCs, International Trade


MODULE 5: - Research Ethics and Academic Integrity

BEST PRACTICES IN RESEARCH


 Framing best practices for research integrity-
o Objective To develop and uphold principles that ensure research is conducted
with integrity, promoting dependable scientific outcomes.
o Core values Essential values such as objectivity, honesty, openness,
accountability, fairness, and stewardship form the foundation for ethical
research conduct.
o Norms Some norms are formalized through policies, while others are
informally understood yet equally important.

 Best Practices by Researchers:


o Research Integrity - Uphold research integrity with vigilance,
professionalism, and collegiality.
o Data Handling - Manage and store research data responsibly, ensuring
transparency throughout the research process
o Authorship and Communication - Follow general and disciplinary
authorship standards when communicating through formal publications.
o Mentoring and Supervision - Know your responsibilities as a mentor and
supervisor.
o Peer Review - Strive to be a fair and effective peer reviewer who provides
careful reviews, maintains confidentiality, and recognizes and discloses
conflicts of interest.
o Research Compliance - Understand and comply with relevant institutional
and governmental regulations governing research, including those specific to a
given discipline or field.

 Best Practices by Research Institutions:


o Management - incorporate research integrity into the overall culture of the
institution.
o Assessment - Regularly evaluate research integrity standards within
departments, addressing any weaknesses.
o Research Misconduct Investigations - Conduct investigations and address
research misconduct, if any.
o Training and Education - Continuously improve research training and
education on ethical standards

 Best Practices by Journals and Scholarly Communicators:


o Practicing Transparency - Be transparent in journal policies, including clear
communication of retractions or corrections
o Requiring Openness - Require openness from authors regarding public
access to data, code, and other information necessary to verify or reproduce
reported results
o Authorship Contributions - Require that the contributions and roles of all
authors be described.
o Training and Education - Facilitate regular training and education in
responsible publishing policies and best practices for editors, reviewers, and
authors.
o Collaboration - Work with other journals to develop common approaches and
tools to foster research integrity.

 Best Practices by Research Sponsors:


o Research Integrity and Quality - Align funding and regulatory policies with
the promotion of research integrity and research quality
o Data and Code - Support open access to data and code for transparent,
reproducible results.
o Utilizing Research - Practice impartiality and transparency in utilizing
research for the development of policy and regulations.

 Best Practices by Societies:


o Standards and Education - Serve as a focal point within their disciplines for
the development and updating of standards, dissemination of best practices,
and fostering Research education appropriate to the discipline.

 Organizations Promoting Quality Research


o The Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE),
 The Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) provides advice to
editors and publishers on all aspects of publication ethics and, in
particular, how to handle cases of research and publication misconduct.
 All COPE members are expected to follow the Codes of Conduct for
Journal Editors and Publishers.

o The Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ),


 The Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ) maintains and
develops a reliable source of information about open-access scholarly
journals on the web. DOAJ supports the transition of scholarly
communication and publishing into a model that serves science, higher
education, industry, innovation, societies, and the public.

o The Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA), and


 The Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA) is a non-
profit trade association established to represent the interests of Open
Access (OA) publishers globally across all scientific, technical, and
scholarly disciplines.

o The World Association Of Medical Editors (WAME).


 The World Association of Medical Editors (WAME) is a global
nonprofit voluntary association of editors of peer-reviewed medical
journals. WAME develops policies and recommendations for best
practices for medical journal editors and has a syllabus that members
are encouraged to follow.
ACADEMIC MISCONDUCTS: FALSIFICATION, FABRICATION AND
PLAGIARISM (FFP)
 Research misconduct: Research misconduct means fabrication, falsification, or
plagiarism in proposing, performing, or reviewing research, or in reporting research
results.
o Fabrication is making up data or results and recording or reporting them.
o Falsification is manipulating research materials, equipment, or processes, or
changing or omitting data or results such that the research is not accurately
represented in the research record.
o Plagiarism is the appropriation of another person's ideas, processes, results, or
words without giving appropriate credit.
o Research misconduct does not include honest error or differences of opinion.

 Fabrication
o Fabrication is a process of making or creating data or result for a study.
o It is a process where in an author creates and depict a fake data to analyze and
form conclusions on the basis of it.
o In fabrication, the entire study is based on a data that is never being collected
from any sample.
o Fabrication is the intentional misrepresentation of research results.
o The problem is that investigations into research misconduct are often
inadequate.
o Example –
 Modifying survey answers from participants to show more favorable
outcomes than were actually reported.
 A researcher manipulates raw data to make it align with the expected
hypothesis. For instance, removing outliers without proper justification
to make results appear statistically significant.

 Falsification
o Falsification is a process of manipulation of any of the research element.
o It may include manipulation of
1. Research Instrument
2. Research material
3. Research Equipment
4. Research process
5. Omitting or modifying data or sample

o The main objective of falsification is to present result, not as per the facts, but
as per the requirement or desire of researcher.
o Examples
 Artificially creating data when it should be collected from an actual
experiment.
 Removing an outlier from a series of measurements
 Changing a measurement to make it look higher or lower
 Adding error bars to single measurements to suggest multiple
measurements were performed.
 Presenting data as if derived from stream A while it was obtained from
stream B.
 Falsely recruiting subjects for experiments without revealing the
purpose.

 Plagiarism
o Plagiarism is the appropriation of another person's ideas, processes, results, or
words without giving appropriate credit.
o It may include direct copy and paste, modification or changing some words of
the original information from the internet books, magazine, newspaper,
research, journal, personal information or ideas.

o It is appropriation of another person's research elements in the study.


o Such appropriation include following points
1. Representing the idea of another person, as your own.
2. Claiming the research instrument developed by other as your own creation.
3. Using the constructs of a research devised by another person.
4. Using the same textual material defined by other.

 Forms of plagiarism
o Verbatim (word for word) quotation without clear acknowledgement
 Example: Copying a sentence directly from a source: "Climate change
poses a serious threat to biodiversity." If this phrase is used verbatim
in a paper without quotation marks or citing the original source, it
constitutes plagiarism.
.
o Cutting and pasting from the Internet without clear acknowledgement
 Example: A student finds information on a website and pastes a
paragraph into their essay without citing the site or including it in the
bibliography, thereby presenting the information as their own research.

o Paraphrasing
 Paraphrasing the work of others by altering a few words and changing
their order, or by closely following the structure of their argument, is
plagiarism if you do not give due acknowledgement to the author
whose work you are using.
 Example: Rephrasing a paragraph from a published article by
changing a few words or restructuring sentences, such as rewording
“Research shows that exercise has positive effects on mental health” to
“Studies indicate that physical activity benefits mental well-being”
without referencing the original study.
o Collusion
 This can involve unauthorised collaboration between students, failure
to attribute assistance received, or failure to follow precisely
regulations on group work projects. It is your responsibility to ensure
that you are entirely clear about the extent of collaboration permitted,
and which parts of the work must be your own.
 Example: Two students work together on an assignment without
authorization. One student completes the calculations while the other
writes the report, but they submit nearly identical individual
assignments. This unauthorized collaboration is collusion

o Inaccurate citation
 Example: Listing a book in the bibliography without actually
consulting it or incorrectly citing the source so that it’s difficult for
others to find, such as stating “Author A, Book Title (2001)” instead of
“Author B, Title (2010),” when using information from a secondary
source.

o Failure to acknowledge assistance


 Example: A student receives significant help in structuring their paper
from a classmate but does not acknowledge this assistance, even
though it led to substantial changes in the content and organization of
their work

o Use of material written by professional agencies or other persons


 Example: A student hires a professional writer to complete an essay
and submits it as their own work. This is considered academic
misconduct, as the student didn’t do the research or writing
themselves.

o Auto-plagiarism
 Example: A student submits the same literature review for two
different classes without permission or modification, or reuses portions
of a previously published article without properly citing it as their own
earlier work.

Authors should strive to avoid plagiarism because it upholds essential values in academia and
enhances the quality and credibility of their work.
1. Upholding Core Academic Values:
 Plagiarism contradicts the fundamental principles of scholarship, which
encourage original thinking and critical engagement with others' work.
 University education is designed to help students develop their own
perspectives rather than copying others' ideas without acknowledgment. By
independently assessing various arguments and learning to express unique
viewpoints, students gain a deeper understanding of the subject matter and
contribute meaningfully to academic discussions.
 Plagiarism, however, impedes this personal and intellectual growth, as it
substitutes authentic learning with replication.
2. Ensuring High-Quality, Credible Work:
 Proper citation and source use not only prevent plagiarism but also enhance
the clarity and authority of an author’s work.
 Demonstrating intellectual honesty through accurate attribution builds trust
with readers and other scholars, as it shows the author’s respect for ethical
standards in research.
 By acknowledging sources, authors establish a reliable foundation for their
own arguments, strengthening the overall quality of their work.
3. Fostering Personal and Scholarly Integrity:
 Avoiding plagiarism promotes personal integrity and supports the
advancement of knowledge.
 Engaging sincerely with academic resources and crediting original ideas
allows students and researchers to grow intellectually and uphold the standards
of the academic community.

 Causes of Research Misconduct-


o 1. Pressure to Publish and Career Advancement
o 2. Personal Ambitions and Reputation
o 3. Inadequate Training and Understanding
o Pressure from External Stakeholders
o Time Constraints and Workload

 Issues related to misconduct in research-


o Loss of reliability and authenticity in research.
o Misguidance to the user of the research work.
o Copyright issues.
o Misrepresentation of facts.

 The consequences of misconduct could be:


o Personal
o Research Related
o Society Related
o
REDUNDANT PUBLICATIONS: DUPLICATE AND OVERLAPPING
PUBLICATIONS, SALAMI SLICING, SELECTIVE REPORTING AND
MISREPRESENTATION OF DATA.

 Redundant Publication  A publication is called redundant when:


o A work is published multiple times without proper acknowledgment or
justification.
o This includes either re-publishing the same work or significant sections of it in
different formats or languages, or when overlapping data is presented in
multiple publications without sufficient cross-referencing.
o Duplicate publication can involve not just the text but also figures and datasets
that have already been published
o For example, if an author includes a figure from a previously published
article in a new manuscript, they must acknowledge its original source, as it
may have copyright restrictions.
o Similarly, while different parts of a previously published dataset can be used in
new articles, the overall dataset cannot be republished without proper
acknowledgment.
 Types
o 1. Salami Slicing
o 2. Selective Reporting
o 3. Misrepresentation

 Salami Slicing
o Salami slicing, or salami publication, refers to the practice of dividing a single,
meaningful research study into multiple smaller publications.
o Unlike duplicate publication, which involves publishing the same data in
multiple places, salami slicing entails segmenting a larger study into "slices"
that share the same hypotheses, population, and methods.
o This practice is generally considered unethical because it can mislead readers
into thinking that each publication presents unique data, thereby distorting the
scientific literature and inflating the author's citation record.
o Salami slicing wastes the time of editors and reviewers who must evaluate
multiple articles based on the same data, and it can diminish the statistical
significance of the findings by fragmenting them
o Example researcher conducts a comprehensive study on the effects of a new
drug on patients with heart disease, examining various health metrics such as
blood pressure, cholesterol levels, and heart rate over a 12-month period.
Instead of publishing these findings in one cohesive paper, the researcher
slices the study into separate publications:
 One article focuses on blood pressure outcomes,
 Another on cholesterol levels,
 A third on heart rate.
o
 Selective Reporting 
o Selective reporting bias is when results from scientific research are
deliberately not fully or accurately reported, in order to suppress negative or
undesirable findings.
o One of the main objective of selective reporting is to present a desired or a
positive result or conclusion.
o Selective reporting is done to match the expectations or assumptions of
industry or institution or author.
o Selective reporting also helps to increase the possibility of publishing the same
material again by representing the same as a longitudinal study.
o Example: A researcher is funded by a company developing a new
antidepressant. After conducting the study, the researcher finds that the drug
shows slight improvements in mood but also has significant side effects,
including nausea and dizziness in a large percentage of patients. To ensure the
findings are favorable, the researcher selectively reports only the positive
mood outcomes and excludes the information on side effects.

 Misrepresentation 
o One can define 'misrepresentation of data' as 'communicating honestly
reported data in a deceptive manner.'
o Misrepresenting data include drawing unwarranted inference from data,
creating deceptive graphs of figures, and using suggestive language for
rhetorical effect.
o The main objective is to present a conclusion that an author or institution or
publisher wants to present.
o Misrepresentation can be used to increase the acceptance of study by the
publisher or institution to publish the material.
o Example: A researcher analyzes data on the relationship between daily screen
time and mental health in adolescents. The data shows a mild association, but
not a strong correlation. However, in presenting the data, the researcher uses
suggestive language such as “strong evidence” and creates a graph that
exaggerates the correlation by manipulating the scale on the y-axis to make the
association appear more pronounced than it is.

 Redundant Publication – Significance


o Producing many articles from a moderately sized research project might give
it undue significance.
o Splitting the data into segments may affect the statistical significance.
o Over-publishing wastes the time of editors and reviewers and may mislead the
readers.
o The redundant publication is sometimes supported by justifiable reasons.
o It is difficult to know the prevalence of redundant publication as the basic
plagiarism-checking tools will often not find it.
VIOLATION OF PUBLICATIONS ETHICS, AUTHORSHIP, AND CONTRIBUTOR
SHIP

 Violation of publication ethics


o In order to ensure the research integrity of publications, the authors and editors
must promote adherence to the core principles of publication ethics as
articulated by various Committees.
o All manuscripts, archival materials, and supporting files whether submitted to
a peer-reviewed publication or a primary source online collection, are
expected to conform to the standards of ethical behavior.

 Types 
o Breaches of Duty of Care
o Censorship
o Conflicts of Interest
o Discriminatory and Harassing Research Practices and Language
o Fabrication, Falsification, and Plagiarism
o Failure to Acknowledge Sources
o Failure to Meet Legal and Professional Obligations
o Ideological or Political Bias
o Malicious Use of Logical Fallacies
o Misrepresentation of Qualifications and/or Experience
o Multiple Manuscript Submission
o Pseudonyms
o Segmented Publication
o Undisclosed Errors in Published Work
o Undisclosed Research Misconduct
o Un-provenance Artifacts

 Authorship and contributions


o AUTHOR - An individual who has made a significant intellectual contribution
to the study.
o Naming authors on a research paper ensures that the appropriate individuals
get credit and are accountable for the research.
o Deliberately misrepresenting an author's relationship to their work is
considered as a misconduct.
o All persons designated as authors should qualify for authorship, and all those
who qualify should be listed.

 Four criteria must all be met to be credited as an author:


o Substantial contribution to the study conception and design, data acquisition,
analysis, and interpretation.
o Drafting or revising the article for intellectual content.
o Approval of the final version.
o Agreement to be accountable for all aspects of the work related to the
accuracy or integrity of any part of the work.

 Guidelines for Authorship and Contributorship


o The order of authorship should be "a joint decision of the coauthors".
o Individuals who are involved in a study but don't satisfy the journal's criteria
for authorship, should be listed as "Contributors" or "Acknowledged
Individuals". Examples include: assisting the research by providing advice,
providing research space, departmental oversight, and obtaining financial
support.
o For large, multi-center trials, the list of clinicians and centers is typically
published, along with a statement of the individual contributions made.
o Some groups list authors alphabetically, sometimes with a note to explain that
all authors made equal contributions to the study and the publication.

 Unacceptable Authorship refers to unethical practices related to the attribution of


authorship in research papers:
o "Ghost" authors, who contribute substantially but are not acknowledged (often
paid by commercial sponsors)
o "Guest" authors, who make no discernible contributions, but are listed to help
increase the chances of publication.
 Example: A well-known professor may have their name added to a
paper despite having no direct involvement in the research or writing
process. Their name is included because of their reputation in the field,
with the hope that it will attract attention to the paper or enhance its
chances of acceptance in a high-profile journal.

o "Gift" authors, whose contribution is based solely on a tenuous (weak and


unconvincing) affiliation with a study.
 Example: A researcher adds a colleague who has no involvement in
the study but is listed as an author due to their seniority or to maintain
good relationships within a research group or department.

 Authorship and Disputes  When not appropriately addressed, authorship issues can
lead to dispute.
o Some disputes are based on misconduct (such as lying about one's role);
o Some stem from questions of interpretation, such as the degree to which a
person's contribution can be considered "substantial,"
o Being involved in a study, but not listed as an author or contributor; \
o Somebody taking someone else’s idea and publishing a paper claiming full
authorship.
o And an author finding his name on a publication without his permission or
consent.
USE OF PLAGIARISM SOFTWARE LIKE TURNITIN, URKUND AND OTHER
OPEN-SOURCE SOFTWARE TOOLS

 Plagiarism
o Plagiarism defined as the act of taking or attempting to take or to use (whole
or parts) of another person’s works, without referencing or citing him as the
owner of this work.
o It may include direct copy and paste, modification or changing some words of
the original information from the internet books, magazine, newspaper,
research, journal, personal information or ideas.

 Plagiarism detection
o Plagiarism detection or content similarity detection is the process of locating
instances of plagiarism and/or copyright infringement within a work or
document.
o The widespread use of computers and the advent of the Internet have made it
easier to plagiarize the work of others.
o Plagiarism checker tools are an incredibly effective way of reviewing the
essays or theses for any case that can be a symbol of plagiarism.
o A wide range of software are available to the researchers who take their
academic work seriously and want to make no mistake.

 Uses of Plagiarism Tools


o Plagiarism checker tools are an incredibly effective way of reviewing the
essays or theses for any case that can be a symbol of plagiarism.
o A wide range of software are available to the researchers who take their
academic work seriously and want to make no mistake. These software
application aims to:
 Verifying Originality-
 In this case, when you are given a piece of content from an
unknown origin, whether an essay, a new article, poem, etc, and
you need to check and see if the work is original.
 Tracking Content Misuse –
 Through effective use of plagiarism tools, a content creator can
track if his authentic content is misused by others in their
published research.
 In-Depth Plagiarism Analysis-
 The situation where one already suspects the work of being a
plagiarism and the checker needs to confirm the suspicions.

 Advantages of using Plagiarism Checker


o Access to Extensive Resources: Plagiarism checkers provide access to a
broader range of references than simple internet searches. They include books,
articles, and past submissions that may not be available online, ensuring a
more comprehensive check against potential plagiarism
o Highlighting Plagiarized Content: These tools highlight specific lines or
phrases that match existing content online, making it easy for researchers to
identify and address any plagiarized material. They also provide links to the
original sources for quick reference.
o Specific Data on Plagiarism: Plagiarism checkers often give a percentage of
matched content, helping researchers understand how much of their work is
similar to existing literature. This allows them to ensure compliance with
institutional standards and avoid potential issues with supervisors.
o Efficiency in Paraphrasing: Instead of spending excessive time paraphrasing,
researchers can use plagiarism checkers to identify similarities in their work.
This helps them quickly locate and correct any improperly paraphrased or
quoted material.
o Demonstrating Honesty: By using a plagiarism checker, researchers can
provide evidence of their efforts to maintain academic integrity. A printed
plagiarism report can serve as proof of their commitment to ethical writing
practices, reassuring supervisors of their honesty.

 Plagiarism Detection Tools


o 1) Turnitin:
 This is a successful Web based tool provided by iParadigms.
 Once a document is uploaded for plagiarism check, it creates a
fingerprint of the document and stores it.
 In this tool, detection and report generation is carried out remotely.
 Turnitin is already accepted by 15,000 Institutions and 30 Million
Students due to easy to use interface, support of large repository,
detailed text plagiarism check and well organized report generation.
 It can be considered as one of the best plagiarism checkers for
teachers.
o 2) Urkund:
 This is another Web based service which carry out plagiarism detection
in server side.
 This is an integrated and automated solution for plagiarism detection.
 It is a paid service which uses standard email system for document
submission and for viewing results.
 This system claims to process 300 different types of document
submissions and it searches through all available online sources.
 It gives more priority to educational sources of documents during
searching.
o 3) Grammarly Online Plagiarism Checker:
 Grammarly is a well-known tool among writers and also who need to
quickly check if article is original or copied from other places.
 If you are a professor and need to check if the research paper is
original or copied from multiple sources online, this tool is perfect for
you.
 This is a multi-feature tool for webmasters to check the originality of
the content, check Grammar, Check the spelling of the article.
 It is highly recommend tool for plagiarism.
o 4) Unicheck:
 Unicheck is a paid versatile tool for checking the plagiarism.
 The interface is smooth and it checks the pages really fast.
 This is a perfect tool for corporates and professors who don’t mind
paying a little for higher accuracy.
o 5) Ephorus:
 To access this tool, user is to register with the Ephorus site.
 Hence, no downloads or installation is needed.
 The search engine compares a text document to millions of others on
the Web and reports back with an originality report.
 This tool can be freely tried but license needs to be purchased.
 It is well known in many European Universities and organizations.
 Case 1: Multiple Submission
o Mr. X submitted a manuscript (case report) to Journal of Pharmacology and
Pharmacotherapeutics (JPP) on 15/03/13.
o A decision to send it for revision was taken by JPP on 25/03/13.
o The author submitted the revised manuscript which was sent back to the
author again for further corrections as the suggestions of the editorial board
were not complied with.
o But the author never responded even after sending many reminders.
o Meanwhile one of the JPP editorial staff accidentally identified an article with
the same title published in “Journal Y” by the same author.
o The manuscript was submitted to the above journal on 20/01/13.
o When the author was questioned he responded after a month by simply
sending a withdrawal request.
o Timeline history of submission of Mr. X in “Journal Y” and JPP are as
follows:

 Outcome:The author submitted a manuscript to JPP when it was under consideration


elsewhere. This amounted to violation of publication ethics.

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