NOTES
NOTES
NOTES
Moral Sphere:
o Ethical philosophy provides the foundational principles for personal morality,
guiding individuals in understanding what constitutes right and wrong.
o For example, questions about honesty, integrity, justice, and compassion are
explored within moral philosophy, offering standards for personal behavior
that go beyond societal norms.
Social Sphere:
o In the social sphere, ethical philosophy shapes interpersonal relationships and
community values.
o It addresses issues like fairness, respect, empathy, and social justice, aiming to
promote harmony and reduce conflict within society.
o For instance, concepts like equality, human rights, and social responsibility are
grounded in ethical reasoning, influencing laws, social norms, and community
engagement.
Religious Sphere:
o Ethical philosophy intersects with religious beliefs and practices, as many
religions have ethical teachings that guide adherents’ conduct.
Political Sphere:
o Ethical philosophy plays a critical role in political theory and governance by
providing a moral basis for laws, policies, and leadership practices
o For example, debates on issues like wealth distribution, freedom of speech,
and civil rights rely on ethical reasoning to balance individual freedom with
collective welfare.
BRANCHES
Descriptive Ethics
o descriptive ethics studies and describes how people actually behave and what
moral standards they follow.
o It is an observational branch that does not judge whether actions are right or
wrong but instead records and analyses moral practices across societies.
o Example: Descriptive ethics might examine cultural attitudes toward practices
like polygamy, examining how different societies perceive it without making
moral judgments. In one culture, polygamy may be widely accepted, while in
another, it may be viewed as unethical. Descriptive ethics simply reports these
differences.
Normative Ethics
o Normative ethics focuses on establishing standards or norms for behaviour,
determining what people ought to do.
o It involves creating guidelines and principles for what is morally right or
wrong, often based on theories like deontology, utilitarianism, and virtue
ethics.
o Example: A normative ethical approach might conclude that “lying is wrong”
based on a principle of honesty. This branch would analyze why honesty is
considered morally superior and under what conditions, if any, lying could be
ethically justified.
Meta-Ethics
o Meta-ethics explores the nature, origin, and meaning of ethical concepts,
questioning what “good,” “right,” and “moral” truly mean.
o Example: A meta-ethical question might ask, “Is morality objective or
subjective?” or “What does it mean for an action to be good?”
Applied Ethics
o Applied ethics addresses specific, real-world moral issues and dilemmas,
applying ethical theories and principles to practical situations. It looks at
concrete cases and attempts to determine the ethical course of action in areas
like medicine, business, law, and environmental concerns.
o Example: Medical ethics, a subfield of applied ethics, deals with issues such
as euthanasia. Applied ethics would use normative ethical principles to decide
whether euthanasia is morally acceptable, weighing factors like autonomy,
quality of life, and harm.
THEORIES
Virtue Theory
o Virtue theory, rooted in Aristotle's philosophy, focuses on the character and
virtues of the individual rather than on specific actions. It emphasizes
cultivating moral virtues (like honesty, courage, compassion) that lead to a
morally good character and thus to morally good actions. The goal is to
develop a virtuous character and lead a flourishing life.
o Example: Imagine a doctor faced with a terminally ill patient who is in
extreme pain and requests euthanasia. According to virtue theory, the doctor
would consider virtues like compassion, empathy, and wisdom when deciding
how to respond. The doctor might aim to relieve the patient’s suffering in the
most ethical way possible while balancing respect for life and compassionate
care, focusing on actions that align with the virtues that define good medical
practice.
Rights Theory
o Rights theory, associated with philosophers like John Locke and Immanuel
Kant, centres on the belief that all individuals possess inherent rights that must
be respected. It argues that ethical decisions should protect and respect
individual rights, such as the rights to life, freedom, and privacy. These rights
are often viewed as universal and inalienable.
o Example: In a workplace scenario, if an employee discovers that their
manager is reading employees’ private emails without consent, they might see
this as a violation of the right to privacy. According to rights theory, the
manager’s action would be unethical, as it infringes upon the employees' right
to privacy. Rights theory would suggest that management should find other
ways to ensure productivity and integrity that do not violate these rights.
Casuist Theory
o Casuist theory is a case-based approach to ethics, where each ethical dilemma
is analyzed by comparing it to previous similar cases. It does not follow a set
of fixed rules but instead looks at the specifics of each situation and the
outcomes of past cases to determine the best course of action.
o Example: Imagine a hospital facing a medical supply shortage, where there
aren’t enough ventilators for all patients in critical condition. Doctors must
decide which patients should receive ventilators and which patients will not.
Using casuist theory, the hospital ethics committee examines similar past
cases, such as situations during previous medical crises or pandemics, to guide
their decision-making.
Linking
1. Moral Foundation: Ethical ideals are rooted in a broader moral understanding of the
universe. Ethics, as a discipline, seeks to define these ideals, which ties it to
philosophy.
2. Nature of Things: Ethical judgments are often based on the nature of the things we
are considering. This means ethics relies on philosophical ideas to better understand
these objects.
3. Understanding Assumptions: Philosophy examines basic ethical ideas, such as the
existence of God and the concepts of free will and an afterlife. Clarifying these ideas
is a philosophical task that supports ethical discussions.
4. Human Relationships: Ethics looks at people as conscious beings, while philosophy
explores their relationships with the world, God, and society. Thus, ethics often needs
philosophical insights for deeper understanding.
5. Organizing Knowledge: Philosophy helps to arrange and clarify both facts and
values. Since ethics focuses on values, its connection to philosophy is essential.
6. Philosophical Issues in Ethics: Many ethical questions overlap with philosophical
problems, so ethics needs to engage with these questions.
MODULE 2 :- ETHICS AT WORKPLACE
PROFESSIONAL ETHICAL CODES
Opportunity –
o Opportunity refers to the circumstances that allow an individual to commit
fraud.
o Opportunities often arise from weak internal controls, lack of oversight, access
to assets, or vulnerabilities in organizational processes.
o Weak internal controls that fail to prevent unauthorized access to financial
systems.
o Lack of oversight or supervision that allows individuals to act without
scrutiny.
o Opportunities created by complex transactions that are difficult to understand
or monitor.
Pressure –
o Pressure encompasses the motivations or incentives that drive individuals to
commit fraud.
o This can include financial difficulties, personal crises, or performance-related
stressors (such as meeting targets or deadlines).
o The pressure can be external (such as financial obligations) or internal (such as
personal ambitions or goals).
o Financial difficulties, such as medical bills or excessive debt, prompting
someone to steal funds.
o
Rationalization –
o Rationalization is the psychological process by which individuals justify their
fraudulent behaviour to themselves.
o They may convince themselves that their actions are acceptable, not harmful,
or deserved.
o Common rationalizations include beliefs like "I’m just borrowing the money"
or "Everyone else does it," which help them maintain a positive self-image
despite engaging in unethical acts.
o An employee justifies stealing from the company by believing that they are
underpaid and deserve more compensation.
o Individuals may believe that the organization is doing unethical things, so they
feel entitled to act unethically themselves
Saying Things, You Know Are Not True: This involves lying about facts or blaming
others, particularly in competitive situations like promotions.
Giving or Allowing False Impressions: Misleading customers by allowing them to
believe something false about a product, such as concealing damage, constitutes this
violation. A car dealer who fails to disclose that a car has been in an accident is
misleading potential customers.
Buying Influence or Engaging in a Conflict of Interest: Conflicts arise when
personal interests affect professional duties, for example, awarding contracts based on
personal relationships rather than merit.
Hiding or Divulging Information: Failing to disclose critical information, such as
harmful side effects of a product, or leaking proprietary information to competitors is
unethical.
Taking Unfair Advantage: Exploiting consumers, particularly those lacking
knowledge or understanding, can lead to unethical business practices, prompting
consumer protections
Committing Improper Personal Behaviour: Personal conduct outside of work can
affect professional performance and company reputation, such as substance abuse by
employees in safety-sensitive roles.
Abusing Power and Mistreating Individuals: Harassment or public humiliation by
those in authority is a violation of ethical conduct.
Permitting Organizational Abuse: Companies must avoid perpetuating labour
abuses in their international operations, such as child labour and unfair wages.
Violating Rules: Ignoring organizational protocols can lead to unethical actions, even
if they seem cumbersome to employees.
Condoning Unethical Actions: Tolerating the unethical behaviour of others, such as
embezzlement, without reporting it is itself an ethical violation.
RIGHT - A right is something you are entitled to receive, e.g. to be treated in a fair,
ethical and legal way.
RESPONSIBILITY - A responsibility is a duty or something you should do, e.g. to
treat others with respect.
Receive a fair day’s pay for a fair Carry out their duties as stated in
day’s work. their contract of employment.
Earn at least the minimum wage set Arrive at work on time.
by law. Be loyal to their employer and not
Receive a contract of employment. disclose confidential business
Adequate rest breaks. information.
Holiday pay. Treat customers, co-workers and the
Work in a safe and respectful employer with respect and ensure
atmosphere, free from danger, they don’t bully or discriminate
bullying or discrimination. against other employees.
Join a trade union. Follow workplace rules and safety
instructions
Wear any protective equipment and
uniform provided to them by the
employer.
Attend all training provided by the
business.
Rights of Employers Responsibilities of Employers
Decide on the objectives of the Ensure that the workplace is safe
business. and maintains healthy working
Hire suitable staff for their business. conditions for all employees.
Dismiss dishonest or unsuitable Provide employees with adequate
staff. training and adequate gears, if
Expect loyalty from their staff. necessary.
Provide employees with statutory
holidays and leave, e.g. maternity /
paternity / parental leave.
Pay agreed wages. They must pay at
least the minimum wage to their
employees and equal pay to men and
women.
Deduct necessary taxes from
employees’ pay, including Pay As
You Earn (PAYE), Tax Deduction at
Source (TDS), Pay Related Social
Insurance (PRSI), and Universal
Social Charge (USC). Maintain
accurate employment records,
including details of these deductions.
Ensure all employees are treated
equally in the business and that
bullying/ harassment does not exist.
They must not discriminate when
advertising, recruiting or promoting
staff.
Comply with all employment law
and give employees a written
contract of employment.
Keep employee records which will
help in making decisions about pay
rises, promotions and dismissals.
o Financial Conflict
This type occurs when a person stands to benefit financially from a
decision or action taken in their professional capacity.
Example: A government official awarding a contract to a company in
which they hold significant shares..
o Competing Commitments
When an individual’s professional obligations conflict with
commitments to other organizations or causes.
Example: A researcher working part-time for two companies with
competing interests, leading to a potential bias in research outcomes.
o
Self-Dealing:
Example: You work in city planning and use your influence to award a construction
contract to a company you secretly own, violating ethical standards by putting your
own profit ahead of public interest. Alternatively, if you’re on a hiring committee and
arrange an interview for your cousin without following standard procedures, you’re
leveraging your position for personal gain.
Accepting Benefits:
Example: As a purchasing manager, you accept a luxury watch from a supplier hoping
to secure a big contract with your company. While you may not explicitly agree to
favor them, accepting this substantial gift creates a perceived obligation, potentially
influencing your future decisions.
Influence Peddling:
Example: You are a high-ranking government official, and a business owner offers
you a cash payment to expedite their permit approval. If you agree, you’re selling
your influence to unfairly benefit one party over others, compromising your
impartiality.
Using Employer’s Property for Private Advantage:
Example: You work in IT and use company-provided software, licensed solely for
work purposes, to freelance on weekends. Even if the employer allows incidental
personal use of some resources, using software this way violates ethical boundaries
and potentially breaches licensing agreements.
Using Confidential Information:
Example: You’re a financial advisor with access to confidential merger information
about a tech firm. If you act on this by purchasing stock in the company before the
merger is announced, you exploit privileged information for personal gain, which is
both unethical and illegal.
Outside Employment or Moonlighting:
Example: You’re employed full-time as a corporate lawyer but also take on private
clients at night. If you’re too overextended to perform well in your main job, or if you
represent clients against your employer's interests, this conflicts with your primary
professional responsibilities.
Post-Employment Conflicts:
Example: After resigning from a senior role in environmental regulation, you start a
consulting firm specializing in helping companies navigate environmental
compliance. If you lobby former colleagues in your previous department to fast-track
approvals, your prior position may give you undue influence, creating a potential
conflict of interest.
MANAGING BOUNDARIES AND MULTIPLE RELATIONSHIPS (SOCIALIZING
WITH CURRENT OR FORMER CLIENTS, MAKING REFERRALS)
ORGANIZATIONAL LOYALTY
What is Organization Loyalty?
o
Drivers of employees loyalty
o
Significance of employee loyalty for business
o
MODULE 3: - ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
LEGAL ASPECTS OF PROFESSIONAL ETHICS
What are Ethics and Professional Responsibility?
o Professional ethics are principles that govern the behavior of a person or group
in a business environment.
o Unlike values, professional ethics are often codified as a set of rules, which a
particular group of people use. This means that all those in a particular group
will use the same professional ethics, even though their values may be unique
to each person.
o Ethical principles underpin all professional codes of conduct. Ethical
principles may differ depending on the profession; for example, professional
ethics that relate to medical practitioners will differ from those that relate to
lawyers or real estate agents.
o However, there are some universal ethical principles that apply across all
professions, including:
Honesty
Trustworthiness
Loyalty
Respect for others
Adherence to the law
Doing good and avoiding harm to others
Accountability.
Relationships among Law, Licensure, and Ethics
o Professional associations' efforts to enforce ethics codes are bedevilled by
widespread confusion about the interrelationship among law, licensure rules,
malpractice, other civil law rules (such as contracts or regulatory
requirements), and ethics. Thus, a professional charged may protest: "You
can't charge me with unethical conduct: I was acquitted in my criminal case."
or an ethics committee member may say: "Of course he acted unethically; the
jury found malpractice." Alternatively, a complainant may say: "He isn't even
licensed, so you should get him for unethical conduct." All these statements
are illogical because they confuse the several intersecting realms in which
problems of professional misconduct can be addressed.
BASICS OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS, CONFIDENTIALITY &
UNINTENTIONAL BREACHES OF CONFIDENTIALITY
What is an Intellectual Property?
o Intellectual Property – refers to creations of the mind, such as inventions;
literary and artistic works; designs; and symbols, names and images.
o Intellectual Property rights provide protection for creations and inventions, to
enable creators and inventors to earn recognition and financial benefit from
their work.
o 3. Trademarks
A trademark is a sign capable of distinguishing the goods or services of
one enterprise from those of other enterprises. The term trademark
refers to a recognizable insignia, phrase, word, or symbol that denotes
a specific product and legally differentiates it from all other products
of its kind.
A trademark exclusively identifies a product as belonging to a specific
company and recognizes the company's ownership of the brand. A
trademark is allotted for a period of 10 years.
What constitute a trademark
A word or a combination of words, letters, and numerals can
perfectly constitute a trademark.
However, trademarks may also consist of drawings, symbols,
three-dimensional features such as the shape and packaging of
goods, non-visible signs such as sounds or fragrances, or colour
shades used as distinguishing features – the possibilities are
almost limitless.
Rights that trademark registration provides –
a trademark registration will confer an exclusive right to the use
of the registered trademark. This implies that the trademark can
be exclusively used by its owner or licensed to another party
for use in return for payment. Registration provides legal
certainty and reinforces the position of the right holder, for
example, in case of litigation.
o 4. Trade Secrets
In general, to qualify as a trade secret, the information must be:
Commercially valuable because it is secret,
Be known only to a limited group of persons,
The unauthorized acquisition, use or disclosure of such secret
information in a manner, contrary to honest commercial practices by
others, is regarded as an unfair practice and a violation of the trade
secret protection. A trade secret has an eligibility of 20 years.
Information that is protected by a trade secret
In general, any confidential business information which
provides an enterprise a competitive edge and is unknown to
others may be protected as a trade secret. Trade secrets
encompass both technical information, such as information
concerning manufacturing processes, pharmaceutical test data,
designs and drawings of computer programs, and commercial
information, such as distribution methods, list of suppliers and
clients, and advertising strategies.
A trade secret may be also made up of a combination of
elements, each of which by itself is in the public domain, but
where the combination, which is kept secret, provides a
competitive advantage.
Protection offered by Trade Secret
Depending on the legal system, the legal protection of trade
secrets forms part of the general concept of protection against
unfair competition or is based on specific provisions or case
law on the protection of confidential information.
A trade secret owner, however, cannot stop others from using
the same technical or commercial information, if they acquired
or developed such information independently by themselves
through their own
o 5. Industrial Designs
An industrial design constitutes the ornamental aspect of an article.
An industrial design may consist of three-dimensional features, such as
the shape of an article, or two-dimensional features, such as patterns,
lines or colour.
Protection through industrial designs –
The owner of a registered industrial design or of a design patent
has the right to prevent third parties from making, selling or
importing articles bearing or embodying a design which is a
copy, or substantially a copy, of the protected design, when
such acts are undertaken for commercial purposes.
What it covers? –
Industrial designs are applied to a wide variety of products of
industry and handicraft items: from packages and containers to
furnishing and household goods, from lighting equipment to
jewellery, and from electronic devices to textiles. Industrial
designs may also be relevant to graphic symbols, graphical user
interfaces (GUI), and logos.
o 6. Geographical Indications
A geographical indication (GI) is a sign used on products that have a
specific geographical origin and possess qualities or a reputation that
are due to that origin. In order to function as a GI, a sign must identify
a product as originating in a given place. In addition, the qualities,
characteristics or reputation of the product should be essentially due to
the place of origin. Since the qualities depend on the geographical
place of production, there is a clear link between the product and its
original place of production.
Business and Engagement of Minors:
1. Potential Harm of Employing Minors
Impact on Well-being: Employing minors can harm their physical and mental
health, as they are still in the process of growing and developing.
Inappropriate work environments can negatively affect their development and
overall well-being.
Education and Future Livelihood: Employment at a young age often
interferes with a child’s education. A child who works instead of attending
school may not acquire the skills and qualifications needed for a successful
future career, thus limiting their long-term economic opportunities.
Fabrication
o Fabrication is a process of making or creating data or result for a study.
o It is a process where in an author creates and depict a fake data to analyze and
form conclusions on the basis of it.
o In fabrication, the entire study is based on a data that is never being collected
from any sample.
o Fabrication is the intentional misrepresentation of research results.
o The problem is that investigations into research misconduct are often
inadequate.
o Example –
Modifying survey answers from participants to show more favorable
outcomes than were actually reported.
A researcher manipulates raw data to make it align with the expected
hypothesis. For instance, removing outliers without proper justification
to make results appear statistically significant.
Falsification
o Falsification is a process of manipulation of any of the research element.
o It may include manipulation of
1. Research Instrument
2. Research material
3. Research Equipment
4. Research process
5. Omitting or modifying data or sample
o The main objective of falsification is to present result, not as per the facts, but
as per the requirement or desire of researcher.
o Examples
Artificially creating data when it should be collected from an actual
experiment.
Removing an outlier from a series of measurements
Changing a measurement to make it look higher or lower
Adding error bars to single measurements to suggest multiple
measurements were performed.
Presenting data as if derived from stream A while it was obtained from
stream B.
Falsely recruiting subjects for experiments without revealing the
purpose.
Plagiarism
o Plagiarism is the appropriation of another person's ideas, processes, results, or
words without giving appropriate credit.
o It may include direct copy and paste, modification or changing some words of
the original information from the internet books, magazine, newspaper,
research, journal, personal information or ideas.
Forms of plagiarism
o Verbatim (word for word) quotation without clear acknowledgement
Example: Copying a sentence directly from a source: "Climate change
poses a serious threat to biodiversity." If this phrase is used verbatim
in a paper without quotation marks or citing the original source, it
constitutes plagiarism.
.
o Cutting and pasting from the Internet without clear acknowledgement
Example: A student finds information on a website and pastes a
paragraph into their essay without citing the site or including it in the
bibliography, thereby presenting the information as their own research.
o Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing the work of others by altering a few words and changing
their order, or by closely following the structure of their argument, is
plagiarism if you do not give due acknowledgement to the author
whose work you are using.
Example: Rephrasing a paragraph from a published article by
changing a few words or restructuring sentences, such as rewording
“Research shows that exercise has positive effects on mental health” to
“Studies indicate that physical activity benefits mental well-being”
without referencing the original study.
o Collusion
This can involve unauthorised collaboration between students, failure
to attribute assistance received, or failure to follow precisely
regulations on group work projects. It is your responsibility to ensure
that you are entirely clear about the extent of collaboration permitted,
and which parts of the work must be your own.
Example: Two students work together on an assignment without
authorization. One student completes the calculations while the other
writes the report, but they submit nearly identical individual
assignments. This unauthorized collaboration is collusion
o Inaccurate citation
Example: Listing a book in the bibliography without actually
consulting it or incorrectly citing the source so that it’s difficult for
others to find, such as stating “Author A, Book Title (2001)” instead of
“Author B, Title (2010),” when using information from a secondary
source.
o Auto-plagiarism
Example: A student submits the same literature review for two
different classes without permission or modification, or reuses portions
of a previously published article without properly citing it as their own
earlier work.
Authors should strive to avoid plagiarism because it upholds essential values in academia and
enhances the quality and credibility of their work.
1. Upholding Core Academic Values:
Plagiarism contradicts the fundamental principles of scholarship, which
encourage original thinking and critical engagement with others' work.
University education is designed to help students develop their own
perspectives rather than copying others' ideas without acknowledgment. By
independently assessing various arguments and learning to express unique
viewpoints, students gain a deeper understanding of the subject matter and
contribute meaningfully to academic discussions.
Plagiarism, however, impedes this personal and intellectual growth, as it
substitutes authentic learning with replication.
2. Ensuring High-Quality, Credible Work:
Proper citation and source use not only prevent plagiarism but also enhance
the clarity and authority of an author’s work.
Demonstrating intellectual honesty through accurate attribution builds trust
with readers and other scholars, as it shows the author’s respect for ethical
standards in research.
By acknowledging sources, authors establish a reliable foundation for their
own arguments, strengthening the overall quality of their work.
3. Fostering Personal and Scholarly Integrity:
Avoiding plagiarism promotes personal integrity and supports the
advancement of knowledge.
Engaging sincerely with academic resources and crediting original ideas
allows students and researchers to grow intellectually and uphold the standards
of the academic community.
Salami Slicing
o Salami slicing, or salami publication, refers to the practice of dividing a single,
meaningful research study into multiple smaller publications.
o Unlike duplicate publication, which involves publishing the same data in
multiple places, salami slicing entails segmenting a larger study into "slices"
that share the same hypotheses, population, and methods.
o This practice is generally considered unethical because it can mislead readers
into thinking that each publication presents unique data, thereby distorting the
scientific literature and inflating the author's citation record.
o Salami slicing wastes the time of editors and reviewers who must evaluate
multiple articles based on the same data, and it can diminish the statistical
significance of the findings by fragmenting them
o Example researcher conducts a comprehensive study on the effects of a new
drug on patients with heart disease, examining various health metrics such as
blood pressure, cholesterol levels, and heart rate over a 12-month period.
Instead of publishing these findings in one cohesive paper, the researcher
slices the study into separate publications:
One article focuses on blood pressure outcomes,
Another on cholesterol levels,
A third on heart rate.
o
Selective Reporting
o Selective reporting bias is when results from scientific research are
deliberately not fully or accurately reported, in order to suppress negative or
undesirable findings.
o One of the main objective of selective reporting is to present a desired or a
positive result or conclusion.
o Selective reporting is done to match the expectations or assumptions of
industry or institution or author.
o Selective reporting also helps to increase the possibility of publishing the same
material again by representing the same as a longitudinal study.
o Example: A researcher is funded by a company developing a new
antidepressant. After conducting the study, the researcher finds that the drug
shows slight improvements in mood but also has significant side effects,
including nausea and dizziness in a large percentage of patients. To ensure the
findings are favorable, the researcher selectively reports only the positive
mood outcomes and excludes the information on side effects.
Misrepresentation
o One can define 'misrepresentation of data' as 'communicating honestly
reported data in a deceptive manner.'
o Misrepresenting data include drawing unwarranted inference from data,
creating deceptive graphs of figures, and using suggestive language for
rhetorical effect.
o The main objective is to present a conclusion that an author or institution or
publisher wants to present.
o Misrepresentation can be used to increase the acceptance of study by the
publisher or institution to publish the material.
o Example: A researcher analyzes data on the relationship between daily screen
time and mental health in adolescents. The data shows a mild association, but
not a strong correlation. However, in presenting the data, the researcher uses
suggestive language such as “strong evidence” and creates a graph that
exaggerates the correlation by manipulating the scale on the y-axis to make the
association appear more pronounced than it is.
Types
o Breaches of Duty of Care
o Censorship
o Conflicts of Interest
o Discriminatory and Harassing Research Practices and Language
o Fabrication, Falsification, and Plagiarism
o Failure to Acknowledge Sources
o Failure to Meet Legal and Professional Obligations
o Ideological or Political Bias
o Malicious Use of Logical Fallacies
o Misrepresentation of Qualifications and/or Experience
o Multiple Manuscript Submission
o Pseudonyms
o Segmented Publication
o Undisclosed Errors in Published Work
o Undisclosed Research Misconduct
o Un-provenance Artifacts
Authorship and Disputes When not appropriately addressed, authorship issues can
lead to dispute.
o Some disputes are based on misconduct (such as lying about one's role);
o Some stem from questions of interpretation, such as the degree to which a
person's contribution can be considered "substantial,"
o Being involved in a study, but not listed as an author or contributor; \
o Somebody taking someone else’s idea and publishing a paper claiming full
authorship.
o And an author finding his name on a publication without his permission or
consent.
USE OF PLAGIARISM SOFTWARE LIKE TURNITIN, URKUND AND OTHER
OPEN-SOURCE SOFTWARE TOOLS
Plagiarism
o Plagiarism defined as the act of taking or attempting to take or to use (whole
or parts) of another person’s works, without referencing or citing him as the
owner of this work.
o It may include direct copy and paste, modification or changing some words of
the original information from the internet books, magazine, newspaper,
research, journal, personal information or ideas.
Plagiarism detection
o Plagiarism detection or content similarity detection is the process of locating
instances of plagiarism and/or copyright infringement within a work or
document.
o The widespread use of computers and the advent of the Internet have made it
easier to plagiarize the work of others.
o Plagiarism checker tools are an incredibly effective way of reviewing the
essays or theses for any case that can be a symbol of plagiarism.
o A wide range of software are available to the researchers who take their
academic work seriously and want to make no mistake.