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Nervous system

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 Introduction
Nervous system
Is the smallest and most complex of the 11 body systems.
highly organized network of billions of neurons and more
neuroglia.
It accounts 2kg ,about 3% of total body weight

NB: What are structures that make up the nervous system?

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 Here are structures that make nervous system
Brain
cranial nerves and their branches
the spinal cord
spinal nerves and their branches
ganglia
enteric plexuses and
sensory receptors.

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 …cnt
Brain - which contains about 100 billion neurons.
12 (right and left) of cranial nerves, numbered CNI up to XII,
emerge from the base of the brain.
Spinal cord contains about 100 million neurons.
31 pairs of spinal nerves emerge from the spinal cord, each
serving a specific region on the right or left side of the body.
Nervous cells are neurons

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6 .By Damtew S 6/21/2019
 …cnt
Ganglia
are small masses of nervous tissue , that are located outside the
brain and spinal cord.
Enteric plexus
o extensive networks of neuron on the walls of organs of the
gastrointestinal tract help regulate the digestive system.
sensory receptor is neurons (specialized cells) that monitor
changes in the internal or external environment,
such as photoreceptors in the retina of the eye

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 Functions of the Nervous System
Sensory input – gathering information ,this sensory information is
carried into the brain and spinal cord through cranial and spinal
nerves.
To monitor changes occurring inside and outside the body detect
internal stimuli, such as an increase in blood acidity,
Changes are called stimuli
Integration To process and interpret sensory input and decide if
action is needed
Motor output
A response to integrated stimuli
The information is carried out side the brain and spinal cord
The response activates muscles or glands
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 Nervous Tissue
Consist of 2 types of cells
1. Neurons
Functional, signal conducting cells
2. Neuroglia
It doesn’t conduct impulse
Supporting cells & nutrition
Neurons = nerve cells , the functional and structural unit of
the nervous system
Specialized to conduct information from one part of the body to
another.

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 Major regions/parts/ of neurons
Cell body (soma) – contain nucleus other organells and metabolic center
of the cell
One or more slender processes – fibers that extend from the cell body
(dendrites and axons)
Dendrites An input region - to wards the cell body
Axon conducting component , away from the cell body
•A secretory (output) region (axon terminal)

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 …cnt
Cell body
Contains nucleus ,large nucleolus, plus
most normal organelles
Biosynthetic center of the neuron
Contains many bundles of protein
filaments (neurofibrils) which help
maintain the shape, structure, and
integrity of the cell.

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 Nervous system

CNS:

Gray matter cell bodies and unmylenated fibers

Nuclei – clusters of cell bodies

White matter tracts, collections of myelinated fibers

PNS:

Ganglia – clusters of cell bodies

Nerves-collections of myelinated fibers

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 Structural classification of neurons
Structurally, neurons are classified according to the
number of processes extending from the cell body

Multipolar- neurons
usually have several
dendrites and one
axon
Most neurons in the
brain and spinal cord

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 …cnt
Bipolar
neurons have one main
dendrite and one axon
They are found in the :
retina of the eye
inner ear
olfactory (to smell)
area of the brain.

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 …cnt
Pseudounipolar
Neurons have dendrites and one
axon that are
Fused together to form a
continuous process that emerges
from the cell body
Found in dorsal root ganglia

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Neuron Anatomy
Axolemma -axon plasma membrane.
Surrounded by a myelin sheath,
a wrapping of lipid
Protects the axon and electrically isolates
it
Increases the rate of Action potential
transmission
Axonal terminals contain vesicles with
neurotransmitters
Axonal terminals are separated from the
next neuron by a gap
Synaptic cleft gap b/n adjacent neurons
Synapse junction between nerves

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 Functional Classification of Neurons

Sensory = afferent neurons

Carry impulses from the sensory receptors to the CNS
Cutaneous sense organs
Proprioceptors – detect stretch or tension
Most sensory neurons are Unipolar in structure.

Motor = efferent neurons

Carry impulses from the central nervous system to the muscles or
glands
Most motor neurons are multi-polar in structure.
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Interneurons (association neurons)
Found in neural pathways in the central nervous system
b/n the connection of sensory and motor neurons
Most interneurons are multipolar in structure.

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 Neuroglia
Supporting cells of the CNS .
These cells are non -excitable and undergo mitotic division
About half of the total volume of human brain is composed of
neuroglial cells
The macroglial cells include Astrocytes ,Oligodendrocytes and
Ependymal cells .
The macroglial cells are derived from the embryonic neuroectoderm
and the microglial cells are mesodermal in origin.

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 6 types of supporting cells
(neuroglia)
4 &2are found in the CNS and PNS
1. Astrocytes
Star-shaped, abundant, and versatile
Guide the migration of developing
neurons
Function in nutrient transfer
Support neurons; protect neurons from
harmful substances; help maintain
proper chemical environment for
generation of nerve impulses
•

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 Neuroglial cells of CNS
2. Microglia
Protect CNS cells from disease by
engulfing invading microbes; migrate to areas of injured
nerve tissue where they clear away debris of dead cells.
Specialized immune cells that act as the macrophages of the
CNS
the main phagocytic cell and antigen-presenting cells in the
CNS.

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 Neuroglial cells of CNS
3. Ependymal Cells
Some are ciliated which facilitates the movement of
cerebrospinal fluid and circulation
4. Oligodendrocytes
Produce the myelin sheath which provides the electrical
insulation for certain neurons in the CNS

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 Neuroglia in the PNS
1. Satellite cells
Surround clusters of neuronal cell bodies in the PNS
Support neurons and regulate exchange of material
b/n neural cell bodies and intertistial fluid
2. Schwann cells
Form myelin sheaths around the axon of larger
nerve fibers in the PNS.
Vital to neuronal regeneration

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Organization of the Nervous System
is divided into
1. The Central Nervous System (CNS)
the brain
spinal cord
2. The Peripheral Nervous System
(PNS)
Includes all nervous tissue outside
the CNS
Component of PNS
the cranial nerves and their branches
the spinal nerves and their branches,
ganglia and sensory receptors

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What covers and protects the CNS ?
The entire delicate CNS is protected by:
a bony -cranial bone & vertebrae
The menings,
The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

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 Meninges
are a connective tissue membranes that cover and
protect the brain and spinal cord
They are three layers from outside to inside respectively
the Dura mater(outer layer)
the Arachnoid mater(Middle layer)
the Pia mater(Inner layer)

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 Cont…
1. The Dura mater
is in contact with bone
is composed primarily of dense connective
tissue.
The cranial dura mater is a double-layered
structure.
The thicker outer periosteal layer adheres tightly
to the cranium, and meningeal layer .
It extends to S2(second sacral vertebra)

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 The spinal dura mater is single layered and is similar to the menigeal
layer of the cranial dura mater.
2. The arachnoid mater
is the middle layer of the three meninges.
The subarachnoid space is located between the arachnoid mater
and the pia mater.
The subarachnoid space contains the CSF

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3. The pia mater
is the deepest meninges attached to the surfaces of the CNS
It is composed of modified loose fibrous connective tissue.
It is highly vascular and the ligamentum denticulatum is the lateral
extensions of the pia mater which attaches the spinal cord to the
dura mater.
Both the pia mater and the arachnoid mater specialize over the
roofs of the ventricles to form the choroid plexuses.

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 Cerebrospinal fluid(CSF)
CSF is secreted by choroidal epithelial cells (ependymal cells) of
the choroid plexuses in the lateral, 3rd, and 4th ventricles
Fills the space between
the arachnoid and pia mater
ventricles
Central canal Spinal C.
Functions:
Shock absorption
Support
Nourishment

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Based on embryological dev’t the brain subdivided in to
three as:
the forebrain (cerebrum and diencephalons)
midbrain
hindbrain (cerebellum, pons, and medulla).
The Cerebrum
is the largest portion of the brain.
located in the region of the telencephalon
It accounts for about 80%
is responsible for the higher mental functions including memory
and reason
consists of the right hemispheres & left hemispheres

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 The two hemisphere are connected internally by the
corpus callosum
Each hemisphere contains a central cavity called the
lateral ventricle

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The cerebrum consists of two layers.
Cerebral cortex
The surface layer
is composed of gray matter( nerve cell bodies.)
has numerous folds and grooves called convolutions.
The elevated folds of the convolutions are the cerebral gyri
(singular, gyrus)
the grooves are the cerebral sulci (singular, sulcus)

White matter
Beneath the cerebral cortex
constitutes the second layer.

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 Lobes of cerebrum
Each cerebral hemisphere is subdivided into five lobes by
deep sulci called fissures
The central sulcus (fissure of Rolando)
b/n the frontal lobe and the parietal lobe.
The lateral sulcus (fissure of Sylvius)
b/n the frontal and temporal lobes

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 Frontal Lobe:
forms the anterior portion of each hemisphere.
extends from the central sulcus to the frontal pole
lies above the lateral sulcus and anterior to the
central sulcus
concerned with initiating voluntary motor
impulses for the movement of skeletal muscles and
responses related to memory, emotions,
reasoning, judgment, verbal communications, etc

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 Parietal lobe:
extends from the central sulcus to the occipital
lobe
lies superior to the temporal lobe,
posterior to the central sulcus.
functions : receives and integrates sensory
information

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Temporal lobe :
lying below the lateral sulcus.
located below the parietal lobe and the posterior portion
of the frontal lobe.
is separated from both by the lateral sulcus.
extends from the temporal pole to the occipital lobe,
extends from the lateral sulcus to the collateral sulcus.
contains auditory centers that receive sensory fibers from
the cochlea of the ear

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 Occipital lobe:
lies posterior to the parieto-occipital sulcus and
the preoccipital notch.
forms the posterior portion of the cerebrum.
lies superior to the cerebellum.
contains the visual cortex
The principal function of the occipital lobe is
concerned with vision.

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 Functions of Cerebrum
Frontal
voluntary motor functions
planning, mood, smell and social judgment
Parietal
receives and integrates sensory information
Occipital
visual center of brain
Temporal
areas for hearing, smell, learning, memory,
emotional behavior
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 Special Senses
Organs of special senses project to specialized regions of the
brain
Taste - lower end of parietal lobe
Smell - medial temporal lobe and inferior frontal lobe
Vision - occipital lobe
Hearing - superior temporal lobe
Equilibrium - cerebellum and lateral and central sulcus
Language
Includes reading, writing, speaking and understanding words.

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Wernicke area
permits recognition of spoken and written language and
creates plan of speech
Diencephalon
is the second subdivision of the forebrain and divide in to:
1. Thalamus
2. hypothalamus
3. the epithalamus
The 3rd ventricle forms a cavity on the median plane within the
diencephalon

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 1.Thalamus
a paired, large, avoid mass of gray matter, constituting
nearly 80% of the diencephalon.
Each portion is located immediately below the respective
lateral ventricle.
Its principal function is to act as a relay center for all
sensory impulses, except smell.

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 2.Hypothalamus
a small portion of the diencephalon which forms the floor and part of the lateral
walls of the third ventricle.
The hypothalamus performs numerous vital functions
hormone secretion (pituitary)
autonomic NS control
thermoregulation (thermostat)
food & water intake (hunger & satiety)
sleep & circadian rhythms
memory (mammillary bodies)
emotional behavior anger, aggression, fear, pleasure, sex

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 3. Epithalamus
the dorsal portion of the diencephalon that includes a thin
roof over the third ventricle.
The pineal gland extends outward from the posterior end
of the epithalamus.
The inside lining of the roof consists of a vascular choroids
plexus where CSF is produced.

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 Pituitary gland (hypophysis)
is supported by the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone
positioned on the inferior aspect of the diencephalon and is
attached to the hypothalamus by a stalk-like structure
called the infundibulum.
The pituitary gland is divided into
anterior portion (adenohypophysis )
posterior portion (neurohypophysis)

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 The brain stem
The brain stem contains nuclei for autonomic
functions of the body and their connecting
tracts.
It is the portion of the brain that attaches to
the spinal cord it :
includes
the midbrain
pons
medulla oblongata
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 1. Midrain (Mesencephalon)
is a short section of the brain stem b/n the diencephalon
and the pons.

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 2. Pons
b/n the midbrain and the medulla oblongata .
it has two respiratory centers of the pons are called the apneustic and the
pneumotaxic areas.

3. Medulla oblongata
function as autonomic centers for controlling vital visceral functions include
Cardiac center- adjusts rate & force of heart beat
Vasomotor center -adjusts blood vessel diameter
Respiratory centers- control rate & depth of breathing
Reflex centers- for coughing, sneezing, gagging, swallowing, vomiting, salivation,
sweating, movements of tongue & head

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 Cerebellum
is the second lager structure in the brain.
occupies the inferior and posterior aspect of the cranial
cavity.
attached to the brain stem by three paired bundles of nerve fibers
called cerebellar peduncles

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 Function
Balance the body
Coordinating skeletal muscle contractions by recruiting precise motor units
within muscles.
Impulses for voluntary muscular movement originate in the cerebral cortex
and are coordinated by the cerebellum
The cerebellum can be permanently damaged by trauma or stroke
or temporarily affected by drugs such as alcohol.
These alterations can produce ataxia is a disturbance in balance

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 Spinal cord
extends through the vertebral canal and surrounded by three meninges
provides a means of neural communication to and from the brain
through tracts of white matter.
These are:
Ascending tracts
Descending tracts
serves as a center for spinal reflexes

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 …cnt

Extends from foramen

magnum to L2 vertebra
Consists of:
Cervical region
Thoracic region
Lumbar region
Sacral region
Coccygeal region

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 Location
in adults, from the foramen magnum to the lower border of
the first lumbar vertebra or (L2)
in newborns, it extends to the third lumbar(L3) vertebra.
is continuous with the medulla oblongata at the
spinomedullary junction.

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 Internal Morphology
in transverse sections, the spinal cord consists of central gray matter
and peripheral white matter.
A. Gray matter
is located centrally within the spinal cord
unmylinated
is butterfly- or H- shaped in a configuration that varies according to spinal cord
level.
contains a central canal.
is divided into three horns or cell columns on each side

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1. Dorsal/ posterior horn
receives and processes sensory input
2. Lateral horn
receives viscerosensory input.
is found between the dorsal and ventral horns.
3. Ventral/anterior horn
contains predominately motor nuclei.
is found at all levels.

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 B . the white matter
Tracts of the spinal cord
are divided into ascending and descending pathways.
1. Ascending spinal Tracts
Represent functional pathways that convey sensory
information from soma or viscera to higher levels of the
neural axis.
2. Descending spinal Tracts
are concerned with somatic and visceral motor
activities.
It is mylinated ,with myelin sheath

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 PNS -subdivided into
I. Somatic nervous system
Consist of :
Sensory neurons- convey information from somatic
receptors and special senses to CNS
Motor neurons –conduct impulses from CNS to
skeletal muscle only- voluntarly

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 ...cnt
II. The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
Consist of:
Sensory neurons- convey information from autonomic
sensory receptors, located primarily in visceral
organs to CNS
Motor neurons- conduct impulse from CNS to smooth
muscle, cardiac muscle and glands- involuntary

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 The peripheral nervous system.
is that portion of the nervous system outside the CNS.
The PNS functions to convey impulses to and from the
brain or spinal cord.
The nerves of the PNS are classified as
cranial nerves (I-XII) pairs and
spinal nerve (31) pairs

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 The motor part of the ANS consists of two branches
sympathetic division
parasympathetic division.
With few exceptions, effectors receive nerves from both divisions,
and usually they have opposing actions

Sympathetic Nervous System

“Fight or Flight”
Exercise, excitement, emergency,
embarrassment
and,ejaculation
Parasympathetic Nervous System
“Rest and Digest”
Digestion, defecation, and diuresis
and erection of clitoris and penis

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 Cranial Nerves
There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves
The cranial nerves are designated by roman numerals
Their names indicate the structures innervated or the principal
functions of the nerves
I Olfactory nerve – sensory for smell
II Optic nerve – sensory for vision
III Oculomotor nerve – motor fibers to eye muscles
IV Trochlear – motor fiber to eye muscles
V Trigeminal nerve – sensory for the face; motor fibers to
chewing muscles
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VI Abducens nerve – motor fibers to eye muscles
VII Facial nerve – sensory for taste; motor fibers to the face
VIII Vestibulocochlear nerve – sensory for balance and
hearing
IX Glossopharyngeal nerve – sensory for taste; motor fibers
to the pharynx
X Vagus nerves – sensory and motor fibers for pharynx,
larynx, and viscera
XI Accessory nerve – motor fibers to neck and upper back
XII Hypoglossal nerve – motor fibers to tongue

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No Nerve Type Function
1 Olfactory Sensory Smell
2 Optic Sensory Vision
3 Oculomotor Motor To all muscles of the eye except two: (superior
oblique and lateral rectus)
4 Trochlear Motor To one eye muscle (superior oblique)
5 Trigeminal Mixed: mainly, sensory; small motor -Sensory to mouth, face and
Ophtalmic part anterior ½ of scalp
Maxillary - Motor to muscles of mastication.
Mandibular
6 Abducent Motor To one eye muscle (lateral rectus)
7 Facial Mixed: motor, sensory, and -Motor to muscles of the face
parasympathetic -Parasympathetic to certain glands in the bead.
-Sensory: taste to anterior 2/3rd of tongue.
8 Auditory Sensory (a)Hearing (cochlear part)
(stato-acoustic) (b)Equilibrium (vestibular part)
9 Glossopharyngeal Mixed: motor, sensory, and -Sensory for pharynx and tongue
parasympathetic -Motor to one muscle of pharynx
(stylopharyngeus)
-Parasympathetic to the parotid gland.
10 Vagus (including Mixed: motor, sensory and -Motor to the muscles of the pharynx (except
cranial accessory) parasympathetic stylopharyngeus), larynx and palate
-Parasympathetic and sensory to the structures in
the thorax and abdomen.
11 Spinal Accessory Motor To 2 important muscles of the neck:
77 sternocleidomastoid and trapezius.
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12 Hypoglossal Motor To all muscles of the tongue (except
palatoglossus)
 Spinal Nerves
31 pairs – contain thousands of nerve fibers
Connect to the spinal cord
Named for point of tissue from the spinal cord
8 pairs of cervical nerves (C1-C8)
12 pairs of thoracic nerves (T1-T12)
5 pairs of lumbar nerves (L1-L5)
5 pairs of sacral nerves (S1-S5)
1 pair of coccygeal nerves (Co1)

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 Components and branches of SN
The SN is formed by the union of dorsal and ventral roots resulting
in a mixed nerve.
1. Dorsal root
Cell bodies – located in the dorsal root ganglion
conveys sensory input from the body
2. Ventral root
convey motor output to visceral and somatic motor neurons.
joins the dorsal roots to form the spinal nerve

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Nerve plexuses
Except in the thoracic nerves T2-T12, the anterior
rami of the spinal nerves combine and then split
again as networks of nerves referred to as plexuses.
There are four plexuses:
the cervical
the brachial
the lumbar
sacral and
small coccygeal plexus

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 Cervical plexus (8pairs)
formed by the anterior rami of the nerves C1
- C4 and a portion of C5.
Branches of this innervate the skin and
muscles of the neck, and portions of the head
and upper part of the shoulders.
E.g. Fibers from C3, C4, and C5 unite to form
the phrenic nerve (C3-C5) which innervates
the diaphragm thereby causing it to contract
during inspiration
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 Brachial plexus
It’s formed by the anterior rami of the nerves C5
– C8 and T1
Five major nerves
axillary- deltoid , teres minor
radial- posterior compartment of the arm
musculocutaneous- anterior compartments
of the arm
ulnar -innervates muscles of anterior
medial compartements of the arm
median nerves- anterior compartments of
the arm and some portion of the hand
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 Lumbar plexus
It’s formed by the anterior rami of spinal nerves
(L1 - L4)
Branches from this innervate structures of
the lower part of abdomen
anterior and medial potions of the lower limb.
E.g. femoral nerve innervates the anterior muscles
of the thigh
obturator nerve innervates the medial adductor
muscles of the thigh
Pudendal , gluteal, sciatic nerves are forms the
sacral plexus
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 The sciatic nerve
is the largest branch of the sacral plexus and is
the largest nerve in the body.
It’s composed of two nerves-
the tibial
common fibular nerves.
Tibial nerve
innervates most of the posterior thigh and leg
muscles and many of the plantar muscles.
Common fibular nerve
innervates the anterior and lateral muscles of
the leg and foot
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THE SPECIAL SENSES
Sensory organs have special
receptors that allow us to smell, taste,
see, hear, and maintain equilibrium
or balance.
Information conveyed from these
receptors to the central nervous
system is used to help maintain
homeostasis
The accessory structures of the eye
include the eyelids, eyelashes,
eyebrows, the lacrimal (tearing)
apparatus, and extrinsic eye muscles.

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 Eyelids
The upper and lower eyelids, shade the eyes during sleep,
protect the eyes from excessive light and foreign objects,
and spread lubricating secretions over the eyeballs
The upper eyelid is more movable than the lower
Eyelashes and Eyebrows
The eyelashes, which project from the border of each eyelid
the eyebrows, which arch transversely above the upper
eyelids, help protect the eyeballs from foreign objects,
perspiration, and the direct rays of the sun.
Sebaceous glands at the base of the hair follicles of the
eyelashes, called sebaceous ciliary glands, release a
lubricating fluid into the follicles
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The Lacrimal Apparatus
The lacrimal apparatus
is a group of structures
that produces and
drains lacrimal fluid or
tears.
excretory lacrimal
ducts
lacrimal puncta
lacrimal canals
Lacrimal sac
Nasolacrimal duct
Nasal cavity
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Extrinsic Eye Muscles
These muscles are
capable of moving the
eye in almost any
direction.
6 extrinsic eye
muscles move each
eye:
the superior rectus
inferior rectus
lateral rectus
medial rectus
superior oblique
inferior oblique
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Anatomy of eye ball
The adult eyeball measures about 2.5 cm (1 in.) in diameter.
Of its total surface area, only the anterior 1/6 is exposed; other is
masked and protected by the orbit
Anatomically, the wall of the eyeball consists of three layers:

fibrous tunic
vascular tunic
retina.

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1. Fibrous Tunic
The fibrous tunic is the superficial layer of the eyeball and
consists of the anterior cornea and posterior sclera
The cornea is a transparent coat that covers the colored iris.
Because it is curved, the cornea helps focus light onto the
retina.
The sclera the “white” of the eye, is a layer of dense
connective tissue made up mostly of collagen fibers and
fibroblasts.
The sclera covers the entire eyeball except the cornea
it gives shape to the eyeball , makes it more rigid, protects
its inner parts, and serves as a site of attachment for the
extrinsic eye muscles.
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2.Vascular Tunic
The vascular tunic is the middle layer of the eyeball.
It is composed of three parts
A. Choroid- highly vascularized and it contain melanocyte
Prevents light rays from scattering and distorting the image
B. Ciliary body the ciliary body appears dark brown in color
because it contains melanin-producing melanocytes
C. Iris -It consists of melanocytes and circular and radial
smooth muscle fibers.
A principal function of the iris is to regulate the amount of
light entering the eyeball through the pupil, the hole in the
center of the iris.
Conjunctiva: external cover of the sclera -keeps the eye
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moist
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3. Retina
The third and inner layer of the eyeball, the retina, lines the
posterior three-quarters of the eyeball and is the beginning
of the visual pathway
Contains photoreceptors.

Except at the optic disk (where the optic nerve attaches).

The lens and ciliary body divide the eye into two cavities.
The anterior cavity is filled with aqueous humor produced by the
ciliary body.
The posterior cavity is filled with vitreous humor.
The lens, the aqueous humor, and the vitreous humor all play a role
in focusing light onto the retina.

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 Ear
The ear is an engineering marvel because its sensory
receptors can transduce sound vibrations with amplitudes
Anatomy of the ear
The ear is divided into three main regions:
the external ear, which collects sound waves and
channels them inward;
the middle ear, which conveys sound vibrations to the
oval window
the internal ear, which houses the receptors for hearing
and equilibrium.

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 External (Outer) Ear
The external (outer) ear consists of the auricle,
external auditory canal, and eardrum
auricle (pinna)
Helix
Lobule
The external auditory canal
tympanic membrane
Ceruminous glands

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Middle Ear
The middle ear is a small, air-filled cavity in the petrous
portion of the temporal bone that is lined by epithelium on
It is separated from the external ear by the tympanic
membrane and from the internal ear by a thin bony partition
that contains two small membrane-covered openings:
the oval window
the round window.
the three smallest bones in the body, the auditory ossicles are
found in the middle ear
Malleus(hammer)
Incus(anvil)
stapes(stirrup)
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 Internal ear
The internal (inner) ear is also called the labyrinth (because
of its complicated series of canals
Structurally, it consists of two main divisions:
an outer bony labyrinth that encloses an inner
membranous labyrinth.
The bony labyrinth is a series of cavities in the petrous
portion of the temporal bone divided into three areas:
the semicircular canals
the vestibule- the oval central portion of the bony labyrinth
, which contain receptors for equilibrium
the cochlea-which contains receptors for hearing.

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 The membranous
labyrinth in the
vestibule consists of
two sacs called the
utricle (little bag) and
the saccule (little sac),
which are connected
by a small duct.
Projecting superiorly
and posteriorly from
the vestibule are the
three bony
semicircular canals,

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 Cochlea: Contains a series of fluids, channels, and
membranes that transmit vibrations to the spiral organ
(organ of Corti), the organ of hearing; hair cells in the
spiral organ trigger nerve impulses in the cochlear branch of
the vestibulocochlear (VIII) nerve.
Vestibular apparatus: Includes semicircular ducts, utricle,
and saccule, which generate nerve impulses that propagate
along the vestibular branch of the vestibulocochlear (VIII)
nerve.
Semicircular ducts: Contain cristae ampularis, sites of hair cells
for dynamic equilibrium.
Utricle: Contains macula, site of hair cells for static equilibrium.
Saccule: site of hair cells for static equilibrium.

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