Electrical Power Systems

Table of Contents
1. Introduction ....................................................................................................... 3
Objective:.................................................................................................................. 4
Carry out a series of laboratory experiments to study the characteristics of a
generation, transmission and distribution networks (see the attached 2
experiments on Transmission Line Analyzer). ........................................................ 4
Analysis of Real, Apparent, and Reactive Power Components in Linear Loads and
the Effect of Non-Linear Loads .............................................................................10
Evaluation of the Optimum Capacitor Value for Unity or Near-Unity Power Factor
in a Power Distribution Network ...........................................................................12
Conducting Simulation Assessments to Determine the Power Factor in a
Distribution Network ............................................................................................12
Explain your own thoughts, observation for each of the tests above and provide
your professional comments ................................................................................13
2. Part 2: An Investigation into the load flow analysis in 17 bus distribution
networks with and without renewable energy using ETAP software ..................15
Magnitude and Phase Angle of Voltage.....................................................................17
Real and Reactive Power Flow in Each Line ..............................................................18
Carry out the load flow study calculations for at least two-bus network using the
Newton-Raphson Method. ....................................................................................20
Observation .............................................................................................................24
3. Professional Analysis and Observations Based on Simulation Results: ............26
4. Conclusion ........................................................................................................27
 List of Figures
Figure 1: IEEE-17 Bus based Power Distribution System ................................................... 5
Figure 2: IEEE – 17 Bus based system load bus characteristics ......................................... 6
Figure 3:IEEE-17 bus system total power loading (kW vs KVAR) ......................................... 6
Figure 4: Voltage and % loading vs. Bus ID ....................................................................... 7
Figure 5:Stacked bar plot for kW and kVAR loading ........................................................... 7
Figure 6: Power Flow Characteristics and System Loading Across Distribution Buses ........ 8
Figure 7: Power Flow and Efficiency Analysis Across Distribution Network Buses .............. 9
Figure 8: IEEE 17- bus power distribution system ............................................................15
Figure 9:MW and Mvar flow w.r.t the equipment ..............................................................16
Figure 10: combined result of IEEE-17 bus system...........................................................17
Figure 11:IEEE-17 bus system combine results ...............................................................17
Figure 12: Two bus bar-based power distribution network model .....................................21
 Introduction

This document offers an in-depth analysis of electrical power systems, highlighting their
essential function in facilitating efficient and dependable energy distribution from
generation to consumption. The study focuses on a primary two-bus network and uses the
Newton-Raphson (NR) method, a well-known and reliable way to solve the nonlinear
equations needed for load flow analysis. The analysis explores essential concepts, including
active, reactive, and apparent power, which are crucial for comprehending energy dynamics
in power systems. The NR method is essential for ascertaining the voltage magnitudes and
phase angles necessary to equilibrate the power flow within the network. Through the
iterative refinement of these parameters, the study identifies and rectifies discrepancies in
power generation, transmission, and consumption, thereby ensuring system stability. The
method's accuracy and flexibility are especially beneficial for addressing intricate issues in
contemporary power systems, such as voltage regulation and power factor correction. The
inquiry highlights the importance of operational parameters, including line impedance,
power discrepancies, and Jacobian matrix calculations. These elements are integral to the
NR method and offer insights into the overarching performance metrics of power distribution
networks. Efficient management of these parameters is essential for reducing power losses,
maintaining voltage stability, and optimizing load distribution.

The document examines the implications of the study's findings for practical power
distribution systems. Distribution networks, which connect high-voltage transmission
systems to end consumers, encounter distinct challenges, such as voltage drops, reactive
power requirements, and uneven load distribution. The analysis emphasizes strategies to
mitigate these issues, including implementing capacitor banks for reactive power
compensation and applying sophisticated load management techniques. This research
integrates the two-bus network analysis into the bigger picture of how power systems work
and provides valuable information for designing and improving distribution networks. These
findings enhance power systems' efficiency, reliability, and sustainability, ensuring they
satisfy the evolving demands of contemporary energy landscapes.
Part 1: An investigation into the Characteristics of high and low voltage electrical
power distribution networks

Objective:
1. Carry out a series of laboratory experiments to study the characteristics of a
generation, transmission and distribution networks (see the attached 2 experiments
on Transmission Line Analyzer).
2. Examine and analyses real, apparent and reactive power components in linear loads.
Discuss the non-linear load effect on such power components.
3. Evaluate the optimum capacitor value for unity / near unity power factor for power
distribution network.
4. Conduct a series of simulation assessments to determine the power factor in
distribution network.
5. Explain your own thoughts, observation for each of the tests above and provide your
professional comments.

Carry out a series of laboratory experiments to study the characteristics of a generation,

transmission and distribution networks (see the attached 2 experiments on
Transmission Line Analyzer).
The IEEE 17-bus system demonstrates a well-structured configuration of generation,
transmission, and distribution networks as shown in Fig1. The generation network comprises
five generators (Gen1 to Gen5), each rated at 20 MW, located at high-voltage buses (125 kV).
These generators provide a combined capacity of 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 5 × 20 = 100 𝑀W , ensuring
sufficient power supply for downstream networks. Reactive power contributions, 𝑄𝑔 , remain
within operational limits across buses, confirming adequate excitation and voltage control.
For instance, Gen1 maintains a voltage of 1.05 pu, stabilizing the high-voltage backbone.
Additionally, power factor performance across the generation nodes is consistent, reflecting
efficient real and reactive power management. The transmission network operates at 125 kV
and 33 kV, effectively transporting bulk power to lower voltage levels. The impedance of
transmission lines is low, resulting in minimal active and reactive power losses. Using load
flow analysis, the power loss 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 in a typical line is calculated as 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐼 2 R, where II is the
current through the line and R is its resistance. For instance, in a line segment with I = 200 𝐴
and R = 0.2 Ω , the power loss is 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 2002 × 0.2 = 8 𝑘W . Voltage profiles across the
transmission buses are maintained within permissible limits, with voltage drops
ΔV calculated asΔV = IZ = I√𝑅2 + 𝑋 2 , where Z is the line impedance. For a line with X =
0.4 Ω, the drop remains insignificant, ensuring robust power transfer.
 Figure 1: IEEE-17 Bus based Power Distribution System

Fig. 2, compares the real power (kW), reactive power (kVAR), and current (Amp) loading
across each bus in the distribution network. It helps to visualize how each bus is handling
different power components. The chart allows for easy comparison of active vs. reactive
power usage across buses. In Fig 3, the pie chart provides a visual representation of the total
active (kW) and reactive (kVAR) power distribution across the system. It offers a quick
overview of the system's overall power consumption, showing how much of the power is
reactive versus active.
Figure 2: IEEE – 17 Bus based system load bus characteristics

Figure 3:IEEE-17 bus system total power loading (kW vs KVAR)

 Figure 4: Voltage and % loading vs. Bus ID

Figure 5:Stacked bar plot for kW and kVAR loading

Fig 4, illustrating the relationship between bus voltage and percentage loading across
buses. It indicates how the voltage profile is affected by loading conditions, highlighting any
significant voltage drops or stability issues as the loading increases. Whereas Fig 5, shows
the real power (kW) and reactive power (kVAR) stacked together for each bus,
demonstrating the proportion of active and reactive power for each load. It highlights how
much of the total load is reactive, which can be critical for assessing the need for power
factor correction.

Figure 6: Power Flow Characteristics and System Loading Across Distribution Buses

Fig. 6 illustrates the power flow attributes among different buses in the electrical distribution
system. Each subplot illustrates a distinct metric essential for evaluating the system's
performance. The first plot displays the MW (MegaWatt) flow of each bus, which shows the
amount of active power that each bus is transmitting. An elevated MW flow indicates that
the bus supplies or consumes power. The second plot depicts the MVAR (MegaVolt-Ampere
Reactive) flow, indicative of reactive power. Reactive power is essential for sustaining voltage
levels within the system, and the graph illustrates the quantity of reactive power supplied or
absorbed by each bus. The third plot illustrates the amp flow, or the current flow, through
each bus. This is crucial for comprehending the physical stress on the conductors and the
system's capacity to manage the power flow. The fourth plot illustrates the percentage
loading on each bus, indicating the extent of capacity utilization relative to its maximum
rated capacity. This assists in recognizing overburdened or underutilized segments of the
network, guaranteeing efficient capacity utilization. These plots offer an extensive overview
of the system's performance, highlighting both efficiency and potential stress points within
the power distribution network.

Figure 7: Power Flow and Efficiency Analysis Across Distribution Network Buses

The plot in Fig. 7 analyzes essential power flow characteristics across distribution network
buses, including active power (kW), reactive power (kVAR), current (Amp), and power factors.
Each subplot shows system performance, helping identify optimization opportunities. Each
bus's kW subplot shows its power consumption or supply. Buses with high kW values
indicate regions with high energy consumption. Monitoring these buses for overload or
inefficiencies may be necessary. Voltage regulation relies on reactive power, which the kVAR
subplot shows. Voltage stability requires reactive power, which does not work. Buses with
high reactive power may require capacitor banks to improve efficiency and reduce voltage
fluctuations. Each bus's current (Amp) subplot displays the system's physical load. High
current flows on buses indicate a higher load, suggesting the network may be nearing
capacity, especially during peak demand. The power factor (PF) subplot shows system
efficiency. PF values near 1.0 indicate efficient power use, while lower values indicate high
reactive power consumption, which reduces system efficiency. Low-power buses may need
power factor correction to improve performance and reduce losses. The plot details power
flow throughout the network, identifying areas that need improvements or compensation to
improve system reliability and efficiency.

The distribution network spans from 33 kV down to 11 kV and further to 0.415 kV,
efficiently delivering power to industrial and domestic loads. Transformers perform the
crucial task of stepping down voltage levels while maintaining stable load conditions. The
step-down transformers, such as 𝑇11 (1 MVA) and 𝑇18 (600 kVA), ensure seamless voltage
transitions. Transformer losses are evaluated using 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑃𝑛𝑜−𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = kVI + (𝐼 2 𝑅),
where k accounts for the core losses. At 33 kV buses, industrial loads are connected,
drawing higher current and power, while 0.415 kV buses cater to domestic loads with lower
power ratings. Load balancing is evident as buses like Bus15 and Bus16 at 0.415 kV show
voltage drops within 2% of nominal values, calculated using
𝑉𝑛𝑜−𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 − 𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙−𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Voltage Regulation = × 100
𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙−𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

Overall, the system's efficiency and resilience are evident from the balanced voltage profiles
and low power losses across all segments. Generators provide stable input, transmission
lines exhibit minimal losses, and the distribution network effectively serves varied consumer
requirements. The system demonstrates high operational reliability, with power factors
close to unity and voltage deviations well-controlled. Future enhancements could include
harmonic analysis and fault studies to assess dynamic conditions further.

Analysis of Real, Apparent, and Reactive Power Components in Linear Loads and the
Effect of Non-Linear Loads

In electrical power systems, the real power (P), apparent power (S), and reactive power (Q)
are essential components in analyzing energy usage and efficiency. For linear loads, these
power components behave predictably since the voltage and current waveforms are
sinusoidal and in phase with each other. Real power, measured in watts (W), represents the
actual energy consumed by the load to perform useful work. It is calculated as

P = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 ⋅ 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ⋅ 𝑐o𝑠(θ)

where 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 is the root mean square voltage, 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 is the root mean square current, and θ is
the phase angle between the voltage and current. Reactive power, measured in volt-amperes
reactive (VAR), represents the power that oscillates back and forth between the source and
the load but does no useful work. It is calculated as,

Q = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 ⋅ 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ⋅ 𝑠i𝑛(θ)

Apparent power, measured in volt-amperes (VA), is the total power supplied by the source
and is the combination of both real and reactive power, calculated as S = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 ⋅ 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 . The
relationship between these powers follows the power triangle, where 𝑆 2 = 𝑃2 + 𝑄2 . In a
linear load, the power factor (PF), which is the ratio of real power to apparent power, is
typically high and close to unity, indicating efficient power usage. However, when non-linear
loads are introduced, the behavior of these power components changes significantly. Non-
linear loads, such as rectifiers, computers, and fluorescent lights, cause the current
waveform to become distorted, introducing harmonics into the system. This leads to a
situation where the voltage and current are no longer sinusoidal, and the current is no longer
in phase with the voltage. As a result, real power, which represents the active power
consumed by the load, remains largely unchanged because it is based on the average power
over time. However, the introduction of harmonics can cause the reactive power to increase
due to the additional magnetic fields generated by harmonic currents in inductive
components. This causes a rise in the total reactive power 𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 , as harmonic frequencies
contribute additional reactive power at different rates, leading to an increase in the overall
reactive power demand. The formula for reactive power in the presence of harmonics
becomes more complex, involving the sum of the harmonic currents and their respective
phase angles, thereby increasing the load on the power system. Furthermore, apparent
power increases dramatically in non-linear loads. The presence of harmonic currents raises
the RMS current 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠, 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 , which in turn increases the apparent power, calculated as
𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 ⋅ 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠,𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 . This increase in apparent power results in a lower power factor
since more apparent power is required to deliver the same amount of real power, making the
system less efficient. In systems with non-linear loads, the power factor is reduced because
the harmonic currents contribute to the apparent power but do not perform any useful work,
reducing the overall system efficiency. For example, in a highly distorted system with a power
factor of 0.7, the apparent power could be significantly higher than the real power, resulting
in wasted capacity and inefficient power delivery. Additionally, the harmonics generated by
non-linear loads can cause voltage distortion and current distortion, leading to
overheating of transformers, capacitors, and other components. This is because the
harmonic currents create additional heating in the system, which can reduce the lifespan of
electrical equipment. The presence of harmonics can also interfere with the operation of
sensitive devices, causing malfunction or degraded performance. To mitigate these effects,
power systems may employ harmonic filters to reduce harmonic distortion, install power
factor correction equipment to improve the power factor, and implement load controllers
that reduce the harmonic content in non-linear loads.

Evaluation of the Optimum Capacitor Value for Unity or Near-Unity Power Factor in a
Power Distribution Network

To achieve a unity or near-unity power factor in a power distribution network, capacitors

are used to compensate for the reactive power drawn by inductive loads such as motors and
transformers. The real power (P), measured in kilowatts (kW), is the actual power consumed
by the load for work, while reactive power (Q), measured in kilovolt-amperes reactive (kVAR),
is the power that alternates between the source and the load without performing any useful
work. Apparent power (S), measured in kilovolt-amperes (kVA), is the total power supplied
by the system and is the combination of both real and reactive power. The power factor (𝑷𝑭),
the ratio of real power to apparent power, indicates how efficiently the power is being used.
To improve power factors, capacitors supply capacitive reactive power (𝑸𝒄 ) to offset the
inductive reactive power of the load. The size of the capacitor required can be calculated by
determining the reactive power needed for correction. If the system’s initial power factor is
0.7, for example, and the active power is 100 kW, the inductive reactive power (𝑄𝐿 ) can be
calculated using the formula 𝑄𝐿 = P ⋅ 𝑡a𝑛(𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (𝑃𝐹1)), which yields 𝑄𝐿 = 100 𝑘VARfor this
example. To achieve a unity power factor, the required capacitive reactive power would be
equal to the inductive reactive power, so a 100 kVAR capacitor would be needed. In practical
systems, the target is often a near-unity power factor rather than perfect unity. Capacitor
banks of appropriate size are selected to achieve the desired power factor, typically using
standard capacitor ratings. For example, a 100 kVAR capacitor bank would correct a power
factor of 0.7 to unity, improving system efficiency and reducing losses. Fine-tuning capacitor
values for near-unity power factor involves adjusting the reactive power to achieve a power
factor close to, but not necessarily exactly 1.

Conducting Simulation Assessments to Determine the Power Factor in a Distribution

Network

Tools like ETAP or other power system analysis software can perform simulation evaluations
to determine the power factor in a distribution network. The initial step involves modeling the
network by delineating essential components, including buses, loads, transformers, and
capacitors. We configure buses at various voltage levels, such as 33 kV, 11 kV, and 0.415 kV,
to illustrate the architecture of the system. We assign both industrial and domestic loads to
the respective buses, specifying absolute power (kW) and reactive power (kVAR) for each
load category. Moreover, we incorporate transformers to simulate voltage reductions across
different network tiers. People frequently use capacitors to assess power factor correction,
particularly in areas where inductive loads such as motors and transformers necessitate
reactive power compensation. Once we establish the network model, we conduct a load
flow analysis to determine the current operating power factor. This analysis computes the
real power, reactive power, apparent power, and voltage profile throughout the network,
offering a preliminary assessment of the power factor at each bus and for the entire system.

The subsequent step involves simulating power factor correction by incorporating

capacitor banks or alternative reactive power compensation devices. Capacitors supply
capacitive reactive power, compensating for the inductive reactive power the loads
consume. This process enhances the power factor, ideally aligning it with unity (1.0), the
optimal power factor. We re-execute the Load Flow Study to assess the power factor
enhancement after incorporating capacitors into the network. The software will display the
decrease in reactive power demand and the associated enhancement in the power factor.
The simulation helps find the best capacitor sizes to make sure they provide enough reactive
power for power factor correction to work without having to make too much of a difference.
The previously calculated reactive power requirements guide the dimensioning of capacitor
banks to achieve a target power factor between 0.95 and 1.0. In practical applications, power
factors may vary due to load fluctuations; therefore, simulations must consider changes in
load demand. The simulation can evaluate the power factor's response to varying load
levels—precisely 50%, 75%, and 100% of the total load—across different time intervals. As
the load escalates, the system may necessitate additional reactive power, potentially
affecting the power factor unless the capacitor banks can adapt accordingly. Furthermore,
simulations must account for various load types, including inductive, resistive, and non-
linear loads. Non-linear loads, including computers and electronic devices, generate
harmonics that distort the current waveform and diminish the power factor. It is very
important to keep an eye on the total harmonic distortion (THD) during simulations. To lessen
the effect of harmonics on the power factor, changes may need to be made to the reactive
power compensation strategy. We must evaluate the results after executing these
simulations to determine the efficacy of the power factor correction. The analysis will assess
the performance of the capacitor banks and determine if the system has achieved the target
power factor. We must evaluate the enhancement of the power factor by contrasting the
initial and final values and measure the decrease in reactive power demand. Furthermore,
analyze the voltage profile throughout the system, as power factor correction can reduce
voltage drops, particularly in the low-voltage regions of the distribution network. Simulations
can show parts of the system that need more work, like changing where or how big the
capacitor banks are placed or adding harmonic filters to lessen the effects of non-linear
loads.

Explain your own thoughts, observation for each of the tests above and provide your
professional comments

The simulation tests that were used to check the power factor in a distribution network
revealed important information about the system's performance and its power factor
correction (PFC) function. Initially, we set up the network model with accurate definitions of
components like buses, transformers, and loads, ensuring reliable results. The load flow
analysis indicated that the power factor was comparatively low due to significant reactive
power demand from inductive loads. This validated the necessity for capacitor banks to
enhance the power factor. The simulation illustrated that incorporating capacitors
significantly diminished reactive power and enhanced the power factor; however, caution is
imperative to prevent overcompensation, which may result in a leading power factor and
induce instability.

Simulating load fluctuations demonstrated the decline of the power factor with increased
load demand. This underscored the necessity for dynamic power factor correction systems
capable of a real-time adjustment of capacitor sizes in response to load variations,
particularly during peak demand periods. The simulation also addressed the effects of non-
linear loads, such as electronics and rectifiers, which generate harmonics that distort the
power factor and lead to equipment malfunctions. The resolution for this issue involves the
incorporation of harmonic filters in conjunction with capacitors to alleviate both reactive
power and harmonic distortion.

In conclusion, the simulation illustrated that capacitor banks effectively enhance power
factors; however, their dimensions and positioning require optimization to avoid
overcorrection. Consistent monitoring and modifications are essential, particularly in
systems with fluctuating loads and non-linear components. This method guarantees
network functions optimally, minimizing losses and improving overall dependability.
Part 2: An Investigation into the load flow analysis in 17 bus distribution networks with
and without renewable energy using ETAP software
Fig. 8 is the single line diagram using ETAP and represents a 17-bus power distribution
system comprising various components, including transformers, generators, loads, and
cables. A 100 MW generator at Bus1 (125 kV) supplies power, stepping down through
transformers T1, T2, T4, and T6 to lower voltage levels (33 kV, 11 kV, and 0.415 kV). The
system feeds multiple loads, such as Lumped (5 kVA, 200 kVA) and motor loads (2 HP, 5 HP).
Cables interconnect the buses, ensuring power transfer across the network. Key buses like
Bus11 and Bus14 handle significant power loads through transformers T10 and T18. This
layout highlights the hierarchical voltage step-down and load distribution across the system.

Figure 8: IEEE 17- bus power distribution system

The plot in Fig. 9, illustrates MW and Mvar flows for various equipment, including cables and
transformers, using stacked bars. The blue bars represent MW flow, while the orange bars
indicate Mvar flow. Key observations include higher power flows through transformers like
T1 and T8, signifying their critical role in transferring power. This plot effectively highlights the
distribution of active and reactive power flows, helping identify equipment handling
significant power loads or imbalances. Whereas, Fig. 10 provides a combined bar chart for
Nominal kV, Voltage, MW Loading, Mvar Loading, and Amp Loading across all buses. The high
values of Nominal kV (blue) and Voltage (green) dominate the chart, while MW Loading, Mvar
Loading, and Amp Loading, represented as smaller bars, are concentrated near the bottom
of the plot. This visualization offers an overall perspective of the key parameters, making it
easier to compare variations across buses and assess system performance metrics
comprehensively. While the line plot in Fig. 11 represent the same data categories as the
second plot. It reveals the sharp decrease in Nominal kV after Bus1, reflecting the voltage
step-down in the network. Voltage remains nearly constant, while MW Loading, Mvar
Loading, and Amp Loading fluctuate, particularly at buses like Bus11 and Bus9. This plot is
ideal for observing trends and pinpointing anomalies in the network. Together, these plots
provide valuable insights into the system's operational dynamics and performance.

Figure 9:MW and Mvar flow w.r.t the equipment

The load flow study of the electrical network provides essential insights into the system’s
operational performance by calculating the magnitude and phase angle of voltage at each
bus, as well as the real (P) and reactive power (Q) flowing through the lines. This analysis
helps in understanding how power is being delivered, whether voltage is stable, and if any
corrective actions are required to maintain efficient system performance.
 Figure 10: combined result of IEEE-17 bus system

Figure 11:IEEE-17 bus system combine results

Magnitude and Phase Angle of Voltage

In a load flow analysis, the voltage magnitude and phase angle at each bus are crucial
indicators of the system’s stability. The voltage magnitude (|V|) at a bus represents the
strength of the voltage at that bus, which should ideally be close to the rated value (usually
1.0 per-unit (pu)). Voltage magnitudes are typically calculated using the power flow
equations that balance real and reactive power at each bus:

𝑃𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 ∑𝑛𝑗=1|𝑉𝑗|(𝐺𝑖𝑗 cos(θ𝑖 −θ𝑗)+𝐵𝑖𝑗 sin(θ𝑖 −θ𝑗))

𝑄𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 ∑𝑛𝑗=1|𝑉𝑗|(𝐺𝑖𝑗 sin(θ𝑖 −θ𝑗)−𝐵𝑖𝑗 cos(θ𝑖 −θ𝑗))

Where:

• 𝑃𝑖 and 𝑄𝑖 are the real and reactive power at bus i,

• 𝑉𝑖 and θ𝑖 are the voltage magnitude and phase angle at bus i,

• Gij and Bij are the conductance and susceptance between buses i and j,

• n is the total number of buses in the network.

The phase angle (θ𝑖 ) represents the angular difference between the voltage at bus ii and the
reference bus (usually set at 0∘ ). The phase angles across the network should generally be
small, indicating efficient power flow with minimal voltage difference. Larger phase angle
differences typically suggest reactive power imbalances or voltage instability in the
network.

Real and Reactive Power Flow in Each Line

The real power (P) and reactive power (Q) flowing through the transmission lines are
fundamental to understanding how power is transferred across the network. For each
transmission line, the real power and reactive power are given by the following equations:

𝑃𝑖𝑗 = |𝑉𝑖 ||𝑉𝑗 |(𝐺𝑖𝑗 cos(θ𝑖 − θ𝑗 ) + 𝐵𝑖𝑗 sin(θ𝑖 − θ𝑗 ))

𝑄𝑖𝑗 = |𝑉𝑖 ||𝑉𝑗 |(𝐺𝑖𝑗 sin(θ𝑖 − θ𝑗 ) − 𝐵𝑖𝑗 cos(θ𝑖 − θ𝑗 ))

Where:

• 𝑃𝑖𝑗 and 𝑄𝑖𝑗 are the real and reactive power flowing from bus i to bus j,

• 𝐺𝑖𝑗 and 𝐵𝑖𝑗 are the conductance and susceptance of the transmission line between
buses i and j.

In these equations, the power flow is dependent on both the magnitude and phase angle of
the voltages at the buses connected by each transmission line. The real power 𝑃𝑖𝑗 is the
active power being transferred through the line, while the reactive power 𝑄𝑖𝑗 maintains
voltage stability by compensating for inductive or capacitive effects in the system.
We usually interpret bus voltage magnitude after the load flow study. A voltage within ±5% of
the rated voltage (1.0 pu) is acceptable for most distribution networks. When the voltage
magnitude deviates significantly from the nominal value, it may indicate under- or over-
voltage conditions that require voltage regulators or capacitor banks. The voltage phase
angle should also be slight, indicating a low voltage drop. Adjusting reactive power
compensation can reduce power losses, power imbalance, and voltage instability caused by
a significant phase angle. The results will show transmission line power delivery for real and
reactive power flows. Real power flow should match network generation and consumption.
Unusually high or low real power flow on a line could lead to overloading or underutilization.
Excess reactive power flow may indicate a poor power factor or the need for capacitive
compensation to stabilize the voltage.

Finally, the load flow study illustrates voltage stability, real and reactive power distribution,
and network performance. The magnitude and phase angle of voltage at each bus and the
real and reactive power flow in each line can help operators identify overloading,
Undervoltage, and inefficient power transfer. Capacitor banks, voltage regulators, and
reactive power compensation can optimize system performance and keep the network
within its designed limits for efficiency and reliability.

This plot analyzes essential power flow characteristics across distribution network buses,
including active power (kW), reactive power (kVAR), current (Amp), and power factor. Each
subplot shows system performance, helping identify optimization opportunities. Each bus's
kW subplot shows its power consumption or supply. Buses with high kW values indicate
regions with high energy consumption. Monitoring these buses for overloads or
inefficiencies may be necessary. Voltage regulation relies on reactive power, which the kVAR
subplot shows. Voltage stability requires reactive power, which does not work. Buses with
high reactive power may require capacitor banks to improve efficiency and reduce voltage
fluctuations. Each bus's current (Amp) subplot displays the system's physical load. High
current flows on buses indicate a higher load, suggesting the network may be nearing
capacity, especially during peak demand. The power factor (PF) subplot shows system
efficiency. PF values near 1.0 indicate efficient power use, while lower values indicate high
reactive power consumption, which reduces system efficiency. Low-power buses may need
power factor correction to improve performance and reduce losses. The plot details power
flow throughout the network, identifying areas that need improvements or compensation to
improve system reliability and efficiency.
Carry out the load flow study calculations for at least two-bus network using the
Newton-Raphson Method.

In a two-bus network, the load flow study involves solving the nonlinear equations for real
power (P) and reactive power (Q) at each bus. The Newton-Raphson method is used to
iteratively calculate the voltage magnitudes and phase angles that balance the power
generation and load demands. First, we define the system parameters: Bus 1 (Slack Bus) is
the reference bus where the voltage magnitude is set to V1=1.0 puV1=1.0pu and its angle is
0∘0∘. Bus 2 (PQ Bus) is a load bus where the real and reactive power are specified, with
P2=1.5 MWP2=1.5MW and Q2=1.0 MVARQ2=1.0MVAR. The line impedance between the two
buses is Z=0.05+j0.2 ΩZ=0.05+j0.2Ω.

The real and reactive power equations for the system are as follows:

Real Power Equation:

The real power at bus ii is calculated as:

𝑃𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 ∑𝑛𝑗=1|𝑉𝑗|(𝐺𝑖𝑗 cos(θ𝑖 −θ𝑗)+𝐵𝑖𝑗 sin(θ𝑖 −θ𝑗))

𝑄𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 ∑𝑛𝑗=1|𝑉𝑗|(𝐺𝑖𝑗 sin(θ𝑖 −θ𝑗)−𝐵𝑖𝑗 cos(θ𝑖 −θ𝑗))

Where, 𝑃𝑖 is the real power at bus i , 𝑉𝑖 is the voltage magnitude at bus i, Θi and θ𝑗 are the
phase angles at buses i and j, 𝐺𝑖𝑗 and 𝐵𝑖𝑗 are the conductance and susceptance between
buses i and j. 𝑄𝑖 is the reactive power at bus i.

Admittance Matrix (𝒀𝒃𝒖𝒔 ) for the Two-Bus System

For a two-bus system with a single transmission line, the Ybus matrix (admittance matrix)
is required to solve the power flow equations. The Ybus matrix for this network is:
1 1
𝑌11 = = = 5 − j20 S
𝑍 0.05+𝑗0.2

1 1
𝑌12 = 𝑌21 = − = − = −5 + j20 S
𝑍 0.05+𝑗0.2

Newton-Raphson Method for Voltage Updates

The Newton-Raphson method is used to update the voltage magnitudes and phase angles
iteratively. The mismatch in power for each bus is calculated as:

Δ𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃spec − 𝑃𝑖
 Δ𝑄𝑖 = 𝑄spec − 𝑄𝑖

Where:

• 𝑃spec and 𝑄spec are the specified values for real and reactive power at each bus.

The Jacobian matrix for the NR method, which helps in updating the voltages, is expressed
as:
𝜕𝑃1 𝜕𝑃1 𝜕𝑃1 𝜕𝑃1
𝜕𝑉1 𝜕𝜃1 𝜕𝑉2 𝜕𝜃2
∆𝑃1 𝜕𝑄1 𝜕𝑄1 𝜕𝑄1 𝜕𝑄1 ∆𝑉1
∆𝑄 𝜕𝑉1 𝜕𝜃1 𝜕𝑉2 𝜕𝜃2 ∆𝑉2
[ 1] = [ ]
∆𝑃2 𝜕𝑃2 𝜕𝑃2 𝜕𝑃2 𝜕𝑃2 ∆𝑉3
∆𝑄2 𝜕𝑉1 𝜕𝜃1 𝜕𝑉2 𝜕𝜃2 ∆𝑉4
𝜕𝑄2 𝜕𝑄2 𝜕𝑄2 𝜕𝑄2
[ 𝜕𝑉1 𝜕𝜃1 𝜕𝑉2 𝜕𝜃2 ]
Two bus network using NR-method

Figure 12: Two bus bar-based power distribution network model

Considering the above 2-bus bar-based power system to analyze the system dynamic
parameters using the famous NR -method as shown in Fig. 8, the input parameters of the
system’s data are given as:
1. Bus Definitions:
• Bus 1 (Slack Bus):
 o Voltage Magnitude: 𝑉1 = 2.5 𝑝𝑢
o Voltage Angle: 𝛿1 = 00
• Bus 2 (PQ Bus):
o Scheduled Active Power: 𝑃2 = −0.5 𝑝𝑢
o Scheduled Reactive Power: 𝑄2 = −0.2 𝑝𝑢
o Initial Voltage Magnitude: 𝑉2 = 1.0 𝑝𝑢
o Initial Voltage Angle: 𝛿2 = 00
To find the line impedance and admittance:
Line Impedance: 𝑍12 = 0.02 + 𝑗0.04 𝑝𝑢
Line Admittance: 𝑌12 = 1/𝑍12 = 1/(0.02 + 𝑗0.04) = 5 − 𝑗10 𝑝𝑢

Admittance Matrix:
𝑌𝑏𝑢𝑠 for the system:
5 – 𝑗10 −5 + 𝑗10
𝑌𝑏𝑢𝑠 = [ ]
−5 + 𝑗10 5 − 𝑗10
Initial Guess:
(0) (0)
𝑉2 = 1.0 𝑝𝑢, 𝛿2 = 0°
2. Power Flow Equations
The active (𝑃) and reactive (𝑄) power at Bus 2 are given by:
2

𝑃2 = 𝑉2 ∑ 𝑉𝑘 |𝑌{2𝑘} | cos(𝜃{2𝑘} − 𝛿𝑘 + 𝛿2 )
𝑘=1
2

𝑄2 = −𝑉2 ∑ 𝑉𝑘 |𝑌{2𝑘} | sin(𝜃{2𝑘} − 𝛿𝑘 + 𝛿2 )

𝑘=1
For this two-bus system:
10
𝑘 = 1, 2, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃{2𝑘} is the angle of 𝑌{2𝑘} , which is −𝑡𝑎𝑛-1 ( ) = −63.43°
5

3. Mismatch Calculation
Mismatch equations are:
𝛥𝑃2 = 𝑃{2,𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑑} − 𝑃{2,𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑}
𝛥𝑄2 = 𝑄{2,𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑑} − 𝑄{2,𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑}
Let’s calculate P2 and Q2 for the initial guess:
𝑃2 = 𝑉2 ∗ 𝑉1 ∗ |𝑌{12} | ∗ cos(𝜃{12} + 𝛿1 – 𝛿2 )
𝑄2 = −𝑉2 ∗ 𝑉1 ∗ |𝑌{12} | ∗ sin(𝜃{12} + 𝛿1 – 𝛿2 )
Substitute values:
𝑉1 = 2.5, 𝑉2 = 1.0, |𝑌{12} | = √(52 + (−10)2 ) = 11.18 𝑝𝑢
𝜃{12} = −63.43°
Calculations for Initial Guess:
 Active Power 𝑃2 :
𝑃2 = 1.0 ∗ 2.5 ∗ 11.18 ∗ cos(−63.43°) = 1.0 ∗ 2.5 ∗ 11.18 ∗ 0.4472 = 12.51 𝑝𝑢
Reactive Power 𝑄2 :
𝑄2 = −1.0 ∗ 2.5 ∗ 11.18 ∗ sin(−63.43°) = −1.0 ∗ 2.5 ∗ 11.18 ∗ (−0.8944) =
25.03 𝑝𝑢
Mismatches:
𝛥𝑃2 = −0.5 – 12.51 = −13.01 𝑝𝑢
𝛥𝑄2 = −0.2 – 25.03 = −25.23 𝑝𝑢
4. Jacobian Matrix
The Jacobian matrix for one 𝑃𝑄 bus is:
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃
𝜕𝛿2 𝜕𝑉2
𝐽=
𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑄
[𝜕𝛿2 𝜕𝑉2]
Partial Derivatives:
𝜕𝑃/𝜕𝛿2 = −𝑉1 ∗ 𝑉2 ∗ |𝑌12| ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃12 + 𝛿1 − 𝛿2)
Substituting:
−2.5 ∗ 1.0 ∗ 11.18 ∗ (−0.8944) = 25.03 𝑝𝑢
𝜕𝑃
= 𝑉1 ∗ |𝑌{12} | ∗ cos(𝜃{12} + 𝛿1 − 𝛿2 )
𝜕𝑉2
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔: 2.5 ∗ 11.18 ∗ 0.4472 = 12.51 𝑝𝑢
𝜕𝑄
= −𝑉1 ∗ 𝑉2 ∗ |𝑌{12} | ∗ cos(𝜃{12} + 𝛿1 − 𝛿2 )
𝜕𝛿2
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔: − 2.5 ∗ 1.0 ∗ 11.18 ∗ 0.4472 = −12.51 𝑝𝑢
𝜕𝑄
= −𝑉1 ∗ |𝑌{12} | ∗ sin(𝜃{12} + 𝛿1 − 𝛿2 )
𝜕𝑉2
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔: − 2.5 ∗ 11.18 ∗ (−0.8944) = 25.03 𝑝𝑢
Jacobian Matrix:
25.03 12.51
𝐽= [ ]
−12.51 25.03
5. Solve 𝑱𝜟𝑿 = −[𝜟𝑷, 𝜟𝑸]
The equation is:
𝛥𝑃
𝐽𝛥𝑋 = − [ 2 ]
𝛥𝑄2
Where:

𝛥𝛿2
𝛥𝑋 = [ ]
𝛥𝑉2

Substitute values:
 25.03 12.51
𝐽= [ ], −𝛥𝑃2 = 13.01, −𝛥𝑄2 = 25.23
−12.51 25.03
𝛥𝑋 = 𝐽-1 ∗ [−𝛥𝑃2 , −𝛥𝑄2 ]
1
𝐽-1 = ∗ 𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐽)
det(𝐽)
det(𝐽) = 782.1
𝐽⁻¹ = [[ 0.032, −0.016],
[ 0.016, 0.032]]

Solving:
𝛥𝛿2 = (0.032)(13.01) + (−0.016)(25.23) = 0.012 𝑟𝑎𝑑 (~0.69°)
𝛥𝑉2 = (0.016)(13.01) + (0.032)(25.23) = 1.015 𝑝𝑢
6. Update Variables
Updated values after the first iteration:
𝛿2𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝛿2𝑜𝑙𝑑 + 𝛥𝛿2 = 0 + 0.012 = 0.012 𝑟𝑎𝑑 (~0.69°)
𝑉2𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑉2𝑜𝑙𝑑 + 𝛥𝑉2 = 1.0 + 1.015 = 2.015 𝑝𝑢
7. Results
After the first iteration:
Voltage Magnitude at Bus 2: 𝑉2 = 2.015 𝑝𝑢
Voltage Angle at Bus 2: 𝛿2 = 0.012 𝑟𝑎𝑑 (~0.69°)

Observation
Part 2 of the load flow analysis highlights the significance of diagnostic assessments in
improving the performance of power distribution networks. The 17-bus system offers critical
insights into voltage profiles, phase angles, and power flows, facilitating the identification of
inefficiencies, including voltage instability and overloading. Although voltage levels generally
remain acceptable, deviations underscore the need for reactive power management via the
strategic implementation of voltage regulators and capacitor banks.

Inductive loads considerably impact power factor efficiency, resulting in increased energy
losses and additional stress on transformers and generators. Implementing corrective
measures, including installing capacitor banks and synchronous condensers, is crucial for
addressing these inefficiencies. The analysis identifies regions with elevated reactive power
demand, requiring compensation to maintain voltage stability and reduce transmission
losses. Load balancing presents a significant challenge, as variations in capacity utilization
indicate the necessity for dynamic strategies such as real-time rerouting and demand
response. These measures and infrastructure enhancements, like improved conductor
sizing, can reduce transmission losses and enhance network resilience. Incorporating
renewable energy sources introduces additional complexity, necessitating adaptive
strategies to ensure voltage stability and manage power flow dynamics. Capacitor banks are
essential for reactive power compensation; however, non-linear loads generate harmonics
that distort waveforms and worsen power factor inefficiencies. To address these challenges,
harmonic filters in conjunction with capacitors are required to ensure optimal system
performance.

The study underscores the importance of proactive system management,

emphasizing regular monitoring, simulation-based evaluations, and the application of
advanced tools such as ETAP. Strategically addressing key challenges can significantly
enhance power distribution networks' efficiency, reliability, and sustainability.
 Professional Analysis and Observations Based on Simulation Results:
The load flow simulation results yield significant insights into the operational efficiency and
stability of the power distribution network. Analysis of the voltage profiles at different buses
reveals that the system consistently upholds acceptable voltage levels, generally within 5%
of the nominal value. Nonetheless, discrepancies in particular sections suggest possible
concerns regarding reactive power management. The minor voltage fluctuations indicate
that voltage regulation strategies, such as installing capacitor banks or voltage regulators,
may be essential for maintaining stable operation, particularly during peak load periods.
Moreover, examining power losses throughout the network indicates that specific
transmission lines incur losses exceeding expectations, especially in regions with elevated
load densities. The losses are mainly due to the lines' resistive properties, which can be
alleviated by enhancing the infrastructure or redistributing the load more uniformly. Although
losses are unavoidable in any system, it is essential to minimize them to improve efficiency
and decrease operational expenses. You can achieve this by enhancing line ratings or
investigating alternative routing strategies to avoid overloading specific grid sections.

The power factor (PF) analysis identifies areas of concern, especially in segments where
inductive loads, such as motors and transformers, predominate. The power factor in these
regions is less than the optimal value of 1.0, signifying that the network consumes
considerable reactive power. An inadequate power factor leads to inefficient energy
utilization, resulting in heightened losses and stress on transformers and generators. To
improve the system, you should use power factor correction methods, like installing
capacitor banks or synchronous condensers, to lower the effects of induction and get the
power factor closer to one. Furthermore, the load flow analysis indicates that some buses
function at or near-maximum capacity, whereas others are underutilized. This disparity in
load distribution signifies the necessity for improved load balancing, which can avert the
overburdening of segments while enhancing the network's overall capacity. We should
evaluate dynamic load management strategies, especially during peak demand periods,
such as load shedding and real-time rerouting. Enhancing load distribution can augment the
system's resilience, diminishing the probability of equipment malfunctions or voltage
instability. The simulation results highlight the necessity of consistent oversight and
proactive administration of the power distribution network. By tackling the challenges
associated with voltage regulation, power losses, power factor correction, and load
balancing, the system can function more efficiently, maintain stability under fluctuating
demand, and prolong the lifespan of essential infrastructure. Implementing these
enhancements will augment the network's reliability, decrease operational costs, and
elevate the overall sustainability of the power distribution system.
 Conclusion

The article presents a Newton-Raphson-based load flow analysis, demonstrating the

effectiveness of this approach in solving nonlinear equations for voltage magnitudes and
angles in a power network. Using methodical calculations, the study emphasizes the
importance of parameters, including Jacobian matrices and power mismatches, in defining
network stability. The iterative approach brings a critical new understanding of voltage
control, power factor correction, and reactive power management. These results
emphasize the need for proactive strategies to reduce inefficiencies, such as load balancing
for enhanced system resilience and capacitor location for reactive power compensation. By
tackling these difficulties, the research improves the dependability and efficiency of
networks for electrical power distribution.