Hafta 1

It looks like you've received a keyword list for your SPS 101
midterm exam preparation. These keywords are intended to
guide your study of key concepts for the exam. Here's a
breakdown of what each term likely refers to:
1. Anatomically Modern Homo Sapiens – This refers to
the current human species, defined by certain physical
traits such as a larger brain and a more advanced skeletal
structure compared to earlier hominids.
2. The Age of Anthropocene – This concept suggests we
are living in a new geological epoch, characterized by
significant human impact on the Earth’s climate and
ecosystems, such as pollution, deforestation, and climate
change.
3. The Modern Era / The Pre-Modern Era – The Modern
Era is often considered to begin with events like the
Renaissance or the Industrial Revolution, marking a shift
toward modernity in terms of science, technology, and
social organization. The Pre-Modern Era refers to the
period before these transformations, encompassing
medieval and ancient societies.
4. Exponential Growth – A type of growth in which the
quantity increases at a constant rate over time, leading to
rapid expansion. It’s often used in discussions about
population growth, technology, and economics.
5. B.C.E. (Before Common Era) – This is a secular term
used as an alternative to B.C. (Before Christ) in dating
historical events, focusing on a non-religious reckoning
of time.
Feel free to ask for further clarification on any of these terms
or if you'd like to dive deeper into any particular concept!
Hafta 2

Here are explanations for the keywords from Week 2:

1. Neanderthals – A species of archaic humans who lived
in Europe and parts of Asia before going extinct around
40,000 years ago. They are known for their robust build
and their use of tools, and there is evidence suggesting
some interbreeding with Homo sapiens.
2. Homo erectus & Homo sapiens (Stearns pp. 11-
12) – Homo erectus is an extinct species of early humans
that lived from about 1.9 million years ago to about
110,000 years ago. Homo sapiens, our own species,
evolved later and is distinguished by more advanced
tools, culture, and language. The pages likely provide
more specifics on these species' evolution.
3. Bipedalism – The ability to walk on two legs, a key
evolutionary trait that distinguishes humans and their
ancestors from most other animals.
4. Hunting, Scavenging, Gathering, Foraging – These are
subsistence strategies used by early humans. Hunting
refers to killing animals for food, scavenging is finding
and consuming animals killed by other predators,
gathering is collecting plant-based food, and foraging
involves searching for food in nature.
5. Ötzi (The Iceman) – A naturally preserved mummy
found in the Alps in 1991. Ötzi dates back to around 3300
BCE and provides valuable insight into early human life
and the Bronze Age.
6. Ice Age Affluence – A term used to describe the
relatively prosperous lifestyle of humans during the Ice
Age, when humans lived in rich environments with
abundant natural resources, allowing for more complex
social structures.
7. Hominids – The family of primates that includes
humans, our ancestors, and other great apes like
chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans.
8. Paleolithic Age (Stearns pp. 11,13) – The Old Stone
Age, where humans used primitive stone tools. This
period saw the development of basic social structures and
the use of fire. The pages might explain more about the
transition between eras.
9. Neolithic/Agricultural Revolution (Stearns pp. 17-
191) – The transition from hunting and gathering to
farming, marking a fundamental shift in human society,
allowing for the development of permanent settlements.
This period is key to understanding early civilization.
10. Surplus (or Surplus Value) (Stearns p. 20) –
Surplus refers to the excess production of goods or
resources, often leading to the development of trade,
wealth accumulation, and social stratification.
11. Einkorn – An ancient type of wheat, one of the
earliest domesticated crops, used in early agricultural
societies.
12. Çatalhöyük (Stearns pp. 22-23) – A major
Neolithic settlement in modern-day Turkey, known for its
advanced social organization, art, and architecture. This
site provides evidence of early human civilization.
13. Jericho – One of the oldest continuously inhabited
cities in the world, located in modern-day Palestine, and a
key site for understanding early urbanization and
agriculture.
14. Göbeklitepe – An archaeological site in Turkey that
dates back to the late Epipaleolithic or early Neolithic
period, often considered the world’s first temple complex,
shedding light on early religious and social practices.
15. Ice Age/Glacial period / Interglacial Period – The
Ice Age refers to a period of time when large ice sheets
covered much of the Earth. Glacial periods are times
when the ice expanded, and interglacial periods are
warmer periods when the ice retreated.
16. Bronze Age (Stearns p. 18) – A period in human
history characterized by the use of bronze tools and
weapons, as well as the development of early urban
civilizations.
17. Indus Valley – A Bronze Age civilization that
flourished in the Indus River basin, known for its
advanced urban planning, writing system, and trade
networks.
18. Uneven development – The concept that different
regions or groups develop at different rates, often due to
resource distribution, geography, or political structures.
19. Division of labor – The practice of assigning
different tasks to different individuals or groups, leading
to specialization and greater productivity in a society.
20. Specialization – The process by which individuals
or groups focus on a particular task or trade, often leading
to the development of distinct social roles and
professions.
21. Modes of subsistence/modes of production –
These refer to the ways in which societies organize their
economy and resources to meet basic needs. This
includes agricultural, pastoral, or hunter-gatherer
systems.
22. Nomads / Semi-nomads (Stearns p. 14) – Nomads
are people who move from place to place, usually in
search of food or better living conditions. Semi-nomads
move seasonally but may have a permanent base or
settlement.
 23. Anatomically modern humans (AMH) – This term
refers to humans of the species Homo sapiens who have
the physical characteristics we associate with modern
humans, including a larger brain and more complex
behavior.
24. Domestication of plants and animals – The
process by which humans selectively breed plants and
animals for specific traits, allowing for agriculture and
the development of settled societies.
25. Leisure time – Time free from work or basic
survival tasks, which became more common with the rise
of agricultural societies, allowing people to engage in
activities like art, trade, and socializing.
26. River-valley civilizations – Civilizations that
developed along major rivers (like the Nile, Tigris-
Euphrates, Indus, and Yellow River), which provided
fertile land for agriculture and facilitated trade.
27. Mesopotamia – An ancient region located between
the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, known as the "cradle of
civilization" for its early development of writing, law,
and urbanization.
28. Complex society – Societies that have advanced
levels of organization, including government, social
hierarchies, specialized labor, and cultural systems like
writing and religion.
These terms outline a broad view of early human development
and the foundational changes that shaped modern civilizations.
Let me know if you need further details!

Hafta 3
Here are explanations for the Week 3 keywords related to the
emergence of cities and the origins of states:
1. Primary states – The earliest forms of states that
emerged independently in different parts of the world,
usually characterized by centralized political authority,
organized economies, and a complex social structure.
2. Social contract – A philosophical concept that explores
the agreement between individuals and the state, where
people consent to give up certain freedoms in exchange
for protection and order provided by a governing
authority. It is a foundational idea in political theory.
3. Intensified farming – A form of agricultural
development where societies increase production through
innovations like irrigation, crop rotation, and selective
breeding, leading to more food production and supporting
larger populations and complex societies.
4. Hydraulic theory of state origins – A theory proposed
by Karl Wittfogel suggesting that states and centralized
governments arose as a result of the need to manage
large-scale irrigation systems for agriculture in river-
valley civilizations. Control over water resources
required coordination and hierarchy.
5. Voluntaristic theories of state origins – These theories
argue that states emerged through voluntary cooperation
among individuals or groups, often for mutual benefit,
such as trade, protection, or resource management, rather
than through coercion or force.
6. Coercive/conflict theories of state origins – These
theories, often associated with scholars like Charles Tilly,
argue that states formed through the use of force, conflict,
or coercion, such as conquest, warfare, or domination by
elites. The idea is that some individuals or groups
imposed order on others.
7. Scarcity theories of state origins – Theories that suggest
states emerged as a response to resource scarcity. When
resources like land or water became limited, humans
organized into hierarchies and governments to manage
competition, allocation, and conflict over resources.
8. Thomas Hobbes – A 17th-century English philosopher
best known for his work on political philosophy,
particularly his book Leviathan, where he argued that in
the absence of a strong central authority, life would be
"nasty, brutish, and short" because humans would be in
constant conflict.
9. Leviathan – A book by Thomas Hobbes (1651), where
he discusses the social contract and the necessity of a
powerful, centralized government (the "Leviathan") to
maintain order and prevent chaos in society. The book is
a cornerstone of modern political thought.
10. Gilgamesh (Hughes pp.33-35) – The Epic of
Gilgamesh is one of the oldest known pieces of literature,
originating in ancient Mesopotamia. The epic tells the
story of Gilgamesh, the king of Uruk, and his quest for
immortality. The pages likely explore themes related to
leadership, civilization, and early state formation.
11. Kleptocracy (Diamond) – A term used by Jared
Diamond to describe a government or state system where
those in power exploit the resources of the state for
personal gain, often at the expense of the general
population. This term is central to understanding how
some states have become corrupt.
12. Civilization – Refers to complex societies with
advanced systems of governance, culture, technology,
and social organization. Civilizations typically have
cities, writing systems, trade, and specialized labor. The
 emergence of civilization is linked to the development of
agriculture, surplus production, and urbanization.
These terms reflect key ideas about the development of early
cities, states, and social structures, and they are foundational
in understanding how human societies have organized
themselves throughout history. If you'd like to explore any of
these theories or terms in more depth, feel free to ask!

Hafta 4

Here are explanations for the keywords from Week 4, focusing

on Afro-Asian empires and exchange:
1. Empire – A large political unit, often formed through
conquest or colonization, in which one central power
controls a vast territory and diverse peoples. Empires
typically expand their borders, exerting political,
economic, and cultural dominance over subject peoples.
2. Han China – A powerful Chinese dynasty (206 BCE –
220 CE), often seen as one of China's golden ages. The
Han Dynasty expanded China's territory, developed a
centralized bureaucracy, and promoted trade along the
Silk Road.
3. Roman Empire – An empire centered around Rome that
spanned much of Europe, North Africa, and the Middle
East. It was known for its advanced architecture, legal
systems, military strength, and extensive road networks,
and it played a key role in the cultural and political
development of the Western world.
4. Universal religion – A religion that seeks to spread
beyond its place of origin and includes all people,
regardless of background, ethnicity, or location.
Examples include Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism.
5. Qin China – The first imperial dynasty of China (221–
206 BCE), which centralized power under Emperor Qin
Shi Huang. It is known for its achievements, such as the
Great Wall of China and the standardization of weights,
measures, and writing.
6. Ptolemy’s World Map – An ancient map created by the
Greek geographer Claudius Ptolemy, which was
influential in medieval Europe and the Islamic world. His
map depicted the known world at the time, influencing
the way people saw geography for centuries.
7. Senate (Stearns, p. 148) – The Senate in ancient Rome
was a political institution that wielded significant power.
It was composed of elected representatives from the
aristocracy who advised the consuls, and later the
emperors, on governance.
8. Roman Republic (Stearns p. 148) – The period of
ancient Roman history (509 BCE – 27 BCE) before it
became an empire, marked by a system of government
with elected officials, such as consuls and senators, and a
focus on civic participation.
9. Augustus – The first Roman emperor, ruling from 27
BCE to 14 CE. Augustus established the Roman Empire
after the fall of the Roman Republic, initiating the Pax
Romana and bringing stability to Rome.
10. Barbarism – A term used by the Romans to describe
non-Roman peoples, particularly those living on the
empire's frontiers. It often carried a negative connotation,
implying a lack of civilization.
11. Monopoly – A market situation where a single entity
has exclusive control over a particular product or service,
leading to the potential for high prices and limited
competition.
12. Pax Romana (Bernstein p. 143) – "Roman Peace"
refers to a period of relative stability and prosperity
within the Roman Empire (27 BCE – 180 CE), marked
by minimal expansionist wars and internal peace.
13. Polis – The Greek word for city-state. It refers to a
small, independent community of citizens with its own
government, laws, and customs, like Athens or Sparta.
14. Princeps – A title used by Roman emperors,
meaning "first citizen." Augustus referred to himself as
princeps, reflecting his role as the leading citizen rather
than a monarch, in keeping with the Roman Republic's
ideals.
15. Monsoon Winds (Bernstein pp. 39-40) – Seasonal
winds that greatly affected trade across the Indian Ocean.
Monsoon winds enabled the predictable movement of
ships between Asia and East Africa, fostering maritime
trade.
16. The Silk Road (Stearns p. 100) – A network of
trade routes connecting East Asia with the Mediterranean,
facilitating the exchange of goods, cultures, and ideas,
including silk, spices, and technologies.
17. Reciprocal economy – A system in which goods
and services are exchanged without the use of money,
often through barter or mutual exchange, where both
parties gain something of equal value.
18. Redistributive economy – An economic system
where resources or wealth are collected by a central
authority (such as a government) and then redistributed to
various parts of society, often in the form of taxation,
trade, or aid.
19. Mandate of Heaven – A Chinese political and
religious doctrine used to justify the rule of the emperor.
It was believed that the heavens granted the emperor the
 right to rule, and that if the emperor became corrupt or
incompetent, he could lose this mandate.
20. Commodity money – Money that has intrinsic
value, such as gold, silver, or grain, and is used as a
medium of exchange. Commodity money is backed by
the material itself, as opposed to fiat money.
21. Axial Age – A term coined by philosopher Karl
Jaspers to describe a period (around 800-200 BCE) when
major philosophical, religious, and intellectual
movements emerged across the world, including the
teachings of Confucius, Buddha, and Socrates.
22. Salvation religion – A type of religion that promises
followers salvation or liberation from suffering, often in
the afterlife or through spiritual enlightenment.
Christianity, Buddhism, and Islam are examples of
salvation religions.
23. Archaic globalization – The early stages of global
interconnectedness, usually referring to trade, cultural
exchange, and the spread of ideas that took place long
before the modern era, such as the Silk Road or the
spread of religions.
These concepts highlight the complexities of ancient empires,
their economies, and the interconnectedness of regions
through trade and cultural exchange. If you'd like to discuss
any of these ideas in more detail, let me know!

Hafta 5

Here are explanations for the keywords related to culture and

religion from Week 5:
1. The Cognitive Revolution – A concept popularized by
Yuval Noah Harari in Sapiens, referring to a major shift
in human history that occurred around 70,000 years ago
 when Homo sapiens developed advanced cognitive
abilities. This revolution allowed humans to think in
abstract terms, communicate more effectively, and
engage in complex social structures, setting humans apart
from other species.
2. Social cooperation – The ability of individuals to work
together for mutual benefit, which is a crucial element in
the development of human societies. It includes shared
goals, coordination, and trust, and is essential for building
communities, institutions, and complex societies.
3. Collective fictions – Shared beliefs or narratives created
by societies to organize and make sense of the world.
These fictions can include myths, ideologies, religions, or
even concepts like nations or corporations. They exist
because people agree to believe in them collectively, and
they play a significant role in uniting groups and enabling
large-scale cooperation.
4. Gossip – Informal communication about others, often
focusing on personal or private matters. Gossip plays an
important role in social bonding and social regulation
within groups. It can help establish norms, build trust,
and reinforce group cohesion.
5. Culture as way of life – This refers to the way people
live, encompassing their everyday practices, customs,
rituals, and norms. It includes everything from food and
clothing to language and social structures. Culture as a
way of life emphasizes the behavioral aspects and
routines that define how people interact with each other
and their environment.
6. Culture as systems of meaning – Culture can also be
seen as a set of symbolic systems (such as language, art,
religion, etc.) through which people make sense of their
world and communicate meaning. This view focuses on
 how individuals and groups use symbols to understand
and interpret experiences, beliefs, and social realities.
7. Binary codes – A way of encoding information using two
symbols or elements, typically represented as 0s and 1s in
digital systems. In a broader cultural context, binary
codes can refer to dichotomous thinking (e.g., good/evil,
male/female) that structures our understanding of
concepts, identities, and social roles.
8. Durkheim’s definition of religion – Émile Durkheim, a
foundational sociologist, defined religion as a unified
system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things,
which unite a group into a moral community. For
Durkheim, religion was essential to social cohesion and
solidarity.
9. The sacred-profane distinction – A concept developed
by Durkheim, which distinguishes between the sacred
(things set apart and revered, such as religious symbols or
rituals) and the profane (ordinary, everyday objects and
activities). The distinction helps structure human
societies by organizing the world into categories that
govern behavior.
10. Religion as an eminently collective thing –
Durkheim argued that religion is inherently social, and its
practices and beliefs serve to unite individuals into a
cohesive group. Religion is not just a personal or
individual belief system; it functions as a collective force
that shapes social relations and fosters community bonds.
These concepts help explain how culture and religion shape
human behavior, social cooperation, and the development of
societies. They also illustrate the role of shared beliefs and
practices in organizing and maintaining social order. If you'd
like further elaboration on any of these topics, feel free to ask!
Hafta 6

Here are explanations for the keywords from Week 6 on Afro-

Asian macro systems and pre-modern economies:
1. The Middle Ages (The Medieval Age) – A period in
European history from approximately the 5th to the 15th
century, following the fall of the Western Roman Empire.
This era saw the rise of feudalism, the spread of
Christianity, and the establishment of kingdoms and
empires. It is often divided into the Early, High, and Late
Middle Ages.
2. The Dark Ages – A term traditionally used to describe
the early part of the Middle Ages (roughly 500–1000
CE), characterized by perceived cultural and economic
decline in Europe following the collapse of the Western
Roman Empire. This term is now considered outdated, as
recent scholarship highlights the period's complexity and
gradual development.
3. Guilds – Associations of artisans or merchants in
medieval Europe, organized to regulate the practice of
their craft or trade. Guilds provided training, set
standards for quality, and offered social support to their
members. They were influential in medieval urban life.
4. Serfdom – A system in feudal societies where peasants
(serfs) were bound to the land and worked for a lord in
exchange for protection and the right to cultivate land for
their own subsistence. Serfs had few legal rights and
could not leave the land without their lord's permission.
5. Fief – A parcel of land granted by a lord to a vassal in
exchange for loyalty and military service in the feudal
system. The fief was the basis of the feudal economy and
society.
6. Manor – A large estate or agricultural community in
medieval Europe, typically consisting of a manor house,
farmland, and a village. The lord of the manor controlled
the land and the serfs who worked it. Manorialism was
the economic system of the Middle Ages.
7. Vassal – A person who held land from a lord in exchange
for military service or other duties in the feudal system.
Vassals swore loyalty to their lords and were protected by
them in return for their service.
8. Magna Carta – A document signed in 1215 by King
John of England that limited the powers of the monarchy
and established certain legal protections for subjects,
such as due process and protection from unlawful
imprisonment. It is considered one of the foundations of
modern constitutional law.
9. Rule of law – The principle that all members of a society,
including rulers, are subject to the law. This concept
ensures that laws are applied equally to everyone,
protecting individuals' rights and preventing abuses of
power.
10. Excommunication – The formal exclusion of a
person from the membership of the Christian Church,
usually for violating church teachings or laws.
Excommunication often had significant social and
political consequences in medieval Europe, as it could
prevent individuals from receiving sacraments and
participating in the community.
11. Southernization – A term used to describe the
spread of technological, agricultural, and cultural
innovations from South Asia to other parts of the world,
especially during the medieval period. These innovations
included cotton cultivation, the use of the compass, and
advancements in mathematics.
12. Trade circles / Marco Systems / Economic Cores –
These terms refer to the interconnected networks of trade
that spanned regions and continents in pre-modern
economies. Trade circles often focused around key
economic cores (e.g., cities or regions) that were central
to long-distance trade, like the Silk Road or Indian Ocean
trade routes.
13. Indian Ocean Trade – A network of maritime trade
routes that connected East Africa, the Middle East, South
Asia, and Southeast Asia. This trade system flourished
from antiquity through the medieval period and was
crucial for the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultures.
14. The Trans-Saharan Trade – The exchange of
goods across the Sahara Desert, connecting sub-Saharan
Africa with North Africa and the Mediterranean. This
trade route facilitated the movement of gold, salt, slaves,
and other commodities, fostering economic and cultural
exchange.
15. Overland trade – Trade that takes place on land
routes, often across long distances, such as the Silk Road
or the Trans-Saharan trade. Overland trade was essential
for connecting different regions before the development
of maritime routes.
16. Overseas/maritime trade – Trade that occurs
across bodies of water, often using ships or boats to
transport goods. Maritime trade routes connected distant
parts of the world, such as the Mediterranean, Indian
Ocean, and Atlantic, and were key to the exchange of
luxury goods and cultural knowledge.
17. Adverse balance of trade – A situation in which a
country imports more goods than it exports, resulting in a
trade deficit. This can lead to a loss of wealth and
economic strain if it is sustained over time.
 18. Monsoon winds – Seasonal winds that blow across
the Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia, reversing direction
depending on the time of year. These winds were crucial
for maritime trade, as they allowed sailors to plan their
voyages based on predictable wind patterns.
19. Pax Mongolica – A term referring to the period of
relative peace and stability in the Mongol Empire during
the 13th and 14th centuries, which facilitated trade,
cultural exchange, and communication across Eurasia.
The empire's vast reach helped connect the East and
West.
20. Yersinia pestis (Black Death) – The bacterium
responsible for the Black Death, which ravaged Europe
and Asia in the 14th century, killing an estimated one-
third of Europe's population. The plague spread along
trade routes, including the Silk Road, contributing to its
rapid transmission.
21. Samurai – A class of warrior nobility in feudal
Japan, known for their code of honor (Bushido) and their
skill in martial arts, particularly in swordsmanship.
Samurai were loyal to feudal lords and played a key role
in Japan’s medieval society.
These concepts provide insight into the socio-economic
structures, trade systems, and cultural exchanges that shaped
pre-modern Afro-Asian economies and societies. Let me know
if you need further clarification on any of these topics!
Hafta 7

Here’s a brief explanation of each keyword from Week 7's

topics for your SPS 101 midterm preparation:
1. The Columbian Exchange: The transfer of plants,
animals, people, technology, and diseases between the
Americas (New World) and the Afro-Eurasian continents
(Old World) after Columbus's 1492 voyage, dramatically
impacting both regions.
2. The Old World: Refers to Africa, Europe, and Asia—the
parts of the world known to Europeans before the
exploration of the Americas.
3. The New World: Term used by Europeans to describe
the Americas after they were "discovered" by Columbus
and other explorers.
4. Cartaz: A naval trade license issued by the Portuguese in
the Indian Ocean to control and profit from trade routes
during the 16th century.
5. Conquistadores: Spanish conquerors and explorers who
claimed large portions of the Americas for Spain, such as
Hernán Cortés in Mexico and Francisco Pizarro in Peru.
6. Christopher Columbus: An Italian explorer whose 1492
voyage, under the Spanish crown, initiated European
exploration and colonization of the Americas.
7. Lucky Latitudes: Geographic areas with favorable
climates for agriculture, enabling civilizations to grow
staple crops and support large populations. These were
regions between 20° and 35° N latitude, such as the
Mediterranean and parts of Asia.
8. Monogeneticism (Crosby, p. 11): A theory mentioned by
Alfred Crosby suggesting that all humans originate from
a single ancestral line, influencing perspectives on race
and the shared origins of humanity.
 9. The Battle of Cajamarca: The 1532 encounter where
Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro captured and
killed the Inca Emperor Atahualpa, marking the
beginning of Spanish control over the Inca Empire.
10. ‘The Pristine Myth’: The misconception that the
Americas were an untouched wilderness before European
arrival; in reality, indigenous populations had
significantly shaped their environments.
11. Hispaniola: The island in the Caribbean where
Columbus established one of the first European colonies
in the Americas, now divided into Haiti and the
Dominican Republic.
12. Aztec and Inca Empires: The two dominant
civilizations in Mesoamerica and South America,
respectively, conquered by the Spanish in the early 16th
century.
13. The Henricus Martellus Map: A 15th-century map
showing the world as Europeans knew it before
Columbus's voyages; it influenced later exploration.
14. The Great Dying: A massive decline in indigenous
populations in the Americas due to diseases brought by
Europeans, which indigenous people had no immunity
against.
15. The Atlantic Slavery: The forced transport and
enslavement of millions of Africans to the Americas to
work in agriculture and other industries, fueling
European economies.
16. The Spanish Price Revolution: A period of rapid
inflation in Europe during the 16th century, partly due to
the influx of silver and gold from the Americas, affecting
economic structures and wages.
Reviewing these concepts will provide a foundation for
understanding the broader themes and impacts of European
exploration, colonization, and the resulting global exchanges.
Let me know if you need further explanation on any of these
topics!