• Rotor: harvests the wind's energy usually with 3 blades connected to a shaft.

When the wind

blows, the rotor rotates, harnessing the kinetic energy from the wind. The Nacelle or Gondola, a
structure located at the top of the wind turbine, houses the electronic and mechanical system
necessary for transforming wind energy into electricity.
• Generator: connected to the rotor, it converts the mechanical energy of rotational motion
into electricity. This process is based on electromagnetic principles, using magnets and coils to
generate an electric current.
• Tower: the structure that supports the rotor and generator at the top. The height of the tower is
crucial, since at greater heights there are usually stronger and more constant winds.
• Control and directional system: the wind turbine is usually equipped with control systems that
adjust the direction of the rotor to maximize wind harvesting and ensure efficient performance.
These systems ensure that the wind turbine is always optimally aligned with the direction of the
wind.

https://www.repsol.com/en/energy-and-the-future/future-of-the-world/wind-turbine/index.cshtml

Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWTs)

Horizontal axis wind turbines, often referred to as HAWTs, are the most common type of wind turbines
in use today. They have a design similar to that of a traditional three-bladed propeller, with the rotor
shaft oriented horizontally.

HAWTs are More Common

HAWTs are more popular and widely deployed compared to their vertical axis counterparts. The familiar
image of towering wind turbines with spinning blades you see on wind farms is predominantly that of
HAWTs.

HAWTs Are More Energy Efficient

HAWTs tend to be more energy-efficient than vertical axis wind turbines. They can capture and convert
wind energy more effectively due to their aerodynamic design. As the wind flows across the blades, they
harness a greater portion of the wind’s kinetic energy, making them more efficient in generating
electricity.

Horizontal Axis Turbines Excel in Cost-Effectiveness

HAWTs have been in use for several decades, resulting in a mature and competitive industry. The well-
established manufacturing processes and economies of scale have contributed to making HAWTs a more
cost-effective choice, both in terms of initial investment and maintenance.
Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWTs)

Vertical axis wind turbines, or VAWTs, differ from HAWTs in that their rotor shaft is oriented vertically.
There are various designs of VAWTs, including the Darrieus and Savonius types.

VAWTs Are Less Common, But Fill Specific Niches

VAWTs have not gained as much popularity as HAWTs. They are less commonly seen in large-scale wind
farms, but they find niche applications in specific situations, such as urban environments with less space
or regions with lower wind speeds.

Why Are VAWTs Less Energy Efficient?

VAWTs are generally less efficient than HAWTs. They have a lower capacity factor, which means they
capture less energy from the wind. The main reason for this is that VAWTs are less aerodynamically
efficient and experience more turbulence as the wind flows around their vertical blades.

VAWTs Are More Cost-Effective in the Right Situation

VAWTs can be more cost-effective in certain scenarios. Their simpler design makes them easier and
cheaper to manufacture and maintain. They may also be better suited for low-wind-speed areas where
the lower efficiency is offset by their lower cost.

https://bkvenergy.com/learning-center/types-of-wind-turbines/

Betz limit

The Betz limit gives the maximum amount of power it can convert into motion and electricity.[1]
The Betz limit is the theoretical maximum efficiency for a wind turbine, conjectured by German physicist
Albert Betz in 1919.[2] Betz concluded that this value is 59.3%, meaning that at most only 59.3% of
the kinetic energy from wind can be used to spin the turbine and generate electricity. In reality, turbines
cannot reach the Betz limit, and common efficiencies are in the 35-45% range.[2]

Wind turbines work by slowing down passing wind in order to extract energy. If a wind turbine was
100% efficient, then all of the wind would have to stop completely upon contact with the turbine—
which isn't possible by looking at a wind turbine (figure 1). In order to stop the wind completely, the air
wouldn't move out of the way to the back of the turbine, which would prevent further air from coming
in—causing the turbine to stop spinning.

https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Betz_limit
Power Coefficient - An Indicator of Total Wind Turbine System Efficiency
The term Power Coefficient is commonly used to designate the efficiency of the entire turbine power
system. As shown in the expression below, it is generally defined as the ratio of the "electrical power
produced by the wind turbine" (Pout in the formula below) divided by the "wind power into the turbine"
(Pin). Pin is sometimes also called "available wind power". But I don't really like that expression because
the total power in the wind is never really totally "available".

https://www.ftexploring.com/wind-energy/wind-power-coefficient.htm

Electrical works
The turbines are interconnected by a medium voltage (MV) electrical network, in the range 10–35 kV. In
most cases this network consists of underground cables, but in some locations and some countries
overhead lines on wooden poles are adopted. This is cheaper but creates greater visual influence.
Overhead wooden pole lines can also restrict the movement and use of cranes.
The turbine generator voltage is normally classed as ‘low’, in other words below 1000 V, and is often 690
V. Some larger turbines use a higher generator voltage, around 3 kV, but this is not high enough for
economical direct interconnection to other turbines. Therefore, it is necessary for each turbine to have a
transformer to step up to medium voltage, and associated switchgear. This equipment can be located
outside the base of each turbine, sometimes termed ‘padmount transformers’.
However, many turbines now include a transformer as part of the turbine supply. In these cases the
turbine terminal voltage will be medium tension and can connect directly to the farm network.

Construction issues
A wind farm may be a single machine or it may be a large number of machines, possibly many hundreds.
The design approach and the construction method will, however, be almost identical whatever the size
of project envisaged. The record of the wind industry in the construction of wind farms is generally
good. Few wind farms are delivered either late or over budget.
Newcomers to the wind industry tend to think of a wind farm as a power station. There are, however,
some important differences between these two types of power generation. A conventional power
station is one large machine, which will not generate power until it is complete. It will often need a
substantial and complicated civil structure, and construction risk will be an important part of the project
assessment. However, the construction of a wind farm is more akin to the purchase of a fleet of trucks
than to the construction of a single large asset. The turbines will be purchased at a fixed cost agreed in
advance and a delivery schedule will be established exactly as it would be for a fleet of trucks. In a
similar way, the electrical infrastructure can be specified well in advance, again probably at a fixed price.
There may be some variable costs associated with the civil works, but this cost variation will be very
small compared to the cost of the project as a whole. The construction time is also very short compared
to a conventional power plant. A 10 MW wind farm can easily be built within a couple of months.
To minimize cost and environmental effects, it is common to source material for roads from on-site
quarries or ‘borrow pits’.

Costs
Wind farm costs are largely determined by two factors: the complexity of the site and the likely extreme
loads. The site may be considered complex if the ground conditions are difficult – hard rock or very wet
or boggy ground, for example – or if access is a problem. A very windy site with high extreme loads will
result in a more expensive civil infrastructure as well as a higher specification for the turbines.
The cost of the grid connection may also be important. Grid connection costs are affected by the
distance to a suitable network connection point, the voltage level of the existing network, and the
network operator’s principles for charging for connections and for the use of the electricity system.

Commissioning, operation and maintenance

Once construction is complete, commissioning will begin. The definition of ‘commissioning’ is not
standardized, but generally covers all activities after all components of the wind turbine are installed.
Commissioning of an individual turbine can take little more than two days with experienced staff.
Commissioning will usually involve standard tests for the electrical infrastructure as well as the turbine,
and inspection of routine civil engineering quality records. Careful testing at this stage is vital if a good
quality wind farm is to be delivered and maintained.
The long-term availability of a commercial wind turbine is usually in excess of 97%. This value is superior
to values quoted for conventional power stations. However, it will usually take a period of some six
months for the wind farm to reach full, mature, commercial operation, and hence, during that period,
the availability will increase from a level of about 80%–90% immediately after commissioning to the
long-term level of 97% or more.
It is normal practice for the supplier of the wind farm to provide a warranty for between two and five
years. This warranty will often cover lost revenue, including downtime to correct faults, and a test of the
power curve of the turbine. If the power curve is found to be defective, then reimbursement will be
made through the payment of liquidated damages. For modern wind farms, there is rarely any problem
in meeting the warranted power curves, but availability, particularly for new models, can be lower than
expected in the early years of operation. During the first year of operation of a turbine some ‘teething’
problems are usually experienced. For a new model this effect is more marked. As model use increases,
these problems are resolved and availability rises.
After commissioning, the wind farm will be handed over to the operations and maintenance crew. A
typical crew will consist of two people for every 20 to 30 turbines in a wind farm. For smaller wind farms
there may not be a dedicated O&M crew but arrangements will be made for regular visits from a
regional team. Typical routine maintenance time for a modern wind turbine is 40 hours per year. Non-
routine maintenance may be of a similar order.
There is now much commercial experience with modern wind turbines and high levels of availability are
regularly achieved. Third party operations companies are well established in all of the major markets,
and it is likely this element of the industry will develop very much along the lines associated with other
rotating plant and mechanical/electrical equipment.
The building permits obtained in order to allow the construction of the wind farm may have some
ongoing environmental reporting requirements, for example the monitoring of noise, avian activity, or
other flora or fauna issues. Similarly there may, depending on the local regulations, be regulatory duties
to perform in connection with the local electricity network operator. Therefore, in addition to the
obvious operations and maintenance activity, there is often a management role to perform in parallel.
Many wind farms are funded through project finance and hence regular reporting activities to the
lenders will also be required.