FINITE FIELDS

A THESIS

submitted by

PURNIMA SATAPATHY

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree

of

Master of Science in Mathematics

under the supervision

of

Dr. RAJA SEKHAR TUNGALA

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

NIT ROURKELA

ROURKELA– 769 008

MAY 2012
 DECLARATION

I declare that the topic ‘Finite Fields’ for my M.Sc. degree has not been submitted in
any other institution or university for the award of any other degree or diploma.

Place: Purnima Satapathy

Date: Roll No. 410MA2108
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report entitled “Finite Fields” submitted by
Purnima Satapathy for the partial fulfilment of M.Sc. degree in Mathematics, National
Institute of Technology Rourkela, Odisha is a bonafied record of review work carried out
by her under my supervision and guidance. The content of this report, in full or in parts,
has not been submitted to any other institute or university for the award of any degree
or diploma.

(Raja Sekhar Tungala)

Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics
NIT Rourkela -769 008
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to warmly acknowledge and express my deep sense of gratitude and indebt-
edness to my guide Dr. Raja Sekhar Tungala, Department of Mathematics, NIT
Rourkela, Orissa, for his keen guidance, constant encouragement and prudent suggestions
during the course of my study and preparation of the final manuscript of this Project.

I would like to thank the faculty members of Department of Mathematics for allowing
me to work for this Project in the computer laboratory and for their cooperation. Also I
am grateful to my senior Bibekananda Bira, research scholar, for his timely help during
my work.

My heartfelt thanks to all my friends for their invaluable co-operation and constant
inspiration during my Project work.

I owe a special debt gratitude to my revered parents, my brother, sister for their
blessings and inspirations.

Rourkela,769008

May, 2012 Purnima Satapathy

 ABSTRACT

In this report, we revised some important definitions with examples and results of ring
theory such as ring homomorphism, Euclidean domain, principal ideal domain, unique
factorization domain, polynomial rings, irreducibility criteria etc. Then, we discuss field
theory. In field theory, we study the details of extension of fields, splitting fields, algebraic
extensions etc. The most important field of abstract algebra is Galois theory. Here, we
prove the fundamental theorem of Galois theory and the application of this result. Lastly,
we discuss the structure and applications of finite fields.
 Contents

NOTATIONS i

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1

Chapter 2 RING THEORY 3

Chapter 3 FIELDS AND THEIR EXTENSIONS 17

Chapter 4 AN INTRODUCTION TO GALOIS THEORY 30

Chapter 5 FINITE FIELDS 38

Bibliography 41
 NOTATIONS

English Symbols

Z Set of integers
F Field
[E : F] Degree of extension
Gal(E/F) Galois group of E over F
EH Fixed field of H
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The general solutions of linear and quadratic polynomials in one variable were known
centuries before. For cubic and quadratic equations also the general solutions are pro-
vided by Cardano’s and Ferrari’s methods, respectively. In 19th century a great work has
been done to find general solution of a general polynomial by radicals. However, there
was no success even after efforts of many great mathematicians of that time. Eventually
work by Able and Galois gives satisfactory solution and complete understanding of this
problem. There are two important problems which provide some motivation for studying
Galois Theory. Those problems are:
(1) The existence of polynomials which are not soluble by radicals.
(2) Some results about classical Euclidean Geometry. For example, we cannot trisect an
angle using ruler and a compass and certain regular polygons cannot be constructed using
ruler and compass.
Galois Theory provides a connection between Field theory and Group theory, which in
turn useful to convert problems in field theory into Group theory, which are better un-
derstood and easy to handle. Galois theory not only provide answer to the problem
discussed above but also explains why the general solution exists for polynomials with
degree less than or equal to 4. In his original work, Galois used permutation groups to
describe relations between roots of the polynomial. In modern approach, developed by
Artin, Dedekind etc., involves study of automorphisms of field extensions.
In field theory the most beautiful and important area is finite fields. Finite fields were
first introduced by Galois in 1830 in his proof of the un-solvability of the general quintic
equation. When Cayley investigate groups of matrices over finite fields. In the past fifty
years, there have been important application of finite fields in computer science, coding
theory, information theory, and cryptography. But, besides the many uses of finite fields
in pure and applied mathematics. The important features of finite fields are the restricted
nature of their order and structure.

2
 CHAPTER 2

RING THEORY

Many sets associated with two binary operations addition and multiplication. When
we considering these sets as groups then we consider either of binary operation addition
or multiplication. But one may wish to take both the binary operations. So the ring
concept comes into picture. This notion was originated in mid nineteenth century by
Richard Dedekind, although its first formal abstract definition was not given until Abra-
ham Fraenkel presented it in 1914. In this chapter, we give few definitions with examples
and some results.
Definitions and theorems
Ring:
A non empty set R w.r.t binary operations addition and multiplication is called a ring
when it satisfies below properties
1. It is an abelian group under addition.
2. It must satisfy associative property w.r.t multiplication.
3. Multiplication is distributive over addition.
a(b+c)=ab+ac
Commutative ring:
When R satisfies commutative property w.r.t multiplication then R is called commutative
ring.
Unity:
When a ring other than {0} has an identity under multiplication, we say that the ring
has a unity.
Unit:
If a ̸= 0 ∈ R and a−1 exist then a is a unit of R.
Examples
(1) Z is a ring under addition and multiplication. It is a commutative ring with unity.
The units of{Z are 1 and -1.
(2)M3 (Z) =
 
a b c 
 
A3×3 =
 d e f 

 
g h i
}
| a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i ∈ Z

is a noncommutative ring with unity.

Subring:
A subset S of a ring R is a subring of R if S is itself a ring with same operations of R.
Examples
(1) Z is a subring of Q.
(2)For each positive integer n the set nZ ={0, ±n, ±2n, ......} is sub ring of Z.
Zero Divisors:
A nonzero element a in a commutative ring R is called a zero divisor if there is a non zero
element b ∈ R such that ab = 0.
Examples
(1)
 
1 0
A= 
0 0

 
0 0
B= 
0 1

AB=0.
(2)R = {f |f : [0, 1] → R}. Units of R = {f |f (x) ̸= 0 ∀x ∈ [0, 1]}. For such f inverse is
1
f
. f is a zero divisor because if we define
4
 
 0 : f (x) ̸= 0
g(x) =
 1 :f(x)=0

then g(x) is not zero function. But f (x)g(x) = 0.

Integral domain:
A commutative ring with unity is said to be an integral domain if it has no zero divisor.
Examples
(1) The ring of integers Z is an integral domain.
(2) Z[i] = {a + ib|a, b ∈ Z} is an integral domain.
Field:
A commutative ring with unity is called a field if every nonzero element is a unit.
Examples
Q, R, Zp
Theorem: A f inite integral domain is a f ield.
proof:
Let D be any finite integral domain. Let a (̸= 0) ∈ D. We have to show that a−1 exist
or a is unit. If a = 1, a is its own inverse. If a ̸= 1, then a, a2 , a3 , ..... ∈ D. but D is
finite. So there must be two positive integer i and j such that i > j and ai = aj ⇒ ai−j =1
⇒ ai−j−1 =a−1 . So a−1 exists. 
Characteristic of a ring:
The characteristic of a ring R is the least positive integer n such that nx = 0 ∀ x ∈ R. If
no such n exists then Char R=0.
Examples
(1) Q has characteristic 0.
(2) Zp has characteristic p.
Ideal:
A subring A of a ring R is called a (two sided) ideal of R if for every r ∈ R and every
a ∈ A both ra and ar ∈ A.
5
Ideal test:
A non empty subset A of a ring R is an ideal of R if
(i) a − b ∈ A whenever a, b ∈ A.
(ii) ra and ar ∈ A whenever a ∈ A and r ∈ R.
Examples
(1) Let R be a ring, {0} and R are ideals of R. {0} is called trivial ideal of R.
(2) nZ = {0, ±n, ±2n, ......}, n ∈ Z+ . nZ is an ideal of Z.
Homomorphism:
The word homomorphism comes from Greek words ‘homo’ means ‘like’ and ‘morphe’
means ‘form’.
Similarity with photography:

A photograph of a person cannot tell us the person’s exact height, weight and age.
But it may be possible to decide from a photograph that the person is tall or short, heavy
or thin, old or young, male or female. Like this a homomorphic image of a group gives us
some information about the group not the exact property of the group.
Ring homomorphism:
A ring homomorphism is a map from one ring to another that preservers the binary op-
erations addition and multiplication.
Let R and S be rings, ϕ : R → S satisfying
(i)ϕ(a + b) = ϕ(a) + ϕ(b) ∀ a, b ∈ R.
(ii)ϕ(ab) = ϕ(a)ϕ(b) ∀ a, b ∈ R. Then ϕ is called a ring homomorphism.
Monomorphism:
If a ring homomorphism is one-one then it is called monomorphism.
Etimorphism:
If a ring homomorphism is onto then it is called etimorphism.

Isomorphism:
If a ring homomorphism is one-one and onto then it is called isomorphism.
6
Example
ϕ : Z → Zn , defined by k → k mod n, n ∈ Z+ a, b ∈ Z
ϕ(a + b) = (a + b) mod n
= ((a mod n) + (b mod n)) mod n
= a mod n + b mod n
= ϕ(a) + ϕ(b)
Properties of homomorphism:
Let ϕ be a homomorphism from a ring R to a ring S. Let A be a subring of R and B an
ideal of S.
(1) For any r ∈ R and any positive integer n, ϕ(nr) = nϕ(r) and ϕ(rn ) = (ϕ(r))n .
(2) If A is an ideal and ϕ is onto S, then ϕ(A) is an ideal.
(3) If R is commutative, then ϕ(R) is commutative.
(4) If ϕ is an isomorphism from R onto S, then ϕ−1 is an isomorphism from S onto R.
(5) If R has a unity 1, S ̸= {0}, and ϕ is onto, then ϕ(1) is the unity of S.
Quotient ring or factor ring:
Theorem: (Existence of factor ring) Let R be a ring and let A be a subring of R. T he set of all
cosets {r + A|r ∈ R} is a ring under the operations (s + A) + (t + A) = s + t + A , (s +
A)(t + A) = st + A if f A is an ideal of R.
Example
Z/4Z = {0 + 4Z, 1 + 4Z, 2 + 4Z, 3 + 4Z}
(2 + 4Z) + (3 + 4Z) = 5 + 4Z = 1 + 4Z modulo arithmetic 4.
(2 + 4Z)(3 + 4Z) = 6 + 4Z = 2 + 4 + 4Z modulo arithmetic 4.
Prime ideal
A proper ideal A of a commutative ring R is said to be a prime ideal of R if a, b ∈ R and
ab ∈ A then a ∈ A or b ∈ A.
Examples
(1) Z is a ring. nZ is prime ideal iff n is prime.

7
(2) < x2 +1 > is not a prime ideal of Z2 [x]. Z2 [x]={a0 +a1 x+a2 x2 +....+an xn |a0 , a1 , a2 , ..., an ∈
Z2 }. Let 1+x ∈ Z2 [x], (1+x)2 = 1+x2 +2x = 1+x2 ∈< x2 +1 >, but (1+x) ∈<
/ x2 +1 >
< x2 + 1 > is not a prime ideal of Z2 [x].
Theorem:
Let R be a commutative ring with unity and let A be an ideal of R.
T hen R/A is an integral domain if f A is prime.
proof:
Given that R/A is an integral domain. We have to show that A is prime ideal. i.e, If
a, b ∈ R and ab ∈ A then a ∈ A or b ∈ A. Now, a + A, b + A ∈ R/A. (a + A)(b + A) =
ab + A ∈ A. Since R/A is an integral domain, so either a + A = 0 + A or b + A = 0 + A.
a ∈ A or b ∈ A. So A is prime ideal.
Conversely,
A is a prime ideal. We have to show that R/A is an integral domain. i.e, to show zero
divisor does not exist in R/A. Let a + A, b + A ∈ R/A. (a + A)(b + A) = 0 + A = ab + A,
therefore ab ∈ A ⇒ a ∈ A or b ∈ A (since A is a prime ideal), a + A or b + A is zero coset
of R/A. So, R/A is an integral domain. 
Maximal ideal:
A proper ideal A of R is said to be a maximal ideal of R if B is an ideal of R and
A ⊆ B ⊆ R, then B = A or B = R
Examples
1. Z is a ring. pZ is maximal ideal if p is prime.
2. < x2 + 1 > is maximal in R[x].
Theorem:
Let R be a commutative ring with unity and let A be an ideal of R.
T hen R/A is a f ield if f A is maximal.
proof:
R is commutative ring with unity. A is an ideal of R.
Given that R/A is a field. We have to show that A is maximal. Let B be an ideal of R.

8
A⊂B
Let b ∈ B but b ∈
/ A. Therefore b + A is a non-zero element of R/A. Since R/A is a field
multiplicative inverse exist. i.e, (b+A)(c+A) = 1+A. Now, 1+A = (b+A)(c+A) = bc+A.
b ∈ B and bc ∈ B, 1 − bc ∈ A ⊂ B. Therefore, 1 = (1 − bc) + bc ∈ B. So B = R. Hence
A is maximal ideal.
Conversely, given that A is maximal ideal.We have to show that R/A is a field. i.e,
to show any nonzero element of R/A has multiplicative inverse. Now, A is maximal
ideal. Let b ∈ R but b ∈
/ A. b + A is a nonzero element of R/A. We have to show
b + A has multiplicative inverse. Let us consider B = {br + A|r ∈ R, a ∈ A}. B is
′ ′
an ideal of R. Since A is maximal, so B = R. 1 ∈ B, 1 = bc + a , a ∈ A, c ∈ R.
′
1 + A = bc + a + A = bc + A = (b + A)(c + A). Therefore, c + A is multiplicative inverse
of b + A. So R/A is a field. 
Corollary:
If R is commutative ring, every maximal ideal is prime ideal.
proof:
If A is a maximal ideal. R/A is a field. i.e, R/A is an integral domain.
So A is a prime ideal. 
Factorization of polynomials:
Irreducible polynomial and reducible polynomial
A non-constant polynomial f (x) is irreducible over F[x], if f (x) cannot be expressed as a
product of two polynomials g(x) and h(x) in F[x] both of lower degree than the degree of
f (x). If f (x) ∈ F[x] is a non-constant polynomial that is not irreducible over F then f (x)
is reducible over F.
Example
f (x) = x2 − 2 is irreducible over Q, but f (x) is reducible over R.
Theorem:(Reducibility test for degree 2 and 3)
let f (x) ∈ F[x] and let f (x) be of degree 2 or 3 then f (x) is reducible over F
if and only if it has a zero in F.

9
proof:
Suppose f (x) is reducible. So deg f (x) = deg g(x) + deg h(x), degree of f (x)=2 or 3, so
at least g(x) or h(x) has degree 1. g(x) = ax + b, therefore ax + b = 0 =⇒ x = −a−1 b
is a zero of g(x). −a−1 b is a zero of f (x). Conversely, suppose that f (a) = 0, a ∈ F. So
x − a is a factor of f (x). Therefore f (x) is reducible over F. 
Application
For the field Zp reducibility of f (x) can be checked by f (a) = 0 for a= 0, 1, ...p − 1.
a is a root of f (x) in Zp .
Only up to degree 3 we can use above theorem
If any polynomial has degree more than 3 we cannot apply the above theorem. See the
below example.
In the polynomial ring Q[x], p(x) = x4 + 2x2 + 1 ⇒ (x2 + 1)(x2 + 1), but p(x) has no zero
in Q[x]. Hence p(x) is reducible over Q[x], but p(x) has no zero in Q[x]. So it contradicts
the above theorem.
Content of polynomial, primitive polynomial
The content of a nonzero polynomial an xn + an−1 xn−1 + ... + a0 , where the a′i s are integers,
is the greatest common divisor of the integers an , an−1 , ..., a0 . A primitive polynomial is
an element of Z[x] with content 1.
Gauss’s Lemma : T he product of two primitive polynomials is primitive.
proof:
let f (x) and g(x) be two primitive polynomials. We have to prove f (x)g(x) is primi-
tive. If possible, let f (x)g(x) is not primitive. So let p be a primitive divisor of the
content of f (x)g(x), and let the polynomials f (x), g(x) and (f (x)g(x)) obtained from
f (x), g(x) and f (x)g(x) respectively, by reducing the coefficients modulo p. Then f (x)
and g(x) ∈ Zp [x] and f (x)g(x) = (f (x)g(x)) = 0, the zero elements of Zp [x]. So, either
f (x) = 0 or g(x) = 0, (Since these are in integral domain). This means that either p
divides every coefficient of f (x) or p divides every coefficient of g(x). Therefore, either

10
f (x) is not primitive or g(x) is not primitive, which is contradiction to the assumption.
So f (x)g(x) is primitive. 
Theorem: Let f (x) ∈ Z[x]. If f (x) is reducible over Q, then it is reducible over Z.
Proof
Given that f (x) is reducible over Q. So we can write f (x) = g(x)h(x), where g(x) and
h(x) ∈ Q[x]. We may assume that f (x) is primitive because we can divide both f (x) and
g(x)h(x) by the content of f (x). Let a be the least common multiple of the denominators
of the coefficients of g(x) and b be the least common multiple of the denominators of
the coefficient of h(x). Then abf (x) = ag(x).bh(x), where ag(x) and bh(x) ∈ Z[x]. Let
c1 be the content of ag(x) and c2 be the content of bh(x). Then ag(x) = c1 g1 (x) and
bh(x) = c2 h1 (x), where g1 (x) and h1 (x) both are primitive and

(2.1) abf (x) = c1 c2 g1 (x)h1 (x).

f (x) is primitive so content of abf (x) is ab and g1 (x)h1 (x) is primitive since product of
two primitive polynomials is primitive.
So content of c1 c2 g1 (x)h1 (x) is c1 c2 . Thus from equation (2.1), ab = c1 c2 , f (x) =
g1 (x)h1 (x), where g1 (x) and h1 (x) ∈ Z[x] and deg g1 (x) = deg g(x) and deg h1 (x) =
deg h(x). f (x) is reducible over Z. 
Irreducibility tests:
Theorem:(Mod p irreducibility test)
Let p be a prime and suppose that f (x) ∈ Z[x] with degf (x) ≥ 1.
Let f¯(x) be the polynomial in Zp [x] obtained f rom f (x) modulo p.
If f¯(x) is irreducible over Zp and deg f¯(x) = degf (x), then f (x) is irreducible over Q.
proof
Let f (x) ∈ Z[x]. If possible, let f (x) be reducible over Q, then we have f (x) = g(x)h(x)
with g(x), h(x) ∈ Z[x] and both g(x) and h(x) have degree less than that of f (x). Let
f¯(x), ḡ(x) and h̄(x) be the polynomials obtain from f (x), g(x) and h(x) by reducing all the
coefficient modulo p. Since deg f (x) = deg f¯(x), we have deg ḡ(x) ≤ deg g(x) < deg f¯(x).
11
Again deg h̄(x) ≤ deg h(x) < deg f¯(x), but f¯(x) = ḡ(x)h̄(x). f¯(x) is reducible over Zp ,
which is contradiction. Hence, f (x) is irreducible over Q. 
Example
f (x) = 9x3 + 5x2 + 5.
Then in Z2 , we have f¯(x) = x3 + x2 + 1 and since degf (x) = deg f¯(x), f¯(0) = 1and
f¯(1) = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3 = 1. f¯(x) is irreducible over Z2 . Therefore, so f (x) is irreducible
over Q.
We found that f¯(x) is irreducible over Z2 . Thus f (x) is irreducible over Q.
Theorem:(Eisenstein’s Criterion)
Let f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + ... + a0 ∈ Z[x]
If there is a prime p such that p - an , p | an−1 , ..., p | a0 and p2 - a0 , then f (x) is irreducible over Q
proof:
If possible let f (x) be reducible over Q. Then we know that ∃ elements g(x) and h(x) in
Z[x] such that f (x) = g(x)h(x) and deg g(x) ≥ 1, deg h(x) < n.
Say g(x) = br xr + br−1 xr−1 + ... + b0 and h(x) = cs xs + cs−1 xs−1 + ... + c0 . Then since
p | a0 and p2 - a0 and a0 = b0 c0 , so p divides one of b0 and c0 but not the both.
Let us consider the case p | b0 and p - c0 , since p - an ⇒ p - br cs ⇒ p - br or p - cs . If p - br
so there exist a least integer t such that p - bt . Now consider at = bt c0 + bt−1 c1 + ... + b0 ct .
By assumption, p|at and by choice of t every summand on the right hand side after the
first one is divisible by p .
Then it is true that p to divides bt c0 , this is impossible.
p is prime and p divides neither bt nor c0 , which gives contradiction.
Hence the statement. 
Example
f (x) = 3x5 + 15x4 − 20x3 + 10x + 20 is irreducible over Q because 5 - 3 and 25 - 20 but 5
divides 15, -20, 10 and 20. So by Eisenstein’s Criterion f (x) is irreducible over Q.

12
Euclidean domains (ED)
Norm
Any function N : R → Z+ ∪ {0} with N (0) = 0 is called norm on the integral domain R.
If N (a) > 0 for a ̸= 0 is called positive norm.
Division Algorithm
If a, b ∈ Z − {0}, then there exists unique q, r ∈ Z such that a = bq + r and 0 ≤ r ≤ |b|,
where q is quotient and r is the remainder.
Euclidean Domain The integral domain R is said to be a Euclidean domain, if there is
a norm N on R such that for any two element a and b of R with b ̸= 0 there exists unique
elements q and r in R with a = bq + r, where r = 0 or N (r) < N (b). The element q is
called quotient and the element r is called remainder.
Examples
(1) Any Field is a trivial example of Euclidean domain. a, b ̸= 0 ∈ F. a = qb + 0,
r = 0 ⇒ q = ab−1 .
(2) The ring Z is an Euclidean domain. N : Z → Z+ ∪ {0} defined by N (a) = |a|.
a, b(̸= 0) ∈ Z. a = bq + r, N (r) < N (b), |r| < |b|, for b = 0, N (b) = 0. Therefore Z is an
Euclidean domain.
(3) If F is a field then the polynomial ring F[x] is a Euclidean domain with norm given
by N (p(x)) = deg p(x).
(4) The ring of Gaussian integers, Z[i] = {a + bi | a, b ∈ Z} is a Euclidean domain with
the norm given by N (a + ib) = a2 + b2 .
Proposition:
Every ideal in a Euclidean domain is principal. More precisely, if I is any nonzero ideal
in the Euclidean domain R then I =< d >, where d is any nonzero element of I with
minimum norm.
Application
By using the above proposition we can know whether an Integral domain is Euclidean
domain or not.

13
(1) Z is Euclidean domain. Every ideal in Z is principal ideal.
(2) Z[x] in not a ED because I=< 2, x > is an ideal of Z[x] but I is not a principal ideal.
Principal ideal domains (PID)

A principal ideal domain is an integral domain in which every ideal is principal. i.e,
every ideal has the form < a >= {ra|r ∈ R} for some a ∈ R
Examples
(1) The ring of integer Z is a principal ideal domain generated by < n >.
(2) A field F is PID. The only ideals of F are 0 and F itself.
(3) If F be a field, then F[x] is a principal ideal domain.
Unique factorization domains(UFD)
Associates
Elements a and b of an integral domain D are called associates if a = ub, where u is unit
of D.
Irreducibles
A nonzero element a of an integral domain D is called an irreducible if a is not a unit
and, whenever b, c ∈ D with a = bc, then b or c is a unit.
Primes
A nonzero element a of an integral domain D is called prime, if a is not a unit and
a|bc ⇒ a|b or a|c.
Unique factorization domain
A Unique factorization domain (UFD) is an integral domain R in which every nonzero
element r ∈ R which is not a unit has the following two properties:
(i) r can be written as a finite product of irreducibles pi of R (not necessarily distinct):
r = p1 p2 ...pn and
(ii) the decomposition in (i) is unique up to associates namely if r = q1 q2 ...qm is another
factorization of r into irreducibles, then m = n and there is some renumbering of the
factors so that pi is associate to qi for i = 1, 2, ..., n.

14
Examples
(1) A field F is trivially a unique factorization domain since every nonzero element is a
unit. So there are no elements for which properties (i) and (ii) must be verified.
(2) The subring of the Gaussian integers R = Z[2i] = {a + 2bi | a, b ∈ Z}, where i2 = −1
is an integral domain but not a unique factorization domain because 4=2.2=(-2i)(2i).
√
(3)The quadratic integer ring Z[ −5] is an integral domain but not an unique factoriza-
tion domain,
√ √
since 6 = 2.3 = (1+ −5)(1− −5) gives two distinct factorizations of 6 into irreducibles.
Note
(1) FIELD ⇒ ED ⇒ PID ⇒ UFD ⇒ ID .
(2) ID; UFD ; PID ; ED ; FIELD.
Counter examples of note (2)
(i) ID ; UFD
√
Z[ −5] is ID, but not UFD.
√
Explanation: We know every Euclidean domain is integral domain. Z[ −5] = {a +
√ √
b( −5)| a, b ∈ Z}. Z[ −5] is an Euclidean domain with respect to the norm N (a +
√ √
b sqrt−5) = a2 +5b2 . Hence, Z[ −5] is an integral domain. But, Z[ −5] is not an unique
√ √
factorization domain, since 6 = 2.3 = (1 + −5)(1 − −5) gives two distinct factorization
of 6 into irreducibles.
(ii) UFD ; PID
Z[x] is UFD, but not PID.
According to one result, R is unique factorization domain if and only if R[x] is unique
factorization domain. Since Z is unique factorization domain so, Z[x] is unique factoriza-
tion domain. But, Z[x] is not a principal ideal domain, since < x, 2 > is an ideal of Z[x]
but this not the principal ideal. So Z[x] is not a principal ideal domain.
(iii) PID ; ED
√
Z[(1 + −19)/2] is a principal ideal domain, but not Euclidean domain.
√
Z[(1 + −19)/2] is a principal ideal domain. Since, every ideal of this ring is principal.

15
 √
We cannot find any ideal which is not principal in this ring. But, Z[(1 + −19)/2] is not
an Euclidean domain. To prove this we have to know about universal side divisor.
Universal side divisor
e = R⋆ ∪ {0} denote the collection of units of R together
For any integral domain, let R
e is called a universal side divisor if for every x ∈ R there
with 0. An element u ∈ R − R
e such that u divides x − z in R.
is some z ∈ R
Proposition: Let R be an integral domain that is not a field. If R is a Euclidean domain
then there are universal side divisor in R.
√
Here in this example we will show that in Z[(1 + −19)/2] there does not exist any uni-
versal side divisor. So this is not an Euclidean domain. Now only we have to show that
√
R = Z[(1 + −19)/2], does not contain any universal side divisor.
√
The units of Z[(1 + −19)/2] are ±1. Therefore R e = {0, ±1}. Suppose u ∈ R is a uni-
√
versal side divisor and let N (a + b(1 + −19)/2) = a2 + ab + 5b2 is the norm. If a, b ∈ Z
and b ̸= 0 then a2 + ab + 5b2 = (a + b/2)2 + 19/4b2 ≥ 5 and so the smallest nonzero
values of N on R are 1(for units ±1) and 4(for ±2). For x = 2, according to definition
of universal side divisor, u must divide one of 2 − 0 or 2 − (±)1 in R, i.e, u is a nonunit
divisor of 2 or 3 in R. Hence the only divisors of 2 in R are {±1, ±2}. Similarly, the only
divisors of 3 in R are {±1, ±3}, so the only possible values for u are ±2 or ±3. By taking
√
x = (1 + −19)/2, none of x, x ± 1 are divisible by ±2 or ±3 in R, so none of these is a
√
universal side divisor. Hence, Z[(1 + −19)/2] is not an Euclidean domain.
(iv) ED ; FIELD
Z is a Euclidean domain, but not a field.
Z is Euclidean domain with norm given by N (a) = |a|. But, Z is not a field because Z
has no multiplicative inverse.

16
 CHAPTER 3

FIELDS AND THEIR EXTENSIONS

An archaic name for field is rational domain. Fields have been used implicity ever
since the discovery of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Cardan’s formula
dating from 16th century used Q, R, C. Lagrange used the field of rational functions in
n-variable in his 1770 study of roots of polynomials. The first truely abstract notion of
field is due to Dedekind. In 1877, he gave the following definition:

“I call a system A of numbers (not all zero) a field when the sum, difference, product
and quotient of any two numbers except 0 in denominator in A also belongs to A. ”
This is not completely general for the numbers. Taking into account ring definition, a
field can be defined as
“A commutative ring with unity in which every nonzero element has a multiplicative
inverse.”
OR, “ A field is a commutative ring in which we can divide by any nonzero element.”
In fact in 1893, Dedekind’s student Weber gave the first fully abstract definition of field
which we use today. The definition as follows:
Field:
F is a field if
(1)F is an abelian group under addition.
(2)F/{0} is an abelian group under multiplication.
(3)Multiplication distributes over addition.
In other words, A nonempty set F with two binary operations addition and multiplication
is a field if,
(1)For any a, b ∈ F, a + b ∈ F.
(2)For any a, b ∈ F, a + b = b + a.
(3)For any a, b, c ∈ F, (a + b) + c = a + (b + c).
(4)There is a, 0 ∈ F such that a + 0 = 0 + a = 0 for every a ∈ F.
(5)For every a ∈ F there is an element −a, F with a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0.
(6)For any a, b ∈ F, ab ∈ F.
(7)For any a, b ∈ F, ab = ba.
(8)For any a, b, c ∈ F, (ab)c = a(bc).
(9)There is a, 1 ∈ F such that a.1 = 1.a = a, for every a ∈ F.
(10)For every a(̸= 0) ∈ F there is an element a−1 ∈ F with aa−1 = a−1 a = 1.
(11)For every a, b, c ∈ F
(a + b)c = ac + bc
c(a + b) = ca + cb.
Examples
(1)The set of rational numbers(Q).
(2)The set of real numbers (R).
(3)The set of complex numbers(C).
√
(4)The field F=Q( D) where D is not a perfect square.
√
F = {a + b D|a, b ∈ Q} where addition and multiplication is as usual.
(5)The field F = Fp of integers modulo p,where p is a prime.
Fp = {0, 1, ...p−1} with addition and multiplication defined by mod p i.e, i+j = k(mod p)
and ij = k(mod p).
Sub field:
A non-empty subset E of a field F is said to be a subfield of F if E is a field under the
induced addition and multiplication. If a subfield E is not equal to F we shall say that E
is proper subfield of F.
Prime subfield
Let F be a field. By the prime subfield of F we mean the smallest subfield of F.

18
Characteristic of a field
The characteristic of a field F, denoted by char(F), is defined to be the smallest positive
integer p such that p · 1F = 0 if such a p exists and is defined to be 0 otherwise.
Proposition:
Characteristic of a field either zero or prime.
proof:

According to the definition of characteristic of field, it is the smallest positive integer

n such that n · 1F = 0 otherwise 0.
We have to show characteristics of field is prime.
Let n be the composite number such that
n · 1F = 0
⇒ (a.b).1F = 0
⇒ (a.1F )(b.1F ) = 0
⇒ (a.1F ) = 0or (b.1F ) = 0 , (since there exist no zero divisor).
Which is a contradiction that n is the smallest positive integer such that n · 1F = 0. So,
the smallest integer must be prime. 
Examples
(1) The fields Q, R have characteristic 0.
(2) Fp = Z/pZ has characteristic p.
Field isomorphism
′ ′
Let F and F be fields. A mapping f : F → F is called an isomorphism if
(1) f is one-one and onto.
(2) f (a + b) = f (a) + f (b).
(3) f (ab) = f (a)f (b).
′
Two fields F and F are said to be isomorphic if there exists an isomorphism from one
onto other.
Proposition:
′
Let ϕ : F → F be a homomorphism of fields. Then ϕ is either identically 0 or is injective,
19
so that the image of ϕ is either 0 or isomorphic to F.
Extension Field:
Idea behind to develop extension fields
Some polynomials don’t have zeros in the base field. The zeros of those polynomials
are exist in some other field which is lager than the base field. Those fields are called
extension fields.
Extension fields

Let F be a field and E be a field containing F as a subfield. Then E is called an

extension of F and can be regarded as vector space over F. F is called base field of the
extension E.
Examples
The extension field of Q is R and extension field of R is C.
Theorem:
Fundamental theorem of field theory (Kronecker’s Theorem, 1887) Let F be a
field and f(x) a non-constant polynomial in F[x], then there is an extension field E of F
in which f(x) has a zero.
proof:
F[x] is a principal ideal domain. So F[x] is unique factorization domain. So, f (x ) has an
irreducible factor p(x). We have to construct an extension field E[x] of F[x] in which p(x)
has a zero.
Let’s consider the field E = F[x]/< p(x) >
Now ϕ : F → E given by ϕ(a) = a+ < p(x) >. ϕ is one-one, onto and preserves both the
operations, so E has a sub filed isomorphic to F.
Now we have to show p(x) has a zero in E.

20
Let

p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + ... + a0

p(x+ < p(x) >) = an (x+ < p(x) >)n + an−1 (x+ < p(x) >)n−1 + ... + a0

= an (xn + < p(x) >) + an−1 (xn−1 + < p(x) >) + ... + a0 + < p(x) >

= an xn + an−1 xn−1 + ... + a0

= p(x)+ < p(x) >

= 0+ < p(x) >

So x+ < p(x) > is a zero of p(x) in E. 

Application
Let f (x ) = x 2 + 1 ∈ Q[x ]
Then E = Q[x]/ < x2 + 1 >

f (x + < x 2 + 1 >) = (x+ < x2 + 1 >)2 + 1

= x2 + < x2 + 1 > +1

= x2 + 1+ < x2 + 1 >

= 0+ < x2 + 1 >

x+ < x2 + 1 > is a zero of f (x ) in F.

Basic properties of field extensions
(1) Let F, B and E be fields with F ⊆ B ⊆ E. Then as F-vector spaces, B is a subspace
of E, so (B/F) ≤ (E/F).
(2) In 1894, Dedekind developed the theory of field extension that included the concept
of degree. He formulated the proof of T ower T heorem stated below:
Tower Theorem:
If B is the finite extension of F and E is the finite extension of B, then E is the finite
extension of F and ( E/ F)= ( E/ B)( B/ F).

21
proof:
Let {e1 , e2 , ..., en } be a basis of ( B/ F) and {f1 , f2 , ...fm } a basis of ( E/ B)
We have to show that {ei fj |1 ≤ i ≤ n, 1 ≤ j ≤ m} is a basis of E/ F. Let α be any
element of E.
∑
m ∑n
Therefore, α = bj fj where bj ∈ B and bj = λij ei where λij ∈ F
j=1 i=1
∑
m ∑n
Then α= ( λij ei )fj
j=1 i=1
∑
m ∑
n
= λij ei fj
j=1 i=1
This shows that {ei fj |1 ≤ i ≤ n, 1 ≤ j ≤ m} generates E over F.
Now to show linear independence.
∑
m ∑ n
Let ( µij ei )fj = 0
j=1 i=1
∑
n
Since, {f1 , f2 , ..., fm } is linear independent over B so µij ei = 0 ∀ j,
i=1
Since {e1 , e2 , ...en } are linear independent over F so µij = 0 ∀ i and j.
Hence {ei fj |1 ≤ i ≤ n, 1 ≤ j ≤ m} is a basis of E/ F consisting of mn elements. 

(3) Let E be an extension of F, let B and D be subfields of E, both of which are ex-
tension of F. Then B ∩ D is a subfield of E which is also an extension of F.
(4) Let E be an extension of F and let B and D be subfields of E, both of which are
extension of F. Then BD, the composite of B and D is the smallest subfield of E that
contains B and D also an extension of F.
(5)Let E be an extension of F, and let {αi } be a set of elements of E. Then F({αi }). This
is the field obtained by adjoining {αi }.
(6)Simple extension
An extension E/F is called a simple extension if, E/F is generated by a single element. i.e,
if E=F(a) for some a ∈ E such an element is called a primitive element for the extension
E/F.

22
Example
√
(Q( 2))|Q is a simple extension.
Splitting Field:
Splitting Field:
Let E be an extension field of F and let f (x ) ∈ F[x ]. We say that f (x ) can be factored as
a product of linear factors in E[x]. We call E a splitting field for f (x ) over F if f (x ) splits
in E but in no proper subfield of E.
Note:
(1) (x − α) is a factor of f (x ) iff f (α) = 0 . i.e, α is a root of f (x ). We say f (x ) splits in
E if all the roots of f (x ) are in E. We say E as a splitting field if all the roots of f (x ) lie
in E but not in any proper subfield of E.
(2) Splitting field of a polynomial over a field depends not only on the polynomial but
the field as well.
Examples
√ √
(1)f (x ) = x 2 + 1 ∈ Q[x ], x 2 + 1 = (x + −1 )(x − −1 ). So f (x ) splits over C, but
splitting field over Q is Q[i] = {r + si|r, s ∈ Q} and splitting field over R is C.
√ √
(2)f (x ) = x 2 −2 ∈ Q[x ] splits in R but a splitting field of Q is Q( 2) = {r+s 2|r, s ∈ Q}.
Note:
There is a useful analogy between the definition of splitting field and the definition of an
irreducible of polynomial. i.e, f (x ) is irreducible over filed similarly E is a splitting field
for f (x ) over field.
Existence of splitting field
Theorem:
Let F be a field and let f (x ) be a non-constant element of F[x]. Then there exists a split-
ting field E for f (x ) over F.
proof:
Let’s prove it by induction on deg f (x ). If deg f (x ) = 1 , then is already linear and E =
F.

23
Now suppose that the statement is true for all fields and all polynomial of degree less
than that of f (x ) = 1 .
Hence by fundamental theorem of field theory, there is an extension E of F in which f (x )
has a zero, (say a1 ). f (x ) = (x − a1 )g(x ), where g(x ) ∈ F[x ].
since deg g(x ) < deg f (x ), by induction, there is a field M that contains E and all the
zeros of deg g(x ) say a2 , a3 , ..., an . A splitting field for f (x ) over F is F(a1 , a2 , ..., an ). 
Example
Let’s consider polynomial f (x ) = x 4 − x 2 − 2 = (x 2 − 2 )(x 2 + 1 ) over Q. Zeros of
√
f (x ) = ± 2 and ±i so the splitting field for f (x ) over Q is
√ √
Q( 2, i) = Q( 2)(i)
√
= {α + βi|α, β ∈ Q( 2)}
√ √
= {(a + b 2) + (c + d 2)i|a, b, c, d ∈ Q}
Theorem:
Let F be a field and p(x) ∈ F[x] be irreducible over F. If a is a zero of p(x) in some
extension E of F, then F(a) is isomorphic to F[x]/ < p(x) >. Furthermore, if deg p(x)=n,
then every member of F(a) can be uniquely expressed in the form cn−1 a n−1 + cn−2 a n−2 +
... + c1 a + c0 , where c0 , c1 , ..., cn−1 ∈ F.
Example
√
f (x ) = x 6 − 2 over Q. So x = 6
2 is the zero of f (x ).
√
Therefore, {1, 21/6 , 22/6 , 23/6 , 24/6 , 25/6 } is a basis for Q( 6 2) over Q.
√
Thus Q( 6 2) = {a0 + a1 21/6 + a2 22/6 + a3 23/6 + a4 24/6 + a5 25/6 |ai ∈ Q, i = 0, 1, ...5}
This field is isomorphic to Q[x]/ < x6 − 2 >.
Splitting fields are unique
Lemma:
Let F be a field,let p(x) ∈ F[x] be irreducible over F, and let a be a zero of p(x) in some
′
extension of F. If ϕ is a field isomorphism from F to F and b is a zero of ϕ(p(x)) in some
′ ′
extension of F , then there is an isomorphism from F(a) to F (b) that agrees with ϕ on F
and carries a to b.

24
Theorem:
′
Let ϕ be an isomorphism from a field F to F and let f (x ) ∈ F[x ]. If E is a splitting field
′ ′
for f (x ) over F and E is a splitting field for ϕ(f (x )) over F , then there is an isomorphism
′
from E to E that agrees with ϕ on F.
proof:
′ ′
Let’s prove it by induction on deg f (x ). If deg f (x ) = 1 , then E=F and E = F . So that
ϕ is itself the required mapping.
If degf (x ) > 1 , let p(x) be an irreducible factor of f (x ), let a be a zero of p(x) in E, and
′
let b be a zero of ϕ(p(x)) in E . By the above lemma, there is an isomorphism ψ from
′
F(a) to F (b) that agrees with ϕ on F and carries a to b. Now, f (x ) = (x − a)g(x ), where
g(x ) ∈ F(a)[x ]. Then E be a splitting field of g(x ) over F(a).
′ ′
E be a splitting field of ψ(g(x )) over F (b), since deg g(x ) < deg f (x ), there is an iso-
′
morphism from E to E that agrees with ψ on F(a) and therefore with ϕ on F. 
Corollary:
Splitting field are unique
Let F be a field and letf (x ) ∈ F[x ]. Then any two splitting fields of f (x ) over F are
isomorphic.
proof:
′
Let E and E are splitting fields of f (x ) over F. By the previous theorem, ϕ be the identity
from F to F. So splitting fields are unique. 
Algebraic extension
Algebraic extension
Let E be an extension field of a field F and let a ∈ E. We call a algebraic over F if a is
the zero of some nonzero polynomial in F[x]. An extension E of F is called an algebraic
extension of F if every element of E is algebraic over F.
Transcendental extension
If a is not algebraic over F, then it is transcendental over F. If E is not an algebraic
extension, then it is a transcendental extension.

25
Examples
(1) e is transcendental over Q.
(2) π is transcendental over Q.
(3) It is still unknown that e + π is transcendental or not.
Characterization of extensions
Theorem: Let E be an extension field of the field F and let a ∈ E. If a is algebraic
over F, let p(x) ∈ F[x] be a polynomial of least degree such that p(a) = 0 , then p(x) is
irreducible over F.
proof:
Let p(x) be reducible over F. So p(x) = p1 (x)p2 (x) and deg p1 (x) < p(x) and deg p2 (x) <
p(x).
Now p(a) = 0 .
⇒ p(a) = p1 (a)p2 (a) = 0 .
⇒ p1 (a) = 0 or p2 (a) = 0 .
i.e, a satisfies a polynomial of degree less than p(x) which is a contradiction.
So p(x) is irreducible over F. 
Divisibility property
Theorem: If a is algebraic over F. Let p(x) ∈ F[x] be a polynomial of least degree such
that p(a) = 0 . If f (x ) ∈ F[x ] and f (a) = 0 then p(x) | f (x ) in F[x].
proof:
Let f (x ) ∈ F[x ], by division algorithm f (x ) = p(x )q(x ) + r (x ) where r(x) = 0 or
deg r(x) < deg p(x).
Then f (a) = 0 ⇒ p(a)q(a) + r (a) = 0 ⇒ r(a) = 0 , since p(a) = 0 Thus p(x) | f (x ). 
Degree of an extension
Let E be an extension of a field F. We say that E has degree n over F if E has dimension
n as a vector space over F. It is denoted as [E : F]. If [E : F] is finite, then E is called a
finite extension of F; otherwise E is an infinite extension of F.

26
Example
(1) The field of complex numbers has degree 2 over the reals since {1, i} is a basis.
(2) If a is algebraic over F and its minimal polynomial over F has degree n, then we have
{1, a, ...a n−1 } is a basis for F(a) over F and therefore [F (a) : F ] = n. So a has degree n
over F.
Finite implies algebraic
Theorem: If E is a finite extension of F, then E is an algebraic extension of F.
proof:
Suppose that [E : F] = n and a ∈ E. Then the set {1, a, ..., a n } is linearly dependent over
F, i.e, there are elements c0 , c1 , ..., cn in F not all zero, such that cn a n + cn−1 a n−1 + ... +
c1 a + c0 .
Then a is a zero of the nonzero polynomial, f (x ) = cn x n + cn−1 x n−1 + ... + c1 x + c0 .
Hence a is algebraic over F. 
Converse
The converse of the above theorem need not be true.
Counter example
√ √ √
Q( 2, 3 2, 4 2.....) is an algebraic extension of Q that contains elements of every degree
over Q but clearly this is not a finite extension.
[K : F] = [K : E][E : F]

Theorem:
Let K be a finite extension field of the field E and E be a finite extension field of the field
F. Then K is a finite extension field of F and [K : F] = [K : E][E : F]
Example
√ √
[Q( 3, 5) : Q] = 4
√ √ √ √ √ √
[Q( 3, 5) : Q] = [Q( 3, 5) : Q( 5)][Q( 5) : Q]
= 2.2 = 4

27
Kronecker Theorem
Theorem:
If g(x ) is a polynomial in F[x] of degreen ≥ 1 and is irreducible over F, then there is an
extension K of F with [K:F]=n in which g(x ) has a root.
proof:
Let g(x ) is irreducible over F[x]. So the ideal I =< g(x ) > in F[x] is a maximal ideal.
Since, R/A is a field iff A is maximal ideal. K = F[x]/I is a field. The mapping f : F → K
′ ′
given by a → a + I is an isomorphism of F onto its image F ⊂ K. Identifying F with F ,
K as an extension of F.
We have to show that x + I is a root of the polynomial g(x ). Now g(x + I ) = g(x ) + I =
0 + I as g(x ) ∈ I
So x + I is a root of g(x ), and {1 + I, x + I, ..., xn−1 + I} is a basis of F[x]/I over F.
So [K : F] = n. 
Properties of algebraic extensions:
Theorem:(Algebraic over algebraic is algebraic)
If K is an algebraic extension of E and E is an algebraic extension of F, then K is an
algebraic extension of F.
proof:
Let a ∈ K, as K is algebraic over E so there is b0 , b1 , ..., bn ∈ E such that b0 + b0 a + ... +
bn a n = 0 .
Again E is algebraic over F and b0 , b1 , ..., bn ∈ E so b0 , b1 , ..., bn algebraic over F.
E|F is finite and E is isomorphic to F(b0 , b1 , ..., bn ).
So [F(b0 , b1 , ..., bn ) : F]=finite. Let’s take M = F(b0 , b1 , ..., bn ). Therefore [M : F]=finite
a satisfies the equation b0 + b0 a + ... + bn a n = 0
So a is algebraic over M
⇒ [M(a) : M] =finite
Now, [M(a) : F] = [M(a) : M][M : F] =finite
So M(a) is algebraic over F. Thus a is algebraic over F. Hence, K is algebraic over F. 

28
Corollary:(Subfield of Algebraic Elements)
Let E be an extension field of the field F. Then the set of all elements of E that are
algebraic over F is a subfield of E.
proof:
Suppose that a, b ∈ E are algebraic over F and b ̸= 0.
We have to show a + b, a − b, ab, a/b are algebraic over F. i.e, to show [F(a, b) : F] is
algebraic. Now, [F(a, b) : F]=[F(a, b) : F(b)][F(b) : F].
Since a is algebraic over F, it is certainly algebraic over F(b)
[F(a, b) : F(b)] and [F(b) : F] are finite.
So, [F(a, b) : F]=finite. 

29
 CHAPTER 4

AN INTRODUCTION TO GALOIS THEORY

Motivation

Galois theory is a big subject. However, there are two important problems which
provide some motivation for studying Galois Theory. The problems are:
(1) The existence of polynomials which are not soluble by radicals.
(2) Some results about classical Euclidean Geometry. For example we cannot trisect an
angle using ruler and a compass and certain regular polygons cannot be constructed using
ruler and compass.
Soluble by radicals
When we can find the solution for a polynomial with rational coefficients using only
rational numbers and operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and
finding the nth roots, we say that polynomial is soluble by radicals.
Remark:
Using Galois Theory we can prove that if the degree of polynomial is less that 5 then the
polynomials is soluble by radicals but the polynomials of degree 5 and higher not soluble
by radicals.
History
Galois Theory is named after a French Mathematician Evariste Galois (1811-1832) who
did some very important work in this area. He had a very dramatic and difficult life.

Galois introduced many important topics in algebra i.e, normal subgroups, isomor-
phisms, simple groups, finite fields, Galois theory etc. His work provides a method for
disposing of several famous constructibility problems, such as trisecting an arbitrary angle
and doubling a cube.
Basic definitions
Automorphism
Let E be an extension field of the field F. An automorphism of E is a ring isomorphism
form E onto E, denoted by Aut(F). Any field has at least one automorphism, the identity
map(trivial automorphism).
Group fixing F
An automorphism ϕ ∈ Aut(F) is said to fix an element a ∈ E if ϕa = a. If F is subfield
of E then automorphism ϕ is said to be fix F if ϕa=a ∀ a ∈ F.
Galois group of E over F
Galois group of E over F is the set of all automorphism of E that take every element of F
to itself. It is denoted as Gal(E/F).
Fixed field of H
If H is a subgroup of Gal(E/F), the set EH = {x ∈ E|ϕ(x ) = x ∀ϕ ∈ H} is called the fixed
field of H.
Conjugate element
Let E be a finite extension of a field F, then two element α and β of a field E are said to
be conjugate over F if they have the same minimal polynomial over F.
Examples:
√
(1) Let’s consider the extension Q( 2) of Q
√ √
Q( 2) = {a + b 2|a, b ∈ Q}
√ √
ϕ(Q( 2)) → Q( 2) such that ϕ(a) = a , ∀ a ∈ Q

√ √
ϕ(a + b 2 ) = ϕ(a) + ϕ(b 2 )
√
= a + ϕ(b)ϕ( 2 )
√
= a + bϕ( 2 )

√ √
An auto morphism ϕ(Q( 2)) is determine if Q( 2) is known.
√ √ √ √ √
2 = ϕ(2) = ϕ( 2 2) = ϕ( 2)ϕ( 2) = (ϕ( 2))2
31
 √ √
Therefore ϕ( 2) = ± 2
√ √ √
so Gal(Q( 2)|Q) = 2 i.e, the identity map and the mapping a + b 2 → a − b 2 are
the two required mappings.
√
The Fixed Field Gal(Q( 2)|Q) is Q as everything is fixed by the automorphism de-
√ √ √ √
fined by a + b 2 → a − b 2 and a + b 2 → a + b 2 which is equivalent to
√ √
a +b 2 =a −b 2 ⇒b =0
√
(2) Let’s consider the extension Q( 3 2) of Q similarly as above example an automorphism
√ √
ϕ of Q( 3 2) is completely determines by ϕ( 3 2).
√ √ √ √ √
ϕ( 3 2) is a cube root of 2, therefore ϕ( 3 2) = 3 2, 3 2ω or 3 2ω 2 , where ω 3 = 1 and ω ̸= 1.
√ √ √
Since, ϕ( 3 2) is real, the only possibility is Q( 3 2) = 3 2. Hence the automorphism is
√ √
a +b 32→a +b 32
√ √ √
Gal(Q( 3 2)|Q) = 1 and Fixed Field Gal(Q( 3 2)|Q) is Q( 3 2).
Galois extension
A finite extension E/F is said to be Galois extension if |Gal(E|F)| = [E : F]
where [E : F] is the degree of extension E/F.
Examples
√
(1) Let’s consider the extension Q( 2) of Q
√ √
Q( 2) = {a + b 2|a, b ∈ Q}
√ √
ϕ(Q( 2)) → Q( 2) such that ϕ(a) = a ∀ a ∈ Q

√ √
ϕ(a + b 2 ) = ϕ(a) + ϕ(b 2 )
√
= a + ϕ(b)ϕ( 2 )
√
= a + bϕ( 2 )

√ √
An auto morphism ϕ(Q( 2)) is determine if Q( 2) is known.
√ √ √ √ √
2 = ϕ(2) = ϕ( 2 2) = ϕ( 2)ϕ( 2) = (ϕ( 2))2
√ √
Therefore ϕ( 2) = ± 2
√ √ √
so Gal(Q( 2)|Q) = 2 i.e, the identity map and the mapping a + b 2 → a − b 2 are
32
the two required mappings.
√
The Fixed field Gal(Q( 2)|Q) is Q as everything is fixed by the automorphism de-
√ √ √ √
fined by a + b 2 → a − b 2 and a + b 2 → a + b 2 which is equivalent to
√ √ √ √
a + b 2 = a − b 2 ⇒ b = 0 . Here, Gal(Q( 2)|Q) = [Q( 2) : Q]=2. So this ex-
tension is Galois Extension.
√
(2) Let’s consider the extension Q( 3 2) of Q similarly as above example an automorphism
√ √
ϕ of Q( 3 2) is completely determines by ϕ( 3 2).
√ √ √ √ √
ϕ( 3 2) is a cube root of 2, therefore ϕ( 3 2) = 3 2, 3 2ω or 3 2ω 2 , where ω 3 = 1 and ω ̸= 1.
√ √ √
Since, ϕ( 3 2) is real, the only possibility is Q( 3 2) = 3 2. Hence the automorphism is
√ √ √ √ √
a + b 3 2 → a + b 3 2. Gal(Q( 3 2|Q)) = 1 and Fixed field Gal(Q( 3 2)|Q) is Q( 3 2). This
is not a Galois extension.
Normal Extension
Let E be a finite extension of a field F. The extension E is said to be normal extension of
F if the fixed field of Gal(E/F) is F itself.
Note:
The followings are equivalent statements.
(1) E is normal extension of F.
(2) F is the fixed field of Gal(E/F).
(3) [E : F] = |Gal(E/F)| .
Fundamental Theorem Of Galois Theory
Let F be field of characteristic 0 or a finite field. If E is the splitting field over F for
some polynomial in F[x], then the mapping from the set of subfields of E containing F to
the set of subgroups of Gal(E|F) given by K → Gal(E|K) is a one-to-one correspondence.
Furthermore, for any subfield K of E containing F,
(1) [E : K] = |Gal(E|K)| and [K : F] = |Gal(E|F)/ |Gal(E|K)||. (The index of Gal(E|K)
in Gal(E|F) equals the degree of K over F.)
(2) If K is the splitting field of some polynomial in F[x ], then Gal(E|K) is normal sub-
group of Gal(E|F) and Gal(E|F) is isomorphic to Gal(E|F)/Gal(E|K)

33
(3) K = EGal(E |K ) . (The fixed field of Gal(E|K) is K)
(4) If H is a subgroup of Gal(E|F), then H = Gal(E/EH ). (The automorphism group of
E f ixing EH is H)
proof:
Let S = {K : F ⊂ K and K is subfield of E}
′
S = {H : H is subgroup of Gal(E|F)}
Claim-1
′
ϕ : S → S defined by K → Gal(E|K) where K ∈ S is bijective or there exists a one-to-one
′
correspondence between S and S .
F ⊂ K ⊂ E so that Gal(E|K) ⊂ Gal(E|F).
Also Gal(E|K) and Gal(E|F) are the subgroups of the group of all automorphism of {E},
therefore Gal(E|K) is a subgroup of Gal(E|F).
Thus for each subfield of K of E containing F we can find a subgroup Gal(E|K) of Gal(E|F).
ϕ is one − one
Let K1 and K2 be any two subfields of E containing F
ϕ(K1 ) = ϕ(K2 )
⇒ Gal(E/K1 ) = Gal(E/K2 )
⇒ EM = EN (Where M=The fixed field of Gal(E/K1 ) Let N =The fixed field of Gal(E/K2 ))
⇒ K1 = K2 , (Since E is splitting field over F so E is normal extension of F)
ϕ is onto
Let H be an arbitrary subgroup of Gal(E/F), then the fixed field of H is denoted by EH
which is given by EH = {a ∈ E : ψ(a) = a ∀ ψ ∈ H}.
Then H = Gal(E/EH ).
This shows that each subgroup of Gal(E|F) is of the form Gal(E/EH ) such that F ⊆
EH ⊆ E and corresponding to this subgroup Gal(E/EH ) there exists a subfield EH of E
containing F such that ϕ(EH ) = Gal(E/EH ).
(1) E is normal extension of F and K is subfield of E containing F such that F ⊆ K ⊆ E
then E is normal extension of K therefore we have [E : F] = |Gal(E/F)| and [E : K] =

34
|Gal(E/K)|
Moreover [E : F] = [E : K][K : F]
⇒ |Gal(E/F)| = |Gal(E/K)| [K : F]
⇒ [K : F] = |Gal(E/F)| |Gal(E/K)|
(2) Given that K is the splitting field of some polynomial in F[x]. i.e, K is normal exten-
sion of F. We have to show Gal(E/K) is normal subgroup of Gal(E/F) i.e, to show for
any σ ∈ Gal(E/F) and µ ∈ Gal(E/K) then σ −1 µσ ∈ Gal(E/K). Let α be any arbitrary
element of K. Since K is normal extension of F, so that the splitting field of the minimal
polynomial of α over F is contained in K and every conjugate of α is therefore in K. For
any σ ∈ Gal(E/F) since σ(α) is conjugate of α so σ(α) ∈ K. Thus for any automorphism
µ ∈ Gal(E/K) such that µ(σ(α)) = σ(α).
Now (σ −1 µσ)(α) =σ −1 [µ(σ(α))]
= σ −1 (σ(α))
=α
so σ −1 µσ ∈ Gal(E/K) ∀ σ ∈ Gal(E/F) and µ ∈ Gal(E/K).
Therefore, Gal(E/K) is normal subgroup of Gal(E/F).
Now we have to show Gal(E|F) is isomorphic to Gal(E/F)/Gal(E/K).
Let K is the normal extension of F. Let σ be any element of Gal(E/F). A mapping
′ ′
σ : K → K.E be defined as σ (α) = σ(α) ∀ α ∈ K.
Since σ is an F-automorphism of E and K is a normal extension of F
′ ′
so that K = F(α), therefore σ is F-automorphism of K. i.e, σ ∈ Gal(K/F). Thus
′
σ(K) = σ (K) = K.
′
Now consider a mapping β : Gal(E|F) → Gal(K|F) defined by β(σ) = σ ∀ σ ∈ Gal(E|F).
Let us show that β is a group homomorphism.
Let σ1 and σ1 are any two element of Gal(E|F) and α ∈ K.
′
Now, (β(σ1 σ2 ))(α) = (σ1 σ2 ) (α)
= (σ1 σ2 )(α)
= σ1 (σ2 (α))

35
(β(σ1 )β(σ2 )(α) = β(σ1 )(β(σ2 )(α))
′
= (β(σ1 ))(σ2 (α))
= (β(σ1 ))(σ2 (α))
′
= σ1 (σ2 (α))
′
= σ1 (σ2 (α))
= σ1 (σ2 (α))
So, β(σ1 σ2 ) = β(σ1 )β(σ2 )
Consider any η ∈ Gal(K|F), then
η(α) is conjugate of α over F, so there exists an F-automorphism σ of E such that
σ(α) = η(α), also σ and η are both identity of F and K and K = F(α), so that
′
σ(a) = η(a) ∀ a ∈ F(α) = K, therefore η = σ = β(α). Hence β is onto.
′
Kernel(β) = {σ ∈ Gal(E|F) : σ = I the identity of Gal(E|F)} = {σ ∈ Gal(E|F) : σ =
I}.
Then by Fundamental theorem of homomorphism of groups Gal(K|F) is isomorphic to
Gal(E|F)/Gal(E|K)
(3) E is normal extension of K. So, by definition of normal extension the fixed field of
Gal(E|K) is K.
(4) Since H is a subgroup of Gal(E|F)} so that H ⊂ Gal(E|F)},
also EH = {a ∈ E : σ(a) = a ∀ σ ∈ H},since EH is subfield of E.

(4.1) |Gal(E|EH )| ≤ [E : EH ].

Now,

(4.2) Gal(E|EH ) = {σ ∈ Aut(K) : σ(a) = a ∀ a ∈ EH }.

Let σ ∈ H ⇒ σ(b) = b ∀ b ∈ EH , (using (4.2))

⇒ σ ∈ Gal(E|EH ). Therefore, H ⊂ Gal(E|EH )
36
Therefore,

(4.3) |H| ≤ |Gal(E|EH )|

From (4.1) and (4.3)⇒ |H| = |Gal(E|EH )|. Also H is subgroup of Gal(E|EH ) Hence
H = Gal(E|EH ). 

37
 CHAPTER 5

FINITE FIELDS

In field theory the most beautiful and important area is finite fields. Finite fields were
first introduced by Galois in 1830 in his proof of the un-solvability of the general quintic
equation. When Cayley investigate groups of matrices over finite fields. In the past fifty
years there have been important application of finite fields in computer science,coding
theory,information theory, and cryptography. But, besides the many uses of finite fields
in pure and applied mathematics. The important features of finite fields is the restricted
nature of their order and structure.
Classification of finite fields Theorem
For each prime p and each positive integer n there is, up to isomorphism, a unique finite
field of order pn .
Note
The finite field of order pn is also known as Galois f ield of order pn and is denoted as
GF (pn ).
Structure of finite fields
We will discuss the additive and multiplicative group structure of a field of order pn .
Theorem:(Structure of finite fields)
⊕ ⊕ ⊕
As a group under addition, GF (pn ) is isomorphic to Zp Zp ... Zp . (n factors)
As a group under multiplication, the set of nonzero elements of GF (pn ) is isomorphic to
Zpn −1 (and is therefore cyclic).
proof:
We know GF (pn ) has characteristic p. i.e, p x = 0 ∀ x ∈ GF (pn ). Thus, every nonzero
element of GF (pn ) has additive order p. Then under addition GF (pn ) is isomorphic to
a direct product of n copies of Zp . Now we have to show that GF (pn ) is isomorphic to
Zpn −1 . We know that every finite Abelian group can be expressed as the direct product of
cyclic groups of order n1 , n2 , ..., nt where ni+1 |ni for i = 1, 2, ..., t − 1. Therefore GF (pn )
⊕ ⊕ ⊕
is isomorphic to a direct product of the form Zn1 Zn2 ... Znk where ni+1 |ni . So,
for any element a = (a1 , a2 , ..., ak ) in this product, we have an1 = n1 a1 , n1 a2 , ..., n1 ak =
(0, 0, ..., 0). Thus,the polynomial xn1 − 1 has pn − 1 zeros in GF (pn ). Since the number
of zeros of a polynomial over a field cannot exceed the degree of the polynomial, so
pn − 1 ≤ n1 . Since GF (pn ) has a subgroup isomorphic to Zn1 and n1 ≤ pn − 1.
Therefore GF (pn ) is isomorphic to Zpn −1 . 
Corollary:
[GF (pn ) : GF (p)] = n
Corollary: (GF (pn )) Contains an element of degree of n Let a be a generator of the group
of nonzero elements of GF (pn ) under multiplication.Then a is algebraic over GF (p) of
degree n.
proof:
[GF (p)(a) : GF (p)] = [GF (p n ) : GF (p)] = n. Therefore a is algebraic over GF (p) of
degree n
Example
Let us consider GF (16). 16 = 24 . Since x 4 + x + 1 is irreducible over Z2 .
Therefore, GF (16) ≈ {ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d + < x 4 + x + 1 > |a, b, c, d ∈ Z2 }
We may think the GF (16) as the set F = {ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d |a, b, c, d ∈ Z2 }
Addition is done as in Z2 [x ], but multiplication is done modulo x 4 + x + 1 .
For example, for addition,
x4 + x + 1 = 0
⇒ x 4 = −x − 1 = x + 1
⇒ x5 = x2 + x
⇒ x6 = x3 + x2
Thus x 6 + x 5 + x 2 + x = (x 3 + x 2 ) + (x 2 + x ) + x 2 + x = x 3 + x 2
For multiplication,

39
(x 3 + x 2 + x + 1 )(x 3 + x ) = x 6 + x 5 + x 2 + x = x 3 + x 2 . Since the remainder upon
dividing x 6 + x 5 + x 2 + x by x 4 + x + 1 in Z2 [x ] is x 3 + x 2
Subfield of a finite field
The following theorem gives us a complete description of all the subfields of a finite field.
Theorem(Subfields of a finite field)
For each divisor m of n GF (pn ) has a unique subfield of order p m . Moreover, these are
the only subfields of GF (pn ).
proof:
Suppose that m|n. Then since, p n − 1 = (p m − 1 )(p n−m + p n−2m + ...p m + 1 ),
⇒ (p m − 1 )|(p n − 1 )
m−1 −1 n−1 −1
⇒ (x p )|(x p ) in Zp [x ]
m−1 −1 n−1 −1
Thus every zero of x (x p ) is also a zero of x (x p ). But according to a theorem
stated above “For each prime p and each positive integer n there is, up to isomorphism, a
unique finite field of order pn .′′ Therefore, the set of zeros of x (x p
m−1 −1
)in GF (pm ) and the
n−1 −1
set of zeros of x (x p ) in GF (pn ) is GF (pn ). Hence, GF (pm ) is a subfield of GF (pn )
where m|n.
Uniqueness:
Let GF (pn ) has two subfields of order (pm ), then the x p − x would have more than (pm )
m

zeros in GF (pn ). This a contradiction that a polynomial of degree n over a field has at
most n zeros.
Again suppose F is subfield of GF (pn ). Then F is isomorphic to GF (pm ) for some m.
Therefore, n = [GF (p n ) : GF (p)]
= [GF (pn ) : GF (pm ][GF (pm ) : GF (p)]
= [GF (pn ) : GF (pm )]m
Thus, m|n. 
Example
Let F be the field of order 16, i.e, GF (16). Then there are exactly three subfields of F,
and their orders are 2, 4 and 16. This follows from the above theorem.

40
 Bibliography

[1] David S. Dummit, Richard M. Foote : Abstract Algebra,

Wiley Student edition, (2009).
[2] Joseph A. Gallan: Contemporary Abstract Algebra, Narosa Publishing House,
4th edition, (1999)
[3] I.B.S. Passi, I.S.Luthar: Galois Theory, Springer 2nd edition(2009).
[4] I.N. Herstein: Topics in Algebra, Wiley Student edition, (1999)