Contents Introduction Types of LED's Working of LED LED I-V Characteristic Multicolored LED’s LED Structure Advantages of LED’s Disadvantages of LED's Applications of LED’s BPO ON TAU wn o BibliographyIntroduction A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits visible light when an electric current passes through it. The light is not particularly bright, but in most LEDs it is monochromatic, occurring at a single wavelength, The output from an LED can range from red (at a wavelength of approximately 700 nanometers) to blue-violet (about 400 nanometers). Some LEDs emit infrared (IR) energy (830 nanometers or longer); such a device is known as an infrared-emitting diode (IRED). An LED or IRED consists of two elements of processed material called P-type semiconductors and N-type semiconductors. These two elements are placed in direct contact, forming a region called the P-N junction, In this respect, the LED or IRED resembles most other diode types, but there are important differences. The LED or IRED has a transparent package, allowing visible or IR energy to pass through. Also, the LED or IRED has a large PN-junction area whose shape is tailored to the application. Benefits of LEDs and IREDs, compared with incandescent and fluorescent illuminating devices, include: Low power requirement: Most types can be operated with battery power supplies. High efficiency: Most of the power supplied to an LED er IRED is converted into radiation in the desired form, with minimal heat production. Long life: When properly installed, an LED or IRED can function for decades.Types of LED’s * Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) — infra-red + Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) —red to infra-red, orange * Aluminium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide + (AlGaAsP) — high-brightness red, orange-red, * orange, and yellow : Gallium Phosphide (GaP) — red, yellow and green + Aluminium Gallium Phosphide (AlGaP) — green Gallium Nitride (GaN) — green, emerald green Gallium Indium Nitride (GalnN) — near ultraviolet, bluish-green and blue Silicon Carbide (SiC) — blue as a substrate Zinc Selenide (ZnSe) — blue Aluminium Gallium Nitride (AlGaN) — ultravioletWorking Of LED A Light emitting diode (LED) is essentially @ an junction diode. When carters are Injected across a forward-biased junction, it emits incoherent light. Most of the commercial LEDS are realized using a highly doped n and a p Junction Electoneacsay (a) The energy thand diagram of a pn* heavily n-type doped) junction without any bias, Built-in ‘potential V, prevents electrons from diffusing frou 1 to p side. (b}'The applied bias reduces V, and thereby allows electrons to diffuse or be injected into the p-side, Recombination around the junction and within the diffusion length of the electrons in the p-side leads ww photon emission, Figure: 1: p-n+ Junction under Unbiased and biased conditions, (pn Junction Devices and Light Emitting Diedes by Safa Kasap) To understand the principle, let's consider an unbiased pnt junction (Figure shows the pnt energy band diagram). The depletion region extends mainly into the p-side, There Is a potential barrier from Ee on the n-sideto the Ec on the p-side, called the built-in voltage, VO. Thispotentiat barrier prevents the excess free electrons on the nt side from diffusing inte the p side When a Voltage Vis applied acress the junction, the built-in potential is reduced from VO to WO —V. This allows the electrons from the nt side ta get injected into the p-side. Since electrons are the minority carriersin the p-side, Uhis pracess is called minority carrier injection, But the hole injectian from the p side to n¢ side's very less and so the current is primarily due to the flow of electrons into the p-side ‘These electrons injectedinte the p-side recombine with the holes. This recombination results inspantaneous emission af photons (light). This effect is called injection electroluminescence. These photons should be allowed to escape from the device without being reabsorbed, The recombination can be classified into the following two kinds * Direct recombination Incirect recombination Direct Recombination \n direct band gap materials, the minimum energy of the conduction band lies cirectly above the maximum energy of the valence band in momentum space energy (Figure 2 shows the F-k glot of a direct band gap material). Inthismaterial, freeelectrons at the bottom of the conduction band can recombine directly with free holes at the tog of the valence bend, as the momentum of the {wo particles is the same. This. transition from conduction band to valence band involves photon emission {takes care of the principle af energy conservation). This is known asdirect recombination. Direct recombination occurs spontaneously. GaAs is anexample of a direct band-gap material Hadintive recommination in be ebizwet Lana-siqe seuivanbactiae @oc® \ fe ne — Heo é Be” Figure 2: Direct Bandgap and Direct Recombination Indirect Recombination: In the indirect band gap materials, the minimum energy in the conduction band is shifted by a k-vector relative to the valence band. The k-vector difference represents a difference in momentum. Due to this difference in momentum, the probability of direct electronhole recombination isles in these materials, additional depants(impurities} are added which form very shallow donor states. These donor states capture the free electrans locally; provides the necessary momentum shifl for recamibination. These donor states serve as the recombination centers. This is called indirect {non-radiative) Recombination Figure shows the E-kplot of an indirect band gap material and an example of how Nitrogen serves as.a recombinaticn center jn GaAsP. In this case it creates.a donor state, when S.C isdoned with Al, it recombination takes place through an acceptor level. The indireet recombination should satisfy both conservatian energy, and momenturn Thus besides photan emission, phonon emission or absoration has to take place. GaP is an example of an indirect band-gap material.Addition of « nitrogen recombination lier Gan Vy elas Badong foe Aa we ~ be - Sales ah ™ Yowsrturt Figure. direct Bandgap and NonRadiative recombination The wavelength of the light emitted, and hence the color, depends on the band gap eneray Of the materials forming the 6-n junction. The emitted photon energy is approximately equal to the band gap energy of the semicanductor. The following equation relates the wavelength and the energy band gap. hws Eg heh = Ee =ne/ Eg Where his Plank’s constant, cis the speed af the light and ég isthe energy band gap ‘Thus, a semiconductor with a2 eV band-gap emits light at about 620 nm, inthe red, A 2 eV band-gaa material wauld emit at414 nm, in the vidlet. LED |-V Characteristic Forward 3 Curent = & = Red Amber Green Blue I (ma)js zs showing the different colours available. Befare a light emitting diode can “emit” any form of light it needs a current to flow through it, asitis a current dependant device with their light output intensity being directly proportional to the forward current flowing through the LED. AAs the LED‘is to be connected ina forward bias condition across a pawer supply it should be current tienited using a series resistor to protect itfram excessive current flow. Never connect an LED directly to a battery or power supply as it will be destroyed almost instantly because too much current will pass through and burn it out. From the table stove we can see that ewch LED has its own forward voltage drop across the PN junction and this parameter which is determined by the semiconductor material used, is the forward voltage drop for a specitied amount of forward canduction current, typically for a forward current of 20mA. In most cases LEDs are operated from a low voltage DC supply, with a series resistor, Rsused te limit the Forward eurrant to a safé value from say SmA for a simple LED indicator to 30mA or more where a high brightness light output is needed. Multi-coloured Light Emitting Diode’s LEDs are available in awide range of shapes, coloursand varus sizes with different light output intensities available, with the most common (and cheapest to produce) being the standard Smim Red Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAs?) LEO. LED's are also available invarious "packages" arranged to produce beth letters and numbers with the most common being that af the “seven segment cisplay” arrangement, Nowadays, full colour flat screen LED displays, hand held devices and TV's are available which se a vast number of multicoloured LED's all been drivendirectiy by their own dedicated IC. Most light emitting diodes produce just a single output of coloured light however, multi - coloured LEDs are now available that can produce a range of different calours from within a single device, Most of these are actually twaor three LEDs fabricated within a single package Bicolour Light Emitting Diodes A bicolour light emitting diode has two LEDS chigs connected together in “inverse parallel” (one forwards, one backwards) combined ini one single package. Sicolour LEDs can praduce any one of three colours for example, a red colour is emitted when the device is cannected with current flowing in one direction and a green colour is emitted when it is biased in the ther direction, This type of bi-directional arrangement is useful for giving polarity indkation, for example, the correct connection of batteries or power supplies etc. Also, a bi-directional current produces both colours mixed together as the two LEDs wauld take it in turn to illuminate if the device was sannected (via a surtable resistar) toa low voltage, law frequency AG supoly,ABicolour LED Len Terminal A, 1" Selected A 5 LeD1 ‘ON OFF ON Lep2 OFF ON ON Colour | Green | Red | ‘Yellow Tricoloured Light Emitting Diode The most popular type of tricolour light emitting diode comprisesf a single Red and a Green LED combined in one package with their cathode terminals connected together producing a three terminal device. They are called tricolour [EDs because theycan give aut @ single red of a green colour by turning “ON” only one LED at a time. These tricaloured LED's can also generate additional shades of their primary colours (the third colour} such as Grange or Yellow by turning “ON” the two LEDs in different ratios of forward currentas shown in the table thereby generating 4 different colours from just two diode junctions. A Multi or Tricoloured LED Outout teD2 — | Colour OAL K LED Current AZ toy LeD2 CurrentLED Structure The LED structure plays a crucial role in emitting light from the LED surface. The LEDs are structured to ensure most of the recombinations takes place on the surface by the following two ways. * By increasing the doping concentration of the substrate, so that additional free minority charge carriers electrons move to the top, recombine and emit light at the surface. * Byincreasing the diffusion length L= v Dt, where Dis the diffusion coefficient and t is the carrier life time. But when increased beyond a critical length there is a chance of re-absorption of the photons into the device. The LED has to be structured so that the photons generated fram the device are emitted without being reabsorbed. One solution is to make the p layer on the top thin, enough to create a depletion layer. Following picture shows the layered structure. There are different ways to structure the dome for efficient emitting. Light output yt A Insulator (anise) Epitaxial aver ® fm Metatelectode o A schematic illustration of typical planar surface emitting LED devices, (a) p-layer grown epitatially on an 7+ substrate, (b) First 2 is epitaxially grown and then p region is formed by dapant diffusion into the epitaxial layer. Figure 4; LED structure(pn Junction Devices and Light Emitting Diodes by Safa Kasap) LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type layer deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less commen, occur as well. Many commercial LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also use sapphire substrate. LED efficiency: Avery important metric of an LED is the external quantum efficiency next. It quantifies the efficeincy of the conversion of electrical energy into emitted optical energy. It is defined as the light output divided by the electrical input power. It is also defined as the product of Internal radiative efficiency and Extraction efficiency. next = Pout(optical) / IV For indirect bandgap semiconductors next is generally less. than 1%, where as fora direct band gap material it could be substantial. nint = rate of radiation recombination/ Total recombination The internal efficiency is a function of the quality of the material and the structure and composition of the layer. feAdvantages of LED’s © LEDs produce more light per watt than incandescent bulbs; this is useful in battery powered or energy-saving devices. «LEDs can emit light of an intended color without the use of colar filters that traditional lighting methods require. This is mare efficient and can lower initial costs. *The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light. Incandescent and fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light and direct it in a usable manner, When used in applications where dimming is required, LEDs do not change their color tint as the current passing through them is lowered, unlike incandescent lamps, which turn yellow. *LEDs are ideal for use in applications that are subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike fluorescent lamps that burn out more quickly when cycled frequently, or High Intensity Discharge (HID) lamps that require a long time before restarting LEDs, being solid state components, are difficult to damage with external shock. Fluorescent and incandescent bulbs are easily broken if dropped on the ground *LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. A Philips LUXEON k2 LED hasa life time of about 50,000 hours, whereas Fluorescent tubes typically are rated at about 30,000 hours, and incandescent light bulbs at 1,000-2,000 hours. *LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt burn-out of incandescent bulbs. *LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achieve full brightness in microseconds; Philips Lumileds technical datasheet D523 for the Luxeon Star states "less than 100ns." LEDs used in communications devices can have even faster response times. LEDs can be very small and are easily populated onto printed circuit boards. LEDs do not contain mercury, unlike compact fluorescent lamps.Disadvantages of using LED's *LEDs are currently more expensive, price per lumen, onan initial capital cost basis, than more conventional lighting technologies. The additional expense partially stems from the relatively law lumen output and the drive circuitry and power supplies needed. However, when considering the total cost of ownership (including energy and maintenance casts), LEDs far surpass incandescent or halogen sources and begin to threaten the future existence of compact fluorescent lamps. * LED performance largely depends on the ambient temperature of the operating environment. Over-driving the LED in high ambient temperatures may result in overheating of the LED package, eventually leading to device failure. Adequate heat- sinking is required to maintain long life. * LEDs must be supplied with the correct current. This can involve series resistors or current-regulated power supplies. . LEDs do not approximate a "paint source” of light, so they cannot be used in applications needing a highly collimated beam. LEDs are not capable of providing divergence below a few degrees. This is contrasted with commercial ruby lasers with divergences of 0.2 degrees or less. However this can be corrected by using lenses and other optical devices. * — There is increasing concern that blue LEDs and white LEDs are now capable of exceeding safe limits of the so-called blue-light hazard as defined in the eye safety specifications for example ANSI/IESNA RP- 27.1-05: Recommended Practice for Photabiological Safety for Lamp and Lamp Systems.Applications of LED’s Indicator lights: These can be two-state (i.e., on/off), bar-graph, or alphabetic-numeric readouts. LCD panel backlighting: Specialized white LEDs are used in flat- panel computer displays Fiber optic data transmission: Ease of modulation allows wide communications bandwidth with minimal noise, resulting in high speed and accuracy. Remote control: Most home-entertainment "remotes" use IREDs to transmit data to the main unit. | Optoisolator: Stages in an electronic system can be connected together without unwanted interaction.Bibliography The following books were used in completion of this project NCERT Textbook of Physics for class 12‘ | Pradeep Fundamental of Physics for class 12° Also, the following websites were consulted for relevant materials. ‘) https://www.google.co.in/ 5 tpe:/ Jen wikipedia itp: jworw.electronios-tuterials.ws/ diode /diede 8. html hitpy//whatis.te chtarget.com / definition flight emitting diede LED