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1111
2
3
4
5 Dutch
6
7
8
An Essential Grammar
9
9th edition
1011
1
12111 Dutch: An Essential Grammar is a reference guide to the most important
3 aspects of modern Dutch as it is used by native speakers.
4 This new edition of the book presents a fresh and accessible description of
5 the Dutch language, supported throughout by diagrams, illustrations and
6 lively examples. In particular, a new chapter on prepositions has been
7 introduced and an index for the entire grammar has been formed for easier
8 access to the material. Also, for the first time, a companion website will be
9 made available for the book, with regularly updated information about
20111 learning resources available on the Internet.
1 This well-established grammar is the standard reference source for all learners
2 and users from beginner to intermediate level. It is ideal for independent
3 study or for students in schools, colleges, universities and adult classes.
4 Features include:
5 • “Let’s try it” sections in each chapter containing sample exercises
6 • A companion website with suggestions for hearing and reading Dutch
7 on the web, to be found at www.routledge.com/9780415423076
8 • A general Dutch–English vocabulary at the end of the book containing
9 all Dutch words used throughout the text
30111
• Full use of examples given throughout illustrating modern usage
1
William Z. Shetter is Professor Emeritus at Indiana University, U.S.A. He
2
was the author of Introduction to Dutch (1958), the original title of this
3
book, and its subsequent editions. He has been the co-author of Dutch: An
4 Essential Grammar since the eighth edition and is also author of The
5 Netherlands in Perspective (second edition 2002).
6
Esther Ham is a senior lecturer and director of the Dutch Program at Indiana
7
University, U.S.A. Her previous publications include the basic language
8 method books, Help: Kunt U mij even helpen? (2001), books 1 and 2.
9
40
41111
Routledge Essential Grammars

Essential Grammars are available for the following languages:

Arabic
Chinese
Danish
Dutch
English
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Other titles of interest published by Routledge:

Colloquial Dutch (new edition forthcoming)

By Bruce Donaldson

Colloquial Dutch 2
By Bruce Donaldson and Gerda Bodegom

Routledge Intensive Dutch Course

By Gerdi Quist, Christine Sas, Dennis Strik

Dutch: A Comprehensive Grammar

By Bruce Donaldson
1111
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Dutch
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9 An Essential Grammar
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William Z. Shetter and
8 Esther Ham
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41111
Seventh edition first published 1994
by Routledge
Eighth edition first published 2002
by Routledge
Ninth edition first published 2007
by Routledge
270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016
Simultaneously published in the UK
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2007 William Z. Shetter and Esther Ham

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2007.

“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced

or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording,
or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Shetter, William Z.
Dutch: an essential grammar/William Z. Shetter and Esther Ham.
—9th ed.
p. cm.
Includes index.
1. Dutch language––Grammar. 2. Dutch language––Textbooks for
foreign speakers––English. I. Ham, Esther. II. Title.
PF112.S5 2007-03-07 439.31′82421––dc22
2006033958

ISBN 0-203-93571-3 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN10: 0–415–42307–4 (pbk)

ISBN10: 0–203–93571–3 (ebk)

ISBN13: 978–0–415–42307–6 (pbk)

ISBN13: 978–0–203–93571–2 (ebk)
1111
2
3
4 Contents
5
6
7
8
9
1011
1
12111 Preface xi
3 Acknowledgments xiii
4
5 Introduction 1
6 0.1 The Dutch language 1
7
8
Chapter 1 Pronunciation 6
9
20111 1.1 Vowels 6
1 1.2 Diphthongs 9
2 1.3 Consonants 10
3 1.4 Assimilation 13
4 1.5 Stress 14
5
6 Chapter 2 Spelling 15
7
8 2.1 Spelling rules: closed and open syllables 15
9 2.2 The relationship between f and v, s and z 18
30111 2.3 Pronunciation of the ending -en 20
1
2 Chapter 3 The plural 23
3 3.1 The plural in -en 23
4 3.2 The plural in -s 25
5 3.3 Other plurals 26
6
7
Chapter 4 Articles and demonstratives 28
8
9 4.1 The definite article 28
40 4.2 The indefinite article 29
41111 4.3 Demonstratives 30 v
Contents Chapter 5 Personal pronouns and the verb 33
5.1 Subject forms 33
5.2 Use of pronouns 34
5.3 Present tense 35
5.4 Spelling 36
5.5 Yes/no questions 36
5.6 Word order in the Dutch sentence 38

Chapter 6 The verb; hebben and zijn and the

imperative 41
6.1 Verbs with stems ending in -t or -d 41
6.2 The verbs gaan, staan, slaan, doen, zien 42
6.3 The verb komen 42
6.4 The verbs hebben and zijn 43
6.5 The imperative 44
6.6 By the way 44

Chapter 7 Adjectives, adverbs and comparison 46

7.1 Adjectives 46
7.2 Exceptions 48
7.3 Adverbs 52
7.4 Comparison of adjectives and adverbs 52
7.5 The superlative used as an adverb 54

Chapter 8 Object pronouns, reflexives and

indefinite pronouns 56
8.1 Object pronouns used for the object of a verb 56
8.2 Subject or object pronoun die 58
8.3 A sentence with two objects: direct and indirect 59
8.4 Reflexive pronouns 60
8.5 Indefinite pronouns 61

Chapter 9 Possessive adjectives and pronouns 65

9.1 Possessive adjectives 65
9.2 Adjective endings after possessives 67
9.3 Possessive pronouns 68
vi 9.4 Table of all pronouns in Dutch 71
1111 Chapter 10 Numbers and dates, currency and Contents
2 measurement, telling the time 72
3
10.1 Cardinal numbers 72
4
10.2 Ordinal numbers 74
5
10.3 Dates 75
6
10.4 Units of currency, measures and time 77
7
10.5 Telling the time 80
8
9
1011 Chapter 11 The past tense: “weak” verbs 86
1
11.1 Weak and strong verbs 86
12111
11.2 Simple past of weak verbs 86
3
11.3 The past participle 89
4
11.4 The present perfect 91
5
6
7 Chapter 12 The past tense: “strong” verbs 93
8
9 12.1 Simple past of strong verbs 93
20111 12.2 Vowel changes in the stem 93
1 12.3 Conjugation with hebben or zijn? 96
2 12.4 Past participle without -ge 99
3
4 Chapter 13 Some irregular verbs; the past
5 perfect tense 100
6
7 13.1 Irregular verbs 100
8 13.2 Past perfect tense 102
9 13.3 Use of the tenses 102
30111 13.4 Verb plus preposition 105
1
2
Chapter 14 Modal auxiliaries, verbs plus
3
infinitive 107
4
5 14.1 Modal auxiliaries 107
6 14.2 The constructions mogen van, moeten van and
7 niet hoeven van 110
8 14.3 Negation of modals 111
9 14.4 Independent use of modals 112
40 14.5 laten and other verbs used in association
41111 with an infinitive 113 vii
Contents 14.6 Modal verbs, laten and other verbs with (te) +
infinitive in past tenses 114
14.7 te + infinitive 116

Chapter 15 The future, the continuous, the present

participle and the infinitive 117
15.1 The future 117
15.2 The continuous 120
15.3 The present participle 123
15.4 The infinitive 123

Chapter 16 Colloquial speech and writing 125

16.1 Particles 125
16.2 Word order and combinations of particles 131
16.3 Spoken language versus written language 133

Chapter 17 Separable and inseparable prefixes 135

17.1 Stressed separable prefixes 135
17.2 Separable verbs in the sentence 136
17.3 Inseparable prefixes 139
17.4 Stressed inseparable prefixes 139

Chapter 18 Conjunctions and relative pronouns 141

18.1 Coordinating conjunctions 141
18.2 Subordinating conjunctions 141
18.3 Relative pronouns 146

Chapter 19 Prepositions 149

19.1 Most commonly used prepositions 149
19.2 Verb + preposition 153
19.3 Noun or adjective + preposition 157
19.4 er + preposition 158
19.5 Preposition follows noun 158

Chapter 20 Word order: position of the verb in

the sentence 161
20.1 The conjugated part of the verb in second position 161
viii 20.2 The conjugated part of the verb in first position 164
1111 20.3 The conjugated part of the verb in final position 166 Contents
2 20.4 Restating the three positions 167
3 20.5 The negating adverb niet 168
4
5 Chapter 21 The word er, prepositional compounds 172
6
21.1 Functions of er 172
7
21.2 er + preposition 175
8
21.3 Special cases involving er + preposition 177
9
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1 Chapter 22 Diminutives 181
12111 22.1 Forms of the diminutive 181
3 22.2 Diminutives as adverbs 184
4 22.3 Using the diminutive 185
5
6 Chapter 23 The passive voice 187
7
8 23.1 The passive construction 187
9 23.2 Tenses in the passive 188
23.3 Passive and non-passive 189
20111
23.4 Modal verbs 190
1
23.5 Impersonal passive 191
2
23.6 When is the passive voice used? 193
3
4
5 Chapter 24 Idiomatic usages of some common
6 verbs 195
7 24.1 Aspectual meanings of some verbs 195
8 24.2 Idiomatic usages 198
9 24.3 Some easily confused pairs 200
30111
1 Chapter 25 Word formation and derivation 205
2
25.1 Compounding 205
3
25.2 Derivation by suffix 206
4
25.3 Stress shift in derivation 209
5
25.4 Derivation by prefix 209
6
7
8
Chapter 26 Three stories 211
9 26.1 Slenterfietsen 211
40 26.2 Frites 214
41111 26.3 Na afloop 217 ix
Contents Chapter 27 Further learning 220
27.1 Dutch grammars—intermediate and advanced 220
27.2 Dictionaries 221
27.3 Reading 223
27.4 The Internet 223
27.5 Other resources 225
27.6 Histories of the Dutch language 225
27.7 Books on the Netherlands and Flanders 226

Strong and irregular verbs in common use 227

Key to the exercises 234
Dutch–English vocabulary 257
Index 277

x
1111
2
3
4 Preface
5
6
7
8
9
1011
1
12111 Continued demand for Dutch: An Essential Grammar has necessitated a
3 new revised edition that not only provides some updating but addresses
4 some features of the previous eighth edition that seemed to need revision
5 and updating. In this ninth edition, the reader will find these changes:
6
7 • The reading passages that in the previous edition were called
8 “Practice texts” are no longer part of the grammar. Today’s world
9 offers a growing abundance of accessible written and spoken material
20111 through a widening variety of channels (see Chapter 27). This leads us
1 to feel that a work striving to limit itself to presenting the “essential”
2 first few steps in learning the language no longer needs to be in the
3 business of providing reading material as well. An exception is the
4 “Three stories” held over from the eighth edition.
5 • The traditional exercise material has been reduced to two or three
6 sample exercises in each chapter, now found under the heading
7 “Let’s try it,” that appear following the presentation of certain
8 important points.
9 • A chapter devoted entirely to prepositions has been added.
30111 • The vocabularies that appeared toward the end of each chapter have
1 now been dropped. The reader will find all Dutch words used
2 throughout the grammar in the general vocabulary at the end.
3 • In addition to a detailed Contents, this edition now includes
4 an Index.
5
6 For recommendation of audio aids to both classroom and individual
7 instruction, the reader is urged to consult Chapter 27, in which we discuss
8 a wide variety of different ways to supplement this Essential Grammar.
9 A regularly updated listing of electronic learning resources available on
40 the Internet appears on the Routledge website at www.routledge.com/
41111 9780415423076. A note of caution is appropriate here: the world of xi
Preface publication and electronic availability changes so rapidly that what we offer
here cannot be more than a few suggestions of places in which to look.

This grammar first appeared nearly fifty years ago in the Netherlands
under the title Introduction to Dutch. At that time, to quote the words
of the eighth edition, “there was little or no formal instruction in Dutch
to be found in the U.S. There was need for a book that would provide
clear, logical explanations for the many who wanted or needed to learn
the language but could find no alternative to learning the basics by
themselves. Today Dutch is taught throughout the world, including thirty
or more college-level institutions in the U.S., and there is a variety of intensive
courses in the Netherlands and Belgium. There are grammars, dictionaries,
taped and audiovisual courses in abundance. Dutch: An Essential Grammar
hopes to retain its membership in this realm of classroom instruction
while never abandoning its usefulness to those still working alone. This is
why it continues to be as compact and self-explanatory as possible.”

Our task of presenting only what is “essential” has been made considerably
easier by the presence of the Routledge publication that can best serve as
a sequel: Bruce Donaldson’s Dutch: A Comprehensive Grammar (1997;
2nd edition, 2007). The reader is urged to turn to that grammar for more
detailed treatment and for the next few steps in the language. Chapter 27
includes a description of Donaldson’s book as well as other grammatical
works.

For challenging both of us to keep trying to find better ways of presenting

Dutch grammar, we are grateful to many generations of students to whom
it has been our privilege to present the language and culture of the
Netherlands and Flanders.

William Z. Shetter
Esther Ham
Department of Germanic Studies
Indiana University
Bloomington, IN 47405

xii
1111
2
3
4 Acknowledgments
5
6
7
8
9
1011
1
12111 The stories in Chapter 26 appear by kind permission of Uitgeverij De
3 Bezige Bij, Amsterdam.
4
5 Na afloop © CAMU 1997, Remco Campert and Jan Mulder, © De Bezige
6 Bij 1998
7 Frites © CAMU 1998, Remco Campert and Jan Mulder, © De Bezige Bij
8 1999
9 Slenterfietsen © CAMU 1999, Remco Campert and Jan Mulder, © De
20111 Bezige Bij 2000
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41111 xiii
1111
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4 Introduction
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12111 0.1 The Dutch language
3
4 The language known to us as Dutch is spoken as a native tongue by some
5 16,500,000 people in the Kingdom of the Netherlands and by 6,250,000
6 in Flanders, the northern half of the recently federalized Kingdom of
7 Belgium. One occasionally sees “Dutch” and “Flemish” referred to as though
8 they were two separate languages, but, in reality, there is one single standard
9 language spoken by nearly 23,000,000 people. There are some differences
20111 in pronunciation, vocabulary and, occasionally, style, but they are no
1 more important than those between the British and the American varieties
2 of English—even less if we count the fact that there are no differences in
3 spelling customs.
4
The matter of the English names by which the language is referred to has
5
long been a source of confusion. The word “Dutch” (Nederlands) is used
6
to refer to the geography, legal system and government, education, folklore
7
and so on in the Kingdom of the Netherlands, while “Flemish” (Vlaams)
8
customarily refers to an equivalent range of aspects of Flanders. The
9
language—the same “Dutch” (Nederlands) in both countries—is the main
30111
exception to this. In Dutch there is an additional complexity: many people
1
in the heavily urbanized west of the Netherlands refer to their language
2
as Hollands, although this usage is resisted in the rest of the Dutch-
3
speaking area.*
4
5
6
7
8 * Up until two centuries or so ago the cover term for the languages of the Lowlands
was “Diets,” but also Duits or Nederduits, which at the same time meant “German.”
9
The Dutch word Duits now means only “German,” and corresponds to the German
40 word Deutsch. The English word “Dutch,” which originally did not distinguish
41111 “Dutch” from “German,” has simply been restricted in a different direction. 1
Introduction The names by which the countries involved are called are, unfortunately,
sources of a parallel confusion in both Dutch and English. “The Nether-
lands” is a plural noun even though we are referring to just one country,
although the same country is more commonly called by its international
name “Holland.” The official Dutch name of the country is Koninkrijk
der Nederlanden, but everyday usage prefers Nederland. For international
convenience, the Dutch—particularly in those same western cities—refer
to their country as Holland. Strictly speaking, however, “Holland” refers
only to the two western provinces where most of the largest cities are
located. The official name of Belgium is Koninkrijk België, the northern,
semi-autonomous half of which is called “Flanders” (in Dutch Vlaanderen).
Here there is a close parallel to the situation in the Netherlands, in that
“Flanders” strictly speaking refers to only two western provinces.

A glance back through history gives us a hint as to how this complicated

situation came about. “The Netherlands” is plural because several centuries
ago the area we often call by the general term the “Low Countries,” occupied
by the two countries we have been talking about plus a section in northern
France, consisted of a loose confederation of semi-independent principalities,
duchies and the like. Eventually this profusion of little states coalesced
into the two kingdoms we know today, but many of these long-gone political
divisions continue to echo in the modern names.

As to language, this Low Countries region was divided into a Dutch-speaking

area in the north and a French-speaking one to the south. The language
boundary between the two ran east to west, cutting the area more or less
in half. Today the linguistic boundary has hardly changed its location
through the centuries and now it runs through the middle of present-day
Belgium. It was this situation of two relatively evenly matched languages
competing for “language rights” within one country that was one of the
chief motivations for the recent federalization of Belgium into largely
autonomous regions.

But centuries ago, there was no such language as “Dutch.” The northern
half of the area just referred to was a collection of local dialects, mostly
mutually intelligible but without a standard form of speech for all. In the
late Middle Ages and especially from the 1500s on, a standard form of
the language began developing in the important trade cities in the west,
such as Amsterdam and Antwerp. It was this single language for all that
eventually evolved into standard Dutch as we know it today.

Literary works in Dutch go as far back as the twelfth century, but these
2 early examples are strongly coloured by local dialect. The later development
1111 of a standard language meant the creation of a vehicle in which a rich The Dutch
2 and varied literature could develop and flourish. Dutch literature, now language
3 reflecting the cultures of both the Netherlands and Flanders, therefore has
4 a long and distinguished history.
5
Today the standard language of education and the mass media is most
6
Dutch-speaking people’s “native language.” But alongside this, many of
7
the local dialects continue a modest existence. Many—particularly in the
8
western urban centers—have disappeared, and those that survive lead an
9
often precarious existence as they become increasingly irrelevant in the
1011
modern world, although in some areas there has been a reawakened pride
1
in the local area and its traditional form of speech. There is still literature
12111
written in dialect and on TV there is even a soap opera in one of the
3
eastern dialects. Recently two widespread dialects, one in the east and the
4
other in the southeast, were granted the status of distinct languages by
5
the Dutch government. The local accents of much of the rest of the country
6
have by no means been standardized out of existence. As everywhere in
7
the world, a person’s speech tends to be a giveaway of local origin. The
8
Dutch, too, are well able to place another Dutch speaker by region of
9
origin and often by the town—in the large cities, even by neighborhood.
20111
1 A language spoken by a complex society will have not only geographical
2 variation but social variation as well. From the origins of standard Dutch
3 five centuries ago, the language has always been characterized by an
4 unusually wide gap between schrijftaal “written language” and spreektaal
5 “spoken language,” although in the present day this gap has become
6 considerably narrower. Some examples of the written Dutch versus spoken
7 styles are presented in Chapter 16. As in any other language, Dutch speakers
8 convey to each other messages such as “formal,” “relaxed,” “slangy” and
9 “uneducated.”
30111
Today the Dutch language is spoken by not only the nearly 23 million
1
people in the Netherlands and Flanders, but has taken—and is taking—
2
its modest place around the world. A form of Dutch carried to the southern
3
tip of Africa in the 1600s has since evolved into Afrikaans, one of the
4
official languages of the Republic of South Africa, and the Dutch language
5
used to be known as far away as Indonesia and Japan. It is still one of
6
the official languages of former Dutch possessions: Surinam, on the north
7
coast of South America, and Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles, still a
8
part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
9
40 Since 1980, an organization called the “Dutch Language Union” (Neder-
41111 landse Taalunie), on behalf of its member states the Netherlands, Belgium 3
Introduction

4
1111 and Surinam, has taken responsibility for all aspects of the further- The Dutch
2 ance of the Dutch language including literature and education, most language
3 conspicuously helping to subsidize the teaching of Dutch around the world.
4 The Dutch language is widely taught today in many countries. These few
5 thousand people are learning to read and appreciate Dutch literature in
6 the original, although literary works in translation are reaching a far wider
7 audience, meaning that the literature is, in fact, enjoying something of a
8 renaissance everywhere.
9
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 Chapter 1

Pronunciation

This introductory chapter will assume that the reader will either be working
in class under the guidance of an instructor who can illustrate the sounds
of the spoken language, or has access to some of the many tapes, CDs,
broadcasts and other audio means that are readily available. These are
discussed in detail in Chapter 27.

In the presentation of sounds that follows, every Dutch sound discussed

will be transcribed in the symbols of the International Phonetic Alphabet.
We will follow the usual custom of always enclosing IPA symbols in
square brackets.

1.1 Vowels

1.1.1 Front, rounded, front-rounded vowels

Front vowels are those pronounced with the tongue more or less raised
in the front of the mouth such as “eat,” “it,” “date,” “end.” IPA symbols
for front vowels are [i], [i], [e] and [ε].

Back vowels are those pronounced with the tongue raised in the back of
the mouth, such as “food,” “foot,” “code.” IPA symbols for back vowels
are [u], [υ] and [o].

Front-rounded vowels occur in Dutch but not in English. They involve

the raising of the tongue in front of the mouth while keeping the lips rounded
or puckered at the same time. Front-rounded vowels occur in French (vu,
deux) and German (müde, dünn, Söhne, können). IPA symbols for front-
rounded vowels are [y], [y], [ø] and [].
6
1111 1.1.2 High and low vowels Vowels
2
3 “High” means that in the sound in question the tongue is raised close to
4 the roof of the mouth. “Low” means that the tongue is further away, i.e.
5 more “relaxed.” So we say that the vowel of “eat” is high, “end” a mid-
6 vowel and “add” a low vowel. The equivalent IPA symbols would be [i],
7 [ε] and [].
8
9
1011 1.1.3 The vowels
1
12111
Vowel in Example IPA Remarks
3
Dutch
4
spelling
5
6
7 ie ziek sick [i] Like English “seek” but rather
8 short in Dutch.
9 hier here [i:] Same quality as the previous
20111 example, but about twice as
1 long before r.
2 i dit this [i]
3
ee steen stone [e:] Has a tendency toward a
4
diphthong, less strongly so
5
than English “main” but
6
more than German zehn.
7
This is especially true in
8
the western cities in the
9
Netherlands.
30111
1 e met with [ε]
2 oe boek book [u] Pronounced shorter than
3 English “boot.”
4 boer farmer [u:] Like Dutch ie, roughly twice
5 as long before r.
6
oo boon bean [o:] As Dutch ee, tends to a
7
diphthong, less so than
8
English “bone” but more
9
than German Bohne.
4022
41111 o pot pot [ɔ] 7
 1 aa kaas cheese [a:]
Pronunciation a dat that [ɑ] You will hear that this vowel
is pronounced much further
back than the preceding one.
uu minuut minute [y] Resembles French minute.
buur neighbor [y:] As Dutch ie and oe, this
vowel sounds more or less
twice as long before r.
u nul zero [Y] Similar to German müssen.
eu neus nose [ø:] Like French deux, German
Söhne.

1.1.4 Summary

Dutch vowels are all distinct from one another by virtue of their differences
in what we might call “vowel color,” usually termed their quality. It is
also useful to note that they differ in quantity, meaning their duration:
some are always short, others always long, and still others short or long
depending on the surrounding sounds.
aeiou always short [ɑ ε i ɔ y]
aa ee oo eu always long [a: e: o: ø:]
ie oe uu long, but only before r [i:r u:r y:r]
(rather) short everywhere else [i u y];
this includes when they end a syllable or
word, such as zie, hoe, nu

1.1.5

A neutral vowel, which is comparable to the last syllable of English “soda”

or “sofa” occurs in unstressed (unaccented) syllables in many words. In
Dutch, the neutral vowel sounds like the short u [y]. It has several spellings,
the most common of which are:
e behalve except (the most usual spelling)
ij mogelijk possible
8 i twintig twenty
1111 1.2 Diphthongs Diphthongs
2
3 A “diphthong” can be defined as the succession of two different vowels
4 in a single syllable. Examples in English are “how,” “boy,” “time.” Notice
5 that in the third example the spelling does not suggest the diphthong that
6 is there, the sound that we misleadingly call “long i.” The IPA symbols
7 for these three diphthongs would be [aυ], [ɔi] and [ai].
8
9
1011 Spelling Example IPA Remarks
1
12111 ei trein train [εi] ([e] + [i]). Note that ei and
3 ij are two spellings for the
4 same sound.
5
6 dijk dike
7 ou koud cold [ɔu] ([ɔ] + [u])
8
9 au blauw blue
20111 ui huis house [y] ([] + [y]). This is a front-
1 rounded diphthong.
2
3 oei moeite trouble [ui] ([u] + [i])
4 ooi mooi nice [o:i] ([o:] + [i]). The first
5 component of this
6 diphthong is long.
7
8 aai haai shark [a:i] ([a:] + [i]). Note the
9 difference between this and
30111 the first diphthong above;
1 first component long.
2 ieu nieuw new [iy] ([i] + [y])
3
4 eeu leeuw lion [e:y] ([e:] + [y]). First
5 component long.
6
7
8
9
40
41111 9
 1 1.3 Consonants
Pronunciation
Consonants are either voiced (vocal cords vibrating) or voiceless (vocal
cords not used).

Consonant Example IPA Remarks

in Dutch
spelling

p paal post [ p] The first three conson-

ants are voiceless stops,
and in Dutch they are
unaspirated, meaning
they are not followed by
the little puff of breath
that we hear in English
“peel,” “team,” “cool.”
t tien ten [t]
k kat cat [ k]
b been bone [ b]
heb (I) have [p] The two voiced stops
are always pronounced
voiceless at the end of a
word, in other words
identical to the
voiceless stops.
d deze these [d]
had had [t] Voiceless at the end of a
word.
f feit fact [ f]
s saai dull [s]
sj sjaal scarf [ʃ] At the beginning of a
meisje girl word, the sound
resulting from the
juxtaposition of s and j
occurs in borrowings
from other languages;
it occurs in the middle
10 of Dutch words.
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appeared in yellow, the favourite colour of the nation, which has a
gaudy but striking effect.
On the following morning, the Maharaja
Military spectacle.
intimated his wish for our presence at a
military review in honour of passing events.
We found his Highness on the parade ground, seated on a terrace, a
short distance from the walls of Lahore. Five regiments of regular
infantry were drawn up in line, three deep. Runjeet requested we
would pass down the line and inspect them. They were dressed in
white, with black cross belts, and bore muskets, the manufacture of
Cashmere or Lahore: there was a mixture of Hindoostanees and
Seiks in every corps. After the inspection, the brigade manœuvred
under a native general officer, and went through its evolutions with
an exactness and precision fully equal to our Indian troops: the
words of command were given in French.
During the spectacle, his Highness conversed
Conversations.
with great fluency, and asked our opinions on
his army and their equipments. His muskets,
he said, cost him seventeen rupees each. He was particularly
desirous to know if a column of British troops could advance against
artillery. From these subjects he passed to that of the revenue of
Cashmere; he had just got thirty-six lacs of rupees, he said, from it
this year, which was an increase of six lacs. “All the people I send to
Cashmere,” continued he, “turn out rascals (haramzada); there is too
much pleasure and enjoyment in that country;” and when he
considered the importance of the place, he believed he must send
one of his sons, or go himself. This is the style of Runjeet Sing’s
conversation; but his inquisitive disposition, and pertinent questions,
mark the strength of his character. He found out, among our
establishment, a native of India, who had been in England, whom he
first interrogated in our presence, and afterwards sent for privately,
to know if the wealth and power of the British nation were as great
as had been represented. We left his Highness, on observing
preparations for breakfast,—a meal which he usually takes in the
open air, and in presence of his troops, and even sometimes on
horseback. His passion for riding and performing distant journeys is
great; and, on such occasions, he will take his meal on the saddle
rather than dismount.
We took up our abode in the garden-house of
French officers.
M. Chevalier Ventura, another French
General, who was absent on the Indus with
his legion. The building had been constructed in the European style;
but the Chevalier has added a terrace, with ninety fountains, to cool
the surrounding atmosphere. Our intercourse with the French
officers was on the most friendly footing; and it continued so during
our residence at Lahore. Among these gentlemen, M. Court struck
me as an acute and well informed person; he is both a geographer
and an antiquarian. M. Court, as well as his brother officers, was
formerly in the service of one of the Persian Princes, and travelled to
India as a native, which gave him an opportunity of acquiring the
best information regarding the intervening countries. He showed me
the route from Kermenshah, by Herat, Candahar, Ghuzni, and
Cabool, to Attok, constructed topographically with great care; and he
informed me, at the same time, that he had been less anxious to
obtain a complete map of that part of Asia, than to ascertain one
good route, with its détours, and the military and statistical
resources of the country. The French have much better information
of these countries than ourselves; and M. Court, in explaining his
map to me, pointed out the best routes for infantry and cavalry. This
gentleman has likewise employed a residence of four years in the
Punjab to illustrate its geography; he has encountered jealousy from
Runjeet Sing, but still managed to complete a broad belt of survey
from Attok to the neighbourhood of our own frontier. I doubt not but
the antiquities as well as the geography of the Punjab will be
illustrated by this intelligent gentleman; who, to his honour be it
said, adds to a zeal in the pursuit, the strongest desire to
disseminate his own knowledge and stimulate others. The fruit of M.
Court’s labours, I believe, will, ere long, be given to the public by the
Geographical Society of Paris, or some other of the learned bodies in
that capital.
 In our evening rambles at Lahore, we had
City of Lahore.
many opportunities of viewing this city. The
ancient capital extended from east to west
for a distance of five miles; and had an average breadth of three, as
may be yet traced by the ruins. The mosques and tombs, which
have been more stably built than the houses, remain in the midst of
fields and cultivation as caravansaries for the traveller. The modern
city occupies the western angle of the ancient capital, and is
encircled by a strong wall. The houses are very lofty; and the
streets, which are narrow, offensively filthy, from a gutter that
passes through the centre. The bazars of Lahore do not exhibit
much appearance of wealth; but the commercial influence of the
Punjab is to be found at Umritsir, the modern capital. There are
some public buildings within the city that deserve mention. The
King’s mosque is a capacious building of red sandstone, which had
been brought by Aurungzebe from near Delhi. Its four lofty minarets
still stand, but the temple itself has been converted into a powder
magazine. There are two other mosques, with minarets, to proclaim
the falling greatness of the Mahommedan empire; where the
“faithful,” as every where else in the Punjab, must offer up their
prayers in silence.
But the stranger must cross the Ravee to
Tomb of Juhangeer.
behold the finest ornament of Lahore—the
“Shah Dura,” or tomb of the Emperor
Juhangeer, which is a monument of great beauty. It is a
quadrangular building, with a minaret at each corner, rising to the
height of seventy feet. It is built chiefly of marble and red stone,
which are alternately interlaid in all parts of the building. The
sepulchre is of most chaste workmanship, with its inscriptions and
ornaments arranged in beautiful mosaic; the shading of some roses
and other flowers is even preserved by the different colours of the
stone. Two lines of black letters, on a ground of white marble,
announce the name and title of the “Conqueror of the World,”
Juhangeer; and about a hundred different words in Arabic and
Persian, with the single signification of God, are distributed on
different parts of the sepulchre. The floor of the building is also
mosaic. The tomb was formerly covered by a dome; but Bahadoor
Shah threw it down, that the dew and rain of heaven might fall on
the tomb of his grandfather Juhangeer. It is probable that this
beautiful monument will soon be washed into the river Ravee, which
is capricious in its course near Lahore, and has lately overwhelmed a
portion of the garden wall that environs the tomb.
The next, though by no means the least,
Shalimar.
object of interest at Lahore is the garden of
Shah Jehan; the Shalimar or “house of joy.” It
is a magnificent remnant of Moghul grandeur, about half a mile in
length, with three successive terraces, each above the level of the
other. A canal, which is brought from a great distance, intersects this
beautiful garden, and throws up its water in 450 fountains to cool
the atmosphere. The marble couch of the Emperor yet remains; but
the garden suffered much injury before Runjeet Sing obtained his
present ascendancy. The Maharaja himself has removed some of the
marble houses; but he has had the good taste to replace them,
though it be by more ignoble stone.
As we were proceeding one morning to
Conversations of
Runjeet Sing.
examine the tomb of Juhangeer, we found
Runjeet Sing seated on the plain, and
surrounded by his troops. He sent one of his officers to call us; and
we passed about half an hour with him. He gave us an account of
the inroads of the Afghans into the Punjab, and told us that we now
sat on their ground of encampment. Zuman Shah, the blind king at
Lodiana, he said, had thrice sacked the city of Lahore; he also talked
of his designs on India, and the vicissitudes to which kings are
subject. The Maharaja was the plainest dressed man at his Durbar;
his clothes were shabby and worn. On the evening of the 25th, his
Highness gave us a private audience, in which we saw him to great
advantage; for he directed his Court to withdraw. On our arrival, we
found him seated on a chair, with a party of thirty or forty dancing
girls, dressed uniformly in boys’ clothes. They
Dancing girls.
were mostly natives of Cashmere or the
adjacent mountains, on whom grace and beauty had not been
sparingly bestowed. Their figures and features were small; and their
Don Giovanni costume of flowing silk most becoming, improved as it
was by a small bow and quiver in the hand of each. The “eyes of
Cashmere” are celebrated in the poetry of the East, of which these
Dianas now furnished brilliant specimens, in gems black and bright;
disfigured, however, by a kind of sparkling gold dust glued round
each organ. “This,” said Runjeet Sing, “is one of my regiments
(pultuns), but they tell me it is one I cannot discipline;” a remark
which amused us, and mightily pleased the fair. He pointed out two
of the ladies, whom he called the “Commandants” of this arm of his
service, to whom he had given villages, and an allowance of five and
ten rupees a day. He shortly afterwards called for four or five
elephants to take these, his undisciplined troops, home. Runjeet
then commenced on more important subjects; and ran over, among
other things, the whole history of his connexion with the British
Government. It had at first, he said, excited great suspicion and
discontent among the Seik Sirdars; but he himself was satisfied of its
advantage from the outset. Sir John Malcolm, he continued, had first
stood his friend in 1805; and Sir Charles Metcalfe had completed his
happiness. Sir David Ochterlony had further cemented the bonds of
friendship; and the letter which I had now delivered to him from the
minister of the King of England partook more of the nature of a
treaty than a common epistle, and had gratified him beyond his
powers of expression. He here recurred to the riches of Sinde,
expressing an earnest desire to appropriate them to his own use;
and put the most pointed questions to me regarding the feelings of
Government on such a subject. Runjeet is very fond of comparing
the relative strength of the European nations; and, on this occasion,
he asked whether France or England were the greater power. I
assured him they were both great; but he had only to remember our
power in India to be satisfied of the military character of Britain.
“Well, then,” added he, “what do you think of my French officers?”
After this, he wished to know if I had heard of his campaigns across
the Indus against the “Ghazees,” or fanatics of the Mahommedan
religion; and said that he owed all his successes to the bravery of his
nation, who were very free from prejudice, would carry eight days’
provision on their backs, dig a well if water were scarce, and build a
fort if circumstances required it; a kind of service which he could not
prevail on the natives of Hindostan to perform. “The bravery of my
troops, as you are aware, conquered Cashmere for me; and how do
you think,” said he, “I dispose of the shawls and productions of that
country in the present glut of trade? I pay my officers and troops
with them; and as I give a Chief, who may be entitled to a balance
of 300 rupees, shawls to the value of 500, he is well pleased, and
the state is benefited.” From the shawls of Cashmere, Runjeet
passed to the praises of wine and strong drinks, of which he is
immoderately fond: he begged to know if I had drank the supply
which he had sent me, which, as a recommendation, he assured us
was mixed with pearls and precious gems. This, I should mention, is
a common beverage in the East; a fashion which probably had its
origin in the giver desiring to make the grounds as well as the
contents of the bottle acceptable: pearls would form a good glass for
the butler. We continued, till it was late, conversing with Runjeet in
this desultory manner; when he produced a splendid bow and
quiver, as also a horse richly caparisoned, with a shawl cloth thrown
over his body, a necklace of agate, and a heron’s plume stuck on his
head, saying, “This is one of my riding horses, which I beg you will
accept.” He also gave a similar present to Mr. Leckie; and while we
were looking at the animals, one of the dray horses was brought
forward, dressed out in cloth of gold, and bearing an elephant’s
saddle on his back! I could not suppress a smile at the exhibition.
Runjeet then sprinkled sandal oil and rose water over us with his
own hands, which completed the ceremony. As we were moving, he
called us back to beg that we would attend him early next morning,
and he would order a review of his horse artillery for our
amusement.
We met his Highness at an appointed hour
Horse artillery.
on the parade ground, with a train of fifty-
one pieces of artillery which he had
assembled on the occasion. They were brass 6-pounders, each
drawn by six horses. The command was taken by a native officer,
who put them through the movements of horse artillery, and formed
line and column in every direction. The evolutions were not rapidly
performed; but the celerity was considerable; and no accident in
overturning or firing occurred throughout the morning. There were
no waggons in the field, and the horses and equipments were
inferior. The guns, however, were well cast, and the carriages in
good repair: they had been made at Lahore, and had cost him 1000
rupees each. As the troops were passing in review order, he asked
for our candid opinion regarding the display. “Every gun which you
now see costs me 5000 rupees annually, in the pay of the officers
and men, and in keeping up the horses. I have 100 pieces of field
artillery, exclusive of battering guns and mortars, and my French
officers tell me I have too many. I can reduce their number,” added
he, “but it is a difficult matter to increase it.” We had not sat much
longer with him, when he said, “You must breakfast with me;” an
honour with which we would have rather dispensed, but there was
no retreating. The chairs were removed, and a velvet cushion was
placed for each of us in front of the Maharaja, and the simple fare of
this potentate produced. It consisted of various kinds of rice, with
milk, sugar, and some preserved mangoes; all of which were served
up in leaves sewed together. Runjeet selected the choicest parts,
and handed them to us himself; politeness compelled us to keep him
company. The thumb and fingers are certainly a poor substitute for
the knife and fork. When breakfast was finished, Runjeet asked if we
would accept a dinner from him; and immediately gave instructions
for its preparation, and we had it sent to us in the evening. It was
much the same as the breakfast, and served up in a similar manner.
Runjeet Sing is, in every respect, an extraordinary character. I have
heard his French officers observe that he has no equal from
Constantinople to India; and all of them have seen the intermediate
powers.
We continued at Lahore as the guests of the
Character of Runjeet
Sing.
Maharaja till the 16th of August, and had
many opportunities of meeting him; but I do
not think I can add any thing to the history of his rise, drawn up by
the late Captain William Murray, Political agent at Ambala. The most
creditable trait in Runjeet’s character is his humanity; he has never
been known to punish a criminal with death since his accession to
power; he does not hesitate to mutilate a malefactor, but usually
banishes him to the hills. Cunning and conciliation have been the
two great weapons of his diplomacy. It is too probable, that the
career of this chief is nearly at an end; his chest is contracted, his
back is bent, his limbs withered, and it is not likely that he can long
bear up against a nightly dose of spirits more ardent than the
strongest brandy.
On the 16th of August we had our audience
Audience of leave.
Precious stones.
of leave with Runjeet Sing, but my fellow
traveller was unable to attend from
indisposition. Captain Wade accompanied me. He received us in an
eccentric manner, under an open gateway leading to the palace. A
piece of white cloth was spread under our chairs instead of a carpet,
and there were but few of his Court in attendance. In compliance
with a wish that I had expressed, he produced the “Koh-i-noor” or
mountain of light, one of the largest diamonds in the world, which
he had extorted from Shah Shooja, the ex-King of Cabool. Nothing
can be imagined more superb than this stone; it is of the finest
water, and about half the size of an egg. Its weight amounts to 3½
rupees, and if such a jewel is to be valued, I am informed it is worth
3½ millions of money, but this is a gross exaggeration. The “Koh-i-
noor” is set as an armlet, with a diamond on each side about the
size of a sparrow’s egg.
Runjeet seemed anxious to display his jewels before we left him;
and with the diamond was brought a large ruby, weighing 14 rupees.
It had the names of several kings engraven on it, among which were
those of Aurungzebe and Ahmed Shah. There was also a topaz of
great size, weighing 11 rupees, and as large as half a billiard ball:
Runjeet had purchased it for 20,000 rupees.
 His Highness, after assuring us of his
Presents.
satisfaction at a communication having been
opened with so remote a quarter of India as
Bombay, as it cemented his friendship with the British Government,
then invested me with a string of pearls: he placed a diamond ring
on one hand, and an emerald one on the other, and handed me four
other jewels of emeralds and pearls. He then girt round my waist a
superb sword, adorned with a knot of pearls. A horse was next
brought, richly dressed out with cloth of gold, and golden ornaments
on the bridle and saddle. A “khilut,” or robe of honour, composed of
a shawl dress, and many other manufactures of Cashmere were then
delivered to me, as well as presents of a similar nature for Mr.
Leckie. Three of our attendants were likewise favoured by his
Highness; and in his munificence, he sent a sum of 2000 rupees for
distribution among the remainder of the suite. Maharaja Runjeet
then produced a letter in reply to the one which I had brought from
his Majesty’s minister, which he requested I would deliver. It was put
up in a silken bag, and two small pearls were suspended from the
strings that fastened it. It occupied a roll from four to five feet long.
The following is a verbal translation of the letter; nor will it escape
observation, that, with much which is flowery and in bad taste to a
European, there is some display of sterling sense and judgment. The
titles which I had the honour to receive from his Highness will not
pass without a smile.

Copy of a Letter from Maharaja Runjeet Sing,

to the address of his Majesty’s Minister for the
Affairs of India. Delivered on the audience of
Leave.
“At a happy moment, when the
Runjeet Sing’s reply.
balmy zephyrs of spring were
blowing from the garden of
friendship, and wafting to my senses the grateful perfume
of its flowers, your Excellency’s epistle, every letter of
which is a new-blown rose on the branch of regard, and
every word a blooming fruit on the tree of esteem, was
delivered to me by Mr. Burnes and Mr. John Leckie, who
were appointed to convey to me some horses of superior
quality, of singular beauty, of alpine form, and elephantine
stature, admirable even in their own country, which had
been sent as a present to me by his Majesty the King of
Great Britain, together with a large and elegant carriage.
These presents, owing to the care of the above
gentlemen, have arrived by way of the river Sinde in
perfect safety, and have been delivered to me, together
with your Excellency’s letter, which breathes the spirit of
friendship, by that nightingale of the garden of eloquence,
that bird of the winged words of sweet discourse, Mr.
Burnes; and the receipt of them has caused a thousand
emotions of pleasure and delight to arise in my breast.
“The information communicated in your Excellency’s letter,
that his gracious Majesty the King of England had been
much pleased with the shawl tent of Cashmere
manufacture, which I had the honour to forward as a
present, has given me the highest satisfaction; but my
heart is so overflowing with feelings of pleasure and
gratitude for all these marks of kindness and attention on
the part of his Majesty, that I find it impossible to give
them vent in adequate expressions.
“By the favour of Sri Akal Poorukh Jee[13], there are in my
stables valuable and high-bred horses from the different
districts of Hindoostan, from Turkistan, and Persia; but
none of them will bear comparison with those presented
to me by the King through your Excellency; for these
animals, in beauty, stature, and disposition, surpass the
horses of every city and every country in the world. On
beholding their shoes, the new moon turned pale with
envy, and nearly disappeared from the sky. Such horses,
the eye of the sun has never before beheld in his course
through the universe. Unable to bestow upon them in
writing the praises that they merit, I am compelled to
throw the reins on the neck of the steed of description,
and relinquish the pursuit.
“Your Excellency has stated, that you were directed by his
Majesty to communicate to me his earnest desire for the
permanence of the friendship which has so long existed
between the two states, and which has been so conducive
to the comfort and happiness of the subjects of both. Your
Excellency has further observed, that his Majesty hopes
that I may live long in health and honour to rule and
protect the people of this country. I beg that you will
assure his Majesty, that such sentiments correspond
entirely with those which I entertain, both with respect to
our existing relations, and to the happiness and prosperity
of his Majesty and his subjects.
“The foundations of friendship were first established
between the two states through the instrumentality of Sir
C. T. Metcalfe, a gentleman endowed with every
excellence of character; and after that period, in
consequence of the long residence of Sir C. T. Metcalfe in
Hindostan, the edifice of mutual amity and good
understanding was strengthened and completed by his
attention and exertions.
“When the Right Honourable the Earl of Amherst came on
a visit to Hindoostan and the Simla Hills, the ceremonials
and practices of reciprocal friendship were so well
observed, that the fame of it was diffused throughout the
whole country.
“Captain Wade, since his appointment at Lodiana, has
ever been solicitous to omit nothing which was calculated
to augment and strengthen the feeling of unanimity
between the two powers.
“The Right Honourable Lord William Bentinck, the present
Governor-general, having arrived some time since at
Simla, I took the opportunity of deputing respectable and
confidential officers, in company with Captain Wade, on a
complimentary mission to his Lordship, with a letter
enquiring after his health. These officers, after having had
the honour of an interview, were dismissed by his
Lordship with marks of great distinction and honour. On
their return, they related to me the particulars of the
gracious reception they had met with, the excellent
qualities of his Lordship, and also the sentiments of
friendship and regard which he had expressed towards
this state. These circumstances were very gratifying to my
feelings. Through the favour of the Almighty, the present
Governor-general is, in every respect, disposed, like the
Earl of Amherst, to elevate and maintain the standard of
harmony and concord subsisting between the two
Governments; nay, from his excellent qualities, I am
disposed to cherish the hope that he will be even more
attentive to this subject than his predecessor. Mr. Burnes
and Mr. John Leckie, before mentioned as the bearers of
the presents from his Majesty, have extremely gratified me
with their friendly and agreeable conversation. The mark
of kindness and attention on the part of the British
Government, evinced by the deputation of these officers,
has increased my friendship and regard for it a
hundredfold; a circumstance which, having become known
throughout the country, has occasioned great satisfaction
and pleasure to the friends and wellwishers of both states,
and a proportionate regret in the hearts of their enemies.
All these particulars I hope you will bring to the notice of
his gracious Majesty.
 “I am confident, that, through the favour of God, our
friendship and attachment, which are evident as the
noonday sun, will always continue firm, and be daily
increased under the auspices of his Majesty.
“I have dismissed Mr. Burnes and Mr. John Leckie with this
friendly letter in reply to your Excellency’s, and hope that
these officers will, after their safe arrival at their
destination, fully communicate to you the sentiments of
regard and esteem which I entertain for your Excellency.
In conclusion, I trust that, knowing me always to be
anxious to receive the happy intelligence of the health and
prosperity of his Majesty, and also of your own, your
Excellency will continue to gratify me by the transmission
of letters, both from the King and from yourself.”
(True translation.)
(Signed) E. Ravenshaw,

Depy. Pol. Secretary.

Departure from Lahore.On presenting this letter his Highness
embraced me; and begged I would convey
his high sentiments of regard to the Governor-general of India, I
then took leave of Maharaja Runjeet Sing, and quitted his capital of
Lahore the same evening in prosecution of my journey to Simla, on
the Himalaya Mountains, where I had been summoned to give an
account of my mission to Lord William Bentinck, then residing in that
part of India.
We reached Umritsir, the holy city of the
Umritsir; its temple.
Seiks, on the following morning,—a distance
of thirty miles. The intervening country,
called Manja, is richly cultivated. The great canal, or “nuhr,” which
was cut from the Ravee by one of the Emperors of Hindostan, and
brings the water for a distance of eighty miles, passes by Umritsir,
and runs parallel with the Lahore road. It is very shallow, and
sometimes does not exceed a width of eight feet: small boats still
navigate it. We halted a day at Umritsir, to view the rites of Seik
holiness; and our curiosity was amply gratified. In the evening we
were conducted by the chief men of the city to the national temple.
It stands in the centre of a lake, and is a handsome building covered
with burnished gold. After making the circuit of it, we entered, and
made an offering to the “Grinth Sahib,” or holy book, which lay open
before a priest, who fanned it with the tail of a Tibet cow, to keep
away impurity, and to add to its consequence. When we were
seated, a Seik arose and addressed the assembled multitude; he
invoked Gooroo Govind Sing, and every one joined hands;—he went
on to say, that all which the Seiks enjoyed on earth was from the
Gooroo’s bounty; and that the strangers now present had come from
a great distance, and brought presents from the King of England, to
cement friendship, and now appeared in this temple with an offering
of 250 rupees. The money was then placed on the Grinth, and a
universal shout of “Wagroojee ka futtih!” closed the oration. We
were then clad in Cashmere shawls; and, before departing, I begged
the orator to declare our desire for a continuance of friendship with
the Seik nation, which brought a second shout of “Wagroojee ka
futtih!” “Khalsajee ka futtih!” May the Seik religion prosper! From the
great temple, we were taken to the Acali boonga, or house of the
Immortals, and made a similar offering. We were not allowed to
enter this spot, for the Acalis or Nihungs are a wrong-headed set of
fanatics, not to be trusted. In reply to the offering, the priest sent us
some sugar. The Acalis are clothed in turbans of blue cloth, which
run into a peak: on this they carry several round pieces of iron,
weapons of defence, which are used like the quoit. These bigots are
constantly molesting the community by abuse and insult, or even
violence; a week does not pass in the Punjab without a life being
lost: but Runjeet suppresses their excesses with a firm and
determined hand, though they form a portion of the establishment in
a religion of which he himself is a strict observer. He has attached
some of the greatest offenders to his battalions, and banished
others. Our conductor, Desa Sing Majeetia, father of our Mihmandar,
a Seik of the confederacy, and a kind old man, was very solicitous
about our safety, and led us by the hand, which he grasped firmly,
through the assembled crowd. From the temple we made the tour of
Umritsir, which is a larger city than Lahore. This place is the great
emporium of commerce between India and Cabool. The traders are
chiefly Hindoos, before whose door one wonders at the utility of
large blocks of red rock salt being placed, till informed that they are
for the use of the sacred city cows, who lick and relish them. In our
way home we visited the Rambagh, the favourite residence of the
Maharaja when at Umritsir. His passion for military works also shows
itself here, and he has surrounded a pleasure garden by a massy
mound of mud, which he is now strengthening by a ditch.
At a distance of twenty-three miles from
Beas or Hyphasis.
Umritsir, we came on the Beas or Hyphasis of
Alexander. The country is varied by trees, but
not rich, and the soil is gravelly. On the 21st we crossed the Beas, at
Julalabad, where it was swollen to a mile in width from rain. Its
current exceeded in rapidity five miles an hour; we were nearly two
hours in crossing, and landed about two miles below the point from
which we started. The greatest depth was eighteen feet. The boats
used in this river are mere rafts with a prow; they bend frightfully,
and are very unsafe; yet elephants, horses, cattle, and guns are
conveyed across on them. We passed in safety, but an accident,
which might have proved serious, befel us in one of the small
channels of this river. It was about thirty yards wide, and eighteen
feet deep, and we attempted the passage on an elephant. No sooner
had the animal got out of his depth, than he rolled over, and
precipitated Mr. Leckie and myself head-foremost into the water,
wheeling round at the same time to gain the bank he had quitted;
Dr. Murray alone retained his seat: but we were not long in regaining
terra firma, without any other inconvenience than a ducking. We did
not again attempt the passage on an elephant, but crossed on
inflated buffalo skins supporting a framework.
Our halting place was at Kuppertulla, ten
Kuppertulla. Seik Chief.
miles from the Beas, the estate of Futtih Sing
Aloowala, one of the Seik chiefs, who was
present with Lord Lake’s army in 1805, when encamped in this
vicinity. He is yet a young man. He received us with great respect
and kindness, and sent his two sons to meet us as we approached.
He came himself in the evening on a visit,
Fête.
and on the following day, when we returned
it, he gave us a grand fête in his garden
house, which was illuminated. The display of fireworks was varied,
and we viewed it with advantage from a terrace. Futtih Sing is the
person whom Sir John Malcolm describes in his “Sketch of the Seiks”
as requiring his dram, and years have not diminished his taste for
liquor. Immediately we were seated he produced his bottle, drank
freely himself, and pressed it much upon us; it was too potent for an
Englishman, but he assured us, that whatever quantity we drank, it
would never occasion thirst. We filled a bumper to the health of the
Sirdar and his family, and were about to withdraw, when he
produced most expensive presents, which could not in any way be
refused; he gave me a string of pearls, and some other jewels, with
a sword, a horse, and several shawls. Futtih Sing is an uncouth
looking person, but he has the manners of a soldier. His income
amounts to about four lacs of rupees annually, and he lives up to it,
having a strong passion for house building. Besides a board of works
in two of his gardens, he was now constructing a house in the
English style, but has sensibly added a suite of rooms under ground
for the hot season. When we left Futtih Sing, he urgently requested
that we would deliver his sincere sentiments of regard to his old
friend Sir John Malcolm.
We made three marches from Kuppertulla to
Doab of the Sutlege.
Fulour, on the banks of the Sutlege, a
distance of thirty-six miles, passing the towns
of Jullinder and Jumsheer. The former place is large, and was at one
time inhabited by Afghans. It is surrounded by a brick wall, and the
streets are paved with the same material. Jullinder gives its name to
the “Doab,” or country between the Beas and Sutlege, while the
other Doabs are named by compound words, formed by contracting
the names of the rivers. Between the Chenab and Behut, we have
the Chenut; between the Ravee and Chenab, the Reechna; and
between the Beas and Ravee, the Barree. From Jullinder to the
banks of the Sutlege, the country is highly cultivated and well
peopled. All the villages are surrounded by mud walls, and many of
them have ditches to bespeak the once unsettled state of this land.
The houses are constructed of wood, with flat roofs covered over by
mud, and have a hovel-like appearance.
The town of Fulour, on the banks of the
Fulour.
Sutlege, is the frontier post of the Lahore
Chief, and here we left our escort and Seik
friends, who had accompanied us from Mooltan. We distributed
cloths to the commissioned and non-commissioned officers, and a
sum of 1000 rupees among the men, which gratified all parties. The
Maharaja continued his munificence to the last, and, before crossing
the Sutlege, he had sent us no less than 24,000 rupees in cash,
though we had declined to receive the sum of 700 rupees, which
had been fixed for our daily allowance after reaching Lahore.
Before I finally quit the Punjab, I must not
Antiquities.
omit a few particulars regarding its
antiquities, which must ever attract attention.
It seems certain, that Alexander the Great visited Lahore, and to this
day the remains of a city answering to Singala, with a lake in the
vicinity, are to be seen S.E. of the capital. The tope of Manikyala,
first described by Mr. Elphinstone, and lately examined by M.
Ventura, has excited considerable interest in the East. The French
gentlemen were of opinion, that these remains are of an older date
than the expedition of Alexander, for the coins have a figure not
unlike Neptune’s trident, which is to be seen on the stones at
Persepolis. In my progress through the Punjab, I was not successful
in procuring a coin of Alexander, nor any other than the Bactrian one
which I have described; nor have any of the French gentlemen, with
all their opportunities, been so fortunate. I am happy, however, in
being able to state the existence of two other buildings like the
“Tope” of Manikyala, which have been lately discovered among the
mountains, westward of the Indus, in the country of the Eusoofzyes.
The opening of these may throw light on the interesting subject of
Punjab antiquities.[14] By the natives of this country, the most
ancient place is considered to be Seealcote, which lies upwards of
forty miles north of Lahore. It is said to be mentioned in the Persian
Sikunder Namu.
At noon, on the 26th of August, we left
Cross the Sutlege.
Fulour and marched to Lodiana, crossing the
river Sutlege, or Hesudrus of antiquity. It is
yet called Shittoodur or the Hundred Rivers by the natives, from the
number of channels in which it divides itself. Where we passed, its
breadth did not exceed 700 yards, though it had been swollen two
days before our arrival. The greatest depth of soundings was
eighteen feet, but the average was twelve. It is a less rapid river
than the Beas. The waters of the Sutlege are colder than those of
any of the Punjab rivers, probably from its great length of course,
and running so far among snowy mountains. This river is variable in
its channel, and often deserts one bank for the other. The country
between it and the British Cantonment of Lodiana, is intersected by
nullas, one of which, that runs past the camp, formed the bed of the
Sutlege fifty years ago. This river is generally fordable after
November. Lord Lake’s army crossed it in 1805, two miles above
Lodiana; but the fords vary, and the watermen look for them
annually before people attempt to cross, as there are many
quicksands. When the Beas falls into the Sutlege, the united stream,
called Garra, is no longer fordable. The boats of the Sutlege are of
the same description as those on the Beas: there are seventeen of
them at the Fulour ferry. The country between the Sutlege and
Lodiana is very low, which I observed to be a characteristic of the
left bank of this river, till it meets the mountains. One would expect
to find this depressed tract of ground alluvial, but it is sandy.
At Lodiana, we met two individuals, who
Exiled Kings of Cabool.
have exercised an influence on the Eastern
world, now pensioners of the British, the ex-
Kings of Cabool, Shah Zuman, and Shah Shooja-ool-Moolk. The
ceremonial of our introduction to Shah Shooja corresponded nearly
with that described by Mr. Elphinstone; for, in his exile, this fallen
monarch has not relinquished the forms of royalty. The officers of his
court still appear in the same fanciful caps, and on a signal given in
Turkish, (ghachan, begone,) the guards run out of the presence,
making a noise with their high-heeled boots. The person of the Shah
himself has been so correctly described, that I have little to say on
that subject. In his misfortunes, he retains the same dignity and
prepossessing demeanour as when king. We found him seated on a
chair in a shady part of his garden, and stood during the interview.
He has become somewhat corpulent, and his expression is
melancholy; but he talked much, and with great affability. He made
many enquiries regarding Sinde, and the countries on the Indus, and
said, that “he had rebuked the Ameers for their suspicion and
jealousy of our intentions in coming to Lahore. Had I but my
kingdom,” continued he, “how glad should I be to see an Englishman
at Cabool, and to open the road between Europe and India.” The
Shah then touched upon his own affairs, and spoke with ardent
expectations of being soon able to retrieve his fortunes. In reply to
one of his questions, I informed him that he had many well-wishers
in Sinde. “Ah!” said he, “these sort of people are as bad as enemies;
they profess strong friendship and allegiance, but they render me no
assistance. They forget that I have a claim on them for two crores of
rupees, the arrears of tribute.”
Shah Shooja was plainly dressed in a tunic of
Reflections.
pink gauze, with a green velvet cap,
something like a coronet, from which a few
emeralds were suspended. There is much room for reflection on the
vicissitudes of human life while visiting such a person. From what I
learn, I do not believe the Shah possesses sufficient energy to seat
himself on the throne of Cabool; and that if he did regain it, he has
not the tact to discharge the duties of so difficult a situation.
The brother of Shah Shooja, Shah Zuman, is
Shah Zuman.
an object of great compassion, from his age,
appearance, and want of sight. We also
visited him, and found him seated in a hall with but one attendant,
who announced our being present, when the Shah looked up and
bade us “Welcome.” He is stone blind, and cannot distinguish day
from night; he was as talkative as his brother, and lamented that he
could not pass the remainder of his days in his native land, where
the heat was less oppressive.
Shah Zuman has lately sunk into a zealot: he passes the greater part
of his time in listening to the Koran and its commentaries. Poor man,
he is fortunate in deriving consolation from any source. When taking
leave, Shah Zuman begged I would visit him before quitting Lodiana,
as he was pleased at meeting a stranger. I did not fail to comply
with his wishes, and saw him alone. I had thought that his age and
misfortunes made him indifferent to all objects of political interest;
but he asked me, in a most piteous manner, if I could not intercede
with the Governor-general in behalf of his brother, and rescue him
from his present exile. I assured him of the sympathy of our
government, and said, that his brother should look to Sinde and the
other provinces of the Dooranee empire for support; but he shook
his head, and said the case was hopeless. After a short silence, the
Shah told me that he had inflammation in the eyes, and begged I
would look at them. He has suffered from this ever since his brother
caused him to be blinded with a lancet. As he has advanced in years,
the organ seems to have undergone a great change, and the black
part of the eye has almost disappeared. It is impossible to look upon
Shah Zuman without feelings of the purest pity; and, while in his
presence, it is difficult to believe we behold that king, whose name,
in the end of last century, shook Central Asia, and carried dread and
terror along with it throughout our Indian possessions. Infirm, blind,
and exiled, he now lives on the bounty of the British Government.
After a ten days’ recreation at Lodiana, where
Journey to the
Himalaya.
we mingled once more with our countrymen,
we prosecuted our journey to Simla, on the
Himalaya mountains, a distance of about 100 miles, which we
reached in the course of a few days. We here beheld a scene of
natural sublimity and beauty, that far surpassed the glittering court
which we had lately left:—but my narrative must here terminate. At
Simla we had the honour of meeting the Right Honourable Lord
William Bentinck, the Governor-general of India; and his Lordship
evinced his satisfaction at the result of our mission, by entering at
once into negotiations for laying open the navigation of the Indus to
the commerce of Britain, a measure of enlightened policy,
considered both commercially and politically. I had the honour of
receiving the following acknowledgment of my endeavours to
elucidate the geography of that river, and the condition of the
princes and people who occupy its banks.
“Delhi, 6 December, 1831.
Conclusion.
“Political Department.
“TO LIEUT. ALEXANDER BURNES,
&c. &c. &c.
“Sir,
“I am directed by the Right Honourable the Governor-
general to acknowledge the receipt of your several letters,
forwarding a memoir on the Indus, and a narrative of your
journey to Lahore.
“2. The first copy of your map of the Indus has also just
reached his Lordship, which completes the information
collected during your mission to Lahore, in charge of the
presents from the late King of England to Maharaja
Runjeet Sing.
“3. The Governor-general, having perused and attentively
considered all these documents, desires me to convey to
you his high approbation of the manner in which you have
acquitted yourself of the important duty assigned to you,
and his acknowledgments for the full and satisfactory
details furnished on all the points in which it was the
desire of government to obtain information.
“4. Your intercourse with the chiefs of Sinde, and the
other Sirdars and persons with whom you were brought
into contact in the course of the voyage up the Indus,
appears to the Governor-general to have been conducted
with extreme prudence and discretion, so as to have left a
favourable impression on all classes, and to have
advanced every possible object, immediate, as connected
with your mission, as well as prospective; for, while your
communications with them were calculated to elicit full
information as to their hopes and wishes, you most
judiciously avoided the assumption of any political
character that might lead to the encouragement of false
and extravagant expectations, or involve you in any of the
passing intrigues. The whole of your conduct and
correspondence with the chiefs of the countries you
passed through in your journey, has the Governor-
general’s entire and unqualified approbation.
“5. In like manner, his Lordship considers you to be
entitled to commendation for the extent of geographical
and general information collected in the voyage, and for
the caution used in procuring it, no less than for the
perspicuous and complete form in which the results have
been submitted for record and consideration. The map
prepared by you forms an addition to the geography of
India of the first utility and importance, and cannot fail to
procure for your labours a high place in this department of
science.
“6. The result of your voyage in the different reports,
memoirs, and maps above acknowledged, will be brought
without delay to the notice of the authorities in England,
under whose orders the mission was, as you are aware,
undertaken. His Lordship doubts not that they will unite
with him in commending the zeal, diligence, and
intelligence displayed by you in the execution of this
service, and will express their satisfaction at the manner in
which their views have been accomplished, and the
objects contemplated in the mission to Lahore fully and
completely attained.
“I have the honour to be, &c.

(Signed) “H. T. Prinsep,

“Secretary to the Governor-general.”

 A
MEMOIR ON THE INDUS,
AND
ITS TRIBUTARY RIVERS
IN
THE PUNJAB.
 NOTICE
REGARDING

THE MAP OF THE INDUS.

A new map of the Indus and Punjab Rivers from the sea to Lahore
seems to require some notice explanatory of its construction, and I
have to offer the following observations on that subject:—
The River Indus, from the southern direction in which it flows in its
progress to the ocean, presents few difficulties to the surveyor, since
an observation of latitude serves to fix the daily progress in the
voyage, and its comparatively straight course admits of easy
delineation. The map rests on a series of observations by the stars. I
should have preferred altitudes of the sun; but, with a people so
suspicious as we encountered, it was impossible to use an
instrument in daylight, and I should have required to halt the fleet
twice to procure equal altitudes, since the sun was south of the
equator during the voyage. Many of the large places, such as Tatta,
Sehwun, Ooch, Mooltan, &c., where we necessarily halted, have
been laid down from a mean of eight or ten stellar observations.
The longitude and general delineations in the curvature of the river
rest on a minute protraction of its turnings, observed with care every
half hour, and sometimes oftener, with the approved compass by
Schmalcalder. The attention given to this important portion of the
undertaking may be imagined, when I state that my field books
exhibit, on an average, twenty bearings each day from sunrise to
sunset. I was early enabled to rate the progress of the boats
through the water, by timing them on a measured line along the
bank, and apportioned the distance to the hours and minutes
accordingly. We could advance, I found, by tracking, or being pulled
by men, at one mile and a half an hour; by gentle and favourable
breezes at two miles, and by violent winds at three miles an hour;
while any great excess or deficiency was pointed out by the latitude
of the halting place.
The base on which the work rests, is the towns of Mandivee and
Curachee: the one a seaport in Cutch, and the point from which the
mission started; the other a harbour in sight of the western mouth
of the Indus, which we saw before entering the river. Mandivee
stands in the latitude of 22° 50´, and Curachee in 24° 56´ north;
while their longitudes are respectively in 69° 34´, and 67° 19´ east,
as fixed, in 1809, from the chronometers of the Sinde mission by
Captain Maxfield.
Assuming these points as correct, the line of coast intermediate to
them has been laid down from my own surveys in Cutch; while that
of Sinde rests on observations of the sun’s altitude at noon and the
boats’ daily progress, determined by heaving the log hourly. We
sailed only during the day, and at all times along shore, often in a
small boat, and were attended by six or eight pilots, who had passed
their lives in the navigation of those parts.
The great difference in the topography of the mouths of the Indus,
from what is shown in all other maps, will no doubt arrest attention;
but it is to be remarked, that I call in question no former survey,
since the river has been hitherto laid down in this part of its course
from native information; and I can bear testimony to the correctness
of such portions of the Indus as were actually traversed by the
mission of 1809. From the jealousy of the Government of Sinde, we
had to pass up and down the coast no less than five times, which
gave ample opportunities to observe it; and I have a strong fact to
adduce in verification of the chart as it now exists. On the third
voyage we ran down so low as the latitude of 20° 30´ N., and were
out of sight of land for six days. At noon, on the last day (17th of
March), while standing on a due northerly course, I found our
latitude to be 23° 50´, or a few miles below that mouth of the river
which I had resolved to enter. I immediately desired the pilots to
steer a north-easterly course for the land. We closed with it at
sunset, a couple of miles above Hujamree, the very mouth of the
Indus I wished to make. At daylight we had had no soundings in fifty
fathoms, at seven a.m. we had bottom at forty-two fathoms, and at
eleven in thirty-four. By two in the afternoon we were in twenty-one
fathoms, and at dusk anchored in twelve feet of water, off Reechel,
having sighted the land at half past four.
In delineating the Delta of the Indus below Tatta, I have not only
had the advantage of sailing by a branch to that city, but
approached it on land by one route, and returned by another. I also
ascended the Pittee, or western mouth of the Indus, for thirty miles.
The opposition experienced from the Sinde Government gave rise to
these variations of route: they long tried to impede our progress; but
the result of their vacillation has happily added to our knowledge of
their country, in a degree which the most sanguine could not have
anticipated. In addition to my own track, I have added that of the
Sinde mission, from Curachee to Hydrabad, and thence to Lueput in
Cutch. My own surveys in Cutch, which extend high up the Koree, or
eastern branch of the Indus, together with every information,
compel me to place the Goonee or Phurraun River (which is the
name for the Koree above Ali bunder), in a more westerly longitude
than in the maps hitherto published. Sindree and Ali bunder lie north
of Nurra in Cutch, so that the river cannot extend so far into the
desert as has been represented.
From Hydrabad upwards, and, I may add, in all parts of the map,
the different towns rest on the latitudes as determined by the
sextant. Most of them are in a higher parallel than in the maps, but
it was satisfactory to find, on reaching Ooch, that the longitude of
that place, as taken from my own protraction, coincides pretty well
with that which has been assigned to it by Mr. Elphinstone’s
surveyors, who must have fixed it from Bhawulpoor. This was not
the case with Bukkur; but, as the latitude of that place was twenty-
two minutes below the true parallel, I have reason to be satisfied
with the result above stated. I likewise found that the Indus receives
the Punjab rivers at Mittun, in the latitude of 28° 55´, instead of 28°
20´ north, as given in the map of the Cabool mission: but no one
can examine that document without acknowledging the unwearied
zeal of its constructor, and wondering that he erred so little when he
visited few of the places, and had his information from such sources.
The Punjab rivers have been laid down on the same principle as the
Indus. The Chenab (Acesines), which has been erroneously styled
Punjnud, after it has gathered the other rivers, is very direct in its
course; but the Ravee (Hydräotes), on the other hand, is most
tortuous, and appears in its present shape after incredible labour for
twenty days spent in its navigation. The latitude of its junction with
the Chenab, and that of the city of Lahore, which stands in 31° 35´
30´´ north, and in 70° 20´ east longitude, have materially assisted
me in the task. I have also placed the confluence of the Jelum, or
Behut (Hydaspes), with the Chenab, twelve miles above the latitude
in which it has hitherto stood. The survey eastward terminates on
the left bank of the Sutledge (Hesudrus), with the British
cantonment of Lodiana, which I find stands in 30° 55´ 30´´ north
latitude. I have used the longitude of the latest and best map, and
placed it in 75° 54´ east.
With the Indus and Punjab Rivers, I have embodied a survey of the
Jaysulmeer country, which was finished in the year 1830, when I
visited Southern Rajpootana with Lieut. James Holland. The province
of Cutch, with the configuration of the Run, rests on my own surveys
made in the years 1825, 1826, 1827, and 1828.[15]
MEMOIR OF THE INDUS.
 CHAPTER I.
A GENERAL VIEW OF THE INDUS.
Inland navigation to There is an uninterrupted navigation from the
Lahore. sea to Lahore. The distance, by the course of
the river, amounts to about a thousand
British miles: the following papers detail its practicability with
minuteness, but not more so, I trust, than the great importance of
the subject deserves. They also describe the state of the countries
and people.
The Indus, when joined by the Punjab rivers,
Depth of water.
never shallows, in the dry season, to less
than fifteen feet, and seldom preserves so
great a breadth as half a mile. The Chenab, or Acesines, has a
medium depth of twelve feet, and the Ravee, or Hydräotes, is about
half the size of that river. These are the minima of soundings on the
voyage; but the usual depth of the three rivers cannot be rated at
less than four, three, and two fathoms. The soundings of each day’s
voyage are shown by the figures on the map.[16]
This extensive inland navigation, open as I
Boats.
have stated it to be, can only be considered
traversable to the boats of the country, which
are flat bottomed, and do not draw more than four feet of water,
when heavily laden. The largest of these carry about seventy-five
tons English: science and capital might improve the build of these
vessels; but in extending our commerce, or in setting on foot a
flotilla, the present model would ever be found most convenient.
Vessels of a sharp build are liable to upset when they run aground
on the sand-banks. Steam-boats could ply, if constructed after the