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Cryptography
Algorithms

A guide to algorithms in blockchain, quantum

cryptography, zero-knowledge protocols, and
homomorphic encryption

Massimo Bertaccini

BIRMINGHAM—MUMBAI
Cryptography Algorithms
Copyright © 2022 Packt Publishing

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the publisher,
except in the case of brief quotations embedded in critical articles or reviews.
Every effort has been made in the preparation of this book to ensure the accuracy of the
information presented. However, the information contained in this book is sold without warranty,
either express or implied. Neither the author, nor Packt Publishing or its dealers and distributors,
will be held liable for any damages caused or alleged to have been caused directly or indirectly
by this book.
Packt Publishing has endeavored to provide trademark information about all of the companies
and products mentioned in this book by the appropriate use of capitals. However, Packt Publishing
cannot guarantee the accuracy of this information.

Group Product Manager: Vijin Boricha

Publishing Product Manager: Yogesh Deokar
Senior Editor: Arun Nadar
Content Development Editor: Sayali Pingale
Technical Editor: Nithik Cheruvakodan
Copy Editor: Safis Editing
Project Manager: Vaidehi Sawant
Proofreader: Safis Editing
Indexer: Vinayak Purushotham
Production Designer: Prashant Ghare
Marketing Co-Ordinator: Nimisha Dua

First published: January 2022

Production reference: 1190122

Published by Packt Publishing Ltd.

Livery Place
35 Livery Street
Birmingham
B3 2PB, UK.

978-1-78961-713-9
www.packt.com
To my mom, Nadia, and my dad, Domenico, for their sacrifices
and giving me the opportunity to learn and grow.
To my "soulmate" Elaine for her support.
– Massimo Bertaccini
 Contributors
About the author
Massimo Bertaccini is a researcher and principal scientist, CEO, and co-founder
of Cryptolab Inc.
His career started as a professor of mathematics and statistics. Then, he founded
Cryptolab, a start-up in the field of cryptography solutions for cybersecurity. With his
team of engineers, he projected and implemented the first search engine in the world that
is able to work with encrypted data.
He has obtained several international prizes and awards, including the Silicon Valley
inventors award and the Seal of Excellence from the EU.
Currently, he teaches mathematical models at EMUNI University as a contract
professor and has published many articles in the field of cryptography, cybersecurity,
and blockchain.

– At the outset, I would like to thank Yogesh Deokar (product manager)

who approached me at the start and has supported me throughout the
entire writing process. I would also like to extend my gratitude towards
Vaidehi Sawant (project manager) and Arun Nadar (editor) for their
dedication and constant support that helped me write this book smoothly
from start to finish. I'd like to thank Sayali Pingale for her contribution to
this book. Also, thanks to the technical reviewer, Brian Wu, for his help in
validating the technical aspects. Finally, I would like to thank Alessandro
Passerini, Tiziana Landi, Terenzio Carapanzano, Yi Jing Gu, Paul Hager
for their constant support, and especially Gerardo Iovane, who has shared
some of the most brilliant mathematical ideas with me.
About the reviewer
Xun (Brian) Wu is a senior blockchain architect and consultant. He has written eight
books on popular fields within blockchain, such as Hyperledger and Ethereum (from
beginning to advanced), published by O'Reilly and Packt. Brian has 18+ years of hands-on
experience across various technologies, including blockchain, big data, the cloud, systems,
and infrastructure UI. He has worked on more than 50 projects in his career.
 Table of Contents

Preface

Section 1: A Brief History and Outline

of Cryptography
1
Deep Diving into Cryptography
An introduction to cryptography  4 Rosetta Stone 14
Binary numbers, ASCII code, and Caesar cipher 15
notations7 ROT1318
Fermat's Last Theorem, prime The Beale cipher 19
numbers, and modular mathematics  9 The Vernam cipher 26

A brief history and a panoramic Notes on security and

overview of cryptographic computation29
algorithms14 Summary32

Section 2: Classical Cryptography

(Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption)
2
Introduction to Symmetric Encryption
Notations and operations in Triple DES  61
Boolean logic  38 DESX62
DES algorithms 44
Simple DES 44
DES50
viii Table of Contents

AES Rijndael 63 Summary74

Description of AES 64
Attacks and vulnerabilities in AES 68

3
Asymmetric Encryption
Introduction to asymmetric RSA  86
encryption76 Explaining RSA  88
The pioneers 77 Analyzing RSA 89
Conventional attacks on the algorithm 90
The Diffie-Hellman algorithm 78
The application of RSA to verify
The discrete logarithm 80 international treaties 92
Explaining the D-H algorithm 82 Unconventional attacks 94
Analyzing the algorithm 83
Possible attacks and cryptanalysis on PGP97
the D-H algorithm 84 The ElGamal algorithm 98
Summary101

4
Introducing Hash Functions and Digital Signatures
A basic explanation of hash Authentication and digital
functions104 signatures  120
Overview of the main hash RSA digital signatures 122
algorithms107 Digital signatures with the
Logic and notations to implement ElGamal algorithm 127
hash functions 109 Blind signatures 130
Explanation of the SHA-1 algorithm 113
Summary134
Notes and example on SHA-1 117
 Table of Contents ix

Section 3: New Cryptography Algorithms

and Protocols
5
Introduction to Zero-Knowledge Protocols
The main scenario of a ZKP – Zk-SNARKs in Zcash cryptocurrency  157
the digital cave 139 One-round ZKP  163
Non-interactive ZKPs  140 ZK13 – a ZKP for authentication and
Schnorr's interactive ZKP  146 key exchange 167
An introduction to zk-SNARKs – spooky
Summary173
moon math 151

6
New Algorithms in Public/Private Key Cryptography
The genesis of the MB09 A direct signature method in MBXI 207
algorithm  177 The appendix signature method
Introducing the MB09 with MBXI 209
algorithm181 A mathematical demonstration of the
MBXI digital signature algorithm 210
An explanation of MB09  184
The evolution of MB09
Introducing the MBXI algorithm191
and MBXI – an introduction
A numerical example of MBXI 194 to MBXX  213
Unconventional attacks on RSA 197 An explanation of the MBXX protocol 217

Digital signatures on MBXI 205 Summary223

7
Elliptic Curves
An overview of elliptic curves 226 Implementing the D-H
Operations on elliptic curves 226 algorithm on elliptic curves  235
Scalar multiplication 232
x Table of Contents

Elliptic curve secp256k1 – the Attacks on EDCSA and the

Bitcoin digital signature 240 security of elliptic curves  249
Step one – generating keys  242 Step one – discovering the random
Step two – performing the digital key, [k] 250
signature in secp256k1 243 Step two – recovering the private
Step three – verifying the key, [d] 251
digital signature 244
Considerations about the
A numerical exercise on future of ECC 253
a digital signature on Summary253
secp256k1244

8
Quantum Cryptography
Introduction to Q-Mechanics Analysis attack and technical
and Q-Cryptography 256 issues  273
An imaginary experiment to Quantum computing 277
understand the elements of Shor's algorithm  280
Q-Mechanics 258 Step 1 – Initializing the qubits 281
Step 1 – Superposition 258 Step 2 – Choosing the random
Step 2 – The indetermination process 261 number, a 282
Step 3 – Spin and entanglement 262 Step 3 – Quantum measurement 284
Step 4 – Finding the right candidate, (r) 285
Q-Cryptography 265
Quantum key distribution – Quantum Fourier Transform 286
BB84268 Step 5 – Factorizing (n) 290
Step 1 – Initializing the quantum Notes on Shor's algorithm  290
channel270
Step 2 – Transmitting the photons  270 Post-Q-Cryptography  291
Step 3 – Determining the shared key 271 Summary292
 Table of Contents xi

Section 4: Homomorphic Encryption and the

Crypto Search Engine
9
Crypto Search Engine
Introduction to CSE – Hash and Boolean logic 315
homomorphism298 CSE explained 316
Partial homomorphism in RSA 301 The innovation in CSE 318
Analysis of homomorphic Computational analysis on CSE  321
encryption and its implications 304 Example of computational
Math and logic behind search engines  306 brute-force cracking 324

Introduction to trees – graph Applications of CSE 326

theory  310 Summary328
Huffman code 312
Index
Other Books You May Enjoy
 Preface
In this age of extremely high connectivity, cloud computing, ransomware, and hackers,
digital assets are changing the way we live our lives, so cryptography and cybersecurity
are crucial.
The changes in processing and storing data has required adequate evolution in
cryptographic algorithms to advance in the eternal battle against information piracy.
This book is a good tool for students and professionals who want to focus on the next
generation of cryptography algorithms.
Starting from the basics of symmetric and asymmetric algorithms, the book describes all
the modern techniques of authentication, transmission, and searching on encrypted data
to shelter from spies and hackers. You'll encounter Evolute algorithms with zero
knowledge, consensus on the blockchain, elliptic curves, quantum cryptography, and
homomorphic search.
The book even gives some focus to attacks and cryptoanalysis of the main algorithms
adopted in computer science. The main purpose of this book is to train you to deeply
understand this complex topic. Indeed, particular attention has been paid to present
examples and suggestions are given to help you better understand the concepts.

Who this book is for

This hands-on cryptography book is for students, IT professionals, cybersecurity
enthusiasts, or anyone who wants to develop their skills in modern cryptography and
build a successful cybersecurity career. Working knowledge of beginner-level algebra and
finite fields theory is required.
xiv Preface

What this book covers

Chapter 1, Deep Diving into Cryptography Landscape, gives an introduction to
cryptography, what it is needed for, and why it is so important in IT. This chapter also
provides a panoramic view of the principal algorithms in the history of cryptography.
Chapter 2, Introduction to Symmetric Encryption, analyzes symmetric encryption.
We will focus on algorithms such as DES, AES and Boolean Logic, which are widely used
to implement cybersystems. Finally, we will showcase attacks to these algorithms.
Chapter 3, Asymmetric Encryption, analyzes the classical asymmetric encryption
algorithms, such as RSA and Diffie–Hellman, and the main algorithms in private/public
key encryption.
Chapter 4, Introducing Hash Functions and Digital Signatures, focuses on hash functions
such as SHA-1 and looks at digital signatures, which are one of the pillars of modern
cryptography. We will look at the most important and famous signatures and blind
signatures (a particular case of anonymous signatures).
Chapter 5, Introduction to Zero-Knowledge Protocols, looks at zero-knowledge protocols,
which are one of the new fundamental encryption protocols for the new economy of
the blockchain. They are very useful for authenticating humans and machines without
exposing any sensitive data in an unsafe channel of communication. New protocols, such
as zk-SNARK, used in the blockchain are based on these algorithms. Finally, we will
present Z/K13, a new protocol in zero knowledge, invented by the author.
Chapter 6, New Algorithms in Public/Private Key Cryptography, presents three algorithms
invented by the author. MB09 is based on Fermat's Last Theorem. MB11 could be an
alternative to RSA. Digital signatures related to these algorithms are also presented.
Moreover we will present MBXX, a new protocol, invented by the author used
for consensus.
Chapter 7, Elliptic Curves, looks at elliptic curves, which are the new frontier for
decentralized finance. Satoshi Nakamoto adopted a particular kind of elliptic curve to
implement the transmission of digital currency in Bitcoins called SECP256K1. Let's see
how it works and what the main characteristics of this very robust encryption are.
Chapter 8, Quantum Cryptography, looks at how, with the advent of quantum computing,
most of the algorithms we have explored until now will be under serious threat of
brute-force attacks. One possible solution is Quantum Cryptography (Q-Cryptography).
It is one of the most exhilarating and fantastic kinds of encryption that the human mind
has invented. Q-Cryptography is only at the beginning but will be widely adopted in
a short time.
Other documents randomly have
different content
Barlow felt a nervous shock that was almost electrical. He stiffened
spasmodically. He suddenly felt a hundred times stronger than he
had been, and felt a stinging contempt for the sheep around him.
Rage welled into his mind like a hot acid burning away all but the
desire to fight and kill.
As through a red haze he saw Valnar collapse limply to the ground.
But the other prisoners were standing rigidly, faces twisted with hate.
He leaped forward.
"Come on, you yellow-bellied cowards! What the hell does it matter if
they have all the guns? Maybe we can get a couple of them
anyway!"
A hoarse roar of approval came from the throats of those behind
him. Laurine was at his side and they were running toward the group
of rulers. And behind came the others of the Organization, a blood-
hungry, hateful rabble. Unfearful of death and desiring only to tear
the flesh of the Director's men from their bodies.
Then a volley from the massed guards struck into them. Barlow felt
something strike him on the side. He staggered and almost fell as a
burning thread of agony lanced through his body. But the rage
upheld him, made him fight on.
Others passed him. Laurine ran ahead. He fell to the ground, then
fought his way to his hands and knees and crawled toward Dodson
and his subordinates. He saw Laurine leap at the men at the
projector. They went to the ground, fighting and kicking in utter
disregard of all rules.
The bullets of the guards were dropping men and women all around
him. Many struggled up to fight their way onward, but many stayed
down.
Barlow reached the projector, grasped the tripod to lift himself up. He
saw dimly that Dodson and his officers were clamoring at the gate to
be freed from the bloody courtyard, but the portals had been closed
to retain the prisoners and now did as well for the Director.
Weakly, Barlow turned the projector around. He had to lean over it to
stay up, but he threw its beam over those at the gate. They went
down like dead men, slow and easily. Then the guards, then....
The rage was leaving him. Blackness was closing in around his
mind. He sagged over the projector, and dragged it to the ground
with him.

The blackness around his mind first parted to allow a tiny pricking of
pain to dart into his mind. Then, as though the neural dams had
broken, agony came. He twisted to escape it, and from far away a
voice spoke soothingly.
The agony faded slowly and he became conscious of light. He saw a
white-garbed figure near him. The face was pretty and feminine, and
in the woman's hand was a hypodermic syringe. His mind cleared
slowly and he saw more clearly. He was in a hospital.
He turned and saw Laurine and Valnar standing at the other side of
the bed. Laurine's hand was bandaged and her face scratched but
otherwise she seemed uninjured. She smiled at him.
"That was close," said Valnar and Barlow looked at him. The strange
man had entirely recovered his good humor and confidence. Barlow
saw that he was again wearing the plaque.
"Did we all go crazy?" Barlow asked.
"Just a bit more than usual," Valnar grinned. "I got to thinking about
what you told me about the Unamenables, and came to the
conclusion that the Mental Ray only controlled the average person.
Those who varied from the norm, either above or below, were
affected differently. To them it was an irritant. Haven't you ever
thought it odd that all the Unamenables fought Dodson?
"So when we were captured because the warden reported our visit, I
agreed to help Dodson. He had scientists, anyway. They sure
blanked the projector that night. Dodson wanted me to make the
projector deadly. I did, then Dodson was quite amused when I
suggested that he try it out on you Unamenables. But instead of
killing you, it aroused you to intense activity. The only thing that went
wrong was that Dodson crossed me, and the ray was too strong for
me to compensate. I was laid out cold."
"We've won, Joel," Laurine interrupted. "Dodson is dead. And we've
released all the members from the prisons, and destroyed the
transmitters."
"Yeah," agreed Valnar. "My job here is done, so I'll be getting along. I
want to kill Dodson again, this time personally."
Barlow forced Laurine to sit on the edge of the bed. Then held her
hand to make sure that she stayed there, and faced Valnar.
"Why don't you stay here?" he asked.
Valnar shook his head. "I got to see about getting home," he said,
starting to go. "So long."
"Wait!" called Barlow. "Where are you going this time?" he asked
when Valnar halted. "All the way back to the beginning?"
"I've already been there," said Valnar. "That was my first trip. I had a
car then, but the elemental chaos ruined it and I was barely able to
get away in time."
A sudden thought struck Barlow. He grinned at Valnar.
Valnar frowned and demanded, "Well?"
"Remember your simile of time to a growing tree with a lot of
branches?"
Valnar nodded and waited.
"And remember how you said that you were creating new branches
every time you stopped?"
"Uh-huh," Valnar grunted impatiently.
"Well, I'll bet you haven't been sliding up and down the branches of
that tree at all. You've been leaping from one to another like a
monkey. And you weren't in your own past before you started, so you
can't be now. You aren't in your own time at all. When you leaped
back to elemental chaos, you planted this tree. You're climbing
around the wrong tree, fella."
Valnar started, then stared. "I guess I'll stay here for a while after all,"
he muttered as he turned and went out.
Laurine was watching Barlow. "You were trying to sell him something
then," she accused.
"Sure," he admitted easily. "Think of the world-limb we can build if he
stays with us." He laughed and drew her face down to his.
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