Introduction

The classical model of the atom, based on the Bohr model, was revolutionary
in its time but had significant limitations. The quantum mechanical model,
developed in the early 20th century, provides a more accurate and
comprehensive description of the atom and its electronic structure. This
model is based on the principles of quantum mechanics, which describe the
behavior of particles on an atomic and subatomic scale.

Key Concepts

1. Wave-Particle Duality

 Wave-Particle Duality: Proposed by Louis de Broglie, this principle

suggests that particles, such as electrons, exhibit both wave-like and
particle-like properties.

 De Broglie Wavelength: The wavelength associated with a particle is

given by λ = h/p, where h is Planck's constant and p is the momentum
of the particle.

2. Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

 Uncertainty Principle: Formulated by Werner Heisenberg, it states

that it is impossible to simultaneously know the exact position and
momentum of a particle. The more precisely one is known, the less
precisely the other can be known. Mathematically, Δx * Δp ≥ ħ/2,
where Δx is the uncertainty in position, Δp is the uncertainty in
momentum, and ħ is the reduced Planck's constant.

3. Schrödinger Equation

 Schrödinger Equation: A fundamental equation in quantum

mechanics that describes how the quantum state of a physical system
changes over time. In its time-independent form, it is given by: [ \
hat{H} \psi = E \psi ] where (\hat{H}) is the Hamiltonian operator, (\
psi) is the wave function, and (E) is the energy of the system.

 Wave Function ((\psi)): A mathematical function that describes the

quantum state of a particle and contains all the information about the
system. The square of the wave function, (|\psi|^2), represents the
probability density of finding the particle at a given point in space.

4. Quantum Numbers
Quantum numbers describe the properties of atomic orbitals and the
properties of electrons in orbitals. There are four quantum numbers:

 Principal Quantum Number (n): Indicates the main energy level

occupied by the electron. It is a positive integer (n = 1, 2, 3, ...).

 Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l): Describes the shape of

the orbital. It can take on integer values from 0 to (n-1). Each value of
(l) corresponds to a specific type of orbital (s, p, d, f, ...).

 Magnetic Quantum Number (m_l): Describes the orientation of the

orbital in space. It can take on integer values from -l to +l.

 Spin Quantum Number (m_s): Describes the spin of the electron. It

can take on values of +1/2 or -1/2.

5. Atomic Orbitals

 s Orbitals: Spherical in shape, centered around the nucleus. Each

energy level contains one s orbital.

 p Orbitals: Dumbbell-shaped, oriented along the x, y, and z axes.

Each energy level from n=2 and above contains three p orbitals.

 d Orbitals: More complex shapes, with five d orbitals per energy level
from n=3 and above.

 f Orbitals: Even more complex shapes, with seven f orbitals per

energy level from n=4 and above.

6. Electron Configuration

 Pauli Exclusion Principle: No two electrons in an atom can have the

same set of four quantum numbers. This principle explains why
electrons fill available orbitals in a specific manner.

 Aufbau Principle: Electrons fill orbitals starting with the lowest

energy level before moving to higher levels.

 Hund's Rule: Electrons will fill degenerate orbitals (orbitals with the
same energy) singly before pairing up.

7. Energy Levels and Sublevels

 Energy Levels: Defined by the principal quantum number (n). Higher

values of n correspond to higher energy levels.
  Sublevels: Within each energy level, there are sublevels
corresponding to different values of the angular momentum quantum
number (l). Each sublevel consists of orbitals that can hold a specific
number of electrons.

Lecture Notes: Periodicity

Introduction

Periodicity refers to the recurring trends that are observed in the properties
of elements as one moves across different periods and down various groups
in the periodic table. The periodic table, developed by Dmitri Mendeleev and
later refined by others, organizes elements based on their atomic number
and recurring chemical properties. Understanding periodic trends is crucial
for predicting the behavior of elements and their compounds.

Key Concepts

1. The Periodic Table

 Periods and Groups:

 Periods: Horizontal rows in the periodic table. Elements in the

same period have the same number of electron shells.

 Groups: Vertical columns in the periodic table. Elements in the

same group have similar chemical properties and the same
number of valence electrons.

2. Atomic Radius

 Definition: The atomic radius is the distance from the nucleus of an

atom to the outermost electron shell.

 Trend Across a Period: The atomic radius decreases from left to right
across a period. This is due to the increasing nuclear charge, which
pulls the electrons closer to the nucleus.

 Trend Down a Group: The atomic radius increases down a group.

This is because additional electron shells are added, increasing the
distance between the nucleus and the outermost electrons.

3. Ionization Energy
  Definition: Ionization energy is the energy required to remove an
electron from a gaseous atom or ion.

 Trend Across a Period: Ionization energy increases from left to right

across a period. The increasing nuclear charge makes it more difficult
to remove an electron.

 Trend Down a Group: Ionization energy decreases down a group. The

increasing distance from the nucleus and the shielding effect of inner
electrons make it easier to remove an electron.

4. Electron Affinity

 Definition: Electron affinity is the energy change that occurs when an

electron is added to a gaseous atom or ion.

 Trend Across a Period: Electron affinity generally becomes more

negative from left to right across a period. Elements on the right side
of the periodic table (excluding noble gases) are more likely to gain
electrons to achieve a stable octet.

 Trend Down a Group: Electron affinity generally becomes less

negative down a group. The added electron is further from the nucleus
and experiences more shielding from inner electrons.

5. Electronegativity

 Definition: Electronegativity is a measure of an atom's ability to

attract and bind with electrons.

 Trend Across a Period: Electronegativity increases from left to right

across a period. Atoms with higher nuclear charge more strongly
attract bonding electrons.

 Trend Down a Group: Electronegativity decreases down a group. The

increased distance between the nucleus and the valence electrons
reduces the attraction for bonding electrons.

6. Metallic and Non-Metallic Character

 Metallic Character:

 Trend Across a Period: Metallic character decreases from left

to right across a period. Elements on the left are metals, which
are typically good conductors of heat and electricity, malleable,
and ductile.
  Trend Down a Group: Metallic character increases down a
group. Elements become more likely to lose electrons and form
positive ions.

 Non-Metallic Character:

 Trend Across a Period: Non-metallic character increases from

left to right across a period. Non-metals are typically poor
conductors of heat and electricity and are more likely to gain
electrons.

 Trend Down a Group: Non-metallic character decreases down a

group.

7. Reactivity

 Reactivity of Metals:

 Trend Across a Period: Reactivity of metals decreases from left

to right across a period. Metals on the left side are more reactive
because they more readily lose electrons.

 Trend Down a Group: Reactivity of metals increases down a

group. The ease of losing electrons increases with the addition of
electron shells.

 Reactivity of Non-Metals:

 Trend Across a Period: Reactivity of non-metals increases from

left to right across a period (excluding noble gases). Non-metals
on the right side readily gain electrons.

 Trend Down a Group: Reactivity of non-metals decreases down

a group. The increased distance from the nucleus makes it
harder to gain electrons.

8. Summary of Periodic Trends

 Across a Period (Left to Right):

 Atomic Radius: Decreases

 Ionization Energy: Increases

 Electron Affinity: Becomes more negative

 Electronegativity: Increases
  Metallic Character: Decreases

 Non-Metallic Character: Increases

 Reactivity of Metals: Decreases

 Reactivity of Non-Metals: Increases

 Down a Group (Top to Bottom):

 Atomic Radius: Increases

 Ionization Energy: Decreases

 Electron Affinity: Becomes less negative

 Electronegativity: Decreases

 Metallic Character: Increases

 Non-Metallic Character: Decreases

 Reactivity of Metals: Increases

 Reactivity of Non-Metals: Decreases

Lecture 3: Chemical Bonding

Chemical bonding is the force that holds atoms together in compounds.

Understanding chemical bonding is fundamental to comprehending the
structure, properties, and behavior of matter. There are three primary types
of chemical bonds: ionic, covalent, and metallic. Each type of bond arises
from different interactions between atoms and results in distinct properties
for the resulting compounds.

Key Concepts

1. Types of Chemical Bonds

Ionic Bonds

 Definition: Ionic bonds are formed through the electrostatic attraction

between oppositely charged ions, usually between a metal and a non-
metal.

 Formation: Electrons are transferred from the metal to the non-metal,

resulting in the formation of cations (positively charged ions) and
anions (negatively charged ions).

 Properties:
  High melting and boiling points

 Conduct electricity when molten or dissolved in water

 Typically form crystalline solids

 Example: Sodium chloride (NaCl), where sodium (Na) transfers an

electron to chlorine (Cl).

Covalent Bonds

 Definition: Covalent bonds are formed by the sharing of electron pairs

between atoms, usually between non-metals.

 Formation: Atoms share electrons to achieve a stable electron

configuration, often described by the octet rule.

 Types:

 Single Covalent Bonds: Involve one pair of shared electrons

(e.g., H₂).

 Double Covalent Bonds: Involve two pairs of shared electrons

(e.g., O₂).

 Triple Covalent Bonds: Involve three pairs of shared electrons

(e.g., N₂).

 Properties:

 Lower melting and boiling points compared to ionic compounds

 Poor electrical conductivity

 Can form molecules or network structures

 Example: Water (H₂O), where each hydrogen atom shares an electron

with the oxygen atom.

Metallic Bonds

 Definition: Metallic bonds are formed by the attraction between free-

floating valence electrons and positively charged metal ions.

 Formation: Electrons are delocalized and shared among a lattice of

metal atoms, creating a "sea of electrons."

 Properties:

 High electrical and thermal conductivity

  Malleability and ductility

 Lustrous appearance

 Example: Copper (Cu), where electrons move freely around a lattice of

copper ions.

2. Electronegativity and Bond Polarity

 Electronegativity: A measure of an atom's ability to attract and hold

electrons in a bond. It increases across a period and decreases down a
group in the periodic table.

 Bond Polarity:

 Nonpolar Covalent Bonds: Electrons are shared equally

between atoms with similar electronegativities (e.g., H₂).

 Polar Covalent Bonds: Electrons are shared unequally between

atoms with different electronegativities, resulting in a dipole
moment (e.g., H₂O).

 Ionic Bonds: Formed between atoms with a large difference in

electronegativity, resulting in electron transfer (e.g., NaCl).

3. Lewis Structures and VSEPR Theory

 Lewis Structures: Diagrams that show the bonding between atoms

and the lone pairs of electrons in a molecule.

 Steps to Draw Lewis Structures:

a. Count the total number of valence electrons.

b. Draw the skeletal structure of the molecule.

c. Distribute electrons to satisfy the octet rule (or duet rule

for hydrogen).

d. Place any remaining electrons on the central atom.

 VSEPR Theory (Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion): A model

used to predict the shape of molecules based on the repulsion between
electron pairs around a central atom.

 Common Molecular Geometries:

 Linear (e.g., CO₂)

  Trigonal planar (e.g., BF₃)

 Tetrahedral (e.g., CH₄)

 Trigonal bipyramidal (e.g., PCl₅)

 Octahedral (e.g., SF₆)

4. Intermolecular Forces

 Definition: Forces of attraction or repulsion between molecules,

influencing the physical properties of substances.

 Types:

 London Dispersion Forces: Weak forces resulting from

temporary dipoles in molecules.

 Dipole-Dipole Interactions: Attractions between polar

molecules with permanent dipoles.

 Hydrogen Bonds: Strong dipole-dipole interactions occurring

when hydrogen is bonded to highly electronegative atoms (N, O,
F).

5. Bond Energy and Bond Length

 Bond Energy: The energy required to break one mole of a bond in a

gaseous substance. Higher bond energy indicates a stronger bond.

 Bond Length: The average distance between the nuclei of two

bonded atoms. Shorter bond lengths typically correspond to stronger
bonds.

Lecture Notes 4: Properties of Molecular Covalent Compounds in

Relation to Their Structure

Introduction

Molecular covalent compounds are formed by the sharing of electron pairs

between atoms, resulting in discrete molecules. The properties of these
compounds are closely related to their molecular structures and the types of
intermolecular forces present. Understanding these relationships helps in
predicting the behavior and characteristics of covalent compounds.

Key Properties and Their Relation to Structure

1. Melting and Boiling Points

  Low Melting and Boiling Points:

 Explanation: Molecular covalent compounds generally have low

melting and boiling points compared to ionic and metallic
compounds.

 Reason: The intermolecular forces (such as London dispersion

forces, dipole-dipole interactions, and hydrogen bonds) holding
the molecules together are relatively weak compared to the
strong ionic or metallic bonds.

 Example: Water (H₂O) has a relatively low boiling point of

100°C, and methane (CH₄) has a boiling point of -161.5°C.

2. Electrical Conductivity

 Poor Electrical Conductivity:

 Explanation: Molecular covalent compounds are generally poor

conductors of electricity in both solid and liquid states.

 Reason: These compounds do not have free ions or electrons to

carry an electric current. The electrons are localized in covalent
bonds or lone pairs.

 Example: Sugar (C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁) and sulfur dioxide (SO₂) are non-

conductive in their molecular forms.

3. Solubility

 Solubility in Polar and Non-Polar Solvents:

 Explanation: The solubility of molecular covalent compounds

depends on the polarity of the molecules and the solvent.

 Reason:

 Polar Molecules: Tend to dissolve in polar solvents (like

water) due to dipole-dipole interactions and hydrogen
bonding.

 Non-Polar Molecules: Tend to dissolve in non-polar

solvents (like hexane) due to London dispersion forces.

 Example:

 Polar: Ethanol (C₂H₅OH) is soluble in water.

  Non-Polar: Hexane (C₆H₁₄) is soluble in benzene.

4. Volatility

 High Volatility:

 Explanation: Many molecular covalent compounds are volatile

and can easily vaporize at room temperature.

 Reason: The weak intermolecular forces require less energy to

overcome, allowing molecules to escape into the gas phase.

 Example: Acetone (C₃H₆O) is highly volatile and evaporates

quickly.

5. Physical State at Room Temperature

 Varied Physical States:

 Explanation: Molecular covalent compounds can exist as gases,

liquids, or solids at room temperature.

 Reason: The physical state depends on the strength of the

intermolecular forces and the molecular weight.

 Example:

 Gases: Oxygen (O₂) and nitrogen (N₂)

 Liquids: Water (H₂O) and ethanol (C₂H₅OH)

 Solids: Iodine (I₂) and dry ice (solid CO₂)

6. Molecular Geometry and Shape

 Determined by VSEPR Theory:

 Explanation: The shape of a molecule is determined by the

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory, which
predicts the arrangement of electron pairs around the central
atom to minimize repulsion.

 Reason: The molecular geometry affects the physical and

chemical properties of the compound, including polarity,
reactivity, and interactions with other molecules.

 Example:

 Tetrahedral: Methane (CH₄)

  Bent: Water (H₂O)

 Trigonal Planar: Boron trifluoride (BF₃)

7. Intermolecular Forces

 Types of Intermolecular Forces:

 London Dispersion Forces (Van der Waals Forces): Present

in all molecules, especially significant in non-polar molecules.
These forces are weak and arise from temporary dipoles.

 Dipole-Dipole Interactions: Occur between polar molecules

with permanent dipoles. These forces are stronger than London
dispersion forces.

 Hydrogen Bonds: A special type of dipole-dipole interaction

that occurs when hydrogen is bonded to highly electronegative
atoms like nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine. These are the strongest
type of intermolecular forces in molecular covalent compounds.

 Example:

 London Dispersion Forces: Present in non-polar molecules

like methane (CH₄).

 Dipole-Dipole Interactions: Present in polar molecules like

hydrogen chloride (HCl).

 Hydrogen Bonds: Present in water (H₂O) and ammonia

(NH₃).

8. Reactivity

 Depends on Molecular Structure:

 Explanation: The reactivity of molecular covalent compounds is

influenced by their molecular structure and the presence of
functional groups.

 Reason: Specific arrangements of atoms and the types of bonds

within a molecule can make it more or less reactive.

 Example:

 Alcohols (R-OH) are more reactive than alkanes (R-H) due

to the presence of the hydroxyl group.
  Alkenes (C=C) are more reactive than alkanes (C-C) due to
the presence of the double bond.

Lecture Notes 5: Organic Compounds

Introduction

Organic compounds are a vast and diverse group of chemical compounds

that contain carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and other
elements. The study of organic compounds is known as organic chemistry,
which is central to understanding the chemistry of life, as well as many
industrial and environmental processes.

Key Concepts

1. Definition and Characteristics of Organic Compounds

 Organic Compounds: Molecules primarily composed of carbon and

hydrogen atoms, often containing other elements such as oxygen,
nitrogen, sulfur, and halogens.

 Characteristics:

 Covalent Bonding: Organic compounds are primarily held

together by covalent bonds.

 Diversity and Complexity: Carbon atoms can form long

chains, branched structures, and rings, leading to a vast array of
molecular architectures.

 Functional Groups: Specific groups of atoms within molecules

that have characteristic properties and reactivity.

2. Classification of Organic Compounds

Organic compounds can be classified based on their functional groups and

structures:

Hydrocarbons

 Alkanes: Saturated hydrocarbons with single bonds (C-C). General

formula: CₙH₂ₙ₊₂.

 Example: Methane (CH₄), Ethane (C₂H₆).

 Alkenes: Unsaturated hydrocarbons with one or more double bonds

(C=C). General formula: CₙH₂ₙ.
  Example: Ethene (C₂H₄), Propene (C₃H₆).

 Alkynes: Unsaturated hydrocarbons with one or more triple bonds

(C≡C). General formula: CₙH₂ₙ₋₂.

 Example: Ethyne (C₂H₂), Propyne (C₃H₄).

 Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Compounds containing benzene rings or

similar structures.

 Example: Benzene (C₆H₆), Toluene (C₇H₈).

Functional Groups

 Alcohols: Contain a hydroxyl group (-OH).

 Example: Ethanol (C₂H₅OH), Methanol (CH₃OH).

 Aldehydes: Contain a carbonyl group (C=O) with at least one

hydrogen attached.

 Example: Formaldehyde (CH₂O), Acetaldehyde (C₂H₄O).

 Ketones: Contain a carbonyl group (C=O) with two carbon atoms

attached.

 Example: Acetone (C₃H₆O), Butanone (C₄H₈O).

 Carboxylic Acids: Contain a carboxyl group (-COOH).

 Example: Acetic acid (CH₃COOH), Formic acid (HCOOH).

 Esters: Formed from the reaction of a carboxylic acid and an alcohol,

containing an ester group (-COO-).

 Example: Ethyl acetate (CH₃COOCH₂CH₃), Methyl methanoate

(HCOOCH₃).

 Amines: Contain an amino group (-NH₂, -NHR, or -NR₂).

 Example: Methylamine (CH₃NH₂), Aniline (C₆H₅NH₂).

 Amides: Contain a carbonyl group (C=O) bonded to a nitrogen atom.

 Example: Acetamide (CH₃CONH₂), Benzamide (C₆H₅CONH₂).

3. Nomenclature of Organic Compounds

 IUPAC System: The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

(IUPAC) provides standardized rules for naming organic compounds.
  Basic Rules:

 Identify the Longest Carbon Chain: This chain determines

the base name (e.g., methane, ethane, propane).

 Number the Chain: Assign numbers to the carbon atoms in the

chain, starting from the end nearest a substituent.

 Identify and Name Substituents: Groups attached to the

main chain are named and their positions indicated by the
carbon number.

 Assemble the Name: Combine the names of the substituents

with the base name, using prefixes and suffixes as needed.

 Example: 2,3-dimethylbutane (a four-carbon chain with two

methyl groups attached at positions 2 and 3).

4. Isomerism

 Structural Isomers: Compounds with the same molecular formula

but different structural arrangements.

 Example: Butane (C₄H₁₀) and isobutane (C₄H₁₀).

 Geometric Isomers: Compounds with the same molecular formula

and connectivity but different spatial arrangements due to restricted
rotation around double bonds or rings.

 Example: cis-2-butene and trans-2-butene.

 Optical Isomers (Enantiomers): Compounds that are non-

superimposable mirror images of each other, often due to the presence
of a chiral center.

 Example: Lactic acid (L-lactic acid and D-lactic acid).

5. Properties and Uses of Organic Compounds

 Physical Properties:

 Boiling and Melting Points: Depend on molecular weight,

intermolecular forces, and structure.

 Solubility: Polar organic compounds tend to be soluble in polar

solvents, while non-polar compounds are soluble in non-polar
solvents.
  Density and Viscosity: Vary with molecular structure and
intermolecular interactions.

 Chemical Properties:

 Reactivity: Influenced by functional groups and molecular

structure. Common reactions include substitution, addition,
elimination, and oxidation-reduction.

 Stability: Depends on factors such as bond strength, resonance,

and the presence of stabilizing functional groups.

 Uses:

 Pharmaceuticals: Organic compounds form the basis of many

drugs (e.g., aspirin, penicillin).

 Polymers: Synthetic polymers like polyethylene and polystyrene

are made from organic monomers.

 Fuels: Hydrocarbons such as gasoline, diesel, and natural gas

are primary energy sources.

 Agriculture: Pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers often contain

organic compounds.

 Consumer Products: Cosmetics, detergents, and plastics are

all derived from organic chemistry.