Optical Fiber Communication-Unit 1

OVERVIEW: Introduction, optical spectrum, advantages, disadvantages, and applications,

Principle of Optical Propagation and Fiber Structure: Ray theory, numerical aperture, optical
fibre waveguides, single mode fibre, graded index fiber, cut off wave length, mode filed
diameter. Optical Fibres: fibre materials, photonic crystal, fibre optic cables, specialty fibres.

INTRODUCTION : Fiber-optic communication is a method of transmitting information from

one place to another by sending pulses of infrared or visible light through an optical fiber. The
light is a form of carrier wave that is modulated to carry information. Fiber is preferred over
electrical cabling when high bandwidth, long distance, or immunity to electromagnetic
interference is required. This type of communication can transmit voice, video, and telemetry
through local area networks or across long distances.

Optical spectrum : All telecommunication systems use some form of electromagnetic energy
to transmit signals. Electromagnetic energy is a combination of electrical and magnetic fi elds
and includes power, radio waves, microwaves, infrared light, visible light, ultraviolet light, X
rays, and gamma rays. Each discipline takes up a portion (or band) of the electromagnetic
spectrum. The fundamental nature of all radiation within this spectrum is that it can be
viewed as electromagnetic waves that travel at the speed of light, which is about c = 3 *10^8
m/s in a vacuum.

c = v*lambda

E =hv where,h = 6.63 10^–34 J-s or 4.14*10^–15 eV-s is Planck’s constant.

Optical fiber communication uses the near-infrared spectral band ranging from nominally
770 to 1675 nm wavelength or 10^14 hz frequency.

Key Components of Optical Fiber Communication:

1.Optical fiber: A thin, flexible strand made of glass or plastic .It acts as a waveguide for light
signals, keeping them confined within the core due to the principle of total internal reflection.

2.Transmitter: Converts electrical signals into light signals. Typically uses lasers or light-emitting
diodes (LEDs) as light sources.

3.Optical Amplifier: Boosts the strength of light signals over long distances without converting
them back into electrical for. Example: Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers (EDFAs).

4.Receiver: Detects light signals and converts them back into electrical signals. Utilizes
photodetectors, such as PIN diodes or APDs (Avalanche Photodiodes).

5.Optical Modulators: Encodes data onto the light signal by modulating its properties, such as
intensity, phase, or wavelength.

6.Multiplexers and Demultiplexers: Allow multiple signals to be transmitted simultaneously over a

single fiber using techniques like Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM).

Advantages of Optical Fibers:

The advantages of optical fibers compared to copper wires include the following:

1. Long Distance Transmission Optical fibers have lower transmission losses compared to
copper wires. Consequently data can be sent over longer distances, thereby reducing the
number of inter mediate repeaters needed to boost and restore signals in long spans. This
reduction in equipment and components decreases system cost and complexity.

2.Large Information Capacity Optical fibers have wider bandwidths than copper wires, so
that more information can be sent over a single physical line. This property decreases the
number of physical lines needed for sending a given amount of information.

3.Small Size and Low Weight The low weight and the small dimensions of fibers offer a
distinct advantage over heavy, bulky wire cables in crowded underground city ducts or in
ceiling-mounted cable trays. This feature also is of importance in aircraft, satellites, and ships
where small, low weight cables are advantageous, and in tactical military applications where
large amounts of cable must be unreeled and retrieved rapidly.

4.Immunity to Electrical Interference An especially important feature of an optical fiber

relates to the fact that it is a dielectric material, which means it does not conduct electricity.
This makes optical fibers immune to the electromagnetic interference effects seen in copper
wires, such as inductive pickup from other adjacent signal-carrying wires or coupling of
electrical noise into the line from any type of nearby equipment.

5.Enhanced Safety Optical fibers offer a high degree of operational safety because they do
not have the problems of ground loops, sparks, and potentially high voltages inherent in
copper lines. However, precautions with respect to laser light emissions need to be observed
to prevent possible eye damage.

6.Increased Signal Security An optical fiber offers a high degree of data security because the
optical signal is well-confined within the fiber and an opaque coating around the fiber
absorbs any signal emissions. This feature is in contrast to copper wires where electrical
signals potentially could be tapped off easily. Thus optical fibers are attractive in applications
where information security is important, such as financial, legal, government, and military
systems.

7.Low Transmission Loss

8.Rigidness and Flexibility

9.Ease of maintenance

10.Low Cost

11.Immune to corrosion

12.High speed data communication

Disadvantages of Optical Fibers:

Applications of Optical Fibers:

Basic Optical Laws and Definition:

1. Reflection

Definition: The phenomenon where light bounces back when it hits a surface without entering
the medium.

Law of Reflection:
Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection.
Both angles are measured with respect to the normal (perpendicular) to the surface.
Example: Mirrors reflect light.

2. Refraction

Definition: The bending of light as it passes from one medium to another with a different
refractive index.

Happens because the speed of light changes in different media.

Example: A straw appearing bent when partially submerged in water.

3. Refractive Index
Definition: A measure of how much a medium slows down the speed of light compared to a
vacuum.

Formula: n=c/v where:

n: Refractive index.
c: Speed of light in vacuum.
v: Speed of light in the medium.
Higher n → Light slows down more and bends more.

4. Snell's Law

Definition: Describes the relationship between angles of incidence and refraction when light
passes between two media.

Formula: n1 sin⁡ϕ1=n2 sin⁡ϕ2 0r n1 cos⁡θ1=n2 cos⁡θ2 where:

The angle ⁡ϕ1 between the incident ray and the normal to the surface is known as the
angle of incidence.
n1,n2: Refractive indices of the two media.
⁡ϕ1,⁡ϕ2: Angles of incidence and refraction.

5. Total Internal Reflection (TIR)

Definition: The phenomenon where all light is reflected back into the medium instead of
refracting, occurring when:

Light moves from a denser to a less dense medium (e.g., glass to air).
The angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle.

6. Critical Angle

Definition: The minimum angle of incidence at which total internal reflection occurs.

Formula: sin⁡θc=n2/n1 where n1>n2​.

Example: Used in optical fibers to keep light confined within the core.

7. Numerical Aperture (NA)

Definition: A dimensionless number that indicates the light-gathering ability of an optical

fiber or lens.

Formula: NA=nsin⁡θ where:

n: Refractive index of the medium.
θ: Half of the acceptance angle (maximum angle of light entry into the fiber core).
Higher NA → Better light-gathering and data-carrying capacity.
Ray Theory(numerical aperture derivation:

Optical Fiber Structure:

1. Core:
The central region where light propagates.
Made of high-purity glass or plastic.
Has a higher refractive index than the cladding to allow total internal reflection (TIR).
2. Cladding:
Surrounds the core and has a lower refractive index than the core.
 Ensures light remains confined to the core via TIR.
Typically made of glass or plastic.
3. Buffer Coating:
A protective layer around the cladding.
Shields the fiber from physical damage, moisture, and other environmental factors.
Made of polymer materials.

Types of Fibers

1. Single-Mode Fiber (SMF)

Core Diameter: ~8-12 µm (very small).

Cladding diameter : ~125 µm
Light Propagation: Supports only one propagation mode, ensuring minimal dispersion.
Applications: Long-distance communication, high-speed data transfer (e.g.,
telecommunication, internet backbone).

2. Multimode Fiber (MMF)

Core Diameter: ~50-200µm (larger than SMF).

Cladding diameter : ~125-400 µm
Light Propagation: Allows multiple modes of light to propagate.
Applications: Short-distance communication (e.g., local area networks (LANs), data
centers).

Index Profiles
 1. Step-Index Fiber:
The refractive index of the core is uniform, and it abruptly changes at the core-
cladding boundary.
Can be single-mode or multimode.
Limitation: High intermodal dispersion in multimode fibers.
2. Graded-Index Fiber:
The refractive index of the core gradually decreases from the center to the cladding.
Advantage: Reduces intermodal dispersion in multimode fibers by equalizing the
travel time of different light rays.

Mode in Optical Fibers

A mode in an optical fiber refers to a specific electromagnetic field pattern that propagates
along the fiber. These modes represent the possible solutions of the Maxwell equations for
light confined within the core of the fiber, which depend on the fiber's geometry, refractive
index profile, and the wavelength of light.

Types of Modes in Optical Fibers

The number of modes in an optical fiber is determined by its core size and numerical
aperture:

1. Single-Mode Fibers (SMF): Allow only one mode (the fundamental mode) to propagate.
This occurs when the core diameter is very small, typically <10 microns for visible and
near-infrared wavelengths.
2. Multimode Fibers (MMF): Allow multiple modes to propagate. The larger core diameter
(50–62.5 microns for standard MMF) supports many modes.

Each mode in a multimode fiber is classified by its mode order.

Order of Modes

The modes are typically denoted as LPmn , where:

m: Radial mode number (number of maxima in the radial electric field distribution).
n: Azimuthal mode number (number of full oscillations around the circumference).

Zeroth-Order Mode

The fundamental mode LP01/TE0

Electric field distribution: E field concentrated at center and decays towards cladding.
Core: Exhibits a harmonic variation (sinusoidal) with a peak at the center, decreasing
radially outward.
Cladding: Exhibits an exponential decay.
This mode is always guided in single-mode fibers.

First-Order Mode/Refracted Mode

Corresponds to LP11/TE1
Electric field distribution: E field not concentrated at center and it rapidly increases and
decreases exponentially towards cladding.
Core: Contains one radial node (zero field at some point in the core).
Cladding: Exponential decay continues.
This mode has a higher cutoff wavelength and requires a larger normalized frequency V.

Second-Order Mode/Leaky Mode

Corresponds to LP21/TE2
Electric field distribution: E field is partially confined to core region and are attenuated
towards cladding.
Core: More complex with additional nodes, showing multiple peaks.
Cladding: Exponential decay persists.
Higher order means higher energy and more stringent guiding conditions.
Guided modes in the fiber occur when the values for b satisfy the condition n2k< β<n1k. At
the limit of propagation when β=n2k,a mode is no longer properly guided and is called being
cut off. Thus un guided or radiation modes appear for frequencies below the cutoff point
where β<n2k.

here , k=2π/λ.

Normalized Frequency (V-Number)

The normalized frequency, V is a dimensionless parameter given by:

V=2πa/λ*(n1^2−n2^2)^1/2

or V= 2πa/λ*NA

Where:

a: Core radius.
λ: Wavelength of light in vacuum.
n1​: Core refractive index.
n2​: Cladding refractive index.

Significance of VVV:

V<2.405V : Single-mode operation (only the fundamental mode propagates).

V>2.405V : Multimode operation (higher-order modes are guided).

The V number also can be used to express the number of modes Min a multimode step-index
fiber when V is large. For this case, an estimate of the total number of modes supported in
such a fiber is M=V^2/2
Fiber Materials:

Requirements for Choosing Optical Fiber Materials

1. High Optical Transparency

Requirement: Low attenuation to minimize signal loss over long distances.

Reason: The material must allow light to propagate efficiently through the fiber with
minimal scattering and absorption.
Typical Choices:
Silica Glass (SiO₂): Exhibits extremely low loss (~0.2 dB/km) in the near-infrared range.
Plastic (PMMA): Used for short-distance, cost-sensitive applications (higher
attenuation compared to silica).

2. Refractive Index Control

Requirement: Ability to engineer a core-cladding refractive index difference for total

internal reflection.
Reason: A higher refractive index in the core than the cladding ensures light confinement
and guidance.
Typical Choices:
Doped Silica:
Core: Silica doped with materials like germanium dioxide (GeO₂) to increase
refractive index.
Cladding: Pure silica or doped with fluorine to reduce refractive index.

3. Low Dispersion

Requirement: Material should minimize chromatic dispersion to prevent signal

broadening over long distances.
Reason: Dispersion causes different wavelengths to travel at different speeds, degrading
signal quality.
Solution: Use materials with tailored dispersion properties or combine multiple materials.

4. Mechanical Strength

Requirement: High mechanical strength to withstand bending, stretching, and

environmental stresses.
Reason: Optical fibers are often deployed in harsh environments and need to be robust.
 Typical Choices:
Silica fibers: Extremely strong, with tensile strengths exceeding 4.5 GPa when coated
properly.
Protective coatings (e.g., polyimides, acrylate) are added for flexibility and protection.

5. Thermal Stability

Requirement: Resistance to thermal expansion and degradation at varying temperatures.

Reason: Optical fibers may be exposed to a wide range of temperatures during operation.
Solution:
Silica: Excellent thermal stability up to ~1000°C.
Polymers: Used for plastic optical fibers but degrade at higher temperatures.

6. Chemical Resistance

Requirement: Resistance to water, chemicals, and environmental degradation.

Reason: Environmental factors like moisture and UV exposure can deteriorate fiber
performance.
Solution:
Silica: Naturally resistant to many chemicals.
Protective coatings: Shield fibers from moisture and chemical exposure.

7. Cost and Manufacturability

Requirement: Materials should be cost-effective and easy to manufacture in large

volumes.
Reason: Fiber production should be economical for widespread deployment.
Typical Choices:
Silica: Expensive but justified for high-performance applications.
Plastic fibers: Cheaper alternative for short-range applications.

8. Specialized Requirements for Specific Applications

High Nonlinearity: For nonlinear optics or fiber lasers.

Radiation Hardness: For use in high-radiation environments like space.
Biocompatibility: For medical uses (e.g., biosensors, endoscopes).
Bend Insensitivity: For tight deployment spaces (e.g., data centers).

Common Materials Used in Optical Fibers

 Material Type Example Application/Reason

Core Silica doped with GeO₂ or High transparency,

Al₂O₃ refractive index tuning

Cladding Pure silica, Fluorine-doped Low refractive index,

silica light confinement

Plastic Core PMMA Short-distance, cost-

sensitive applications

Coatings Polyimides, Acrylates Mechanical protection

and flexibility

By meeting these requirements, materials for optical fibers ensure optimal performance
across a range of applications.

The main two types:

1. Glass fibers
2. Plastic fibers

Glass Fibers:

Glass is made by fusing mixtures of metal oxides, sulfides, or selenides. The resulting material
is a randomly connected molecular network rather than a well-defined ordered structure as
found in crystalline materials. A consequence of this random order is that glasses do not have
well-defined melting points. When glass is heated up from room temperature, it remains a
hard solid up to several hundred degrees centigrade. As the temperature increases further,
the glass gradually begins to soften until at very high temperatures it becomes a viscous
liquid. The expression “melting temperature” is commonly used in glass manufacture. This
term refers only to an extended temperature range in which the glass becomes fluid enough
to convert into an optical fiber material.

The largest category of optically transparent glasses from which optical fibers are made
consists of the oxide glasses. Of these, the most common is silica (SiO2), which has a
refractive index ranging from 1.458 at 850 to 1.444 at 1550 nm. To produce two similar
materials that have slightly different indices of refraction for the core and cladding, either
fluorine or various oxides (referred to as dopants),such as B2O3, GeO2, or P2O5, are added to
the silica. As shown in Fig. 2.31, the addition of GeO2 or P2O5 increases the refractive index,
whereas doping the silica with fluorine or B2O3 decreases it.
Since the cladding must have a lower index than the core, examples of fiber compositions are

1. GeO2–SiO2 core; SiO2 cladding

2. P2O5–SiO2 core; SiO2 cladding

3. SiO2 core; B2O3–SiO2 cladding

4. GeO2–B2O3–SiO2 core; B2O3 SiO2 cladding

Plastic Optical Fibers:

The growing demand for delivering high-speed services directly to the workstation has led
fiber developers to create high-bandwidth graded-index polymer (plastic) optical fibers (POF)
for use in a customer premises. The core of these fibers is either polymethylmethacrylate or a
perfluorinated polymer. These fibers are hence referred to as PMMA POF and PF POF,
respectively. Although they exhibit considerably greater optical signal attenuations than glass
fibers, they are tough and durable. For example, since the modulus of these polymers is
nearly two orders of magnitude lower than that of silica, even a 1-mm-diameter graded-index
POF is sufficiently flexible to be installed in conventional fiber cable routes.
Photonic Crystal Fiber :

Initially this was called a holey fiber and later became known as a photonic crystal fiber (PCF)
or a micro structured fiber. The difference between this new structure and that of a
conventional fiber is that the cladding and, in some cases, the core regions of a PCF contain
air holes, which run along the entire length of the fiber. Whereas the material properties of
the core and cladding define the light transmission characteristics of conventional fibers, the
structural arrangement in a PCF creates an internal microstructure, which offers extra
dimensions in controlling the optical properties of light, such as the dispersion, nonlinearity,
and birefringence effects in optical fibers.

The sizes of the holes and the hole-to-hole spacing (known as the pitch) in the microstructure
and the refractive index of its constituent material determine the light-guiding characteristics
of photonic crystal fibers. The two basic PCF categories are index-guiding fibers and
photonic bandgap fibers. The light transmission mechanism in an index-guiding fiber is
similar to that in a conventional fiber as it has a high-index core surrounded by a lower-index
cladding. However, for a PCF the effective refractive index of the cladding depends on the
wavelength and the size and pitch of the holes. In contrast, in a photonic bandgap fiber light
is guided by means of a photonic bandgap effect in either a hollow or microstructured core,
which is surrounded by a microstructured cladding.

Photonic Crystal Fibers (PCFs)

Photonic crystal fibers are a class of optical fibers with a periodic microstructured
arrangement in their cladding, usually consisting of air holes running along the fiber's length.
This structure alters the fiber's guiding properties compared to conventional optical fibers.
PCFs can guide light using two distinct mechanisms:

1. Index-Guiding Fibers
2. Photonic Bandgap Fibers

1. Index-Guiding Fibers

These fibers use the total internal reflection (TIR) principle, similar to conventional optical
fibers, but the microstructured cladding plays a key role.

Mechanism

The core of an index-guiding PCF typically has a higher effective refractive index than the
surrounding cladding.
The cladding's effective refractive index is reduced due to the presence of air holes.
Light is confined to the core via TIR, as the core has a higher refractive index than the
cladding.

Structure

Core: Solid (made of silica or doped silica).

Cladding: Contains a periodic arrangement of air holes, lowering its effective refractive
index.

Advantages
 1. Single-Mode Operation: Index-guiding PCFs can remain single-mode over a wide
wavelength range, unlike conventional fibers.
2. High Numerical Aperture (NA): Enhanced light-guiding capabilities due to strong TIR at
the core-cladding boundary.
3. Tailorable Properties: Core and cladding properties can be engineered by varying air-
hole size, shape, and spacing.

Applications

Telecommunications.
Supercontinuum generation.
High-power fiber lasers and amplifiers.

2. Photonic Bandgap Fibers

These fibers guide light through the photonic bandgap effect, which does not rely on TIR.

Mechanism

The periodic structure in the cladding creates a photonic bandgap: a range of

wavelengths that cannot propagate in the cladding.
The core (which may have a lower refractive index than the cladding) traps light by
preventing it from escaping into the cladding due to the photonic bandgap.

Structure

Core: Can be either hollow (air) or solid (low-index material).

Cladding: Features a highly periodic arrangement of air holes, creating a photonic crystal
structure.

Key Properties

1. Light guidance is based on optical interference rather than total internal reflection.
2. The core can have a lower refractive index than the cladding, including air-filled cores,
enabling unique applications.

Advantages
 1. Low Loss and High Power Handling: Hollow cores reduce material absorption and
nonlinear effects.
2. Wavelength Selectivity: Precise control of guided wavelengths through photonic
bandgap engineering.
3. Anomalous Dispersion Control: Useful for managing chromatic dispersion in specialized
applications.

Applications

Hollow-core fibers for gas sensing and nonlinear optics.

High-power laser delivery.
Guiding ultraviolet or infrared light, where conventional fibers are less efficient.

Comparison of Index-Guiding and Photonic Bandgap Fibers

Feature Index-Guiding Fibers Photonic Bandgap Fibers

Guiding Mechanism Total Internal Reflection Photonic Bandgap Effect

(TIR)

Core Refractive Index Higher than cladding Can be lower than cladding

Cladding Structure Periodic air holes (low Periodic air holes (photonic
effective index) crystal)

Wavelength Range Broadband, supports wide Narrow bandgap, selective

wavelength range wavelength guidance

Applications Telecommunications, Gas sensing, high-power

lasers, supercontinuum laser delivery

Conclusion

Index-Guiding PCFs are similar to conventional fibers in their guiding mechanism but use
a microstructured cladding to enhance performance.
Photonic Bandgap Fibers introduce an entirely new mechanism for light guidance,
enabling unique applications such as hollow-core waveguides and selective wavelength
filtering.

Both types of PCFs have revolutionized optical fiber technology by offering unprecedented
flexibility and performance.
Cable Structure:

These are two common designs for optical fiber cables, each tailored for specific
environments and applications. They differ primarily in how the optical fibers are protected
and housed within the cable.

1. Tight-Buffered Fiber Cable Design

Structure

Tight Buffer Coating: Each optical fiber is coated with a thick, plastic buffer material that
directly adheres to the fiber.
Outer Jacket: The buffered fibers are surrounded by additional layers of protective
materials (strength members, jackets).
Strength Members: Made of aramid yarns (e.g., Kevlar) to enhance tensile strength and
prevent breakage during installation.

Characteristics

1. Direct Protection:
The tight buffer coating provides protection against mechanical stress, bending, and
minor impacts.
2. Single-Layer Design:
No additional loose tubes or gel-filling material around the fibers.
3. Fiber Count:
Typically supports lower fiber counts (e.g., 2 to 24 fibers).

Advantages

1. Ease of Handling:
Ideal for quick splicing and termination due to the direct protection of the fibers.
 2. Compact Design:
Smaller diameter and lightweight, making it suitable for indoor use.
3. Durability:
Better suited for environments with frequent handling or where flexibility is required
(e.g., patch cords, pigtails).

Applications

Indoor installations (e.g., buildings, data centers).

Short-distance deployments.
Direct terminations to devices.

2. Loose-Tube Fiber Cable Configuration

Structure

Loose Tubes: Optical fibers are housed loosely within a buffer tube, which is filled with a
gel or dry water-blocking material.
Central Strength Member: Often a metal or fiber-reinforced plastic rod provides
structural integrity.
Outer Jacket: Covers the loose tubes and adds mechanical protection.
Gel-Filled/Water-Blocking Material: Protects the fibers from moisture and environmental
factors.

Characteristics

1. Free Movement:
The fibers are not tightly bound; they can move within the tube, reducing stress from
temperature changes or external forces.
2. High Fiber Count:
Can support a much larger number of fibers (up to hundreds).
3. Moisture Resistance:
Gel or dry water-blocking materials prevent water ingress, making it highly durable in
harsh environments.

Advantages

1. Environmental Protection:
Highly resistant to temperature extremes, water ingress, and environmental stresses.
2. Scalability:
Supports high fiber counts, ideal for large-scale deployments.
3. Durability:
Better suited for outdoor applications, especially underground or aerial installations.

Applications

Long-distance telecommunications.
Outdoor installations (aerial, underground, direct burial).
High-fiber-count networks (e.g., metro or backbone networks).
Comparison Table

Feature Tight-Buffered Fiber Cable Loose-Tube Fiber Cable

Fiber Protection Tight coating around Loose placement in gel-

individual fibers filled or dry tubes

Flexibility High flexibility, compact Less flexible due to loose

design tubes

Moisture Resistance Limited moisture Excellent moisture

protection resistance

Temperature Resistance Limited resistance High resistance to

temperature extremes

Fiber Count Low to moderate (2–24 High (up to hundreds of

fibers) fibers)

Ease of Installation Easier to handle, terminate, Requires careful handling

and splice and cleaning of gel

Applications Indoor use, short distances Outdoor use, long

distances

Indoor Cable

Designs Indoor cables can be used for interconnecting instruments, for distributing signals
among office users, for connections to printers or servers, and for short patch cords in
telecommunication equipment racks.

The three main types are described here.

Interconnect cable serves light-duty low-fiber count indoor applications such as fiber-to-the-
desk links, patch cords, and point-to-point runs in conduits and trays. The cable is flexible,
compact, and lightweight with a tight-buffered construction. A popular indoor cable type is
the duplex cable, which consists of two fibers that are encapsulated in an outer PVC jacket.
Fiber optic patch cords, also known as jumper cables, are short lengths (usually less than 2 m)
of simplex or duplex cable with connectors on both ends. They are used to connect
Lightwave test equipment to a fiber patch panel or to interconnect optical transmission
modules within an equipment rack.
Breakout or fanout cable consists of up to 12 tight-buffered fibers stranded around a central
strength member. Such cables serve low- to medium-fiber-count applications where it is
necessary to protect individual jacketed fibers. The breakout cable allows easy installation of
connectors on individual fibers in the cable. With such a cable configuration, routing the
individually terminated fibers to separate pieces of equipment can be achieved easily.

Distribution cable consists of individual or small groupings of tight-buffered fibers stranded

around a central strength member. This cable serves a wide range of network applications for
sending data, voice, and video signals. Distribution cables are designed for use in
intrabuilding cable trays, con duits, and loose placement in dropped-ceiling structures. A
main feature is that they enable groupings of fibers within the cable to be branched
(distributed) to various locations.

Outdoor Cables

Optical Fiber Communications Outdoor cable installations include aerial, duct, direct-burial,
and underwater applications. Invariably these cables consist of a loose-tube structure. Many
different designs and sizes of outdoor cables are available depending on the physical
environment in which the cable will be used and the particular application.

Aerial cable is intended for mounting outside between buildings or on poles or towers. The
two popular designs are the self-supporting and the facility-supporting cable structures. The
self-supporting cable contains an internal strength member that permits the cable to be
strung between poles without using any additional support mechanisms for the cable. For the
facility-supporting cable, first a separate wire or strength member is strung between the
poles and then the cable is lashed or clipped to this member.

Armored cable for direct-burial or underground-duct applications has one or more layers of
steel wire or steel-sheath protective armoring below a layer of polyethylene jacketing as
shown in Fig. 2.45. This not only provides additional strength to the cable but also protects it
from gnawing animals such as squirrels or burrowing rodents, which often cause damage to
underground cables. For example, in the United States the plains pocket gopher (Geomys
busarius) can destroy unprotected cable that is buried less than 2 m (6 ft) deep. Other cable
components include a central strength member, wrapping and binding tapes, and water-
blocking materials.
Underwater cable , also known as submarine cable, is used in rivers, lakes, and ocean
environments. Since such cables normally are exposed to high water pressures, they have
much more stringent requirements than underground cables. For example, as shown in Fig.
2.46, cables that can be used in rivers and lakes have various water-blocking layers, one or
more protective inner polyethylene sheaths, and a heavy outer armor jacket. Cables that run
under the ocean have further layers of armoring and contain copper wires to provide
electrical power for submersed optical amplifiers or regenerators.