Climatic classification

Classification of climate: -
1. Empirical classification – in empirical classification, the effect of
various element of climate [ rainfall, temperature, humidity] on the
natural vegetation is based on it. Just as a thermometer tells the
temperature. similarly, the vegetation of a region also varies
according to that region.
2. Genetic classification- this is also called origin-based
classification. This classification is done on the basis of the causes of
origin of climate, like all the monsoon countries from India to
eastern Siberia will be placed in one category. similarly, all the
climates resulting from the effect of westerly winds will be kept
under one heading.
3. Applies classification- the basis of this classification is the effect
of climate on other object. The classification is done for some
specific purpose.
KOEPPEN'S SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION CLIMATE

 Koeppen’s classification is based on quantitative values of

temperature and precipitation.
 It recognises location and points out the differences that exist
between the east and west coast and between the coastal regions
and interiors.
 The types of climates have been defined in terms of numerical
values.
 The major divisions are denoted by capital letters and small letters
are added to indicate other small sub-divisions. The small letter
generally conveys special features of the climate.
 Koeppen completed his classification scheme at two stages.
 First, he identified five major groups of climates and represented by
capital letters A, B, C, D and E.
  Another capital letter H has been also included to represent the
climate of highlands.
 These five major groups of climates have been further sub-divided
into a number of climatic types on the basis of temperature and
precipitation differences and by adding small letters.
KOPPEN’S TYPES OF CLIMATES
Koppen’s climate group have been divided into several types on the basis
of seasonal characteristics of temperature and rainfall, for which small
English Lettes have been used.
f = absence of dry season or rainfall throughout the year.
m= monsoon climate
w= dry winter and
s= dry summer
letters a, b, c, and d indicate areas with extreme temperature.

Group A: Tropical humid climate –

Tropical humid climate is found between the tropic of cancer and tropic of
Capricorn. In this zone the sun’s rays fall vertically throughout the year
and the inter – tropical convergence zone [ITCZ] is present here. Due to
these rays the climate here is hot and humid. Here the annual
temperature variation is very low and rainfall is high. The average
temperature in this climate is 21°-27 °C and rainfall rarely falls below
89cm.
This tropical group of climates is divided into three types-
1) Af tropical humid climate
2) Am tropical monsoon climate
3) Aw tropical humid climate in which winter is dry

Af – tropical humid climate

Status – generally tropical humid climate is found near the equator, but on the windward coasts of
the continents, this climate is found up 12° northern and southern latitude

Region: - the main region of this climate is western equatorial Africa, the amazon basin of south
America and the island of south – east – Asia.

Features of climate: -

1) Due to the sun’s rays falling almost directly throughout the year in this zone, the
temperature is high. There is no frost here.
2) Here the annual range of the temperature is less. there is no significant difference between
summer and winter condition.
3) The maximum temperature on any day is 30 °c and the minimum temperature is
also less i.e., 10°c.
4) Here is less difference in the duration of day and night.
5) This is an area of heavy rainfall, where the average annual rainfall is 250 cm. the rainfall is
convectional type.
6) Relative humidity in the air is found to be high i.e. about 80%. due to this, humidity and less
air circulation, sensitive temperature arises here which causes physical pain.
7) It is usually cloudy. Cloudy sky prevents terrestrial radiation from going out.

Vegetation: due high temperature and rainfall, evergreen forests are found here, which are called
selves.
Am tropical monsoon climate
Location: this climate is found in the eastern part of the continents between 5 ° north latitude and
37° south latitude.

Region: monsoon climate is found in India, south east Asia, northern Australia, guinea cost of west
Africa and pacific costal region of Colombia.

Features of climate: -

1) Change in the direction of wind with change in weather is the main characteristics of
monsoon climate.
2) In summer, the monsoon winds blow from sea to land and cause rain.
3) In winter season, these winds blow from land to sea, hence due to being dry they do not
cause rain.
4) The highest temperature I this climate are found in May and early June, before the rain
season begins.
5) The average temperature of the hottest month falls between 30° to 35°C and the average
temperature of the coldest month [ January] falls between 18° to 21° C.
6) Depending on the distance from the sea, the total annual rainfall ranges from 75cm to
250cm, most of the rainfall occurs on the month of June, July, and August.
 Aw topical wet and dry climate
Location – this climate is surrounded by tropical rain- forested climate towards the
equator and dry climate towards higher latitudes. It also called savanna type climate.
this climate extends from 5° to 30° latitude in both the hemispheres.
Region – savanna or Sudan -like climate is absent in Sudan in Africa and is found in the weald
plateau, tropical grassland of northern Australia, the llanos plateau in south America, the
highlands of Guyana and campos of Brazil.

fig: savanna or Sudan like climate

Features of climate: -
1) It is a variable distribution. it tropical, with moderate rainfall in summer and in other seasons
there is influence of dry southerly winds.
2) The annual average temperature here is 23°C. the annual temperature is from 5° to 6° C.
daily temperature variations are highest in the dry season.
3) The amount of rainfall increases toward the equator and decreases towards the poles.
Annual rainfall in this climate is much less and more variable than Af and Am climate type.
4) In a savanna like climate, most of the rainfall occurs in summer and winter is dry.
5) The wet season is short and dry season is long.

Vegetation: - due to lack of rainfall, the natural vegetation here is tall grass, in which deciduous trees
are found at some places. These grassy plains are called savanna.
Group B: Dry climate

The main characteristics of an arid climate is extremely low rainfall which is insufficient for plant
growth. A large area of the world come under arid and semi- arid climate.

The dry climate is found in the subtropical high-pressure zone in the lower latitude of 15° to 30°.
This climate is more extended towards the equator and is found in the coastal part.

In the middle latitudes, this climate becomes limited to those interior parts of the continents
between 35°to 60° north and south latitudes from the equator.

Dry climate is divided into two types-

 Steppe or semi – srid climate [BS]

 Desert climate [BW]

It is further divided into two sub types between 15° to 35° latitude is divided into-

 Subtropical steppe [BSH]

 Subtropical desert [ BWH]

Even between 35° to 60° latitude it is divided into two sub types-

 Mid- latitude steppe [BSK]

 Md – latitude desert [BWK]

BWh- sub- tropical desert climate

Location: subtropical desert climate is found in the western parts of the
continents between 15° to 30° latitude in both the hemisphere.
Region: - the main regions of this climate are Sahara and Kalahari of Africa, Arabia, Colorado of
north America, Atacama of south America and the desert of western Australia.

Features of climate: -

1) Some of the highest temperature in the world are found in the desert climate.
2) Summers here are extremely hot, with the average temperature being above 38°C. in the
deserts where cold currents flow to the west, their temperatures and temperature variations
are relatively low.
 3) Winters are cold, in which the average temperature is 16° to 26°C.
4) Extreme daily temperature is an important feature of desert climate. Annual temperature
variation is less than daily temperature variations.
5) Average annual rainfall is less than 25cm. the reason for this is that all the hot deserts fall in
the areas of trade winds in the western parts of the continents. The southerly winds cause
rainfall only on the eastern coasts.
6) Rainfall is uncertain and irregular and occur in the form of intense convective showers for a
short period of time. such rainfall is less beneficial because it does not create moisture in the
soil.
7) Even slow rainfall is not effective, because due to excessive evaporation the rain water goes
into the atmosphere.

Vegetation: - in hot deserts, small trees, shrubs, and cactus etc. with long roots and thick stems are
found, which demonstrate harmony with the environment.

BSh – sub – tropical steppe climate

Location: - like the subtropical desert climate, the subtropical steppe
climate also extends between 15° to 35° latitude.
Region: - the largest region of this climate extends from the Caspian Sea in Eurasia to central Asia.

Factors of climate: -

1) The characteristics of precipitation and temperature in this climate are similar to subtropical
desert climate.
2) Due to being located in the transition zone of wet and dry climate, the subtropical steppe
climate receives slightly more rainfall than the desert climate.
3) Variability of rainfall affects life more in steppe than in desert.
4) The steppe climate is not controlled by the descending air masses coming from the
subtropics, but is dry due to its location in the interior parts of the continents, away from
oceanic influences.
5) The average annual rainfall here is 30cm and the average annual temperature is 21° C.
6) In steppe climate the annual temperature variation is 13° C.

BWK-Mid- latitude desert climate

Location: - these deserts are located in the saucer shaped areas of low
altitude in the interior parts of the continents. In Asia, Tarim basin, gobi,
Jung aria, Baluchistan, Afghanistan, central Iran, the great basin in north
America, the interior of Mexico and the highlands of southern Africa are
such areas. All these are surrounded by high mountain ranges.
Features of climate: -
1) Due to being surrounded by mountain, these are rain shadow
regions.
2) Dry winds descending from top to bottom further increase dryness.
3) Nevertheless, these are not completely dry deserts. Most of rainfall
occurs in summer. Snow also occurs in winters.
BSK-Mid– latitude steppe climate
The Mid-latitude steppe climate, often referred to as the BSk climate
classification in the Köppen-Geiger climate classification system, is
characterized by dry conditions with moderate to hot summers and cold
winters. Here are some key features:
Precipitation: Generally low precipitation throughout the year, with the
majority falling in the winter months. Annual rainfall is typically
insufficient to support extensive vegetation or forests.
Temperature: Summers are usually warm to hot, with temperatures
ranging from moderate to high. Winters tend to be cold, with
temperatures dropping below freezing, and sometimes experiencing
snowfall.
Vegetation: This climate often supports grasslands or steppe vegetation
rather than dense forests due to the low precipitation. You might find
grasses, shrubs, and some hardy plants adapted to drier conditions.
Location: Mid-latitude steppes are found in the interiors of continents,
away from the moderating influence of oceans. They are commonly
located in regions between desert climates and more humid zones.
Examples: Areas with a BSk climate include parts of the Great Plains in
the United States, parts of Argentina, central Asia, and parts of Eastern
Europe.
This climate type often experiences significant temperature fluctuations
between day and night and between seasons due to its continental
location and lack of moisture in the air.
Group c warm temperature [ mid latitude] climates

CWa Humid sub-tropical climate

The humid subtropical climate, classified as Cfa in the Köppen climate
classification system, is characterized by hot and humid summers, mild
winters, and ample precipitation throughout the year. Here are its key
features:
Temperature: Summers are typically hot and humid, with temperatures
often exceeding 30°C (86°F) and high levels of humidity. Winters are mild
to cool but rarely freezing, with average temperatures above 0°C (32°F).
Precipitation: Ample rainfall occurs throughout the year, although there
might be a slightly drier season. Thunderstorms are common, especially in
the summer months, contributing to the overall precipitation.
Vegetation: This climate supports diverse vegetation due to the plentiful
rainfall and moderate temperatures. Lush forests, including both
deciduous and evergreen varieties, are common. You can also find a
variety of crops and agricultural activities thriving in these regions.
Location: Humid subtropical climates are typically found on the eastern
sides of continents, situated between tropical climates and more
temperate regions. Examples include parts of the southeastern United
States, eastern China, Japan, the southeastern coast of South America,
and portions of Australia.
Variations: There can be variations within the humid subtropical climate
based on factors like altitude, proximity to the coast, and geographical
features, leading to slight differences in temperature and precipitation
patterns.
Overall, the humid subtropical climate is characterized by its warm to hot
and humid summers, mild winters, and abundant rainfall throughout the
year, supporting diverse ecosystems and agriculture.

Cs mediterranean climate
The Cs Mediterranean climate is a subcategory within the Köppen climate
classification system. It's characterized by mild, wet winters and hot, dry
summers. Here are its key features:
Temperature: Summers are typically hot and dry, with temperatures
often exceeding 30°C (86°F). Winters are mild and wet, with temperatures
rarely dropping below freezing.
Precipitation: Most of the precipitation falls during the winter months,
while summers are dry. Rainfall tends to be moderate to low overall, but
there can be significant variability within this climate type. Dry summers
can lead to drought conditions in some regions.
Vegetation: Mediterranean climates often support a variety of
vegetation, including scrubland, shrubs, and drought-resistant plants.
Some areas might have forests or woodlands, but vegetation tends to
adapt to the dry summers.
Location: Mediterranean climates are typically found near the
Mediterranean Sea in regions like southern Europe (Spain, Italy, Greece),
northern Africa, parts of the Middle East, parts of California, and portions
of Australia. However, variations of this climate can also be found in other
parts of the world.
Human Habitation: These climates often coincide with areas that have
historically been inhabited due to the favourable conditions for
agriculture, such as the cultivation of olive trees, grapevines, and other
crops that thrive in these climates.
Overall, the Cs Mediterranean climate is characterized by its hot, dry
summers and mild, wet winters, fostering a unique ecosystem and
influencing human activities and agriculture in the region.

CfA – HUMID -SUB- TROPICAL CLIMATE

The CfA climate classification refers to a variant of the humid subtropical
climate in the Köppen climate classification system. This specific
designation highlights some variations within the typical humid
subtropical climate.
The key features of the CfA humid subtropical climate include:
Temperature: Similar to the standard humid subtropical climate, it
experiences hot and humid summers. However, the 'A' in CfA signifies hot
summers as a distinguishing feature. These areas have hotter summers
compared to the standard humid subtropical climate.
Precipitation: The overall pattern of abundant rainfall throughout the
year remains consistent with the humid subtropical climate. There's no
specific dry season, and precipitation is evenly distributed, with a higher
tendency for thunderstorms during the warmer months.
Vegetation: Vegetation in CfA areas is often diverse, benefiting from the
consistent rainfall and warm temperatures. Lush forests, both deciduous
and evergreen, are typical. Additionally, these regions might support
diverse agricultural activities due to the favourable climate.
Location: CfA climates are usually found in similar geographic locations
to the standard humid subtropical climate. They are often situated along
the eastern sides of continents, with examples including parts of the
southeastern United States, eastern China, Japan, and other regions with
mild winters and hot, humid summers.
Human Impact: These regions often support human populations due to
the favourable conditions for agriculture. The climate can influence the
types of crops grown and impact the lifestyle and economic activities of
the people living in these areas.
Overall, the CfA variant of the humid subtropical climate indicates areas
with slightly hotter summers compared to the standard humid subtropical
regions, but maintaining the overall characteristics of a humid subtropical
climate with ample rainfall throughout the year.

Cfb – marine- west – coast climate

The Cfb climate classification, known as the marine west coast climate, is
a moderate and temperate climate influenced by the proximity of large
bodies of water, such as oceans or seas. Here are its key features:
Temperature: This climate type is characterized by mild temperatures
throughout the year. Winters are cool but not extremely cold, and
summers are mild rather than excessively hot. The temperature range
between seasons is often relatively narrow.
Precipitation: Marine west coast climates receive moderate to high
amounts of rainfall distributed fairly evenly throughout the year. There
isn't a distinct dry season, although some areas might experience slightly
drier periods.
Vegetation: These climates typically support lush vegetation, including
dense forests with a mix of evergreen and deciduous trees. The consistent
moisture and mild temperatures are conducive to the growth of various
plants.
Location: Marine west coast climates are commonly found along the
western edges of continents in the mid-latitudes, where prevailing
westerly winds bring moisture from the ocean onto the land. Examples
include the Pacific Northwest of the United States (Washington, Oregon),
western parts of Europe (Western Ireland, the UK, parts of France), and
parts of southern Chile.
Human Habitation: These regions often have well-populated areas due
to the moderate and comfortable climate. Agriculture and forestry can
thrive in these areas due to the favourable conditions for plant growth.
Overall, the Cfb marine west coast climate is characterized by mild
temperatures, moderate to high rainfall throughout the year, lush
vegetation, and a generally comfortable environment for human
habitation and various forms of agriculture.
Group D: cold snow forest climates

Df cold climate with humid winters

The Df climate classification signifies a cold, snow-influenced climate
within the Köppen climate classification system. When combined with
humid winters, it indicates a specific type of cold climate that experiences
significant precipitation in the winter months. Here are its key features:
Temperature: Df climates are characterized by cold winters.
Temperatures can drop well below freezing, and snowfall is common
during this season. Summers tend to be relatively short and cool.
Precipitation: The addition of "humid winters" suggests that these
regions receive substantial precipitation during the winter months. This
can manifest as snowfall or a mix of rain and snow. The overall annual
precipitation may vary, but a notable portion occurs in the winter.
Vegetation: Vegetation in these areas might be adapted to withstand
cold temperatures and snow cover. Coniferous forests and various cold-
resistant plants could be found in these regions.
Location: Df climates are typically found in higher latitudes or elevations.
These regions are often farther from the equator and might include areas
in northern parts of North America, Europe (especially northern and
central regions), and parts of Asia.
Human Adaptation: People living in areas with a Df climate often have
to adapt to the cold and snowy winters, employing various strategies for
housing, transportation, and agriculture suited to the harsh winter
conditions.
Overall, the Df cold climate with humid winters indicates a region that
experiences cold temperatures throughout the year, particularly in winter,
with significant precipitation during the winter months, often in the form
of snow.

Dw cold climate with dry winter

The Dw climate classification represents a cold climate with dry winters
according to the Köppen climate classification system. This type of climate
exhibits distinct characteristics:
Temperature: Dw climates are characterized by cold temperatures,
especially during the winter season. Winters are long and frigid, with
temperatures frequently dropping below freezing. Summers tend to be
short and cool.
Precipitation: The key feature of the Dw climate is the dryness during
the winter months. While precipitation may occur, it's significantly lower
compared to other seasons or regions. Snowfall might be minimal or
absent during these dry winter periods.
Vegetation: The dryness in winter can affect vegetation. This climate
type might support a variety of cold-resistant plants, potentially including
coniferous forests or hardy shrubs adapted to cold and dry conditions.
Location: Dw climates are often found in higher latitudes or elevations,
away from maritime influence. They can be present in regions of North
America, Europe (especially in northern areas), parts of Asia, and areas
with significant continental climates.
Human Adaptation: People living in Dw climates often need to adapt to
the harsh winter conditions. Winter-specific activities, such as skiing or ice
fishing, might be more prevalent, and infrastructure needs to
accommodate the cold and dry winters.
Overall, the Dw cold climate with dry winters is characterized by cold
temperatures throughout the year, notably dry and cold winters, and is
typically found in regions farther from the equator with significant
continental influence.
Group E: polar climate

ET tundra climate
The ET climate classification represents the Tundra climate within the
Köppen climate classification system. Here are the key features of the ET
Tundra climate:
Temperature: Tundra climates are characterized by very low
temperatures, especially in winter. Winters are long, bitterly cold, and
harsh. The average temperatures in the warmest month are usually below
10°C (50°F). Summers are short and cool.
Precipitation: Precipitation in the Tundra climate is generally low, often
in the form of snow. The region can be quite dry, with limited rainfall
throughout the year. Most precipitation tends to occur during the summer
months.
Vegetation: Tundra regions are known for their vast expanses of treeless
landscapes dominated by low-lying vegetation such as mosses, lichens,
grasses, and small shrubs. Trees are largely absent due to the extreme
cold and short growing season.
Permafrost: Permafrost, or permanently frozen ground, is a defining
characteristic of the Tundra climate. The ground remains frozen year-
round except for the uppermost layer during the brief summer season.
Location: Tundra climates are primarily found in high-latitude regions
near the Arctic Circle, including parts of northern Alaska, Canada,
Greenland, Scandinavia, and northern Russia. There are also high-altitude
tundra regions in mountainous areas.
Wildlife: Tundra regions support specific wildlife adapted to these
extreme conditions, such as caribou, musk oxen, Arctic foxes, polar bears,
and various migratory birds.
Overall, the ET Tundra climate is characterized by its extreme cold
temperatures, short summers, low precipitation, absence of trees, and the
presence of permafrost, creating a unique and challenging environment
for both flora and fauna.

Ef ice cap climate

The EF climate classification represents the Ice Cap climate in the Köppen
climate classification system. Here are the key features of the EF Ice Cap
climate:
Temperature: Ice Cap climates are extremely cold throughout the year.
They experience perennial freezing temperatures, and the average
temperature in the warmest month is typically below 0°C (32°F). There's
minimal variation in temperatures between seasons.
Precipitation: Precipitation in these regions is generally very low. The air
is often too cold to hold much moisture, resulting in minimal snowfall or
rain. What little precipitation occurs usually contributes more to the
existing ice and snow cover rather than significant accumulation.
Ice Cover: Ice Cap climates are characterized by vast expanses of ice,
glaciers, and snow cover that persist year-round. These areas are often
covered by ice sheets or ice caps that can be several kilometres thick.
Vegetation: Vegetation in Ice Cap climates is extremely limited or non-
existent due to the harsh environmental conditions of perpetual cold and
frozen ground. The landscape is mostly barren with ice and snow
dominating the terrain.
Location: Ice Cap climates are primarily found in polar regions near the
North and South Poles. They encompass areas like Antarctica and the high
Arctic regions, where the extreme cold and persistent ice cover dominate
the landscape.
Wildlife: Despite the harsh conditions, certain species of cold-adapted
organisms, such as certain types of algae, bacteria, and invertebrates,
might survive in niches within these extreme environments.
Overall, the EF Ice Cap climate is characterized by its extreme cold
temperatures, minimal precipitation, extensive ice and snow cover, and
the absence of significant vegetation, creating some of the most extreme
and least hospitable environments on Earth.

H highland climates
Highland climates, also known as mountain or alpine climates, are unique
and diverse due to their variation in altitude and topography. They are not
specifically categorized in the Köppen climate classification system like
some other climate types, but they share common characteristics:
Temperature: Temperatures in highland climates vary widely based on
altitude. As altitude increases, temperatures generally decrease. At higher
elevations, temperatures tend to be cooler, often leading to cooler
summers and cold winters. The temperature range can fluctuate
significantly within a short distance due to varying elevations.
Precipitation: Precipitation patterns in highland areas can vary greatly
depending on the location and topography. Some regions might
experience significant rainfall, while others might be relatively dry.
Orographic effects can lead to increased precipitation on windward sides
of mountains and decreased precipitation in rain shadows.
Vegetation: Vegetation in highland areas is diverse and can change
rapidly with altitude. Lower elevations might support forests, transitioning
into alpine meadows, and eventually, above the tree line, into barren
rocky landscapes.
Human Impact: Human habitation in highland regions often requires
adaptation to the harsher climate conditions. Highland communities might
have distinct cultures, agricultural practices suited to the altitude and
climate, and economies based on highland resources.
Wildlife: Highland regions often support specialized flora and fauna
adapted to the unique conditions. Animals like mountain goats, certain
species of birds, and cold-adapted plants can thrive in these areas.
Highland climates can be found on every continent and play a significant
role in influencing regional weather patterns due to their elevation and
interaction with other climate zones. The variability and specific
characteristics of highland areas make them fascinating and diverse
environments.

Evaluations of koeppen’s classification of climate

The Köppen climate classification system, developed by climatologist
Wladimir Köppen, has been widely used and recognized for over a century
as a fundamental tool for categorizing and understanding global climate
patterns. However, like any system, it has its strengths and limitations.
Here are evaluations of Köppen's climate classification:
Strengths:
Simplicity and Utility: Köppen's system provides a simple and efficient
way to categorize and communicate climate types based on temperature
and precipitation patterns. Its letter-based codes are widely understood
and used across various fields, aiding in global communication about
climate.
Global Coverage: It covers a wide range of climate types found across
the globe, allowing for the classification of various climates from polar to
tropical regions.
Historical Importance: The Köppen system laid the foundation for
understanding climate zones and helped early climate researchers
comprehend the diverse patterns found around the world.
Flexibility: The system has been modified and expanded over time to
account for variations and specific regional climates, making it adaptable
to local conditions.
Limitations:
Simplistic Approach: Köppen's classification relies mainly on
temperature and precipitation, neglecting other important climate factors
like wind patterns, humidity, and atmospheric pressure, which are crucial
in understanding certain regional climates.
Inaccuracy in Certain Regions: It might not accurately represent
climates in specific regions, especially areas with complex or transitional
climates, such as coastal areas, mountainous regions, or regions affected
by specific local conditions.
Limited Representation of Climate Change: The system was
developed before the substantial effects of climate change were widely
understood. As a result, it might not fully capture or adequately categorize
some modern climate patterns and changes.
Lack of Consistency in Definitions: Interpretations of boundaries
between climate types can vary, leading to inconsistencies and
disagreements among researchers, especially in areas with transitional
climates.
While Köppen's classification system remains a valuable tool for
understanding and communicating general climate patterns, it's essential
to complement it with more detailed and localized climate data and to
recognize its limitations when analysing complex or changing climates.
Researchers often combine Köppen's system with other classification
methods to provide a more comprehensive understanding of regional and
global climates.