Cell Definition

“A cell is defined as the smallest, basic unit of life that is responsible for all of life’s processes.”

What is a Cell?
Cells are the structural, functional, and biological units of all living beings. They may be made
up of a single cell (unicellular), or many cells (multicellular). Mycoplasmas are the smallest
known cells. From organism to organism, the count of cells may vary. Our body is made up of
cells of different shapes and sizes. Each cell contains a fluid called the cytoplasm, which is
enclosed by a membrane. Also present in the cytoplasm are several biomolecules like proteins,
nucleic acids and lipids. Moreover, cellular structures called cell organelles are suspended in the
cytoplasm. These cell organelles perform specialized functions to carry out life processes. Every
organelle has a specific structure. A cell can replicate itself independently. Hence, they are
known as the building blocks of life.

Discovery of Cells
Discovery of cells is one of the remarkable advancements in the field of science. It helps us
know that all the organisms are made up of cells, and these cells help in carrying out various life
processes. The structure and functions of cells helped us to understand life in a better way.
Robert Hooke discovered the cell in 1665. Robert Hooke observed a piece of bottle cork under a
compound microscope and noticed minuscule structures that reminded him of small rooms.
Consequently, he named these “rooms” as cells. However, his compound microscope had limited
magnification, and hence, he could not see any details in the structure. Owing to this limitation,
Hooke concluded that these were non-living entities. Later in 1670s, Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek
observed cells under another compound microscope with higher magnification. This time, he had
noted that the cells exhibited some form of movement (motility). As a result, Leeuwenhoek
concluded that these microscopic entities were “alive.” Eventually, after a host of other
observations, these entities were named as animalcules. In 1883, Robert Brown, a Scottish
botanist, provided the very first insights into the cell structure. He was able to describe the
nucleus present in the cells of orchids.
Types of Cells
Cells are similar to factories with different labourers and departments that work towards a
common objective. Various types of cells perform different functions. Based on cellular
structure, there are two types of cells – Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes.

 Prokaryotic Cells
1. Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus. Instead, some prokaryotes such as bacteria have a
region within the cell where the genetic material is freely suspended. This region is
called the nucleoid.
2. They all are single-celled microorganisms. Examples include archaea, bacteria, and
cyanobacteria.
3. The cell size ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 µm in diameter.
4. The hereditary material can either be DNA or RNA.
5. Prokaryotes generally reproduce by binary fission, a form of asexual reproduction.
They are also known to use conjugation – which is often seen as the prokaryotic
equivalent to sexual reproduction (however, it is NOT sexual reproduction).

 Eukaryotic Cells
1. Eukaryotic cells are characterized by a true nucleus.
2. The size of the cells ranges between 10–100 µm in diameter.
3. This broad category involves plants, fungi, protozoans, and animals.
4. The plasma membrane is responsible for monitoring the transport of nutrients and
electrolytes in and out of the cells. It is also responsible for cell-to-cell
communication.
5. They reproduce sexually as well as asexually.
6. There are some contrasting features between plant and animal cells. For eg., the
plant cell contains chloroplast, central vacuoles, and other plastids, whereas the
animal cells do not.
Cell Organelles
Organelles are specialized structures that perform various jobs inside cells. The term literally
means “little organs.” In the same way organs, such as the heart, liver, stomach, and kidneys,
serve specific functions to keep an organism alive, organelles serve specific functions to keep a
cell alive:
 Cell Membrane
1. The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It controls the movement of
substances in and out of the cells. It separates the cell from the external environment.
The cell membrane is present in all the cells.
2. The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which all other organelles,
such as the cytoplasm and nucleus, are enclosed. It is also referred to as the plasma
membrane.
3. By structure, it is a porous membrane (with pores) which permits the movement of
selective substances in and out of the cell. Besides this, the cell membrane also
protects the cellular component from damage and leakage.
4. It forms the wall-like structure between two cells as well as between the cell and its
surroundings.
5. Plants are immobile, so their cell structures are well-adapted to protect them from
external factors. The cell wall helps to reinforce this function.
 Cell Wall
1. The cell wall is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell structure. It is made up of
cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin.
2. The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It protects the plasma membrane
and other cellular components. The cell wall is also the outermost layer of plant cells.
3. It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding the cell membrane.
4. It provides shape and support to the cells and protects them from mechanical shocks
and injuries.
 Cytoplasm
1. The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present inside the cell membrane.
2. Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in this cytoplasm.
 3. The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, mitochondria,
ribosomes, are suspended in this cytoplasm.
 Nucleus: Known as the cell’s “command center,” the nucleus is a large organelle that
stores the hereditary material of the cell, the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). The nucleus
controls all of the cell’s activities, such as growth and metabolism, using the DNA’s
genetic information. Within the nucleus is a smaller structure called the nucleolus, which
houses the RNA (ribonucleic acid). RNA helps convey the DNA’s orders to the rest of
the cell and serves as a template for protein synthesis. It sends signals to the cells to
grow, mature, divide and die. A nuclear membrane protects the nucleus by forming a
boundary between the nucleus and other cell organelles.
 Mitochondria: The mitochondrion, “the powerhouse of the cell”, are oval-shaped
organelles found in most eukaryotic cells. It is called so because it produces ATP – the
cell’s energy currency. Cells often contain hundreds of mitochondria. As the site of
cellular respiration, mitochondria serve to transform molecules such as glucose into an
energy molecule known as ATP (adenosine triphosphate). ATP fuels cellular processes
by breaking its high-energy chemical bonds. Mitochondria are most plentiful in cells that
require significant amounts of energy to function, such as liver and muscle cells. These
mitochondria have an outer membrane, which encases the organelle, and an inner
membrane, which folds over several times to create a multi-layered structure known as
cristae. The fluid inside the mitochondria is called the matrix, which is filled with
proteins and mitochondrial DNA.
 Chloroplast: In plants and some algae, organelles known as chloroplasts serve as the site
of photosynthesis. Chloroplasts are another organelle that contain a double membrane
and retain their own DNA. Unlike mitochondria, however, the inner membrane of
chloroplasts is not folded. They do, however have a third, internal membrane called the
thylakoid membrane, which is folded. Chloroplasts contain a pigment known as
chlorophyll, which captures the sun’s energy to transform water and carbon dioxide into
glucose for food. Chloroplasts allow autotrophic organisms to meet their energy needs
without consuming other organisms. They are responsible for converting sunlight into
energy through a process called photosynthesis.
 Endoplasmic reticulum: The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a membranous organelle
that shares part of its membrane with that of the nucleus. The ER is involved in the
transportation of substances throughout the cell. It plays a primary role in the metabolism
of carbohydrates, synthesis of lipids, steroids and proteins. Some portions of the ER,
known as the rough ER, are studded with ribosomes and are involved with protein
manufacture. The rest of the organelle is referred to as the smooth ER and serves to
produce vital lipids (fats).
 Golgi Bodies: If the proteins from the rough ER require further modification, they are
transported to the Golgi apparatus (or Golgi complex). Like the ER, the Golgi apparatus
is composed of folded membranes. It searches the protein’s amino acid sequences for
specialized “codes” and modifies them accordingly. These processed proteins are then
stored in the Golgi or packed in vesicles to be shipped elsewhere in the cell.
 Ribosome: Ribosomes are the protein factories of the cell. Composed of two subunits,
they can be found floating freely in the cell’s cytoplasm or embedded within the
endoplasmic reticulum. Using the templates and instructions provided by two different
types of RNA, ribosomes synthesize a variety of proteins that are essential to the survival
of the cell.
 Lysosomes: Lysosomes protect the cell by engulfing the foreign bodies entering the cell
and help in cell renewal. Therefore, they are known as the cell’s suicide bags. They are
responsible for digesting and recycling toxic substances and waste. They are embedded
with proteins called enzymes, which break down macromolecules, including amino acids,
carbohydrates, and phospholipids. They are produced by a larger organelle called the
Golgi complex, which manufactures other cellular machinery as well. Whenever a cell
dies, it self-destructs using its own lysosomes.
 Vacuoles: Vacuoles store food, water, and other waste materials in the cell.