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 A CONCISE HISTORY OF SWITZERLAND

Despite its position at the heart of Europe and its quintessentially

European nature, Switzerland’s history is often overlooked within the
English-speaking world. This comprehensive and engaging history of
Switzerland traces the historical and cultural development of this fasci-
nating but neglected European country from the end of the Dark Ages
up to the present. The authors focus on the initial Confederacy of the
Middle Ages; the religious divisions which threatened it after 1500 and
its surprising survival amongst Europe’s monarchies; the turmoil fol-
lowing the French Revolution and conquest, which continued until the
Federal Constitution of 1848; the testing of the Swiss nation through the
late nineteenth century and then two World Wars and the Depression of
the 1930s; and the unparalleled economic and social growth and polit-
ical success of the post-war era. The book concludes with a discussion of
the contemporary challenges, often shared with neighbours, that shape
the country today.

CLIVE H. CHURCH is Emeritus Professor of European Studies at the

University of Kent, Canterbury. He has also been a Fellow of the French
CNRS, a Visiting Professor at the University of Sussex and a National
Research Fund Fellow at the Universität Freiburg in Switzerland. His
recent publications include Swiss Politics and Government (2004) and,
as editor, Switzerland and the EU (2006).
RANDOLPH C . H E A D is Professor of European History at the
University of California Riverside. He has held fellowships from the
Institute for Advanced Study, the American Philosophical Society and
the Newberry Library. His publications on early modern Switzerland
include numerous articles and essays along with two books, Early
Modern Democracy in the Grisons (1995) and Jenatsch’s Axe (2008).

Published online by Cambridge University Press

 CAMBRIDGE CONCISE HISTORIES

This is a series of illustrated ‘concise histories’ of selected individual

countries, intended both as university and college textbooks and
as general historical introductions for general readers, travellers
and members of the business community.

A full list of titles in the series can be found at:

www.cambridge.org/concisehistories

Published online by Cambridge University Press

 A Concise History
of Switzerland
CLIVE H. CHURCH

RANDOLPH C. HEAD

Published online by Cambridge University Press

 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town,
Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi, Mexico City
Cambridge University Press
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK

Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521143820

© Clive H. Church and Randolph C. Head 2013

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2013

Printed and bound in Great Britain by the MPG Books Group

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data

Church, Clive H., author.
A concise history of Switzerland / Clive H. Church, Randolph C. Head.
pages cm. – (Cambridge concise histories)
ISBN 978-0-521-14382-0 (pbk.)
1. Switzerland – History. I. Head, Randolph Conrad, author. II. Title.
DQ54.C47 2013
949.4–dc23
2012031494

ISBN 978-0-521-19444-0 Hardback

ISBN 978-0-521-14382-0 Paperback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or

accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to
in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such
websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

Published online by Cambridge University Press

 In memory of Margaret Ann Church, wife, friend
and facilitator of studies of Switzerland

Published online by Cambridge University Press

Published online by Cambridge University Press
 CONTENTS

List of illustrations page viii

List of figures xii
List of maps xiii
Acknowledgements xiv
List of abbreviations xv

Introduction: Making the Swiss: time, myth and history 1

1. Before Switzerland: lordship, communities and crises,

c. 1000–1386 11

2. Creating the Swiss Confederacy, 1386–1520 40

3. A divided Switzerland in Reformation Europe, 1515–1713 73

4. The Ancien Régime, 1713–1798 104

5. Revolution and contention, 1798–1848 132

6. Forging the new nation, 1848–1914 162

7. The shocks of war, 1914–1950 193

8. The Sonderfall years, 1950–1990 227

9. Since 1989: a return to normality? 254

Chronology 283
Glossary 297
Further reading 302
Index 310

vii

Published online by Cambridge University Press

 ILLUSTRATIONS

1.1 Glass painting of guild members, Basle Schneiderzunft

(Tailors’ Guild), 1554
Source: © Historisches Museum Basle/Peter Portner page 19
1.2 Habsburg castle
Source: public domain 21
1.3 Bundesbrief (pact dated 1291)
Source: © Staatsarchiv Schwyz. The document is stored
in the Bundesbriefmuseum Schwyz 24
1.4 Emperor Rudolf I Habsburg: funerary sculpture
Source: © Domkapitel Speyer 26
1.5 Battle of Sempach. Sixteenth- and seventeenth-century mural
Source: © Foto: Roland Zumbühl, 24 May 2006 32
1.6 Ceiling painting, church of Zillis. ‘Annunciation to the
Shepherds.’
Source: © Renzo Dionigi 36
1.7 Codex Manesse, ‘Hadlaub’
Source: © Heidelberg University Library 38
2.1 Swearing the alliance of 1351, from Luzerner Chronik des
Diebold Schilling
Source: Diebold-Schilling-Chronik 1513 © Eigentum
Korporation Luzern 41
2.2 Deathbed of Frederick VII of Toggenburg. From the
Amtliche Berner Chronik of Diebold Schilling
Source: © Burgerbibliothek Bern, Mss.h.h.I.2, p. 10 49
2.3 Battle of St Jakob an der Sihl. From the Eidgenössische
Chronik des Wernher Schodoler, sixteenth century
Source: © Stadtarchiv Bremgarten, Aargau 51
2.4 Niklaus von Flüe. From Luzerner Chronik des Diebold Schilling
Source: Diebold-Schilling-Chronik 1513 © Eigentum
Korporation Luzern 59

viii

Published online by Cambridge University Press

 List of illustrations ix

2.5 Battle of Calven, 1499. Illustration from Nicholas

Schradin, Reimchronik des Schwabenkrieges (Sursee, 1500)
Source: © Bayerische Staatsbibliothek München, 4
Inc. c.a. 1818 d. 62
2.6 Song of the Battle of Novara outside Milan, 1513.
Single-sheet print, ‘Eyn news lied. . . . Nawerra [Novara]’
Source: © Bayerische Staatsbibliothek München, Einbl. I, 22 o. 65
2.7 William Tell shooting the apple. From Petermann Etterlin,
Kronica von der loblichen Eydtgnoschaft (1507)
Source: © Bayerische Staatsbibliothek München, Rar. 1516. 69
3.1 Urs Graf, Schrecken des Kriegs 1521
Source: public domain 78
3.2 Zwingli by Hans Asper in 1531
Source: © Zentralbibliothek Zürich, Graphische Sammlung
und Fotoarchiv. 80
3.3 First Zurich religious disputation, 1523
Source: illustrated 1605 copy of Heinrich Bullinger’s
chronicle by Heinrich Thommen © Zentralbibliothek Zürich 82
3.4 Iconoclasm in Stadelhofen
Source: illustrated 1605 copy of Heinrich Bullinger’s
chronicle by Heinrich Thommen © Zentralbibliothek Zürich 84
3.5 Portrait of Jean Calvin. From Théodore de Bèze, Les vrais
pourtraits des hommes illustres en piété et doctrine,
Geneva, 1581
Source: Bibliothèques Virtuelles Humanistes © Centre
d’Études Supérieures de la Renaissance, Tours 89
3.6 The Escalade in Geneva, 1602
Source: Editions Slatkine 92
3.7 Town of St Gallen with linen-bleaching fields
Source: © Bibliothèque de Genève 100
4.1 Waldegg Castle
Source: © Schloss Waldegg. 107
4.2 Geneva with Vauban-style outworks
Source: public domain 109
4.3 Execution of Samuel Henzi
Source: © Burgerbibliothek Bern, Mss.h.h.XIV.70(17). 111
4.4 Fabrique Neuve de Cortaillod in Neuchâtel
Source: unknown 116
4.5 Reform Banquet ‘Le banquet des Jordils à Lausanne 14 juillet
1791’ by Karl Jauslin in 1902
Source: © Musée historique de Lausanne. 125

Published online by Cambridge University Press

 x List of illustrations

5.1 Erection of Liberty tree in Basle

Source: © Staatsarchiv Basle-Stadt, Bild Falk. A 536. 134
5.2 Louis Auguste Philippe d’Affry (first Landammann) with
Mediation text
Source: © Musée d’art et d’histoire Fribourg, MAHF 1995–047. 141
5.3 1832 Uster factory fire
Source: Etching by G. Werner © Zentralbibliothek Zürich. 152
5.4 Stephan Gutzwiller chairing the Basle Country Constituent
Assembly
Source: Swiss National Museum, LM-71015 153
5.5 Second Freischarenzug, 31 March 1845. Lithographie in
Chronik der Schweiz
Source: public domain 158
6.1 The first Swiss Federal Council
Source: public domain 163
6.2 1874 Constitution Commemoration sheet
Source: Swiss National Library NL Bern 173
6.3 Building the St Gotthard tunnel
Source: Swiss National Library NL Bern 183
6.4 Swiss manoeuvres in 1912, Kaiser Wilhelm II with the Boer
General Beyers
Source: © ETH-Bibliothek Zurich, Image Archive. 191
7.1 Mobilization of the 48th Battalion, 5 August 1914
Source: Andrew Whitmarsh, <www.switzerland1914-1918.net> 194
7.2 Troops in operation during the General Strike
Source: photograph by Adolf Moser, ‘Generalstreik, Zurich,
1918’, from the collection Fotostiftung Schweiz, Winterthur. 201
7.3 Cartoon satirizing the multiplicity of small Front organizations
Source: B. Junker and R. Maurer, Kampf und Verantwortung
(Berne, 1968) 207
7.4 Guisan at Rütli
Source: © General Henri Guisan Foundation. 214
7.5 Large gun in the Reduit
Source: © Herbert Maeder. 220
7.6 Churchill in Zurich, 1946
Source: Keystone/Photopress-Archiv 224
8.1 Nestlé HQ
Source: © Silvio Refondini 228
8.2 Woman and policeman at a Landsgemeinde
Source: photograph by Theo Frey, ‘Landsgemeinde, Trogen,
1968’ © Fotostiftung Schweiz, Winterthur 232

Published online by Cambridge University Press

 List of illustrations xi

8.3 The extent of Jurassian militancy

Source: © ETH-Bibliothek Zurich, Image Archive. 238
8.4 Christoph Blocher
Source: © Reuters/Denis Balibouse 248
9.1 Breakthrough of St Gotthard base tunnel c. 2010
Source: © Remy Steinegger/X00270/Reuters/Corbis 257
9.2 Anti-EEA Poster from 6 December 1992 votation campaign
Source: Bibliothèque de Genève © Schweizerische Volkspartei
des Kantons Bern 260
9.3 Landsgemeinde of canton Glarus
Source: © Staatskanzlei – Kanton Glarus 266
9.4 Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf
Source: © Swiss Federal Department of Finance FDF 273
9.5 Interdiction of Minarets poster
Source: Bibliothèque de Genève © Pierre-André Jacot 277

Every effort has been made to secure necessary permissions to

reproduce copyright material in this work, though in some cases it has
proved impossible to trace copyright holders. If any omissions are
brought to our notice, we will be happy to include appropriate
acknowledgements on reprinting or in any subsequent edition.

Published online by Cambridge University Press

 FIGURES

3.1 The constitutional structure of the Old Confederacy page 75

5.1 The organization of the Helvetic Republic 136
6.1 The modern Swiss political process 164

xii

Published online by Cambridge University Press

 MAPS

1.1 Switzerland: physical page 14

2.1 The early Confederacy 55
6.1 The modern 26-canton Switzerland 168

xiii

Published online by Cambridge University Press

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to acknowledge the generous help of the Swiss National

Fonds in providing us with the opportunity of spending time in
Switzerland working on the book, Head in Berne and Zurich and
Church in Fribourg. Equally, we must thank the host departments
concerned, the Institut für Schweizergeschichte and André Holenstein
in Berne, the Historisches Seminar and Simon Teuscher in Zurich, and
Institut für schweizerische Zeitgeschichte in Fribourg for providing
such welcoming and supportive environments. We also owe a great
deal to the Swiss libraries and institutions who have helped us, includ-
ing the National Library in Berne, the Schweizerisches Landesmuseum
in Zurich and the Swiss Historical Dictionary, and notably Lucienne
Hubler and Stephanie Summermatter.
On a more personal level, we have both contracted many debts of
gratitude to Swiss colleagues. In the initial gestation of the project, the
support of Thomas Cottier and Thomas Maissen was critical. They set
it on its way. Later Urs Altermatt, Catherine and Louis Bosshart, Paolo
Dardanelli, François Jequier, David Luginbühl, Thomas Metzger,
Carlo Moos, Damir Skenderovic, Siegfried Werklein and Michel
Walter all discussed, provided suggestions and, especially, read drafts
for Church. He is also grateful for the inspiration of the late
Christopher Hughes and for the help of Pro Helvetia in earlier times.
Regula Schmid read drafts of two chapters for Head, who also extends
thanks to Thomas Maier, Rainer Hugener and the historians at the
Arbeitsstelle Culmanstrasse for their support. Their friendship and
support were greatly appreciated. However, none of the above is
responsible for any of the work’s errors. Finally, we are also grateful
to anonymous readers, to Liz Friend Smith, Elizabeth Spicer and Jo
Breeze of CUP and their colleagues, and to the many Swiss individuals
and institutions who helped us with images, maps and charts.

xiv

Published online by Cambridge University Press

 ABBREVIATIONS

AIDS Acquired immune deficiency syndrome

AHV/AVS Old Age and Survivors’ pension system
ASUAG General Swiss Watch Industry Company Limited
(Allgemeine Schweizer Uhrenindustrie AG)
AUNS/ASIN Action for an Independent and Neutral Switzerland
BGB/PAB Burghers, Artisans and Peasants Party
COCOM [US] Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export
Controls
COMCO Swiss Federal Competition Commission
EFTA European Free Trade Association
EC European Community, later EU (European Union)
ECHR European Convention (or Court) on Human Rights
EEA European Economic Area
FDP Free Democratic Party (Radicals)
FINMA Swiss Financial Market Supervisory Authority
GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
GDP Gross Domestic Product
HSBC Hong-Kong and Shanghai Bank Corporation
MP Member of Parliament
NA Nationale Aktion gegen die Überfremdung von Volk und
Heimat
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NSDAP German National Socialist Workers party (Nazi Party)
OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development
OEEC Organization of European Economic Cooperation
PBD Conservative Democratic Party
SMH Swiss Corporation for Microelectronics and Watch-
making Industries Ltd (Société de Microélectronique
et d’Horlogerie)
SPS Swiss Social Democratic Party

xv

Published online by Cambridge University Press

 xvi List of abbreviations

SVP/UDC Swiss People’s Party

UBS formerly Union Bank of Switzerland; known simply as UBS
after its 1998 merger with Schweizerische Bankgesellschaft
UN United Nations
UNESCO United Nations’ Educational, Social and Cultural
Organization
UNICEF United Nations’ International Children’s Emergency Fund.
UNRRA United Nations’ Refugee Relief Agency
USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
VAT Value Added Tax

Published online by Cambridge University Press

 INTRODUCTION

Making the Swiss

Time, myth and history

Modern nations are layered entities embracing geographical regions,

their specific political systems, local populations and cultures, and
the various communities within and beyond them. When the nation
in question, like modern Switzerland, has clearly traceable roots that
go back 500 years and more, the layers become complex, woven into
a historical fabric that tenaciously influences how both insiders and
outsiders view it. Such a fabric is a critical feature of Switzerland’s
history. We can say with confidence that people calling themselves
‘Swiss’ have lived north of, and to some extent in and even south of,
the central Alps since the late 1400s. They took this name from
Schwyz, which was just one of the Orte (places) that made up the
Grosser Oberdeutscher Bund Stetten und Lender (Great Upper
German League of Cities and Territories) – the political alliance
that formed the core of what eventually became modern Switzerland.
This book traces a path that began among this loose network of
relatively autonomous communities north of the Alps – among them
Schwyz – that began joining into alliances by about 1300. These
developed into a ramshackle but surprisingly durable Confederacy
by the 1450s, and survived Europe’s tumults to become the multi-
lingual and multi-religious federal republic of 2013. Switzerland’s
relative political stability since its constitutional foundation in 1848,
in a Europe otherwise much troubled by political crisis, led many
observers to emphasize the continuity from those earliest associa-
tions to the present, and to pay much less attention to the many bitter
conflicts that divided the Swiss, and to the ties that linked them to

https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139013765.001 Published online by Cambridge University Press

 2 Introduction

other regions no longer part of Switzerland. Modern historians have

recovered the conflict as well as the continuity that characterized this
region – not least the four significant internal wars between 1444 and
1715 – leading to a more nuanced picture.
For all of its durability, the Swiss political system throughout its
evolution has also always been something of an outlier. In 1300, no
one expected the various leagues that were forming among modest
towns and thinly settled mountain valleys to replace the God-given
order of aristocracy and Holy Roman Emperor, even locally. In 1600,
an oath-bound Confederacy including both Catholics and Protestants
seemed out of place among the divinely appointed kings ruling their
(theoretically) orthodox subjects. And after 1800, the rising nation-
states of Europe, shaped by supposedly natural borders and idealized
ethnic unity, looked askance at the polyglot Confederation sprawled
messily, but sometimes threateningly, across the Alps. Never has
there been anything particularly natural about Switzerland. Neither
dynasty, nor religion, nor language ever united Switzerland’s denizens,
leaving history – the human capacity to adopt shared stories and to
imagine a community – as the primary foundation of modern Swiss
identity as it emerged and thrived. Indeed, the emergence of Swiss
identity around 1500 was specifically founded on the region’s history
as contemporaries understood it (but which, as modern historical
research shows, contained a good deal of myth). That identity, once
established, had important consequences for later developments,
because it could be adapted and revived as a foundation for political
and economic survival and success in the turbulent nineteenth and
especially twentieth centuries. Though Switzerland was conquered
and reconstituted during the Napoleonic Wars, and twice surrounded
and isolated during the wars from 1914 to 1945, its history (both as a
shared set of stories and as a long and legitimate political past) ensured
that a recognizable Switzerland re-emerged from each European cat-
astrophe, changed but not dissolved.
Understanding the modern nation-state of Switzerland therefore
requires considering both the empirical history of events and institu-
tions and the culturally embedded stories and myths that the Swiss
themselves accepted, and which thus shaped their options and
choices through the centuries. William Tell never existed, yet his
actions repeatedly affected the course of Swiss politics, as shown in

https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139013765.001 Published online by Cambridge University Press

 Introduction 3

the chapters that follow. Each chapter addresses not only the
dynamic events that characterized each period in the region that
became Switzerland, but also investigates the changing ways in
which the political actors understood their political world. That
world changed enormously from the 1300s to the twenty-first cen-
tury: not surprisingly, the Swiss people’s understanding of who they
were, politically, and what (if anything) held them together, changed
as well. Myth shaped history for the Swiss, just as history (re)wrote
their myths.
Before laying out the nine chapters through which this book tra-
verses Switzerland’s complex history, a double-edged question raised
by Jonathan Steinberg deserves our attention: ‘Why Switzerland?’ We
can ask, first, how and why it was that a separate modern nation-state –
one characterized both by a lasting dedication to direct-democratic
decision-making and by tenacious hesitation to follow the political
norms of their neighbours – emerged in this region, equally distinct
from the Italian city-states to the south, the French monarchy to the
west, and the princely Empire that became Germany and Austria to the
north and east. Neither dynasty, nor language, nor religion brought
about a Swiss national identity that could bolster a Swiss political
nation. Instead, modern Switzerland seems in an important sense the
result of its inhabitants’ own decisions – a Willensnation, a nation
resting on its inhabitants’ will – and of its own and its neighbours’
willingness to accept its various forms through the centuries as a single
and continuous political unit. In other words, although people often
overlook this today, Switzerland was – and is – a real polity with real
politics, and not an untroubled island set amidst spectacular mountain
scenery.
Second, we can ask why modern readers might be interested in the
many complex details of Switzerland’s past. One reason might be
that for thinkers from Jean-Jacques Rousseau in the eighteenth cen-
tury to various political theorists in the twentieth, Switzerland
seemed to provide a useful model for the political organization of
an often violent Europe – although attempts to apply a Swiss model,
from California to Yugoslavia, have met with mixed success. More
modestly, we can say that in addition to appealing to those interested
in understanding the – often ignored and misconstrued – Swiss of
today through their past, Switzerland’s history also helps us to

https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139013765.001 Published online by Cambridge University Press

 4 Introduction

broaden our understanding of the full range of political possibilities

available to Europeans through the centuries.
The chapters that follow provide a history of Switzerland as a
political entity and not just as a region. In consequence, the pre-
historical, Roman and early medieval events in and around the
Central Alps receive only the briefest mention in Chapter 1, along
with a sketch of modern Switzerland’s geography, since, as already
suggested, no such entity can be discerned before the 1300s. Most of
Chapter 1 thus concentrates on the period from about 1200 to the late
1300s, when a series of developments shared across Western Europe,
but inflected by this region’s location on a series of dynastic, linguistic
and cultural boundaries, opened up new political possibilities. The
decline of several major aristocratic lineages, most importantly the
Hohenstaufen, allowed lesser political forces north of the Alps to
flourish, including both regional families such as the Habsburgs
(whose subsequent career forms an essential part of European history)
and various urban and rural corporate associations. All of these, and
further players too, participated in a bewilderingly complex landscape
of feuds, alliances and ruptures that slowly consolidated into a new
configuration. Although all communities in the Confederacy that
began taking shape in the fourteenth century were Germanophone,
many of them maintained comparable ties to Italian, French and
Romansh-speaking neighbours, some of whom later became Swiss
themselves. The various corporate and communal associations,
including cities like Berne, Lucerne and Zurich, and rural valleys like
Glarus, Uri and the Haslital, increasingly joined together to contain
aristocratic violence and secure the peace. When the great demo-
graphic and economic crisis of the Black Death hit in 1348, the
region’s aristocracy suffered further losses, leaving alliances of com-
munes as the primary political force for a critical half-century, during
which they consolidated and worked out their first common laws.
In Chapter 2, we trace the series of internal and external struggles
that transformed the loose alliance networks of the later 1300s into a
more firmly constituted and militarily potent political actor, the Swiss
Confederacy (known in German as the Alte Eidgenossenschaft) that
came to dominate the Swiss region. First called ‘Swiss’ after military
victories against Habsburg forces in 1386, the members of the emerg-
ing Confederacy expanded their territorial and political scope by

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