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Functional Python Programming
Second Edition

Discover the power of functional programming, generator

functions, lazy evaluation, the built-in itertools library, and
monads

Steven F. Lott
BIRMINGHAM - MUMBAI
Functional Python
Programming Second
Edition
Copyright © 2018 Packt Publishing

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
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About the author
Steven F. Lott has been programming since the '70s, when
computers were large, expensive, and rare. He's been using
Python to solve business problems for over 10 years. His other
titles with Packt Publishing include Python Essentials,
Mastering Object-Oriented Python, Functional Python
Programming, and Python for Secret Agents. Steven is
currently a technomad who lives in city along the east coast of
the U.S. You can follow his technology blog (slott-
softwarearchitect).
About the reviewer
Yogendra Sharma is a developer with experience in
architecture, design, and development of scalable and
distributed applications. He was awarded a bachelor’s degree
from the Rajasthan Technical University in computer science.
With a core interest in microservices and Spring, he also has
hands-on experience in technologies such as AWS Cloud,
Python, J2EE, NodeJS, JavaScript, Angular, MongoDB, and
Docker.

Currently, he works as an IoT and Cloud Architect at Intelizign

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Preface
Functional programming offers a variety of techniques for
creating succinct and expressive software. While Python is not
a purely functional programming language, we can do a great
deal of functional programming in Python.

Python has a core set of functional programming features. This

lets us borrow many design patterns and techniques from other
functional languages. These borrowed concepts can lead us to
create succinct and elegant programs. Python's generator
expressions, in particular, negate the need to create large in-
memory data structures, leading to programs that may execute
more quickly because they use fewer resources.

We can’t easily create purely functional programs in Python.

Python lacks a number of features that would be required for
this. We don’t have unlimited recursion, for example, we don’t
have lazy evaluation of all expressions, and we don’t have an
optimizing compiler.

There are several key features of functional programming

languages that are available in Python. One of the most
important ones is the idea of functions being first-class
objects. Python also offers a number of higher-order functions.
The built-in map(), filter(), and functools.reduce() functions are
widely used in this role, and less-obvious are functions such
as sorted(), min(), and max().

We’ll look at the core features of functional programming from

a Python point of view. Our objective is to borrow good ideas
from functional programming languages and use those ideas to
create expressive and succinct applications in Python.
Who this book is for
This book is for programmers who want to create succinct,
expressive Python programs by borrowing techniques and
design patterns from functional programming languages. Some
algorithms can be expressed elegantly in a functional style; we
can—and should—adapt this to make Python programs more
readable and maintainable.

In some cases, a functional approach to a problem will also lead

to extremely high-performance algorithms. Python makes it
too easy to create large intermediate data structures, tying up
memory (and processor time.) With functional programming
design patterns, we can often replace large lists with generator
expressions that are equally expressive but take up much less
memory and run much more quickly.
What this book covers
Chapter 1 , Understanding Functional Programming, introduces
some of the techniques that characterize functional
programming. We’ll identify some of the ways to map those
features to Python. Finally, we’ll also address some ways that
the benefits of functional programming accrue when we use
these design patterns to build Python applications.

Chapter 2 , Introducing Essential Functional Concepts, delves

into six central features of the functional programming
paradigm. We’ll look at each in some detail to see how they’re
implemented in Python. We’ll also point out some features of
functional languages that don’t apply well to Python. In
particular, many functional languages have complex type-
matching rules required to support compiling and optimizing.

Chapter 3 , Functions, Iterators, and Generators, will show how

to leverage immutable Python objects, and generator
expressions adapt functional programming concepts to the
Python language. We’ll look at some of the built-in Python
collections and how we can leverage them without departing
too far from functional programming concepts.
Chapter 4 , Working with Collections, shows how you can use a
number of built-in Python functions to operate on collections
of data. This chapter will focus on a number of relatively simple
functions, such as any() and all(), which will reduce a collection
of values to a single result.

Chapter 5 , Higher-Order Functions, examines the commonly-

used higher-order functions such as map() and filter(). It also
shows a number of other functions that are also higher-order
functions as well as how we can create our own higher-order
functions.

Chapter 6 , Recursions and Reductions, teaches how to design an

algorithm using recursion and then optimize it into a high-
performance for loop. We’ll also look at some other reductions
that are widely used, including collections.Counter().

Chapter 7 , Additional Tuple Techniques, showcases a number of

ways that we can use immutable tuples (and namedtuples)
instead of stateful objects. Immutable objects have a much
simpler interface—we never have to worry about abusing an
attribute and setting an object into some inconsistent or invalid
state.

Chapter 8 , The Itertools Module, examines a number of functions

in this standard library module. This collection of functions
simplifies writing programs that deal with collections or
generator functions.
Chapter 9 , More Itertools Techniques, covers the combinatoric
functions in the itertools module. These functions are
somewhat less useful. This chapter includes some examples
that illustrate ill-considered use of these functions and the
consequences of combinatoric explosion.

Chapter 10 , The Functools Module, focuses on how to use some of

the functions in this module for functional programming. A few
functions in this module are more appropriate for building
decorators, and they are left for Chapter 11, Decorator Design
Techniques. The other functions, however, provide several
more ways to design and implement function programs.

Chapter 11 , Decorator Design Techniques, looks at how you can

look at a decorator as a way to build a composite function.
While there is considerable flexibility here, there are also some
conceptual limitations: we’ll look at ways that overly-complex
decorators can become confusing rather than helpful.

Chapter 12 , The Multiprocessing and Threading Modules, points

out an important consequence of good functional design: we
can distribute the processing workload. Using immutable
objects means that we can’t corrupt an object because of
poorly-synchronized write operations.

Chapter 13 , Conditional Expressions and the Operator Module,

lists some ways to break out of Python’s strict order of
evaluation. There are limitations to what we can achieve here.
We’ll also look at the operator module and how this can lead to
slight clarification of some simple kinds of processing.

Chapter 14 , The PyMonad Library, examines some of the features

of the PyMonad library. This provides some additional
functional programming features. It also provides a way to
learn more about monads. In some functional languages,
monads are an important way to force a particular order for
operations that might get optimized into an undesirable order.
Since Python already has strict ordering of f expressions and
statements, the monad feature is more instructive than
practical.

Chapter 15 , A Functional Approach to Web Services, shows how

we can think of web services as a nested collection of functions
that transform a request into a reply. We’ll see ways to leverage
functional programming concepts for building responsive,
dynamic web content.

Chapter 16 , Optimizations and Improvements, includes some

additional tips on performance and optimization. We’ll
emphasize techniques such as memoization, because they’re
easy to implement and can—in the right context—yield
dramatic performance improvements.
To get the most out of this
book
This book presumes some familiarity with Python 3 and
general concepts of application development. We won’t look
deeply at subtle or complex features of Python; we’ll avoid
much consideration of the internals of the language.

We’ll presume some familiarity with functional programming.

Since Python is not a functional programming language, we
can’t dig deeply into functional concepts. We’ll pick and choose
the aspects of functional programming that fit well with Python
and leverage just those that seem useful.

Some of the examples use exploratory data analysis (EDA)

as a problem domain to show the value of functional
programming. Some familiarity with basic probability and
statistics will help with this. There are only a few examples that
move into more serious data science.

You’ll need to have Python 3.6 installed and running. For more
information on Python, visit http://www.python.org/. The examples
all make extensive use of type hints, which means that the
latest version of mypy must be installed as well.
Check out https://pypi.python.org/pypi/mypy for the latest version of
mypy.

Examples in Chapter 9, More Itertools Techniques, use PIL and

Beautiful Soup 4. The Pillow fork of the original PIL library
works nicely; refer to https://pypi.python.org/pypi/Pillow/2.7.0 and http
s://pypi.python.org/pypi/beautifulsoup4/4.6.0 .

Examples in Chapter 14 , The PyMonad Library, use PyMonad;

check out https://pypi.python.org/pypi/PyMonad/1.3.

All of these packages should be installed using the following:

$ pip install pillow beautifulsoup4 PyMonad

Download the example
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Conventions used
There are a number of text conventions used throughout this
book.

CodeInText : Indicates code words in text, database table names,

folder names, filenames, file extensions, pathnames, dummy
URLs, user input, and Twitter handles. Here is an example:
"Python has other statements, such as global or nonlocal, which
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A block of code is set as follows:

s = 0
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Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
Ophthalmia, 261
Orfili tribe, 332
Oshar, a plant, 258
Ostrich, eggshells of, 97, 335, 336; drawings of, 335
Ovens, 73
Owana. See Owanat
Owanat, 130, 165, 197, 198, 300, 303, 305, 319-321

“Pace” eggs, 257

Palestine, 307
Pan-Islam, 20
Patron Saints, 132, 182
Peridots, 55
Persian dynasty in Egypt, 315
Perthes, Justus, map of, 321
Petrified wood, 90, 212
Phthisis, 261
Pigeons, 284
Pilgrimage to Mecca, 260
Pirate hordes, 214
Pneumonia, 261
“Pool of ink.” See Mandal
Pope, the, 106
Post office in Mut, 139
Pottery, 98, 318; dug up, 211, 214, 223
Pounding rice, 43, 265
Proportion, small sense of, in bedawin, 95
“Punishment of the Grave,” 255

Qadria dervishes, 134

Qala’a es Suri, 53
Qalamun, 48, 154, 317, 318
Qara, 23, 24, 28-34, 245; el Qara, 304
Qasr Dakhl, 40, 56-64, 83, 203, 236, 317; Sheykhs of, 57
„ Dush, 314, 315
„ el ’Aini hospital, 146
„ el Guehda, 32, 315
„ el Jaj Ahmer, 334
„ Farafra, 224-230, 244, 304, 319
„ Lebakha, 136, 137
„ Zaiyan, 32, 305, 314, 315
Qena, 293, 305
Qoreish tribe, 57
Qom el Gennah, 312
Quail, 230, 284
Qway, Hassan Qway, guide, 26, 27, 33, 35, 57, 62, 89, 102-105, 112-114, 123-
125, 132, 134-136, 138, 146-148, 150-152, 154-156, 158-161, 164-179,
182-192, 196-198, 221
Qwaytin Mohammed Said, guide, 199-212, 215-218, 220-222, 224, 225, 228,
231-235, 238, 239, 243, 245

Raba’a, a six-year-old camel, 35

Rabiat, a camel saddle, 33
Rahmania dervishes, 20
Railways, 23, 27, 28
Rain, 98, 291, 310
Rashida, 41, 48-57, 184, 193, 263-265, 317
Rashida, ’omda of, 45, 48-56, 76, 110, 144, 194
Rats, 88, 97, 288-292
Ravens, 284
“Reappearance” of the Senussi Mahdi, 109
Red Sea, 306
Redir, a hollow where rain-water collects, 97, 311
Refar, tribute, 20
Remedies for diseases, 261, 262
Reshaida tribe, 332
Resoling a camel, 35
Results of journeys, 246
Rice, 43
Rim, Loder’s gazelle, 282
Ringworm, 227
Roadh, a clump of bushes in the desert, 215, 311
Roads, caravan, 304-306, 309
Roads, disused, 77, 82, 87, 97, 98, 101, 112, 128, 130, 131, 135, 213, 215,
294, 305, 321
Rockets, use of, 176
Rohlfs, Gerard, 18, 52, 53, 84, 85, 297-299, 304
Rosaries, 186
Rotunda hospital, 146
Royal Geographical Society, 18, 214
Rushwork mats, etc., 314
Rusuf, a form of sand erosion, 28, 202, 308

Safar, an Arab month, 249

Sagia, a wheel for raising water, 75, 145
Sahara, 17
St. Thomas’s hospital, 146
St. Vitus’s Dance, 261
Saj, griddle, 34, 207
Salah Nejem ed Din, Turkish Sultan, 260
Saline land, 41, 229, 244, 280, 294
Salutations, 37
Sand and sand dunes, 18, 21, 31, 32, 36, 47, 48, 75, 77, 80, 82, 84, 85, 96, 97,
115, 127, 136, 203, 220, 221, 223, 225, 235, 236, 244, 246, 247, 262, 263,
293, 294, 299, 300, 302-307, 309, 318
Sand erosion, 28, 29, 202, 204, 216, 224, 308
Sand grouse, 284, 288
Sand storms, 93, 94, 234, 235, 307
Saraf. See Mandal
Sarra well, 296
“Satan’s country,” 47, 81
“Saying the fatha,” a marriage ceremony, 252
Schweinfurth, Prof., 315
Scorpions, 262, 282; charm against, 251, 258; scorpion proof platform, 282
“Seal of Solomon,” 332, 334
Sedis, seven-year-old camel, 35
“Sieving the baby” ceremony, 249, 250
Selima Oasis, 295, 305, 321
Senussia, the Senussi dervishes, 18-20, 25, 40, 60, 106-109, 131-134, 138,
139, 144-149, 154, 156-160, 183, 186, 190, 196-199, 207, 217, 223, 228,
229, 233, 245, 293, 301, 304, 319
Senussi, Sheykh of Mut, 44, 146, 147, 154, 237, 241
Senussi, Sheykh of Smint, 40, 184
Senussi invasion of Egypt, threatened, 106-109, 127
Senussi Mahdi, 106-109
Sha’aban, an Arab month, night of the middle of, ceremonies, 258, 259
Shadhlia dervishes, 109, 133, 182
Shadhly, Sheykh, founder of the Shadhlia, 109, 133
Shaduf, a machine for raising water, 48
Shager ed Durr, a Turkish Sultana, 260
Shebb, 305
Shellala Dehrania, 335
Shem en Nessim, smelling the breeze, an Egyptian feast, 193, 257
Sheykh, a religious or tribal leader
Sheykh Adam, tree of, 48
Sheykh el Afrit. See Magician
Shia Moslems, 256
Shurbuji family, 48
Sickle, toothed, 264
Sidra, Gulf of, 17
Sif, a longitudinal dune, 221, 235
Sight, keenness of, among bedawin, 85, 86, 180
“Silver fish,” 283
Simum, hot wind, 89, 90, 161, 257
Singing of camel drivers, 268-270
Sitra lake, 302, 304, 309
Siwa Oasis, 18, 53, 293, 301, 302, 304, 307, 319
Slave traders, 97, 320
Smint, 38, 146, 241, 317
Smint el Kharab, ruins, 37, 328
Smint, ’omda of, 38, 41
Smoking, 25, 39, 40, 227, 229
Snake bites, 282
Snakes, 251, 282, 283, 286
Snipe, 284
Sofut, a form of sand erosion, 87, 88, 97
Sohag, 305
Sollum, 146
Solomon, King, 54
“Song of the Sands,” 99, 100
Soul, tree with a, 48, 49, 263
Sound, clearness of, in desert, 171
Sparks. See Electricity
Spiders, 282
Spotted fox seen, 281
Statistics, 260, 261, 317-319
Storks, 288
Suleyman Awad, Sheykh, 24-27, 134-136, 148, 149
Sultan of Turkey, 106
Sundial, human, 313
Sunni Moslems, 106
Sunt, acacia
Sunt ’Abd en Nebi, 264
Superstitions, 48, 49, 113, 119, 140, 143, 145, 151, 152, 187, 194, 201, 212,
217, 249-251, 257, 262, 270-279, 286
Surat el Mulk, part of the Koran read after a funeral, 254
Surk, 199
Surveying methods, 86, 219, 223, 224
Sutary, clown, 252
Swallows, 287
Swimming bath, 193
Swing cradles, 260

Tabl beladi, a drum, 252

Tahdir, magician’s medium, 272-279
Taiserbo, 301
Talisman, 142, 143, 263
Taal’at, 105
Tamtam, tambourine, 72
Tar, tambourine, 253
Tarantulas, 282
Tawarek race, 25, 199, 335
Tchonemyris, ruined town, 314
Tea drinking, 39, 261
Temples. See Qasr
Tenida, 37, 157, 185, 241, 283, 303, 305, 317
Tenida, ’omda of, 139, 157, 241
Terfawi, 321
Thenni, four-year-old camel, 35
Thirst, expedients in case of, 170, 171
Thothmes III, 314
Thought transference, 278, 279
Thunderstorm, 99
Tibbus, 208, 210, 236, 295, 298, 301
Tibesti, 17, 109, 207, 210, 299, 301
Tidikelt, 334
Tifinagh, writing of the Tawarek, 25, 330, 334
Tijania dervishes, 20
Tikeru, 131, 296, 298, 299, 306
Tilho, Col., 297, 299, 300, 303, 320, 335
Timbuktu, 199
Tollab, 296-299
Town crier of Mut, 139, 140
Tracking Qway, 164-179
Tracks of cart, 83; of issulla, 285, 286; permanence of, in desert, 83, 87; of
Senussi couriers, 82, 83, 98
Trade winds, 306
Traps, 266-268
Treasure-hunting, 51, 58, 59, 76, 79, 144, 145, 203-223, 279
“Tree of extremity,” 258
Tree with a soul, 48
Tree worship, traces of, 263, 264
Trial of Qway, 187-191, 196
Tripoli, 107, 131, 135, 304
Tuggurt, 302
Tulsim, Talisman
Tumas, 305
Tunis, 21
Tunisian libraries, 19
Tunnelled streets, 313
Turkish revolution, 105, 106, 127
Turks in Kufara, 109
Twat Oases, 302, 330, 334, 335

Ulad ben Miriam tribe, 330

Ulad Mahmud tribe, 330
Um el Atham, 296
Um Shaloba, Mushaluba, 296

Valley of the Bedayat, 303

“Valley of the Mist,” 89, 92, 95, 96, 111, 151, 153, 154
“Valley of the Rat,” 88, 90, 95, 178
Vegetation. See Flora
Veil worn by women, 277
Venereal diseases, 261
Veterinary methods, 76, 204, 205
Viper, 283, 286

Wad Ghirh Oases, 302, 310, 311

„ Igharghar, 301, 302
„ Ighargharen, 301
„ Mihero, 301
„ Saura, 301
Wady Dom, 299
„ el Far. See “Valley of the Rat”
„ el Fardy, 301, 302, 304, 319
„ el Fede, 301
„ el Muluk, 54
„ esh Shabur. See “Valley of the Mist”
„ Howar, 297, 302
 „ Howash, 298
„ Kafut, 297
„ Kobay, 297
„ Ko’or, 302
„ Kuttum, 297, 303
„ Medjoures, 296
„ Meleeat, 297
„ Moghara, 304
„ Natrun, 304
„ Tibbu, 301
Wahatis, natives of the oases, 248
Wakwak islands, 214
Wall paintings, 314
Wanjunga Kebir, 131, 296, 300, 306
Wanjunga Sgheir, 131, 296, 300, 306
Wanjungat, the district containing the above two places
Waran, a large lizard, 285
Washing in the desert, 118
Wasm, tribal camel brand, 24-26, 73, 235, 330-333
Water, action of, in forming depressions, 294
Water tanks, 132, 161-164
“Watermelon” desert. See battikh
Wayta Kebir, 296, 298
Wayta Sgheir, 296, 298
Weather, 92, 98, 99
Wehda. See Qasr el Guehda
Wells. See Cultivation
Wind-blown grass, 96, 97
Wind scoop, 123
Wind shelters, 116, 117
Winds, 97, 299, 300, 306, 307, 310; influence of, in desert, 307-310
Wissa, Dr., 144-146
Wolves, 281, 288
Wood, petrified, 90

Yum Ashura, ceremonies on 10th of Moharrem, 256, 257

Yussef Effendi, tangerine oranges, 49

Zabit, police officer

Zaghawa tribe, 297
Zaiyan. See Qasr
Zawia, monastery, 20
„ at ’Ain Sheykh Murzuk, 225, 230
„ at Hindau, 238
„ at Qasr Dakhl, 40, 60-64, 134, 144, 145, 229, 242
„ at Qasr Farafra, 223, 228, 229
„ at Smint, 40, 154, 184
Zeffet el Arusa, procession of the bride, 252, 253
Zemzemia, water bag, 132
Zerzura Oasis, 51-54, 57, 58, 63, 75, 76, 78, 100, 101, 128, 145, 299, 304
Ziania dervishes, 20, 182
Zoazi tribe, 330
Zodiacal light, 307
Zowia tribe, 330
 FOOTNOTES:

[1]Trifolium Alexandrinum, L.
[2]Medicago Sativa (Lucerne).
[3]An ardeb = 300 lbs.
[4]Peasant of the Nile Valley or oasis.
[5]“The Libyan Desert from Native Information,” R.G.S.J.,
Sept., 1913.
[6]“Travels in the Libyan Desert,” R.G.S.J., Feb., 1912.
[7]“The Farafra Depression and Bu Mungar hattia,” R.G.S.J.,
Nov., 1913.
[8]“The Farafra Depression and Bu Mungar hattia,” R.G.S.J.,
Nov., 1913, pp. 455-461.
[9]“Travels in the Libyan Desert,” R.G.S.J., Feb., 1912.
[10]See R.G.S.J. “The Nature and Formation of Sand Ripples
and Dunes,” March, 1916, pp. 189-209. “Study of a Dune Belt,”
January, 1918, pp. 16-33. Discussion on the latter paper, April,
1918, pp. 250-258.
[11]“Customs, Superstitions and Songs of the Western Oases,”
Cairo, Aug., 1914.
[12]“Irrigation in Dakhla Oasis,” R.G.S.J., Nov., 1917.
[13]“The Geographical Distribution of some Plants from the
Libyan Desert,” Cairo, Oct., 1913.
[14]Calotropis procera.
[15]Malva parviflora, L.
[16]p. 146.
[17]p. 262.
[18]“North American Deserts.” Prof. D. T. MacDougal, R.G.S.J.
Vol. XXXIX, No. 2.
 [19]“Problems in Exploration: Africa.” By F. R. Cana, R.G.S.J.,
Nov., 1911, p. 464.
[20]See also “The Libyan Desert from Native Information,”
R.G.S.J., Sept., 1913.
[21]Hassanein Bey’s observations have shown that Rohlfs’
position for Boema in Kufara is some twenty-five miles in error.
[22]See note on p. 319.
[23]“The Sand Dunes of the Libyan Desert.” By H. L. Beadnell,
R.G.S. Vol. XXXV, p. 383
[24]p. 96.
[25]See p. 90.
[26]“Note sur quelques stations nouvelles, ou peu connu, de
pierres écrites du Sahara,” par M. Q. B. M. Flamand.
[27]Waddington and Hanbury, “Journal of a Visit to some parts
of Ethiopia,” 1882. Published by John Murray, Albemarle Street,
London, 268.
[28]Oric Bates, “Nomad Burials in Marmarica.” “Man,” Vol. XII.
No. 10.
[29]“Note sur quelques stations nouvelles, ou peu connu, de
pierres écrites du Sahara,” par G. M. B. Flamand, p. 9.
[30]Referred to by G. B. M. Flamand, op. cit.
 Transcriber's note:

pg 181 Changed: excessively attentuated to: attenuated

pg 205 Changed: probably ocherous to: ochreous
pg 223 Changed: for my longtitudes to: longitudes
pg 256 Changed: is the anniversay to: anniversary
pg 341 Changed: See Qasr el Gushda to: Guehda
The illustrations, 'Senussi Zawia at Smint', 'Old ’Alem, “Valley of the Mist”', listed
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Grouped-together captions within a plate have been individually placed under each
of their corresponding illustrations.
Minor changes in punctuation have been done silently.
Other spelling inconsistencies have been left unchanged.
New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the public domain.
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