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Springer Tracts in Mechanical Engineering
Saad Kashem
Romesh Nagarajah
Mehran Ektesabi
Vehicle
Suspension
Systems and
Electromagnetic
Dampers
Springer Tracts in Mechanical Engineering
Board of editors
Seung-Bok Choi, Inha University, Incheon, South Korea
Haibin Duan, Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Beijing,
P.R. China
Yili Fu, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, P.R. China
Carlos Guardiola, Universitat Politécnica de Valéncia, Valéncia, Spain
Jian-Qiao Sun, University of California, Merced, USA
About this Series
Within the scopes of the series are monographs, professional books or graduate
textbooks, edited volumes as well as outstanding PhD theses and books purposely
devoted to support education in mechanical engineering at graduate and post-
graduate levels.
Indexed by SCOPUS and Springerlink.
To submit a proposal or request further information, please contact: Dr. Leontina Di
Cecco Leontina.dicecco@springer.com or Li Shen Li.shen@springer.com.
Please check our Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering at http://www.springer.
com/series/11236 if you are interested in conference proceedings. To submit a pro-
posal, please contact Leontina.dicecco@springer.com and Li.shen@springer.com.
Mehran Ektesabi
Swinburne University of Technology
Melbourne, VIC
Australia
I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this manuscript. To the best of my
knowledge, the document contains no material previously published or written by
another person except where due reference is made in the text.
v
Acknowledgements
It is a pleasure to thank all the people who made this possible. It is my great pleasure
to offer warm thanks to Professor Saman Halgamuge who is the assistant dean of
the Melbourne School of Engineering at the University of Melbourne. The effort
and time he took to help me to validate the designed full car analytical model were
outstanding.
I have been privileged to work with and learn from Timothy Barry and Mehedi
Al Emran Hasan. They helped me to learn MATLAB/Simulink. I am also grateful
to them for helping me to get through the difficult times and for all the emotional
support.
It is my pleasure to thank Jason Austin, Simon Lehman and Alex Barry who
worked with me to set up and experiment the Quanser suspension plant. From my
supervision of their undergraduate final-year project on active suspension system, I
have learned many things.
I wish to thank Dr. Durul Huda for his time and patience in teaching me about the
dynamics of the full car model. I would like to thank the many people who have
taught me science, including my high school teachers (especially Abdul High) and
my undergraduate faculties at East West University (especially Md. Ishfaqur Raza
PhD, Dr. Ruhul Amin, Dr. Anisul Haque, Dr. Mohammad Ghulam Rahman,
Dr. Khairul Alam, Dr. Tanvir Hasan Morshed), for their wise advice, helping
with various applications and so on.
Lastly, and most importantly, I wish to thank my parents. They supported me
and loved me. To them I dedicate this book.
And special thanks to almighty Allah who made this book possible.
vii
Abstract
ix
x Abstract
This book has indicated the potential of the SKDT suspension system in improv-
ing cornering performances of the vehicle and paves the way for future work on
vehicle’s integrated system for chassis control.
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Control Strategies in the Design of Automotive Suspension
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3 Vehicle Suspension System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4 Design of Semi-active Suspension System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5 Full Car Model Cornering Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6 Simulation of Full Car Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
7 Experimental Analysis of Full Car Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
8 Conclusions and Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Appendix A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Appendix B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Appendix C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
xi
List of Figures
xiii
xiv List of Figures
Fig. 4.2 (a) The time histories of three classes of roads, (b) power spectral
density of three classes of road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Fig. 4.3 The time history of road profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Fig. 4.4 The sprung-mass acceleration of the passive and semi-active
suspension systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Fig. 4.5 The ride comfort performance comparison . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. 48
Fig. 4.6 The road-handling performance comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Fig. 4.7 Human vibration sensitivity test in frequency domain . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Fig. 4.8 Quanser suspension plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Fig. 4.9 Quanser suspension plant: (a) front top panel view, (b) Quanser
suspension system side view, (c) Quanser suspension plant. Front
bottom panel view, (d) Quanser suspension system bottom view,
(e) Quanser suspension system bottom view . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Fig. 4.10 The Quanser quarter-car model experimental setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Fig. 4.11 The Quanser suspension plant modelled in Simulink . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Fig. 4.12 DC-micro motor characteristics curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Fig. 4.13 The sprung-mass acceleration of the passive and semi-active
suspension systems (a) in a simulation environment, (b) in the
experimental setup . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . 60
Fig. 4.14 The ride comfort performance comparison (a) in simulation
environment, (b) through experimental setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Fig. 4.15 The road-handling performance comparison (a) in simulation
environment, (b) through experimental setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Fig. 4.16 Vertical vibration of car suspension in frequency domain . . . . . . . . 63
Fig. 5.1 A schematic diagram of a full vehicle active suspension
system . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . 66
Fig. 5.2 Free body diagram of a bicycle model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Fig. 5.3 Stable and unstable lateral forces acting on a static vehicle . . . . . . 69
Fig. 5.4 (a) Acting torque on the vehicle body, (b) front view of the tilting
vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Fig. 5.5 Driving scenario one . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Fig. 5.6 Driving scenario two . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Fig. 5.7 Driving scenario three . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 74
Fig. 5.8 Driving scenario four . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 75
Fig. 6.1 Simulink model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Fig. 6.2 The frequency domain response of the car body vertical
acceleration to road class A: (a) at narrow frequency range and
(b) at broad frequency range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Fig. 6.3 The frequency domain response of the car body pitch angular
acceleration to road class A: (a) at narrow frequency range and
(b) at broad frequency range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Fig. 6.4 The time domain response of vehicle body vertical acceleration
to road class A: (a) full trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . 84
List of Figures xv
Fig. 6.5 The time domain response of vehicle pitch angular acceleration
to road class A: (a) full trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . 85
Fig. 6.6 The time domain response of vehicle pitch angular acceleration
to road class A: (a) full trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . 86
Fig. 6.7 The frequency domain response of the car body vertical
acceleration to road class B: (a) at narrow frequency range and
(b) at broad frequency range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Fig. 6.8 The frequency domain response of the car body pitch angular
acceleration to road class B: (a) at low frequency and (b) at broad
frequency range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Fig. 6.9 The time domain response of vehicle body vertical acceleration
to road class B: (a) full trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . 89
Fig. 6.10 The time domain response of vehicle pitch angular acceleration
to road class B: (a) full trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . 90
Fig. 6.11 The time domain response of the vehicle sprung mass m1 vertical
displacement to road class B: (a) full trajectory and (b) short
time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Fig. 6.12 The frequency domain response of the car body vertical
acceleration to road class C: (a) at narrow frequency range and
(b) at broad frequency range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Fig. 6.13 The frequency domain response of the car body pitch angular
acceleration to road class C: (a) at narrow frequency range and
(b) at broad frequency range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Fig. 6.14 The time domain response of vehicle body vertical acceleration
to road class C: (a) full trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . 94
Fig. 6.15 The time domain response of vehicle pitch angular acceleration
to road class C: (a) full trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . 95
Fig. 6.16 The time domain response of the vehicle sprung mass m1 vertical
displacement to road class C: (a) full trajectory and (b) short
time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Fig. 6.17 The frequency domain response of the car body vertical
acceleration to the combined road: (a) at narrow frequency range
and (b) at broad frequency range . . .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. 97
Fig. 6.18 The frequency domain response of the car body pitch angular
acceleration to the combined road: (a) at narrow frequency range
and (b) at broad frequency range . . .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. 98
Fig. 6.19 The time domain response of vehicle body vertical acceleration
to the combined road: (a) full trajectory and (b) short time
span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Fig. 6.20 The time domain response of vehicle pitch angular acceleration
to the combined road: (a) full trajectory and (b) short time
span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Fig. 6.21 The time domain response of the vehicle sprung mass m1 vertical
displacement to the combined road: (a) full trajectory and
(b) short time span .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . 101
xvi List of Figures
Fig. 6.22 The response of steering and bank angle in driving scenario one:
(a) desired tilting angle, (b) required actuator force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Fig. 6.23 The vehicle body vertical acceleration for driving scenario one:
(a) full trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Fig. 6.24 The pitch angular acceleration for driving scenario one: (a) full
trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Fig. 6.25 The roll angular acceleration for driving scenario one: (a) full
trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Fig. 6.26 The lateral acceleration for driving scenario one: (a) full
trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Fig. 6.27 The vehicle sprung mass m1’s vertical displacement for driving
scenario one: (a) full trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . . . . 108
Fig. 6.28 The rollover threshold in driving scenario one: (a) full trajectory
and (b) short time span . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . 109
Fig. 6.29 The response of steering and bank angle in driving scenario two:
(a) desired tilting angle, (b) required actuator force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Fig. 6.30 The vehicle sprung mass m1’s vertical displacement for driving
scenario two: (a) full trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . . . . 111
Fig. 6.31 The vehicle body vertical acceleration for driving scenario two:
(a) full trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Fig. 6.32 The pitch angular acceleration for driving scenario two: (a) full
trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Fig. 6.33 The roll angular acceleration for driving scenario two: (a) full
trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Fig. 6.34 The lateral acceleration for driving scenario two: (a) full
trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Fig. 6.35 The rollover threshold in driving scenario two: (a) full trajectory
and (b) short time span . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . 116
Fig. 6.36 The response of steering and bank angle in driving scenario three:
(a) desired tilting angle, (b) required actuator force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Fig. 6.37 The vehicle sprung mass m1’s vertical displacement for driving
scenario three: (a) full trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . . 118
Fig. 6.38 The vehicle body vertical acceleration for driving scenario three:
(a) full trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Fig. 6.39 The pitch angular acceleration for driving scenario three: (a) full
trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Fig. 6.40 The roll angular acceleration for driving scenario three: (a) full
trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Fig. 6.41 The lateral acceleration for driving scenario three: (a) full
trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Fig. 6.42 The rollover threshold in driving scenario three: (a) full trajectory
and (b) short time span . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . 123
Fig. 6.43 The response of steering and bank angle in driving scenario four:
(a) desired tilting angle, (b) required actuator force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
List of Figures xvii
Fig. 6.44 The vehicle sprung mass m1’s vertical displacement for driving
scenario four: (a) full trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . . . 125
Fig. 6.45 The vehicle body vertical acceleration for driving scenario four:
(a) full trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Fig. 6.46 The pitch angular acceleration for driving scenario four: (a) full
trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Fig. 6.47 The roll angular acceleration for driving scenario four: (a) full
trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Fig. 6.48 The lateral acceleration for driving scenario four: (a) full
trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Fig. 6.49 The rollover threshold in driving scenario four: (a) full trajectory
and (b) short time span . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . 130
Fig. 6.50 The frequency domain response of the car body vertical
acceleration: (a) at narrow frequency range and (b) at broad
frequency range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Fig. 6.51 The frequency domain response of the car body pitch angular
acceleration (a) at narrow frequency range and (b) at broad
frequency range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Fig. 6.52 The frequency domain response of the car body roll angular
acceleration (a) at narrow frequency range and (b) at broad
frequency range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Fig. 6.53 The response of steering and bank angle in driving scenario four
and road class C: (a) desired tilting angle, (b) required actuator
force . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . 134
Fig. 6.54 The vehicle body vertical acceleration for driving scenario four
and road class C: (a) full trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . 135
Fig. 6.55 The pitch angular acceleration for driving scenario four and road
class C: (a) full trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Fig. 6.56 The roll angular acceleration for driving scenario four and road
class C: (a) full trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Fig. 6.57 The lateral acceleration for driving scenario four and road class
C: (a) full trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Fig. 6.58 The vehicle sprung mass m1’s vertical displacement for driving
scenario four and road class C: (a) full trajectory and (b) short
time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Fig. 6.59 The rollover threshold in driving scenario four and road class C:
(a) full trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Fig. 6.60 Vehicle body vertical acceleration comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Fig. 6.61 Vehicle body pitch angular acceleration comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Fig. 6.62 Vehicle body roll angular acceleration comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Fig. 6.63 Vehicle body lateral acceleration comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Fig. 6.64 Vehicle road handling performance comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Fig. 7.1 Quanser simulink model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Fig. 7.2 Quanser intelligent suspension plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
xviii List of Figures
Fig. 7.3 The vehicle front left sprung mass vertical displacement . . . . . .. . . 146
Fig. 7.4 The frequency response of vehicle body vertical acceleration:
(a) at narrow frequency range and (b) at broad frequency
range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Fig. 7.5 The frequency domain response of the car body pitch angular
acceleration: (a) at narrow frequency range and (b) at broad
frequency range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Fig. 7.6 The frequency domain response of the car body roll angular
acceleration: (a) at narrow frequency range and (b) at broad
frequency range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Fig. 7.7 The response of steering and bank angle in driving scenario four
and road class C: (a) desired tilting angle and (b) required
actuator force . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . 150
Fig. 7.8 The vehicle body vertical acceleration for driving scenario four
and road class C: (a) full trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . 151
Fig. 7.9 The pitch angular acceleration for driving scenario four and road
class C: (a) full trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Fig. 7.10 The roll angular acceleration for driving scenario four and road
class C: (a) full trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Fig. 7.11 The lateral acceleration for driving scenario four and road class
C: (a) full trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Fig. 7.12 The vehicle sprung mass m1’s vertical displacement for driving
scenario four and road class C: (a) full trajectory and (b) short
time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Fig. 7.13 The rollover threshold in driving scenario four and road class C:
(a) full trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Fig. 7.14 Vehicle body vertical acceleration comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Fig. 7.15 Vehicle body pitch angular acceleration comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Fig. 7.16 Vehicle body roll angular acceleration comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Fig. 7.17 Vehicle body lateral acceleration comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Fig. 7.18 Vehicle road handling performance comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Fig. 7.19 The vehicle rear right sprung mass vertical displacement . . . . . . . . 158
Fig. 7.20 The frequency response of vehicle body vertical acceleration:
(a) at narrow frequency range and (b) at broad frequency
range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Fig. 7.21 The frequency response of vehicle body pitch angular
acceleration: (a) at narrow frequency range and (b) at broad
frequency range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Fig. 7.22 The frequency response of vehicle body roll angular acceleration:
(a) at narrow frequency range and (b) at broad frequency
range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Fig. 7.23 The response of steering and bank angle in driving scenario four
and road class C: (a) desired tilting angle and (b) required
actuator force . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . 162
Fig. 7.24 The vehicle body vertical acceleration for driving scenario four
and road class C: (a) full trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . 163
List of Figures xix
Fig. 7.25 The pitch angular acceleration for driving scenario four and road
class C: (a) full trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Fig. 7.26 The roll angular acceleration for driving scenario four and road
class C: (a) full trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Fig. 7.27 The lateral acceleration for driving scenario four and road class
C: (a) full trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Fig. 7.28 The vehicle sprung mass m3’s vertical displacement for driving
scenario four and road class C: (a) full trajectory and (b) short
time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Fig. 7.29 The rollover threshold in driving scenario four and road class C:
(a) full trajectory and (b) short time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Fig. 7.30 Vehicle body vertical acceleration comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Fig. 7.31 Vehicle body pitch angular acceleration comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Fig. 7.32 Vehicle body roll angular acceleration comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Fig. 7.33 Vehicle body lateral acceleration comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Fig. 7.34 Vehicle road handling performance comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Fig. A1 Determine lateral position acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Fig. A2 Determine the front and rear tires lateral forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
List of Tables
xxi
Chapter 1
Introduction
Abstract In this chapter, background of this book has been described. Motivation
and methodologies has been depicted in the later section. A brief outline of this
manuscript has been included in the last section.
1.1 Background
dynamic control strategies. With active components, these systems can provide
adjustable spring stiffness and damping coefficients adapted to various road
conditions.
Since the early 1970s, many types of active and semi-active suspension systems
have been proposed to achieve better control of damping characteristics. Although
the active suspension system shows better performance in a wide frequency range,
its implementation complexity and cost prevent wider commercial applications.
That is why the semi-active suspension system has been widely studied to achieve
1.1 Background 3
actuators are used as an element of the secondary active suspension system. These
actuators are named as bolsters. In a road vehicle, actuators are also used to affect
the vehicle roll angle via an active suspension system. Since the beginning of the
1950s, there has been extensive work done in developing the narrow tilting vehicle
by both the automotive industry [22–25] and academic researchers [26–30].
This particular small and narrow geometric property of the vehicle poses stabil-
ity problems when the vehicle needs to corner or change a lane. There are also two
types of control schemes that have been used to stabilize the narrow tilting vehicle.
These control schemes are defined as direct tilt control (DTC) and steering tilt
control (STC) systems as detailed in [27, 31, 32]. A typical passenger vehicle body
can be tilted up to ten degrees as the maximum suspension travel is around 0.25 m.
Then, the lateral acceleration of the tilted vehicle caused by gravity can reach a
maximum of about 0.17 g [33]. Since the lateral acceleration produced by normal
steering manoeuvres is around 0.3–0.5 g, the active or semi-active suspension
systems have the potential of improving vehicle ride handling performance
[33]. Semi-active or active suspension systems can act promptly to tilt the vehicle
with the help of semi-active dampers or actuators. However, the active suspension
systems need to avoid over-sensitive reaction to driver’s steering commands for
vehicle safety. Recently Bose Corporation presented the Bose suspension system
[34] in which the high-bandwidth linear electromagnetic dampers improved vehicle
cornering. It is able to counter the body roll of the vehicle by stiffening the
suspension while cornering. Car giant Nissan has developed a four-wheeled ground
vehicle named Land Glider [35]. The vehicle body can lean into a corner up to 17
for sharper handling considering the speed, steering angle and yaw rate of the
vehicle. In addition, in the works stated above and other research, the effect of road
bank angle is neither considered in the control system design nor in the dynamic
model of the tilting standard passenger vehicles [26, 27, 31, 32, 36–44]. Not
incorporating the road bank angle creates a non-zero steady-state torque require-
ment. So this phenomenon needs to be addressed while designing the tilt control
and the dynamic model of the full car model. To lean a vehicle which incorporates
the road bank angle, the response time of the actuator or semi-active damper plays
an important role.
The majority of the semi-active suspension systems use pneumatic or hydraulic
solutions as the actuator or semi-active damper [45–49]. These systems are char-
acterized by high force and power densities but suffer from low efficiencies and
response bandwidths. Commercial systems incorporating electromagnetic elements
(combine rotary actuators and mechanical elements) illustrate the properties of the
magneto-rheological fluids in damper technology to provide adjustable spring
stiffness. However, linear electromagnetic actuators appear as a better solution
for a semi-active suspension system in respect of their high force densities, form
factor, and response bandwidth. The motivation and the methodology of this
manuscript are described in the next section.
1.2 Motivation and Methodologies 5
this manuscript has nine degrees of freedom: the heave modes of four wheels and
the heave, lateral, roll, pitch and yaw modes of the vehicle body.
Another major objective of this manuscript is to improve the performance of
vehicles during cornering with little or no skidding using a new approach. That
approach tilts the standard passenger vehicle inward during cornering or sudden
lane change with consideration of the road bank angle, the steering angle, lateral
position acceleration, yaw rate and the velocity of the vehicle. The suspension
system considered here consists of the linear electromagnetic damper (LEMD) in
parallel with the conventional mechanical spring and damper. This manuscript has
two goals, firstly to find out the possibilities of tilting a car inward through a semi-
active suspension system and secondly to improve the vehicle ride comfort and road
handling performance. The stability control algorithm for tilting vehicles has been
designed in such a way that the driver does not need to have special driving skills to
operate the vehicle. In this manuscript, the shortcomings of existing direct tilt
control systems are addressed. At first, a dynamic model of a tilting vehicle
which considers the road bank angle is designed. Then an improved direct tilt
control system along with the modified skyhook control system design is presented.
This system takes into account the steering angle, the road bank angle, lateral
position acceleration, yaw rate and the velocity of the vehicle. A yaw-rate sensor
and a lateral acceleration sensor are placed at the vehicle. The job of these sensors is
to monitor the movement of the car body along the vertical axis. The combined
control system will do a comparative analysis of the target value calculated and the
actual value based on the driver’s input through the steering. Then control system
will make a decision considering the road bank angle, lateral position acceleration,
yaw rate and velocity of the vehicle. The moment the car begins to turn, the control
system will intervene by applying a precisely metered electromagnetic force using
the separate linear electromagnetic damper placed at each wheel. This lifts up the
side of the vehicle’s body opposite to the centre of the turn and turns down the side
which is on the same side of the turning point. This will make a certain angle
between the vehicle body and the road as directed by the controller. This angle,
between the road and the vehicle body, will move the vehicle’s centre of gravity
towards the turning point and will help the driver to turn smoothly using less road
surface. Moreover, it will support the vehicle as it turns with more speed without
skidding. This manuscript does not develop a new semi-active suspension physical
model or a linear electromagnetic damper. The application of semi-active suspen-
sion with linear electromagnetic suspension system is suggested due to their
reliability and effectiveness over other technology and for practical
implementation.
To achieve the manuscript objectives, this research makes effective use of
different analysis methods, including MATLAB/Simulink simulation processes
and real-time tests and experiments where applicable. The next section outlines
the structure of the whole manuscript.
1.3 Outline 7
1.3 Outline
Following this introduction chapter, the remainder of the manuscript is divided into
seven more chapters. Chapter 2 includes an extensive review of the literature on
different types of semi-active suspension control systems. Five widely known
control approaches are reviewed more deeply. Since the damper plays an important
role in the semi-active suspension system design, different types of damper tech-
nologies are discussed including Quanser electromagnetic damper which has been
used in the experimental analysis of this manuscript. Also described is the tilting
vehicle technology designed and developed by both the automotive industry and
academic researchers.
In Chap. 3, the vehicle suspension system is categorized and discussed briefly.
High- and low-bandwidth suspension system is also discussed. This chapter also
examines the uncertainties in modelling a quarter-car suspension system caused by
the effect of different sets of suspension parameters of a corresponding mathemat-
ical model. From this investigation, a set of parameters were chosen which showed
a better performance than others in respect of peak amplitude and settling time.
These chosen parameters were then used to investigate the performance of a new
modified continuous skyhook control strategy as set out in Chap. 4.
Chapter 4 consists of a brief discussion on the proposed modified skyhook
control approach, optimal skyhook control of Nguyen et al. [51], modified skyhook
control of Bessinger et al. [15] and continuous skyhook control of Karnopp et al.
[14]. A road profile was generated to study the performance of the different
controllers. The two degrees of freedom quarter-car model described in Chap. 3
was simulated to compare the controller’s performances. Quanser quarter-car
suspension plant has been also used to compare the performance of the controllers
in the experimental environment. These models have also been evaluated in terms
of human vibration perception and admissible acceleration levels based on ISO
2631 in this chapter.
Chapter 5 presents a methodology on how to integrate the proposed skyhook
control in a full car model to improve ride comfort and handling via a semi-active
suspension system. A technique to determine the vehicle rollover propensity to
avoid tipping over is also described. The road profile and four driving scenarios are
discussed in this chapter briefly which form a basis for the analysis described in the
next two chapters. A method to determine the admissible acceleration level based
on ISO 2631 is also discussed in this chapter. The next chapter contains the
simulation results of the semi-active suspension system developed as described in
this chapter.
In Chap. 6, the analysis of the simulation results of the dynamic model of a full
car model which considers the road bank angle is presented. The first section
describes the parameters of the full car that were used in the analysis model and
the environment of the simulation. The second section describes the performance of
the proposed skyhook control system under different road conditions. In the third
section, the performance of the combined approach, the proposed skyhook
8 1 Introduction
controller activated with the direct tilt control, is evaluated in different driving
scenarios. The next section is comprised of the summary of the simulation while the
vehicle is travelling on road class C and following driving scenario four.
In Chap. 7, the analysis of the dynamics of a full car model is presented. It
incorporates the response of the Quanser quarter-car suspension plant as one of the
four wheels of the full car model. The performance of the combined approach
where the proposed skyhook controller is activated along with the direct tilt control
is evaluated in Sects. 7.2 and 7.3 at frequency domain and time domain.
Chapter 8 presents the overall conclusion of this book, followed by future
research recommendations.
Chapter 2
Control Strategies in the Design of Automotive
Suspension Systems
Abstract In the literature available, many robust and optimal control approaches
or algorithms were found in the design of automotive suspension systems. In this
chapter, some of these will be reviewed such as the linear time-invariant H-infinity
control (LTIH), the linear parameter-varying control (LPV) and model-predictive
controls (MPC). Five widely known control approaches, namely, the linear qua-
dratic regulator (LQR) and linear quadratic Gaussian (LQG), sliding mode control
(SMC), fuzzy and neuro-fuzzy control, skyhook and groundhook approaches, are
reviewed more deeply. Since the damper plays an important role in the semi-active
suspension system design, different types of damper technologies are discussed in
the second section. This includes the Quanser electromagnetic damper that was
used in the experimental analysis in this manuscript. Another major objective of
this manuscript is to tilt the standard passenger vehicle inward during cornering. So
a brief literature review on automotive tilting technology is included in the last
section.
In general, a controlled system consists of a plant with sensors and actuators, and a
control method is called a semi-active control strategy. A semi-active system is a
compromise between the active and passive systems. It offers some essential
advantages over the active suspension systems. The active control system depends
entirely on an external power source to control the actuators and supply the control
forces. In many active suspension applications, this control approach needs a large
power source. On the other hand, semi-active devices need a lot less energy than the
active ones. Another critical issue of the active control system is the stability
robustness problem with respect to sensors or the whole system failure; this issue
becomes a big concern when centralized controllers are employed in vehicle
suspension design. The semi-active control device is similar to the passive devices
in which properties of the damper can be adjusted such that spring stiffness and
damping coefficient of the damper can be changed; thus, they are robustly stable.
That is why the semi-active suspension system is widely used in the automotive
industry.
Since Karnopp et al. [52] developed the skyhook control strategy, extensive
research has been done in semi-active control strategies [1–11]. Most of this
research has been done to find practical and easy implementation methods or to
achieve a higher level of vibration isolation or both. Adaptive-passive and semi-
active vibration isolation is able to change the suspension system properties, such as
spring stiffness and damping rate of the damper or actuator as a function of time.
But the properties are changed relatively slowly in an adaptive-passive suspension
system. However, in the semi-active system, the suspension properties are able to
change within a cycle of vibration. The linear quadratic control is able to achieve
both comfort and road holding improvements through the semi-active or active
suspension system. But it requires the full-state measurement or estimation which is
difficult to achieve [53, 54]. Linear time-invariant H-infinity control (LTIH) is able
to provide better results, improving both ride comfort and road handling, ensuring
predefined frequency behaviour [54]. Due to the fixed weights, this control system
is limited to provide fixed performances [55, 56]. In 2006, Giorgetti et al. [57]
compared different semi-active control strategies based on optimal control. They
proposed a hybrid model with predictive optimal controller [54]. This control law is
implemented via a hybrid controller, which is able to switch between large numbers
of controllers that depend on the function of the prediction horizon [54]. It also
requires a full-state measurement which is difficult to achieve. Recently, the uses of
linear parameter-varying (LPV) approaches have become quite popular [54, 58,
59]. An LPV controller can either improve the robustness considering the non-
linearities of the system or adapt the performances according to measured signals of
road displacement and suspension deflection [54, 56, 60]. Another MPC system has
been proposed by Canale et al. in 2006 [61]. The MPC controller is able to provide
good performances, but it requires an online fast optimization procedure [54]. As it
involves optimal control approach, a good knowledge of the model parameters and
the full-state measurements is necessary to design the control system
[54, 62]. Choudhury et al. [63] compared active and passive control strategies
based on PID controller. There are many semi-active control systems designed,
implemented and tested by many researchers. A few of them are described briefly in
the following subsections.
In the field of vehicle suspension control systems, the LQR approach is a widely
used and studied control system. It has been studied and derived for a simple
quarter-car model [64], half-vehicle model [65] and also full-vehicle model
[66]. An optimal result is possible to achieve when the factors of the performance
index such that acceleration of the body and dynamic tyre load variation are taken
into account. In the LQR approach, a state estimator must be utilized if all the states
2.1 Control Strategies 11
are not available in the system, such as tyre deflections are difficult to measure in a
moving vehicle. An estimator can narrow the phase margin of the LQR suspension
system to a great extent, but it heightens the stability problems of the vehicle,
especially if the suspension system is a fully active system. To solve this problem,
Doyle and Stein proposed that the desired gain and phase properties can be obtained
with a proper choice of estimator gains [67]. When implementing the LQR system
on a full vehicle, another problem arises. The Riccati equation of the LQR system
must be solved numerically for a full-vehicle model. The equation becomes very
complex even though the vehicle is assumed to be symmetrical, and all the
nonlinear effects created by the inertial effects and kinematical properties of the
suspension system are not included. Different types of numerical algorithms are
proposed to solve this issue, but none of them could guarantee convergence and the
stability of the solution. The possibility of achieving a convergent solution
decreases significantly when the number of actuator decreases or the order of the
control system increases, or both, in the same system [68].
The LQR approach has also the inability to take the changes in steady state into
consideration. These changes are caused by the change of payload at steady-state
cornering of the vehicle. Elmadany and Abduljabbar [64] discussed a method to
overcome this problem. That method is integral control. The task of integral control
is to ensure the zero steady-state offset which would be applied to a quarter-car
model. For a full-vehicle model, the integrator itself can deteriorate the perfor-
mance of the controller. The proper selection of the integrator term and the gain of
the integration time are a difficult problem in this approach due to the external
forces caused by the non-zero offset which varies widely.
The optimal control method has been commonly used to accomplish a better
comfort or handling the performance of a vehicle. Hrovat [69] has done extensive
research with half-car models, full-car models, one degree of freedom models and
two degrees of freedom models. He minimized the cost functions of the system
combining excessive suspension stroke, sprung-mass jerk and sprung-mass accel-
eration together using linear quadratic (LQ) optimal control.
Shisheie et al. [70] presented a novel algorithm based on the LQR approach. It is
able to optimally tune the PI controller’s gains of a first order plus time-delay
system. In this approach, the cost function’s weighting matrices are adjusted by
damping ratio and the natural frequency of the closed-loop system. In 1995, Prokop
and Sharp [71] used LQR and LQG optimal control theories utilizing road preview
data or information to get better ride quality. But the fact is, with respect to the
system modelling errors, the LQG controller is less robust, and still today, deter-
mining the weighting coefficients for the LQG is a very hard job. According to Shen
[72], most of the weighting coefficients for LQG/LQR control have been concluded
by trial and error. Shen also revealed that the renowned skyhook feedback strategy
provides the best outputs for the optimal feedback gain which reduces the mean
square control effort and the cost function of the sprung mass’ mean square
velocity.
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annan sinulle shillingin', niin se ei ole minun syyni, äiti.»
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tekemistä tämän asian kanssa — vaan teillä», ilmoitti Maggy
kääntyen Arthurin puoleen. »Teidän pitäisi nyt tulla sinne ja sinne,
jotta voisin antaa ne teille.»
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minulle ne tässä vain», sanoi Clennam matalalla äänellä.
Kun hän oli palannut Pikku Dorritin luo ja he taas olivat alkaneet
kävellä, sanoi tämä äkkiä:
»Luulen, että minun on paras lähteä nyt. Minun on paras mennä
kotiin.»
»Niin, toivon, että asia on niin. Mutta minun olisi kuitenkin paras
mennä kotiin! Vain muutama päivä takaperin sanoi sisareni, että
minä olen niin tottunut vankilaan, että olen omistanut sen sävyn ja
luonteen. Niin kai onkin. Olen varma siitä, että niin on, kun näen
kaiken tämän. Minun paikkani on siellä. Sinne sovin parhaiten.
Menettelen sydämettömästi ollessani täällä, silloin kun voisin tehdä
edes jotakin siellä. Hyvästi! Paljon parempi on, että pysyn kotona!»
Tuskainen tapa, jolla hän sanoi tämän, aivan kuin se olisi itsestään
purkautunut hänen ahdistetusta sydämestään, liikutti niin Clennamia,
että hänen oli vaikea pidättää kyyneleitään kuunnellessaan ja
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»Toivon, etten tee sitä, oi, toivon, etten tee sitä! Mutta minun on
parempi pysyä siellä, menettelen paremmin, uskollisemmin ja
onnellisemminkin, jos pysyn siellä. Pyydän, älkää seuratko minua,
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Kiitos, kiitos.»
Koneet käynnissä
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katsotte sopivaksi. Minä olen luvannut selittää sen, mihin tahdotte
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muusta.»
Näihin aikoihin oli Arthur nostanut heille tuolit. Kun Flora vaipui
omaansa, loi hän Clennamiin yhden entisiä katseitaan.
»Olen hyvin iloinen siitä, että tulitte», vastasi Clennam, »ja kiitän
teitä, Flora, siitä, että ystävällisesti muistitte minua».
Tässä sattui pieni keskeytys, kun mr F:n täti teki seuraavan tiukan
ja kammottavan huomautuksen:
»Mutta minä kiellän sen, Flora. Minun oli aikomus piankin tulla
luoksenne ystävälliselle vierailulle.»
»No tietysti», vastasi Flora; »ja kaikista oudoista nimistä joita olen
kuullut on se oudoin se on kuin kaukana maalla oleva paikka jossa
on sulkupuomi tai kuin mielipony tai nukke tai lintu tai jotakin
siemenkaupasta saatua joka pistetään puutarhaan tai kukka-astiaan
josta se sitte nousee kirjavana näkyville».
»Mr Casby oli siis, Flora, niin ystävällinen, että mainitsi teille Pikku
Dorritista, niinkö?» kysyi Arthur, jolle keskustelu äkkiä tuli
mielenkiintoiseksi. »Mitä hän sanoi?»
»Oh, tehän tiedätte millainen isä on», vastasi Flora, »ja kuinka
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jos katselee häntä, hän sanoi kun puhuimme teistä — en tiedä
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tässä asiassa».
»Minä uskon, Flora», sanoi hän, »että, se työ, jonka voitte antaa
Pikku
Dorritille, ja hyvyys, jota voitte osoittaa hänelle —»
»Te iloitsette siitä, että hänen käy hyvin», selitteli Pancks, »mutta
se ei olisi ollut teidän syynne, jos hänen olisi käynyt huonosti. Teillä
ei ole tässä ansiota enempää kuin olisi ollut häpeätäkään, jos asiat
olisivat kääntyneet niin päin. Teillä ei ole mitään edesvastuuta. Te
ette tiedä hänestä mitään.»
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