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Mirza Hasanuzzaman Editor

Agronomic
Crops
Volume 2: Management Practices
Agronomic Crops
Mirza Hasanuzzaman
Editor

Agronomic Crops
Volume 2: Management Practices
Editor
Mirza Hasanuzzaman
Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture
Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University
Dhaka, Bangladesh

ISBN 978-981-32-9782-1    ISBN 978-981-32-9783-8 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9783-8

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
This book is dedicated to
Sher-e-Bangla A.K. Fazlul Huq
(26 October 1873—27 April 1962)
Founder of “The Bengal Agricultural Institute”
(Now, Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University)
Preface

The history of agriculture has played a major role in human development, as agri-
cultural progress has been a crucial factor in worldwide socioeconomic change.
Since the ancient civilizations, human being has been trying to explore new food
crops. In the course of time, the demands for foods are increasing, and people are
trying to rely on formal cropping practices. Agronomic crops fulfill most of the
basic demands of human life such as food, fuel, fiber, medicine, etc. Based on the
uses of crops, agronomic crops have been classified on different types such as cere-
als, pulses, oil crops, fodder crops, green manuring crops, sugar crops, narcotic
crops, beverage crops, etc. Plant breeders have been developing many improved
varieties of such crops every year to boost up the global production. However, in
most of the cases, yield gaps exist in the farmers’ fields due to lack of proper agro-
nomic management.
Crop management, therefore, becomes an integral part of food production.
“Agronomy” is such a solution to make the crop field capable of securing the poten-
tial yield. Literally, it means the art of managing fields, and technically, it means the
science and economics of crop production by the management of farmland. On the
other hand, it is the art and science in production and improvement of field crops
with the proper use of soil fertility, water, labor, and other factors related to crop
production. Agronomy is the management of land for the cultivation of crop plants.
The central theme of agronomy is the soil-plant-environment interrelationship.
Both soil resources and climate have been changing globally, which makes crop
production challenging. The basic agronomic principles can ensure the maximum
yield from a crop variety, such as proper land preparation, selection of quality seeds
and suitable varieties, proper water management, nutrient management, accurate
pest management, proper harvesting, and postharvest operations. However, these
activities should be chosen based on several factors like crop varieties, land types,
agroclimate, etc. Choosing suitable cropping patterns and practicing crop rotation
and multiple cropping also play an important role in enhancing land-use efficiency
and crop stands.
Agricultural practices such as irrigation, crop rotation, fertilizers, and pesticides
were developed long ago but have made great strides in the past century. Due to the
global climate change, agronomic crops have been suffering from various abiotic
and biotic stresses like salinity, drought, floods, toxic metals/metalloids, extreme
temperatures, atmospheric pollutants, UV radiations, pests, etc. A substantial

vii
viii Preface

portion of crop yield is being declined every year due to the adverse effect of
stresses. Therefore, researchers are trying to address these problems, working to
explore the stress tolerance mechanisms, and manipulating adaptive features.
The knowledge of agronomic crops is essential for all agricultural graduates and
scientists, not only with a view to understanding their cultivation practices but also
with the objectives to know many academic and scientific details of each crop. This
book covers comprehensive information on the advanced production of agronomic
crops. Attempts have been made to cover all important field crops. Latest aspects
about the cultivation practices, varieties, resource management, plant protection,
along with quality aspects and postharvest practices are discussed in a crisp manner.
The book must be immensely useful to all graduate students, faculty, and research-
ers in the field of agronomy and crop science.
This is the second volume (Management Practices) of the three-volume book
Agronomic Crops. In this volume, different management practices and the basic
principles and practices of field crop production as well as the advancement in
research are presented.
I would like to give special thanks to the authors for their outstanding and timely
work in producing such fine chapters. We are highly thankful to Dr. Mamta Kapila
(Senior Editor, Life Science) and Ms. Raman Shukla (Senior Editorial Assistant)
Springer, India, for their prompt responses during the acquisition. We are also
thankful to Daniel Ignatius Jagadisan, Project Coordinator of this book, and all
other editorial staff for their precious help in formatting and incorporating editorial
changes in the manuscripts. Special thanks to Prof. Dr. Md. Fazlul Karim, Taufika
Islam Anee, Dr. Md. Mahabub Alam, Mr. Abdul Awal Chowdhury Masud, Naznin
Ahmed, and Tonusree Saha, Department of Agronomy, Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural
University, Bangladesh, for their generous help in formatting the manuscripts. The
editors and contributing authors hope that this book will include a practical update
on our knowledge for the role of plant nutrients in abiotic stress tolerance.

Dhaka, Bangladesh Mirza Hasanuzzaman

Contents

1 Crop Rotation: Principles and Practices ����������������������������������������������    1

Asif Tanveer, Rao Muhammad Ikram, and Hafiz Haider Ali
2 Improving Water Use Efficiency in Agronomic Crop Production������   13
Syed Ahsan Zahoor, Shakeel Ahmad, Ashfaq Ahmad, Aftab Wajid,
Tasneem Khaliq, Muhammad Mubeen, Sajjad Hussain,
Muhammad Sami Ul Din, Asad Amin, Muhammad Awais,
and Wajid Nasim
3 Carbon Dioxide Enrichment and Crop Productivity ��������������������������   31
Mukhtar Ahmed and Shakeel Ahmad
4 Soil Management for Better Crop Production and Sustainable
Agriculture������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   47
Niaz Ahmed, Sajid Masood, Shakeel Ahmad, Safdar Bashir,
Sajjad Hussain, Waseem Hassan, Rafiq Islam Khandekar,
Baqir Hussain, and Muhammad Arif Ali
5 Tillage Effects on Agronomic Crop Production������������������������������������   73
Allah Wasaya, Tauqeer Ahmad Yasir, Muhammad Ijaz,
and Shakeel Ahmad
6 Alternate Wetting and Drying System
for Water Management in Rice�������������������������������������������������������������� 101
Khuram Mubeen and Khawar Jabran
7 Tools and Techniques for Nitrogen Management in Cereals �������������� 111
Ahmad Naeem Shahzad and Shakeel Ahmad
8 Biological Nitrogen Fixation in Nutrient Management������������������������ 127
Muhammad Naeem Khan, Muhammad Ijaz, Qasim Ali,
Sami Ul-Allah, Abdul Sattar, and Shakeel Ahmad
9 Use of Biofertilizers for Sustainable Crop Production ������������������������ 149
Rana Nauman Shabbir, Hakoomat Ali, Fahim Nawaz,
Shabir Hussain, Ahsan Areeb, Naeem Sarwar,
and Shakeel Ahmad

ix
x Contents

10 Organic Manuring for Agronomic Crops���������������������������������������������� 163

Qasim Ali, Sana Ashraf, Muhammad Kamran, Muhammad Ijaz,
Abdul Rehman, Muhammad Tahir, and Shakeel Ahmad
11 Nitrogen Fixation in Nutrient Management������������������������������������������ 195
Asif Tanveer, Hafiz Haider Ali, and Rao Muhammad Ikram
12 Weed Seed Bank: Impacts and Management
for Future Crop Production�������������������������������������������������������������������� 207
Adyant Kumar, Tapasya Choudhary, Susmita Das,
and Santosh K. Meena
13 Weed Management for Healthy Crop Production�������������������������������� 225
Arslan Masood Peerzada, Syed Asad Hussain Bukhari,
Muhammad Dawood, Aamir Nawaz, Shakeel Ahmad,
and Steve Adkins
14 Integrated Weed Management for Agronomic Crops�������������������������� 257
Muhammad Azim Khan, Shakeel Ahmad, and Ali Raza
15 Optimizing Herbicide Use in Herbicide-­Tolerant Crops:
Challenges, Opportunities, and Recommendations������������������������������ 283
Arslan Masood Peerzada, Chris O’Donnell, and Steve Adkins
16 Non-chemical Weed Management for Field Crops ������������������������������ 317
Omer Farooq, Khuram Mubeen, Hafiz Haider Ali,
and Shakeel Ahmad
17 Beneficial Effects of Weed Endophytic Bacteria:
Diversity and Potentials of Their Usage
in Sustainable Agriculture���������������������������������������������������������������������� 349
Kaniz Fatema, Nur Uddin Mahmud, and M. Tofazzal Islam
18 Pest Management for Agronomic Crops������������������������������������������������ 365
Muhammad Razaq, Farhan Mahmood Shah, Shakeel Ahmad,
and Muhammad Afzal
19 Integrated Pest and Disease Management for Better Agronomic
Crop Production�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 385
Samiya Mahmood Khan, Sajid Ali, Aamir Nawaz,
Syed Asad Hussain Bukhari, Shaghef Ejaz, and Shakeel Ahmad
20 Green Manuring for Soil Health and Sustainable
Production of Agronomic Crops ������������������������������������������������������������ 429
Asif Tanveer, Hafiz Haider Ali, and Nabeel Ahmad Ikram
21 Plant-Microbe Interactions in Agronomic Crops���������������������������������� 445
Imran
22 Mycorrhiza in Sustainable Crop Production���������������������������������������� 461
S. P. Singh and M. K. Singh
Contents xi

23 The Role of Mucuna pruriens in Smallholder Farming

Systems of Eastern and Southern Africa: A Review ���������������������������� 485
Tarirai Muoni, Ingrid Öborn, Blessing Mhlanga, Irene Okeyo,
Mary Mutemi, and Alan Duncan
24 Scientific Interventions to Improve Land and Water Productivity
for Climate-­Smart Agriculture in South Asia���������������������������������������� 499
Rajan Bhatt, Akbar Hossain, and Pritpal Singh
25 Adaptation Strategies to Mitigate the Evapotranspiration
for Sustainable Crop Production: A Perspective
of Rice-­Wheat Cropping System������������������������������������������������������������ 559
Rajan Bhatt, Akbar Hossain, and Mirza Hasanuzzaman
26 Tools and Techniques of Postharvest Processing of Food Grains
and Seeds�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 583
Irfan Afzal, Sania Zahid, and Saira Mubeen
27 Nanotechnology and Its Role in Agronomic Crops������������������������������ 605
Rakhi Mahto, Neha Chatterjee, Tannu Priya,
and Rajesh Kumar Singh
28 Role of ICT in Crop Management���������������������������������������������������������� 637
Musaddiq Ali, Muhammad Mubeen, Nazim Hussain, Aftab Wajid,
Hafiz Umar Farid, Muhammad Awais, Sajjad Hussain,
Waseem Akram, Asad Amin, Rida Akram, Muhammad Imran,
Amjed Ali, and Wajid Nasim
Editor and Contributors

About the Editor

Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of

Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University in
Dhaka. He received his Ph.D. on “Plant Stress
Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism” from Ehime
University, Japan. Later, he completed his postdoc-
toral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences,
University of the Ryukyus, Japan. He was also the
Recipient of the Australian Government’s Endeavour
Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an
Adjunct Senior Researcher at the University of
Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current
work is focused on the physiological and molecular
mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. He has
published over 80 articles in peer-reviewed journals,
edited 6 books, and written 30 book chapters.
According to Scopus®, his publications have received
roughly 4000 citations with an h-index of 33. He is an
Editor and Reviewer for more than 50 peer-reviewed
international journals and was a Recipient of the
“Publons Peer Review Award 2017, 2018 and 2019.”
He has been honored by different authorities for his
outstanding performance in different fields, like
research and education, and has received The World
Academy of Sciences Young Scientist Award (2014).

xiii
xiv Editor and Contributors

Contributors

Steve Adkins School of Agriculture and Food Sciences (SAFS), The University of
Queensland, Gatton, QLD, Australia
Irfan Afzal Seed Physiology Lab, Department of Agronomy, University of
Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Muhammad Afzal University College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha,
Sargodha, Pakistan
Ashfaq Ahmad Program Chair, Climate Change, US.-Pakistan Centre for
Advanced Studies in Agriculture and Food Security, University of Agriculture,
Faisalabad, Pakistan
Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Shakeel Ahmad Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University,
Multan, Pakistan
Mukhtar Ahmed Department of Agricultural Research for Northern Sweden,
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden
Department of Agronomy, Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University,
Rawalpindi, Pakistan
Department of Biological Systems Engineering, Washington State University,
Pullman, WA, USA
Niaz Ahmed Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agricultural Science and
Technology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Rida Akram Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University
Islamabad (CUI), Vehari Campus, Islamabad, Pakistan
Waseem Akram Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University
Islamabad (CUI), Vehari Campus, Islamabad, Pakistan
Amjed Ali University College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Sargodha,
India
Hafiz Haider Ali University College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha,
Sargodha, Pakistan
Muhammad Nawaz Shareef University of Agriculture Multan, Multan, Punjab,
Pakistan
Hakoomat Ali Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences &
Technology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Muhammad Arif Ali Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agricultural Science
and Technology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Musaddiq Ali Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University
Islamabad (CUI), Vehari Campus, Islamabad, Pakistan
Editor and Contributors xv

Qasim Ali College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Layyah,

Pakistan
Sajid Ali Department of Horticulture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan,
Pakistan
Asad Amin Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University
Islamabad (CUI), Vehari Campus, Islamabad, Pakistan
Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University
of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
Ahsan Areeb Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences &
Technology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Sana Ashraf Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of
Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Muhammad Awais Department of Agronomy, The Islamia University, Bahawalpur,
Pakistan
Safdar Bashir University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Sub-campus Depalpur,
Okara, Pakistan
Rajan Bhatt Regional Research Station, Kapurthala, Punjab Agricultural
University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India
Syed Asad Hussain Bukhari Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya
University, Multan, Pakistan
Neha Chatterjee Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences,
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Tapasya Choudhary Seed Science and Technology, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, India
Susmita Das Department of Agronomy, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
Kalyani, West Bengal, India
Muhammad Dawood Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Muhammad Sami Ul Din Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS
Institute of Information Technology, Vehari, Pakistan
Alan Duncan International Livestock Research Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Shaghef Ejaz Department of Horticulture, Bahauddin Zakariya University,
Multan, Pakistan
Hafiz Umar Farid Department of Agricultural Engineering, Bahauddin Zakariya
University, Multan, Pakistan
Omer Farooq Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan,
Pakistan
xvi Editor and Contributors

Kaniz Fatema Institute of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering (IBGE),

Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University, Gazipur,
Bangladesh
Waseem Hassan Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of
Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, MNS University of Agriculture, Multan,
Pakistan
Akbar Hossain Wheat Research Centre, Bangladesh Agricultural Research
Institute, Dinajpur, Bangladesh
Baqir Hussain Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of
Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, MNS University of Agriculture, Multan,
Pakistan
Nazim Hussain Division of Agronomy, Bangladesh Wheat and Maize Research
Institute, Dinajpur, Bangladesh
Sajjad Hussain Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS Institute of
Information Technology, Vehari, Pakistan
Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agricultural Science and Technology,
Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad (CUI),
Vehari Campus, Islamabad, Pakistan
Shabir Hussain Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences &
Technology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Muhammad Ijaz College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Layyah,
Pakistan
Nabeel Ahmad Ikram MNSUA, Multan, Pakistan
Rao Muhammad Ikram MNSUA, Multan, Pakistan
Imran Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Peshawar, Pakistan
Muhammad Imran Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS
University Islamabad (CUI), Vehari Campus, Islamabad, Pakistan
M. Tofazzal Islam Institute of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering (IBGE),
Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University, Gazipur, Bangladesh
Khawar Jabran Department of plant production and technologies, Faculty of
agricultural sciences and technologies, Nidge Omer Halisdemir University, Nidge,
Turkey
Muhammad Kamran Department of Agronomy, University College of
Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan
Tasneem Khaliq Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad,
Pakistan
Editor and Contributors xvii

Rafiq Islam Khandekar College of Food, Agricultural, and Environmental

Sciences, The Ohio State University, Piketon, OH, USA
Muhammad Azim Khan Department of Weed Science, The University of
Agriculture, Peshawar, Pakistan
Muhammad Naeem Khan College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University,
Layyah, Pakistan
Samiya Mahmood Khan Department of Plant Pathology, Bahauddin Zakariya
University, Multan, Pakistan
Adyant Kumar Department of Agronomy, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
Kalyani, West Bengal, India
Nur Uddin Mahmud Institute of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering
(IBGE), Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University, Gazipur,
Bangladesh
Rakhi Mahto Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences,
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Sajid Masood Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agricultural Science and
Technology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Santosh K. Meena Department of Agronomy, Bidhan Chandra Krishi
Viswavidyalaya, Kalyani, West Bengal, India
Blessing Mhlanga University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
Khuram Mubeen Department of Agronomy, Muhammad Nawaz Shareef
University of Agriculture Multan, Multan, Punjab, Pakistan
Muhammad Mubeen Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS
Institute of Information Technology, Vehari, Pakistan
Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad (CUI),
Vehari Campus, Islamabad, Pakistan
Saira Mubeen Seed Physiology Lab, Department of Agronomy, University of
Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Tarirai Muoni Crop Production Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural
Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
International Livestock Research Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Mary Mutemi World Agroforestry Centre, Nairobi, Kenya
Wajid Nasim Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University
Islamabad (CUI), Vehari Campus, Islamabad, Pakistan
Aamir Nawaz Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
xviii Editor and Contributors

Fahim Nawaz Department of Agronomy, MNS University of Agriculture, Multan,

Pakistan
Chris O’Donnell School of Agriculture and Food Sciences (SAFS), The University
of Queensland, Gatton, QLD, Australia
Ingrid Öborn Crop Production Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural
Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
World Agroforestry Centre, Nairobi, Kenya
Irene Okeyo World Agroforestry Centre, Nairobi, Kenya
Arslan Masood Peerzada School of Agriculture and Food Sciences (SAFS), The
University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD, Australia
Tannu Priya Department of Plant Physiology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences,
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Ali Raza Department of Agronomy, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan
Muhammad Razaq Department of Entomology, Bahauddin Zakariya University,
Multan, Pakistan
Abdul Rehman College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Layyah,
Pakistan
Naeem Sarwar Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences &
Technology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Abdul Sattar College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Layyah,
Pakistan
Rana Nauman Shabbir Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agricultural
Sciences & Technology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Farhan Mahmood Shah Department of Entomology, Bahauddin Zakariya
University, Multan, Pakistan
Ahmad Naeem Shahzad Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya
University Multan, Pakistan
M. K. Singh Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras
Hindu University, Varanasi, India
Pritpal Singh Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Mansa, Punjab Agricultural University,
Ludhiana, Punjab, India
Rajesh Kumar Singh Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences,
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
S. P. Singh Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras
Hindu University, Varanasi, India
Editor and Contributors xix

Muhammad Tahir Departments of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS Vehari

Campus, Vehari, Pakistan
Asif Tanveer University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Sami Ul-Allah College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Layyah,
Pakistan
Aftab Wajid Agro-Climatology Lab, Department of Agronomy, University of
Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Allah Wasaya College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Layyah,
Pakistan
Tauqeer Ahmad Yasir College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University,
Layyah, Pakistan
Sania Zahid Seed Physiology Lab, Department of Agronomy, University of
Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Syed Ahsan Zahoor Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS Institute
of Information Technology, Vehari, Pakistan
Crop Rotation: Principles and Practices
1
Asif Tanveer, Rao Muhammad Ikram, and Hafiz Haider Ali

Abstract
Crop rotation has been practiced from the time immemorial, and every farmer is
quite familiar with it. If only one crop is sown in a particular field year after year,
the roots of the crop extract nutrients from the same depth of soil every year,
exhausting the rhizosphere and thus causing reduction in the crop yield. In order
to maintain the achievable yield potential, it is therefore necessary to take mea-
sures to improve soil fertility and productivity. It can be done by leaving field
fallow and by adding nutrients in the form of organic manures and chemical
fertilizers. In view of rapidly growing population of world fallowing a large area
for a long period of time is not practicable. Crop rotation may be defined as a
system of raising crops in a regular order one after the other on the same piece of
land keeping in view that fertility of land may not be adversely affected and
farmers profit out of land may not be reduced. We classify the crops according to
the residual effect on the soil, i.e., Exhaustive rotation: It includes more number
of exhaustive crops which take up the plant food nutrients and leave the soil poor
in fertility, e.g., wheat, cotton, field mustard, and maize. Restorative rotation: It
includes those crops which improve the soil fertility. These include leguminous
crops and exhaustive crops. Managing croplands according to nature’s principles
will reduce weed problems in all crops, and crop rotation has long been recog-
nized for its ability to prevent weeds from developing to serious levels. Crop
rotation limits the build-up of weed populations and prevents major weed species
shifts. In a crop rotation, the timing of cultivation, fertilization, herbicide appli-
cation, and harvesting changes from year to year. Rotation thus changes the

A. Tanveer (*)
University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
R. M. Ikram
MNSUA, Multan, Pakistan
H. H. Ali
College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 1

M. Hasanuzzaman (ed.), Agronomic Crops,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9783-8_1
2 A. Tanveer et al.

growing conditions year to year, a situation to which few weed species easily
adapt. Rotations that include clean-cultivated annual crops, tightly spaced grain
crops, and grazed perennial sod crops create an unstable environment for weeds.
Additional weed control may be obtained by including short-season weeds
smothering crops such as sorghum sudan grass.

Keywords
Rotation · Cultivation · Soil · Crop

1.1 Introduction: Concept of Crop Rotation

Crop rotation has been practiced in the world from the time immemorial, and every
farmer is quite familiar with it. If only one crop is sown in a particular field year
after year, the roots of the crop extract nutrients from the same depth of soil every
year, exhausting the rhizosphere and thus cause reduction in the crop yield.
Monoculture also tends to upset the nutrient balance at different soil depths by
drawing heavily on certain crop nutrients and leaving excessive amount of other
nutrients unused. Thus the yield of the crops decreases continuously, and crop cul-
tivation becomes unprofitable.
In order to maintain the achievable yield potential, it is, therefore, necessary to
take measures to improve soil fertility and productivity. It can be done by leaving
field fallow and by adding nutrients in the form of organic manures and the chemi-
cal fertilizers. In view of rapidly growing population of the world, fallowing a large
area for a long period of time is not practicable. The fertilizers are not available
everywhere at all the time of the year particularly in remote areas. Small land hold-
ers cannot afford to apply various costly fertilizers at the proper time and thus get
low crop yield. Crop rotation is a technique which avoids the soil depletion, the
problem associated with fallowing and the use of chemical fertilizers.
Crop rotation may be defined as a system of raising crops in a regular order one
after the other on the same piece of land keeping in view that fertility of land may
not be adversely affected, and farmers profit out of land may not be reduced.
The practice of crop rotation is ancient in its use and is widely recognized as a
foundation stone of good agricultural practices.

1.2 Principles of Setting Different Crop Rotations

1. Crops belonging to the same natural order (family) should not follow one
another.
2. The deep-rooted crop should be followed by shallow-rooted crop and vice
versa.
3. Exhaustive crops (e.g., cereals which take more nutrients from soil and do not
add anything to it) should be followed by restorative crops (e.g., legume crops
1 Crop Rotation: Principles and Practices 3

which not only take nutrients from the soil but at the same time also add nutri-
ents to soil).
4. Green manure preferably legume crops should be included in the rotation.
5. The fodder crops should also be included in the rotation.
6. Diseases susceptible crops should be followed by disease-resistant crops.
7. Alternating crops with different peak requirements of labor, water and fertil-
izer, etc. should be included in crop rotation.
8. Long duration crops should be followed by short duration crops.
9. Crops with problematic weeds should be followed by clean crops/multicut
crops (fodders) and other dissimilar crops.
10. Broadleaved crops should be rotated by narrow-leaved crops.
11. The crops with taproot should be followed by the crops with fibrous root sys-
tem. This helps in proper and uniform use of soil nutrients from different
depths.
12. Both wide spaced crops and thickly planted crops should be included in rota-
tion for control of weeds. Wide spaced crops control weeds due to frequent
interculturing and dense forage or legume crops controls weeds by suppressing
weeds.
13. Effect of previous crop on succeeding crop should be considered for obtaining
maximum yield and good quality of produce.
14. The selection of crops should be problem based, e.g., on sloppy lands, an alter-
nate cropping of erosion-promoting (erect growing crops like millet, etc.) and
erosion-resisting crops (spreading types like legumes) should be adopted.
15. Selection of crops should suit the farmer’s financial conditions.
16. In case of rainfed farming, some minor winter crops requiring less moisture like
pulses may be grown on moisture retentive soils after harvest of summer crops.
17. Crops with minimum water requirements should be grown in periods of water
deficiency in canal irrigated areas.
18. The rotation should be flexible enough to allow the farmers to make changes in
the selection of crops with fluctuation in the economic condition of farmer and
market demand and price.

1.3 Factors Affecting Rotation

1.3.1 Natural Environmental Conditions

Climate is the one of most important factors which affects the crop rotation either
by wind, precipitation, humidity, light, or temperature. Climate is the dominant fac-
tor in determining which crops will grow. We should consider the annual rainfall of
a region and water requirements of crops during the different crop rotations. In the
high temperature region, we should keep the heat-tolerant crops in our crop
rotation.
4 A. Tanveer et al.

1.3.2 Availability of Labor

While setting a rotation, the type of manual labor, power, and its availability for
working different tillage operations affects the crops in rotation. The labor is
required at the critical stages of crop if the labor is not available at that time the crop
may cause loss. Some farms require more labor than others, e.g., a market garden
will employ more laborers than a sheep farm. Growing crops in a polytunnel (plastic
tunnel greenhouse) to protect them from frosts and improve plant growth require
extra inputs in the form of labor and work.

1.3.3 Irrigation Facilities

The types of crop will be different for rotation in irrigated areas as compared to rota-
tion in arid or rainfed areas. As per availability of irrigation water, two or three crops
are taken in a year on same land under irrigated conditions. However a dry crop
should be included in the rotation to avoid damage to the soil due to continuous
irrigation. We should consider total water discharge (canal and tube well water)
while setting a rotation.

1.3.4 Situation of Farm

The type of crop and duration of rotation will be affected when farm is situated near
the city as compared to country side.

1.3.5 Availability of Fertilizer

If fertilizer is available easily at cheaper rate, the crop rotation will be different as
compared to that where fertilizer is not available and is very costly. If the fertilizer
is available easily at cheaper rates, the duration of the rotation will be less and vice
versa.

1.3.6 Type of Soil

While setting the rotation, nature (texture) of the soil and whether that is fertile or
poor should be kept in mind. Sandy soils are less productive than silts, while soils
containing clay are the most productive and use fertilizers most efficiently. Fertile
and well-drained soil should be utilized for important rotation, less fertile soil for
soil improving crops (legumes) and salt tolerant crops on saline or alkali soils.
1 Crop Rotation: Principles and Practices 5

1.3.7 Type of Farming

The nature of farming effects the rotation. The crops in vegetable farming will be
different as compared to those in arable farming (general field crops).

1.3.8 Size of the Farm

On small farms the crops in rotation will be different in comparison to the big farms.
Large farms often have rotations that include multiyear perennial crops. Farmers
with limited acreage rely on short-term crops in place of multi-season crop
rotations.

1.3.9 Profitability, Marketing, and Processing Facilities

The challenge of a good crop rotation system is to grow the type and quantity of
crops needed to ensure the farm’s profitability while continually building soil qual-
ity for long-term productivity. Most farms grow many different crops. Every crop is
not equally profitable, and some crops are highly profitable but have limited markets
and processing facilities. Selection of crops should be demand based, i.e., the crops,
which are needed by the people or area. So that produce can be sold at a higher
price. The area devoted to each crop should be constant from year to year.

1.3.10 Government Policy

Subsidies, loans, and tax reductions on different crops affect selection of crops for
rotation.

1.3.11 Finance

Money is needed for farm buildings, wages, seed, animal feed, fertilizers, pesti-
cides, and machinery. All these things affect crop rotation.

1.4 Classification of Crop Rotation

Crop rotation may be classified.

6 A. Tanveer et al.

1.4.1 According to the Residual Effect on the Soil

It is further classified into two subgroups.

• Exhaustive rotation: It includes more number of exhaustive crops which take up

the plant food nutrients and leave the soil poor in fertility, e.g., wheat-cotton-field
mustard-maize.
• Restorative rotation: It includes those crops which improve the soil fertility.
These include leguminous crops and exhaustive crops.

a. Guar bean – Wheat – Field – Cotton

mustard
b. Wheat – Summer fodder – Barseem – Cotton
c. Wheat – Gram – Cotton

1.4.2 According to Their Period or Succession of Crops

It is further divided into two subgroups.

1. Fixed Rotation

No change is made in the sequence of crops, and the same sets of crops are
grown in succession on the same piece of land year after year, e.g.:

Wheat – Field mustard – Cotton

Cotton – Wheat – Field mustard
Field mustard – Cotton – Wheat

2. Flexible Rotation

It can be adjusted according to the fluctuation in market rates, attach of insect,

pest and diseases, and availability of irrigation water, e.g.:

Wheat – Field mustard – Cotton

Wheat – Wheat – Cotton
Wheat – Maize – Cotton

In a flexible rotation, it is not possible to grow same crop to finish within a lim-
ited period of 3 years.

3. Long Duration Crop Rotation

These are the rotations which are generally set for a long period that is more
than 2 years.
1 Crop Rotation: Principles and Practices 7

4. Short Duration Crop Rotation

These rotations are set for a short period that is generally not more than 1 year.
Depending upon duration crop rotation may be of following three types:

A. 1 year rotation
Potato-maize-potato
Wheat-cotton
B. 2 years rotation
Wheat-cotton-wheat
Rice-maize-rice
Wheat-rice-winter fodder
C. 3 years rotation
Wheat-maize-sugarcane
Wheat-sugarcane-sugarcane (ratoon)

1.5 Advantages of Crop Rotation

1. Crop rotation improves soil health by alternating crops with different nutrient
requirements, therefore avoiding depletion of any one necessary nutrient pres-
ent in the soil.
2. Crop rotation can benefit overall soil structure by alternating deep- and shallow-­
rooted crops, breaking up subsoil, and reducing the effects of plow pan.
3. By rotation better use of irrigation facilities is obtained.
4. It systemizes the farming system.
5. Economics of labor: Crop rotation often makes it possible to grow two or more
crops with the same soil preparation.
6. Farm labor is utilized throughout the year: Crop rotation allows a more com-
plete year work with a less period of idleness and distributing risk among sev-
eral crops which helps to prevent complete failure. Usually a cropping system
simplifies the farm layout and reduces the number of field on the farm by mak-
ing estimate ahead of time for the amount of labor, quantity of seed, fertilizer,
and power machinery necessary for the operation of the farm.
7. Nitrogen supply: Legumes generally may not only increase the supply of
organic matter but also help to maintain the nitrogen supply to soil. The single
cropping system will ordinary maintain the nitrogen supply of the soil unless
leguminous crops are alternated with the other crops. Rotation is a low-input,
soil management strategy on developing long-term soil fertility plan, preferably
with less off-farm inputs. A rotation plan used in conjunction with cover crop-
ping and compost is an ideal way for a vegetable farmer to increase fertility and
organic matter while minimizing off-farm inputs.
8. Balanced removal of plant nutrients: Rotation may provide for the alternation
of deep and shallow root crops, and this allows a more use of soil. Crops use the
nutrients from the soil in different proportions, and when properly alternated
they may reduce the different plants nutrients of the soil in a more desirable
8 A. Tanveer et al.

proportion. If a single crop is grown repeatedly, that may feed heavily on one
group of nutrients.
9. It allows for crop alternation or crop diversity. Different kinds of crops are
grown for a similar food (e.g., paddy, wheat, potato for carbohydrates, gram,
pea, lentil, soybean, cowpea, etc. for protein; rapeseed and mustard, sesamum,
groundnut, sunflower, etc. for oils) as well as different varieties of same crop.
Diversification can lead to more stable farm income by lowering economic risk
from climate, pests, and fluctuating markets.
10. It increases the final crop yield and improves the efficiency and productivity of
agricultural systems, thus contributing to improvement of farmers livelihoods.
11. The rotation helps to control weeds, insects, and diseases: Weed problems are
now more serious than ever before. Farmers have to incur huge amount on weed
control relative to traditional crop rotation.

This situation is the result of monoculture of selected crops leading to buildup of

weeds. Buildup of Phalaris minor weed problem in rice-wheat system is an exam-
ple of such serious problems. Because each crop has its own weeds and they thrive
well when the same crop is grown successively. For example, P. minor, A. fatua with
wheat, Cichorium intybus with berseem, and S. halepense with sorghum and corn.
Weed tends to prosper in crops that have requirements similar to the weeds. Fields
of annual crops favor short-lived annual weeds, whereas maintaining land in peren-
nial crops favors perennial weed species. All such and several other weeds may be
effectively controlled by adopting proper rotation. Lowland rice crop rotation with
an upland crop is effective against moisture-loving weeds. The population of Scirpus
maritimus and Echinochloa increases with continuous cropping of lowland rice but
declines when rice is rotated with an upland crop.
Managing croplands according to nature’s principles will reduce weed problems
in all crops, and crop rotation has long been recognized for its ability to prevent
weeds from developing to serious levels. Crop rotations limit the buildup of weed
populations and prevent major weed species shifts. In a crop rotation, the timing of
cultivation, fertilization, herbicide application, and harvesting changes from year to
year. Rotation thus changes the growing conditions from year to year, a situation to
which few weed species easily adapt. Rotations that include clean-cultivated annual
crops, tightly spaced grain crops, and grazed perennial sod crops create an unstable
environment for weeds. Further weed control may be obtained by including short-­
season weed-smothering crops such as sorghum-sudan grass and sudan grass.
Incorporating crops with allelopathic effects into the rotation adds another ele-
ment of weed control. Such crops include sunflowers, sorghum, and rapeseed. Weed
control ability varies among crop varieties and farm management practices. For
example, sweet potatoes have been shown to inhibit the growth of yellow nutsedge,
velvetleaf, and pigweed. Field trials showed a 90% reduction of yellow nutsedge
over 2 years following sweet potatoes.
Insect and disease problems are now more serious than ever before. This situa-
tion is the result of monoculture of selected crops leading to buildup of insects and
diseases. Carryover of stem borer (pink borer) and buildup of soilborne pathogens
1 Crop Rotation: Principles and Practices 9

in soil of continuous cereal system are examples of such serious problems. Many
insects are troublesome for only one plant or group of plants. For example, jassid
damage the cotton crop, and if the cotton crop is grown continuously, the jassid may
increase rapidly; changing of crop is an effective method for checking the damage
from the insects. Sometimes it is necessary to omit the crops entirely for a few
years, but usually a rotation of a proper length will bring these pests within the limit
of economic control. Similarly there are many diseases that injure to one crop but
are not harmful to the other crops, e.g., smut of grain may increase rapidly under
continuous cropping to the grain plants. Crop rotation brings about non-host plants
due to which the pests are deprived of their food and the pests either die or migrate
to some other location. Crop rotation helps in control of parasitic nematodes.
Effective rotation is widely practiced for control of the golden nematode of pota-
toes. Crops like sugarcane, wheat, and chillies should be avoided in white ant-­
infested areas, and crops like tobacco and onion should be grown.

1. It helps in maintaining the amount of organic matter in the soil. If lands are kept
constantly under tilled crops, the supply of organic matter is seriously decreased.
Grasses and clover usually increase the supply of organic matter in the soil.
2. Soil can be reclaimed in a better way which is affected by water logging, alkalin-
ity, and salinity. Barley and wheat crop appear to be a reasonably good choice for
sodic soils during winter. For summer, pearl millet considered as possible alter-
native to rice. Rice-based cropping systems are more suitable and promising than
other systems on problem soils. Rice-wheat or rice-berseem for about 3 years
and diversification of cropping system afterward are ideal. Inclusion of a green
manure crop in the system leads to sustainable production under several
situations.
3. It protects soil against erosion. Continuous growing of one crop especially of
exhaustive nature disturbs the soil structure and soil fertility which consequently
results in accelerated soil erosion. Certain crops require more cultivation, and
their fall period coincides with high rainfall and hence induces soil and water
erosion. Whereas certain other crops require less cultivations and protect the soil
during rainy season. Preference to erosion resistant crops such as legumes and
other ground smothering crops whose growth coincides with heavy rains is in
crop rotation.
4. Increase in soil macro- and microfauna. Biological processes are central to soil
fertility and productivity and sustainability of agroecosystem. The number of
organisms varies greatly depending on food supply, moisture, temperature, phys-
ical condition, and reaction of the soil. Crop rotation such as cereal-cereal or
non-legume-non legume results in reduced population of soil organisms.
Population and activity of soil organisms can be increased by following legume-
cereal crop rotation. Biological activity can also be stimulated by simply allow-
ing a grass cover to develop, through forestation or by adding organic material
through rotation.
5. It increases the soil quality. Soil quality means the fitness of soil for use. To
increase the soil quality, the use of crop rotation which improves soil function is
10 A. Tanveer et al.

of immense importance. This option can increase soil organic matter and organic
nitrogen, protect against soil erosion, reduce disturbance (avoid excess tillage),
increase crop diversity and ground cover, and cycle water, nutrients, and energy
efficiently, ultimately helpful in increasing soil quality.

1.6 How to Set Up a Rotation?

The following are the principles of setting crop rotation:

1. Economical principles
2. Agronomical principles

1.6.1 Economical Principles

These are divided into:

(a) Selection of group of crops while forming a rotation

One must select the group of crops for setting a rotation, i.e., either you want
to grow cereals or pulses or forage (fodder) crops or fiber crops or oilseeds or
any one of these crops.
(b) Selection of associated crops
In this case one must select such types of crops which will give more income
as well as maintain soil fertility.
(c) Availability of labor and capital
While setting a rotation, it is the duty of farmers to know that the labor is
available at lower wages, so that he can earn maximum from the crops which he
has included in the rotation. Similarly capital is available at lower or smaller
interest, so that he may be able to purchase seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides eas-
ily and timely.

1.6.2 Agronomical Principles

(a) The area of each crop should be nearly the same year after year unless there is
deficient season for changing it.
(b) The rotation should provide fodder for the animal kept.
(c) The crops of same root system should not follow.
(d) The rotation must include tilled crops for elimination of weeds.
(e) The rotation should be such which can keep up the organic matter of soil. Crops
of same natural order should not follow.
1 Crop Rotation: Principles and Practices 11

1.7 Difficulties or Limitations of Crop Rotation

1. Rotation is not always advisable, e.g., high prices which may make it advisable
to grow the one of the crop for a long period. In the peri-urban areas where fruits,
vegetables, and fodder crops are more remunerative than other crops, it is diffi-
cult to follow desirable crop rotation principles completely.
2. Weather conditions may be suited for only one or two crops. In rainfed areas due
to scarcity of water, rotation cannot be followed in some season of the year.
Same is the case in nonperennial and inundation canal areas.
3. Demand for certain crops may make it advisable to change or to substitute the
existing crops by some other crops. This breaks the rotation. Crop husbandary
has become so commercialized that in the vicinity of sugar, ginning mills and
rice shellers sugarcane, cotton, and rice crops is grown in close succession with
high inputs.
4. Crop rotation cannot be considered a complete replacement for organic and inor-
ganic fertilizers needed for the production of crops, vegetables, and fruits.

1.8 How to Do It

Rotation may suggest that every crop should be grown on a fixed schedule on every
field of farm, with each crop rotating field to field around the entire farmland. Divide
the farmland into two blocks and plant the winter crops in block one, and rotate to
block two next year, or divide farmland into three equal blocks, and rotate these
blocks according to one of the following plans.

Plan A
Year 1
Section 1: grain.
Section 2: cash crop.
Section 3: legume.
Year 2
Section 1: legume.
Section 2: grain.
Section 3: cash crop.
Year 3
Section 1: cash crop.
Section 2: legume.
Section 3: grain.
Plan B
Year 1.
Sections 1 and 2: grain.
Section 3: legume.
12 A. Tanveer et al.

Year 2.
Section 1: legume.
Sections 2 and 3: grain.
Year 3.
Sections 1 and 3: grain.
Section 2: legume.

Crop Suggestions

• Grains – maize, rice, wheat, sorghum, millet, and barley

• Legumes (cash or food crops) – soya bean, cowpea, groundnut, field bean, chick-
pea, lentil, green gram, black gram, or combinations of these.
• Cash crops (non-legumes) – cotton, sunflower, tobacco, sugarcane, canola, and
rice
Other documents randomly have
different content
 DIVISION IV.

GYMNOSPERMÆ.
The following characters should be added to those already given
on page 2:—
The Gymnosperms comprise only trees or shrubs. The flowers
are always unisexual and destitute of perianth (except Gnetaceæ);
the female plant of Cycas is the only one which has no flower. The
male flowers are constructed on the same type as the cones of
the Horsetails and Club-Mosses, and are most frequently long
shoots (Figs. 243, 258, 260 A, 267 J) bearing a number of spiral or
verticillate stamens. The female flowers are of a more varied
structure (see the orders). The ovule is orthotropous (except
Podocarpus which is anatropous) and projects from the carpel
uprightly, inverted, or horizontally; it has usually only one integument
(compare however Taxaceæ) which proceeds from the upper part of
the nucellus, so that the embryo-sac in part is placed below the
integuments (Figs. 251, 264). The drop of mucilage which catches
the pollen-grains dries up and draws the pollen-grain through the
micropyle to a space just above the nucellus—the pollen-chamber—
in which the germination of the pollen-grain commences.
In each seed, only one of the many embryos which are formed
proceeds to its full development. The seed is always endospermous,
and the embryo has one, two, or a whorl of several cotyledons. A
vigorous primary root is developed on germination. The vascular
bundles in the stem are arranged in a ring, and increase in
thickness takes place by a closed cambium-ring which forms bast
(phlœem) externally, and wood (xylem) internally with distinct annual
rings, as in the Dicotyledons. Only certain of the Cycadeæ deviate
from this arrangement. The secondary wood is very uniform, as it is
almost exclusively formed of tracheides with bordered pits, but true
vessels are wanting; this also indicates a relationship with the
Pteridophyta (see page 202).
The Gymnosperms are biologically lower than the Angiosperms;
they are wind-fertilised, and without extra floral-nectaries.
 This Division embraces three classes: Cycadeæ, Coniferæ, And
Gneteæ. It is no doubt monophyletic, and has taken its origin from
heterosporous Ferns, now extinct, most nearly related to the
Ophioglossaceæ and Marattiaceæ. The Cycadeæ appear to be the
oldest class. The Coniferæ are related to these through Ginkgo. The
Gnetaceæ are more isolated. The Division is not continued into the
higher Flowering-plants; it has evidently attained its highest
development, and is now in a retrograde condition. The similarity
which has often been pointed out between certain Coniferæ and
Lycopodinæ is only in analogous resemblances, and does not entitle
one to suppose that there is a nearer relationship, or that the former
take their origin from the latter.

Class 1. Cycadeæ.
The stem is very rarely ramified. The leaves are large, pinnate,
and arranged spirally. The flowers are diœcious, without perianth.
 Fig. 256.—Cycas circinalis (female plant). The carpels are seen hanging from
the top of the stem. Three leaves with the leaflets still rolled up project almost
vertically into the air, from the centre of the crown.
There is only one order, the Cycadaceæ.—In habit they resemble
the Ferns, especially the Tree-Ferns (compare Figs. 207 and 256).
The stem is tubercular (Fig. 258), or cylindrical (Fig. 256), but not
very tall (as much as about 12 metres), and very rarely ramified. [In
Ceylon, unbranched specimens of Cycas are rarely met with in the
wild state. The stems of C. circinalis occasionally branch in
greenhouses.]
The leaves are arranged spirally, and so closely together that no
free stem-surface is left between them, and have only a slight sheath
(which is not amplexicaul, as in the Palms). They are compound
(most frequently pinnate; in Bowenia, bipinnate); in some genera the
leaves are rolled up in various ways, resembling the vernation in
Ferns (Fig. 257); they are leathery and perennial. In some, stipules
are present, as in the Marattiaceæ. Groups of scale-leaves alternate
in the majority with groups of foliage-leaves.

Fig. 257.—Cycas
circinalis. Part of a young
leaf with circinate
leaflets.
 Fig. 258.—A male plant of Stangeria paradoxa
(about 1/15 nat. size).
 Fig. 259.—Female cone of
Zamia integrifolia (½-⅓ nat. size).
The male cone is very similar
externally.
The flowers are without perianth. The male flower is
sometimes an enormous collection of stamens (Fig. 258), which are
flat in some (Cycas, Fig. 241), shield-like in others (Zamia,
Ceratozamia) like the sporophylls in Horsetail (Fig. 259); but in all,
the pollen-sacs are situated in large and varying numbers on the
back of the stamens, and arranged in groups of 2–5, like the
sporangia in the sori of the Ferns (Fig. 241 b, c). Female flowers
are wanting in Cycas, because the carpels do not terminate the
apical growth of the stem. After a group of foliage-and of scale-
leaves, a group of carpels is developed, which are pinnate and
resemble the foliage-leaves, bearing on their edges a number of
ovules (most frequently 5–6) (Figs. 245, 256); the same stem
produces successively scale-leaves, foliage-leaves, and carpels.
The differentiation is not much more advanced than in certain Ferns
(Struthiopteris, Blechnum), where barren and fertile leaves of
different form regularly alternate. The other genera have female
flowers; the carpels are shield-like in Zamia and Ceratozamia (Fig.
246), and collected into cone-like flowers, which terminate the
growth of the stem (Fig. 259). The number of ovules in these
instances is two to each carpel.
The seeds are large (most frequently 2–6 centimetres long) and
plum-like; the external layer of the testa is fleshy, while the internal
one is hard and horny. There are two systems of vascular bundles in
the testa, one outside, the other inside the stone. The embryo is
straight, attached to the end of the suspensor, which is often long,
filamentous, and rolled up; it has one or two cotyledons.
The embryo in Ceratozamia and others is very slightly developed, at the time
when the ripe seed is detached from the carpel; and it is not until after sowing that
its further development and germination proceed. This calls to mind the
Cryptogams, especially Selaginella, whose macrospores are thrown off filled with
endosperm; but the oosphere is not fertilised till after the separation of the
macrospore from the parent-plant, while in the Cycadeæ fertilisation is effected
before the separation. In Cycas the testa may rupture, and the endosperm grow
and become green in the light, even though no embryo has been formed. This also
is an indication of its prothalloid nature.
Gum-passages are present in all organs. Collateral vascular bundles, with spiral
and scalariform tracheides, are found; and normal thickening takes place by
means of a cambium. An exceptional mode of growth is found in Cycas and
Encephalartos, the cambium ceases to divide after a time and is replaced by a
new cambium which arises in the cortical parenchyma just outside the bast, and
which forms a new ring of xylem and phlœem. This may be repeated so that a
number of concentric rings are produced. In Ceratozamia, structures resembling
corals extend from the roots in a vertical direction and appear on the surface of the
soil; these are peculiar roots, in which a symbiotic Alga (Anabæna) is found.
The Cycadeæ were formerly (from the Coal period to the Later Cretaceous) far
more numerous than at the present day. They appear to have been most
numerous in the Trias and Jurassic. The remnant (75 species) which have
persisted to the present time are found in all tropical countries. Cycas (Trop. and
Sub-trop., Eastern Hemisphere); Dioon (Mexico); Macrozamia (Australia);
Encephalartos (Trop. and S. Africa); Stangeria (Fig. 258, Sub-trop. South and East
Africa); Bowenia (Trop. Australia); Ceratozamia (Mexico, New Granada, Western
Brazil); Microcycas (Cuba); Zamia (Trop. and Sub-trop. N. America.)
Uses. Sago is made from the starch-containing pith of Cycas revoluta and
circinalis. The leaves are often used at funerals and church festivals, under the
name of “palm-branches.”
 Class 2. Coniferæ (Pine-trees).
The stem branches freely. The leaves are entire, relatively small,
linear or reduced to scales. The flowers are without perianth. The
ovules naked. It is seldom that the female flower is reduced to only
one carpel.
Whilst the Cycadeæ principally resemble the Ferns, the Conifers
partly resemble the Lycopods, and partly the Equisetums—the
former especially in the needle- or scale-like, leathery, simple, and
often perennial leaves (“evergreen plants”), which never possess
stipules (Figs. 263, 270, 272). Ginkgo deviates from this, being no
doubt the oldest, and the Conifer which stands nearest to the
Cycadeæ (Fig. 260). The resemblance to the Equisetums is
especially owing to the fact that the stem ramifies abundantly, and
often very regularly, forming a pyramid with verticillate branches. In
addition to the foliage-leaves, scale-leaves (bud-scales) are present
in the majority of species.
The flowers are monœcious or more rarely diœcious. Perianth
is wanting. The stamens of the catkin-like male flowers (Fig. 267, J)
are of different forms, but as a rule more or less shield-like. As in the
Cycadeæ, the pollen-sacs are in all cases situated on the underside.
There are, as a rule, two pollen-sacs (the Abietaceæ, Fig. 267), or
3–5, (the Cupressaceæ and Taxaceæ, Fig. 243); a few have more,
e.g. Araucaria (Fig. 242); they dehisce by clefts.
If, in commencing our consideration of the female flower, we
begin with that of Ginkgo, we shall observe in the corner of a scale-
or foliage-leaf a small flower, which consists of two carpels, each
bearing one ovule, and reduced almost to the ovule itself (Fig. 260
C, D). The flower in Podocarpus is still further reduced, viz. to a
single carpel with one ovule, which is anatropous and has two
integuments. This ovule is situated in the axil of a cover-scale (c, in
Fig. 262 D), and several female flowers of this description are
collected in a small cone, the stalk and bracts of which become
fleshy (Fig. 262 C). The external integument also becomes fleshy
(an aril). Dacrydium, which is clearly related to Podocarpus, has an
external integument which developes more independently as a
fleshy aril (Fig. 262 B, B’). Microcachrys also is clearly allied to
these: the bracts are more fleshy, and the ovule (i.e. the female
flower) is protruded beyond the bract (Fig. 262 A, A’). Taxus stands
in a more isolated position: a flower which has been reduced to an
ovule is situated, in this instance, on the apex of a secondary branch
which is studded with floral-leaves (Figs. 263, 264); an external
integument is developed on all sides and surrounds the seed as a
scarlet aril. According to this conception the aril corresponds to an
external integument, and the Taxoideæ thus possess a partly
dichlamydeous ovule. Only Ginkgo and Cephalotaxus appear to
deviate from this, as in these there is only one integument (unless
the small outgrowth indicated by ar, in Fig. 260 D, really is a
rudimentary, external integument); in Cycadeæ, to which Ginkgo is
most closely related, there is likewise only one integument. But in
these genera the testa is differentiated into two layers, and the seed
resembles a drupe; like the Cycadeæ there is an external fleshy
covering and an internal hard one, and these two layers may
probably be considered homologous with the two integuments. This
theory is also borne out by the arrangement of the vascular bundles
in Cephalotaxus and Podocarpus, which present the xylem in the
fleshy external layer to the outside of the testa, which is therefore the
upper side of the integument (Celakovsky).
The coalescence of the integuments into one is only slight in
Torreya, more pronounced in Podocarpus and strongest in
Cephalotaxus and Ginkgo. Celakovsky terms these ovules
“holochlamydeous.”
If we pass from these to the order Pinoideæ, we find the female
flowers collected into catkin-like cones, which have been considered
from various points of view to be sometimes single flowers, at other
times compound inflorescences. The structure in Abietaceæ is as
follows: a number of spirally arranged, scale-like leaves, cover-
scales (Figs. 267, 268), are situated on a long axis. In the axil of
each cover-scale a larger leaf-like projection, the ovuliferous scale, is
borne, which turns the upper side towards its cover-scale (which is
shown by the fact that the wood of its vascular bundles is turned
downwards and towards the wood in the bundles of the cover-scale:
Fig. 269). Two ovules, with micropyles turned towards the central
axis, and with apparently only one integument (Fig. 268), are
situated on the dorsal side of each ovuliferous scale, i.e. the side
turned away from the cover-scale. The ovuliferous scales grow after
fertilisation, into the woody or leathery “cone-scales,” which are
usually much larger than the cover-scales. This ovuliferous scale
with its axis may, according to Celakovsky, be considered as a
dwarf-branch which is situated in the axil of the cover-scale, and
bears two ovules (in the same way as in Ginkgo, one long-stalked
flower, reduced to two ovules, is situated in the axil of a leaf), and in
this case the external integument of the ovules is expanded into leaf-
like bodies, which have united to form one “symphyllodium”
(ovuliferous scale) which is inverted so that its dorsal side is turned
upwards and bears the nucellus and the other integument
(“hemichlamydeous” ovules). The carpel itself is therefore in this
instance extremely reduced. The keel, or (in Pinus) “mucro” (Fig. 268
B), which is found in several genera, represents then a third carpel,
which is sterile. In the other orders of the Pinoideæ the cover-scales
and ovuliferous scales grow more and more together and finally form
one structure, which also is termed a “cone-scale,” although from its
development it cannot be homologous with the cone-scales of the
Abietaceæ. This connation is least in the Taxodiaceæ and
Araucariaceæ and may be traced on the upper surface of the
“cone-scale” by the presence of a stronger or slighter ridge or pad,
the free portion of the ovuliferous scale (Figs. 256, 266, 269). It is
most strongly pronounced in the Cupressaceæ, in which the two
scales form one single structure, the cone-scale (Fig. 274). The
vascular bundles in the under portion corresponding to the cover-
scale, have the xylem towards the upper side as usual in leaves,
whilst the bundles present in the upper side of the cone-scale, which
thus represents the ovuliferous scale, turn their xylem downwards.
The hemichlamydeous ovules are then situated on the upper side of
this cone-scale. According to this theory the Cupressaceæ appear
to be the youngest type, a view which corresponds with their
vegetative structure. If there is only one ovule in these orders as in
Agathis (Fig. 265) and Araucaria, then the flower is reduced to a
single carpel and one ovule, as in the case of Dacrydium and
Microcachrys. If two or more ovules are present, then the same
number of carpels may be supposed to exist, the external
integuments of their ovules being developed into leaf-like structures
which collaterally coalesce to form a “symphyllodium,” or are
suppressed.
According to this theory, which is based on the researches of
Celakovsky, the female flowers of the Coniferæ may be classed
thus:—
1. In all cases situated in the axil of a bract and collected into
cones, with numerous flowers or with few or one flower. In Ginkgo
only, are they situated in the axil of foliage- or scale-leaves.
2. It is only in Taxus that bracteoles are present.
3. They are formed only from rudimentary carpels, in which the
stem takes no part.
4. The number of carpels in each flower varies from one to many,
most frequently three, of which the central one remains sterile.
5. Each carpel bears only one ovule. The flower which is formed
of only one carpel appears to consist of only one ovule.
6. The ovule has in Taxaceæ either a double integument
(Podocarpeæ, Taxeæ), of which the external is the “aril,” or, as in the
Cycadeæ, a single one, which is homologous with the two united
together.
7. The external integument in the Pinoideæ is expanded to form a
leaf-like structure—the ovuliferous scale—and bears on its dorsal
side the ovules, which are thus only provided with one, and that the
inner, integument.
This later interpretation of the female cones in the Coniferæ is more probably
correct than the older ones; that, however, which appeared in the former issues of
this book, may also be stated. It was to the effect that each catkin-like female cone
is in reality a single flower; the cone-scales in the Cupressaceæ were single
leaves, namely carpels, which bore the ovules on the side which is turned
upwards; the division into two parts which makes its appearance in the other
orders, and becomes most prominent in the Abietaceæ, was compared with the
division of a leaf into a barren and a fertile portion, which is found especially in
Ophioglossaceæ and Marsiliaceæ, or with the ligule in Isoëtes.
Pollination is accomplished by means of the wind. At the period
of pollination the leaves are always so widely separated from one
another, that the ovules can catch the pollen-grains carried to them
by the wind; this is often effected by the mucilaginous drops which
appear at the micropyle, and by the evaporation of which the pollen-
grains are brought in contact with the nucellus. The entire cone
grows considerably as soon as fertilisation has taken place, and the
cone-scales in Pinoideæ close together so that the seeds while
maturing are enclosed, and it is not until the seeds are ready for
distribution that the cone-scales again become separated. In the
Pinoideæ, the fully developed ovuliferous scales are hard and
woody; and in this condition the collection of female flowers is
termed a cone. In the Taxoideæ, true cones are the exception. 2–15
cotyledons are present, arranged in a whorl.
The characteristic feature of this class is the abundance of resin,
which is to be found in isolated cells (especially in the cortex), partly
in intercellular glands or passages (both in the cortex and wood).
Taxus is the only genus which has no resin.
There are about 350 species, mostly from the Northern Temperate zone
(especially North America and Siberia), where they grow gregariously and form the
most northern forests. The Juniper, Scotch Fir, and Yew are natives of Great
Britain.
This class may be divided into two families:—
1. Taxoideæ. The ovules have either one integument, the external
part of which is fleshy, and the internal hard and stone-like; or two
integuments, of which the external is the fleshy and coloured “aril.”
“Ovuliferous scales” are wanting. The cones are never woody, but
are generally succulent, the bracts become fleshy, or cones usually
are not developed. The seeds project more or less freely beyond the
bracts.
2. Pinoideæ. The ovules have two integuments, the external one
of which is leaf-like and becomes developed as the “ovuliferous
scale”; if there are several of these in each flower they unite and
form a “symphyllodium.” This may remain free or unite with the bract.
The cones are most frequently woody, rarely succulent. The seeds
are hidden among the cone-scales.

Family 1. Taxoideæ.
This family, considered to be most nearly related to the Cycadeæ,
also made its appearance at a very early period. There is only one
order.
Order. Taxaceæ. The characters have been given above.
A. Cephalotaxeæ is the oldest group, presumably the connecting
link between the Cycadeæ and the other Coniferæ. The flower
consists normally of two ovules. Aril wanting. One integument.
Seeds drupaceous.—The flowers in Ginkgo biloba (Salisburia) are
situated in the axil of foliage- or scale-leaves. The stamens bear only
two pollen-sacs (Fig. 260 A). The female flower has two ovules,
placed together at the end of a long, bare axis (Fig. 260 C). Round
the base of the ovule a small collar (ar, in Fig. 260 D) is found, which
may probably be considered homologous with the collar-like
outgrowth which surrounds the base of the Cycas-ovule. The seed
resembles a Plum, and has a fleshy external coat, surrounding a
hard internal layer. The embryo is developed after the seed has
fallen off. The Ginkgo-tree has long-stalked, fan-shaped leaves,
more or less indented, with dichotomous veins resembling certain
Ferns—the Adiantums. It is a native of East Asia, and the only
surviving species of a genus which in earlier times was very rich in
species, and distributed over the entire Northern Hemisphere.
Cephalotaxus (Eastern Asia) is related to it.
 Fig. 260.—Ginkgo (nat. size): A a branch with a small
flowering dwarf-branch (male flower); B a leaf; C a flower
with two ovules; D a ripe seed; ar collar.
 Fig. 261.—Phyllocladus
glaucus: a branch with female
flowers (nat. size).
B. Podocarpeæ. The female flower is reduced to one ovule,
placed in the axil of a bract, or a little forward upon it. The ovule has
an aril (2 integuments).—Phyllocladus (Fig. 261), from New Zealand
and Tasmania, has obtained its name from its flat, leaf-like branches,
the leaves proper being scale-like (f). The ovules stand erect in the
axil of the scale-like leaves (c), and several are collected at the end
of short branches.—Microcachrys tetragona (Tasmania) has a small
female catkin with several spirally-placed, fleshy bracts, at the end of
which the inward and downward turned ovule is attached (Fig. 262
A, A’). The ripe cones are red, succulent, and resemble
Strawberries.—In Dacrydium (Tasmania, New Zealand, Malaysia)
the female cone has most frequently only 1–2 (–6) bracts, which
resemble the vegetative leaves; they have also a fleshy aril (Fig. 262
B, B’).—Podocarpus (40 species, East Asia, S. Temp.); the bracts of
the female flowers become fleshy, and unite together; only 1 or 2 are
of use in supporting the flowers. The ovules project high above the
apex of the bract, and are anatropous, the micropyle being turned
downwards (Fig. 262 C, D). An aril commences to develope in the
flowering period as an external coating, and later on it becomes
fleshy and coloured.

Fig. 262.—A Microcachrys: female cone (2/1). A’ A single carpel with its ovule.
B Dacrydium: branch with female flower (3/1). B’ The flower; cp the bract; ar the
aril; ov ovule. C Podocarpus: female flower with 2 ovules. D Another female flower
with 1 ovule, in longitudinal section.
 Fig. 263.—Taxus baccata: branch with two
ripe seeds (nat. size).
C. Taxeæ. The female flower is reduced to one ovule, which is
situated terminally on an axis which bears 2–3 pairs of opposite,
scale-like bracteoles; on this account the Taxeæ form a very isolated
group among the Coniferæ.—Taxus (T. baccata, the Yew-tree).
Diœcious. The female flower consists of only one ovule, placed at
the end of a short secondary branch (Fig. 264), which is studded
with scale-like leaves. The aril when ripe is thick, fleshy, and scarlet
(sometimes yellow), and only loosely envelopes the seed (Fig. 263).
The leaves are scattered, flat, linear, and pointed (Fig. 263, 264).
The short male flowers have 5–8 pollen-sacs, pendent from the
stamens, and are surrounded at their bases by scale-like bracteoles
(Fig. 243). Torreya (4 species, N. America and Japan) is closely
allied to Taxus. The aril ultimately fuses with the woody inner
integument, and hence the ovule becomes drupaceous, as in
Cephalotaxaceæ.
 Fig. 264.—Taxus baccata: A shoot of Taxus with female flowers at
the time when the ovules are ready for pollination. B Leaf with flower
in its axil (nat. size). C Longitudinal median section through a female
shoot; v growing point of primary shoot; a commencement of aril; i
integument; n nucellus; m micropyle.
Uses. Taxus baccata is usually planted in gardens, especially in hedges. Its
wood is very hard and is used for wood-carving. The shoots are poisonous, but not
the aril, which is often eaten by children and by birds.
 Family 2. Pinoideæ.
The four orders differ from one another partly in the arrangement
of the leaves (Cupressaceæ have opposite or verticillately placed
leaves, flowers, and inflorescences; in the others they are placed
spirally), but chiefly in the greater or less degree of union which
takes place between the female flower (the leaf-like
“symphyllodium”) and its supporting cover-scale, and in the position
of the ovules (the micropyle being turned upwards or downwards).
The “cone-scales” in Abietaceæ are formed by “symphyllodia” alone,
in the others by their union with the cover-scale.
Order 1. Araucariaceæ. This order most frequently has solitary
ovules, turned downwards and attached to the centre of the cone-
scales. In Agathis (Dammara) the arrangement is the most simple, a
winged seed (Fig. 265), which hangs freely downwards, being borne
in the centre of the undivided cone-scale. In Araucaria, the stamens
with the free, pendulous pollen-sacs have been represented in Fig.
242; the ovuliferous scale is united for nearly its whole length with
the bract, and projects from its apex in the shape of a sheath-like,
dentate scale, resembling the ligule in Isoëtes, and may therefore be
termed a “ligule.” Araucaria (S. America, Australia) has often rather
broad leaves (A. brasiliensis). The ovuliferous scale in
Cunninghamia is more distinct, and stretches transversely over the
entire cover-scale; it bears three inverted ovules (Fig. 266) (Eastern
Asia).
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