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Calculus of One and Many Variables

Kenneth Kuttler klkuttler@gmail.com

January 19, 2021

2
Contents

I Functions of One Variable 15

1 Fundamental Concepts 17
1.1 Numbers and Simple Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.3 Set Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.4 Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.6 The Binomial Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.7 Well Ordering Principle, Math Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.9 Completeness of R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.10 Existence of Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.11 Completing the Square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.12 Dividing Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.13 The Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.14 Polar Form of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.15 Roots of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.16 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

2 Functions 51
2.1 General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.2 Graphs of Functions and Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.3 Circular Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.3.1 Reference Angles and Other Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.3.2 The sin (x) /x Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.3.3 The Area of a Circular Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.5 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.6 The Function bx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.7 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.7.1 Interest Compounded Continuously . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.7.2 Exponential Growth and Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.7.3 The Logistic Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.8 Using MATLAB to Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

3
4 CONTENTS

3 Sequences and Compactness 87

3.1 Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.3 The Limit of a Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.4 The Nested Interval Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.6 Compactness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.6.1 Sequential Compactness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.6.2 Closed and Open Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.7 Cauchy Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

4 Continuous Functions and Limits of Functions 107

4.1 Equivalent Formulations of Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.3 The Extreme Values Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.4 The Intermediate Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.5 Continuity of the Inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.7 Uniform Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.8 Examples of Continuous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.9 Sequences of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.10 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.11 Limit of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.12 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

5 The Derivative 135

5.1 The Definition of the Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.2 Finding the Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.3 Derivatives of Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.4 Circular Functions and Inverses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.5 Exponential Functions and Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.6 The Complex Exponential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.7 Related Rates and Implicit Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.9 Local Extreme Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.10 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.11 Mean Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.12 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.13 First and Second Derivative Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5.14 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.15 Taylor Series Approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.16 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5.17 L’Hôpital’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
5.18 Interest Compounded Continuously . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5.19 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
CONTENTS 5

6 Infinite Series 169

6.1 Basic Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
6.2 Absolute Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.3 Ratio and Root Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
6.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6.5 Convergence Because of Cancellation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
6.6 Double Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
6.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
6.8 Series of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
6.9 Weierstrass Approximation Theorem∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
6.10 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

7 The Integral 191

7.1 The Integral of 1700’s∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
7.2 The Integral of 1800’s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
7.3 Properties of the Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
7.4 Uniform Convergence and the Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
7.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

8 Methods for Finding Anti-derivatives 215

8.1 The Method of Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
8.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
8.3 Integration by Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
8.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
8.5 Trig. Substitutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
8.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
8.7 Partial Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
8.8 Rational Functions of Trig. Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
8.9 Using MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
8.10 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

9 A Few Standard Applications 239

9.1 Lengths of Curves and Areas of Surfaces of Revolution . . . . . . . . 240
9.1.1 Lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
9.1.2 Surfaces of Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
9.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
9.3 Force on a Dam and Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
9.3.1 Force on a Dam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
9.3.2 Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
9.4 Using MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
9.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

10 Improper Integrals and Stirling’s Formula 251

10.1 Stirling’s Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
10.2 The Gamma Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
10.3 Laplace Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
10.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
6 CONTENTS

11 Power Series 267

11.1 Functions Defined in Terms of Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
11.2 Operations on Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
11.3 Power Series for Some Known Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
11.4 The Binomial Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
11.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
11.6 Multiplication of Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
11.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
11.8 Some Other Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
11.9 Some Historical Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

12 Polar Coordinates 285

12.1 Graphs in Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
12.2 The Area in Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
12.3 The Acceleration in Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
12.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
12.5 Polar Graphing in MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
12.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294

13 Algebra and Geometry of Rp 295

13.1 Rp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
13.2 Algebra in Rp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
13.3 Geometric Meaning Of Vector Addition In R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
13.4 Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
13.5 Distance in Rp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
13.6 Geometric Meaning of Scalar Multiplication in R3 . . . . . . . . . . 306
13.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306

14 Vector Products 309

14.1 The Dot Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
14.2 Geometric Significance of the Dot Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
14.2.1 The Angle Between Two Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
14.2.2 Work and Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
14.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
14.4 The Cross Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
14.4.1 The Box Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
14.5 Proof of the Distributive Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
14.5.1 Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
14.5.2 Center of Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
14.5.3 Angular Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
14.6 Vector Identities and Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
14.7 Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
14.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
CONTENTS 7

15 Sequences, Compactness, and Continuity 335

15.1 Sequences of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
15.2 Open and Closed Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
15.3 Cartesian Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
15.4 Sequential Compactness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
15.5 Vector Valued Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
15.6 Continuous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
15.7 Sufficient Conditions for Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
15.8 Limits of a Function of Many Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
15.9 Vector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
15.10MATLAB and Vector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
15.11Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
15.12The Extreme Value Theorem and Uniform Continuity . . . . . . . . 351
15.13Convergence of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
15.14Fundamental Theorem of Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
15.15Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355

16 Space Curves 359

16.1 Using MATLAB to Graph Space Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
16.2 The Derivative and Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
16.2.1 Geometric and Physical Significance of the Derivative . . . . 362
16.2.2 Differentiation Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
16.2.3 Leibniz’s Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
16.3 Arc Length and Orientations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
16.4 Arc Length and Parametrizations∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
16.4.1 Hard Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
16.4.2 Independence of Parametrization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
16.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
16.6 Motion on Space Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
16.6.1 Some Simple Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
16.7 Geometry of Space Curves∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
16.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380

17 Some Physical Applications 383

17.1 Spherical and Cylindrical Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
17.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
17.3 Planetary Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
17.3.1 The Equal Area Rule, Kepler’s Second Law . . . . . . . . . . 387
17.3.2 Inverse Square Law, Kepler’s First Law . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
17.3.3 Kepler’s Third Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
17.4 The Angular Velocity Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
17.5 Angular Velocity Vector on Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
17.6 Coriolis Force and Centripetal Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
17.7 Coriolis Force on the Rotating Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
17.8 The Foucault Pendulum∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
17.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
8 CONTENTS

II Functions of Many Variables 403

18 Linear Functions 405
18.1 The Matrix of a Linear Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
18.2 Row Operations and Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
18.2.1 Using MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
18.2.2 Uniqueness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
18.2.3 The Inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
18.2.4 MATLAB and Matrix Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
18.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
18.4 Subspaces Spans and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
18.5 Linear Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
18.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436

19 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 443

19.1 Definition of Eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
19.2 An Introduction to Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
19.2.1 Cofactors and 2 × 2 Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
19.2.2 The Determinant of a Triangular Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
19.2.3 Properties of Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
19.2.4 Finding Determinants Using Row Operations . . . . . . . . . 449
19.3 MATLAB and Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
19.4 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
19.4.1 A Formula for the Inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
19.4.2 Finding Eigenvalues Using Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
19.5 MATLAB and Eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
19.6 Matrices and the Dot Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
19.7 Distance and Orthogonal Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
19.8 Diagonalization of Symmetric Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
19.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461

20 Functions of Many Variables 467

20.1 Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
20.2 Review of Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
20.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
20.4 Directional and Partial Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
20.4.1 The Directional Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
20.4.2 Partial Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
20.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
20.6 Mixed Partial Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
20.7 Partial Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
20.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477

21 The Derivative of a Function of Many Variables 479

21.1 The Derivative of Functions of One Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
21.2 The Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
21.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
21.4 C 1 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
21.5 The Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
CONTENTS 9

21.5.1 The Chain Rule for Functions of One Variable . . . . . . . . 492

21.5.2 The Chain Rule for Functions of Many Variables . . . . . . . 492
21.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
21.6.1 Related Rates Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
21.6.2 The Derivative of the Inverse Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
21.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
21.8 The Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
21.9 The Gradient and Tangent Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
21.10Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505

22 Optimization 507
22.1 Local Extrema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
22.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
22.3 The Second Derivative Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
22.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
22.5 Lagrange Multipliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
22.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
22.7 Proof of the Second Derivative Test∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524

23 Line Integrals 527

23.1 Line Integrals and Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
23.2 Conservative Fields and Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
23.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531

24 The Riemannn Integral on Rp 533

24.1 Methods for Double Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
24.1.1 Density and Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
24.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
24.3 Methods for Triple Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
24.3.1 Definition of the Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
24.3.2 Iterated Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
24.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
24.4.1 Mass and Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
24.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547

25 The Integral in Other Coordinates 549

25.1 Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
25.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
25.3 Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
25.3.1 Volume and Integrals in Cylindrical Coordinates . . . . . . . 553
25.3.2 Volume and Integrals in Spherical Coordinates . . . . . . . . 554
25.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
25.5 The General Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
25.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
25.7 The Moment of Inertia and Center of Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
25.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
10 CONTENTS

26 The Integral on Two Dimensional Surfaces in R3 571

26.1 The Two Dimensional Area in R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
26.2 Surfaces of the Form z = f (x, y) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
26.3 MATLAB and Graphing Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
26.4 Piecewise Defined Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
26.5 Flux Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
26.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579

27 Calculus of Vector Fields 581

27.1 Divergence and Curl of a Vector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
27.1.1 Vector Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
27.1.2 Vector Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
27.1.3 The Weak Maximum Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
27.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
27.3 The Divergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
27.3.1 Coordinate Free Concept of Divergence . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
27.4 Applications of the Divergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
27.4.1 Hydrostatic Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
27.4.2 Archimedes Law of Buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
27.4.3 Equations of Heat and Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
27.4.4 Balance of Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
27.4.5 Balance of Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
27.4.6 Frame Indifference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
27.4.7 Bernoulli’s Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
27.4.8 The Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
27.4.9 A Negative Observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
27.4.10 Volumes of Balls in Rn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
27.4.11 Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
27.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606

28 Stokes and Green’s Theorems 609

28.1 Green’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
28.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
28.3 Stoke’s Theorem from Green’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
28.3.1 The Normal and the Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
28.3.2 The Mobeus Band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
28.4 A General Green’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
28.5 Conservative Vector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
28.5.1 Some Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621
28.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623

29 Curvilinear Coordinates 627

29.1 Basis Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
29.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
29.3 Curvilinear Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
29.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634
29.5 Transformation of Coordinates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
29.6 Differentiation and Christoffel Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
CONTENTS 11

29.7 Gradients and Divergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639

29.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642

30 Measures and Integrals 645

30.1 Countable Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646
30.2 Simple Functions, σ Algebras, Measurability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
30.3 Measures and Outer Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
30.4 Measures from Outer Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
30.5 Riemann Integrals for Decreasing Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
30.6 Lebesgue Integrals of Nonnegative Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
30.7 Nonnegative Simple Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661
30.8 The Monotone Convergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
30.9 The Integral’s Righteous Algebraic Desires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
30.10Integrals of Real Valued Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
30.11Dynkin’s Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
30.12Product Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
30.13Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672

31 The Lebesgue Measure and Integral in Rp 675

31.1 An Outer Measure on P (R) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
31.2 One Dimensional Lebesgue Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
31.3 The Lebesgue Integral and Riemann Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
31.4 p Dimensional Lebesgue Measure and Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
31.4.1 Iterated Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
31.4.2 p Dimensional Lebesgue Measure and Integrals . . . . . . . . 679
31.5 Lebesgue Measure and Linear Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680
31.6 Change of Variables for Nonlinear Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682
31.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686

A The Mathematical Theory of Determinants∗ 691

A.1 The Function sgn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
A.2 The Determinant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693
A.2.1 The Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693
A.2.2 Permuting Rows Or Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694
A.2.3 A Symmetric Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
A.2.4 The Alternating Property of the Determinant . . . . . . . . . 696
A.2.5 Linear Combinations and Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . 696
A.2.6 The Determinant of a Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
A.2.7 Cofactor Expansions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698
A.2.8 Row, Column, and Determinant Rank . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
A.2.9 Formula for the Inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701
A.2.10 The Cayley Hamilton Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702
A.2.11 Cramer’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704
A.3 p Dimensional Parallelepipeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704
12 CONTENTS

B Implicit Function Theorem* 707

B.1 More Continuous Partial Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712
B.2 The Method of Lagrange Multipliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713
Copyright c 2018, You are welcome to use this, including copying it for use in
classes or referring to it on line but not to publish it for money. klkuttler@gmail.com
I do constantly upgrade this book when I find things which could be improved.
Introduction

This book is a discussion of calculus of functions of real variables. It is written to

be a first course in Calculus and to be used in the first three semesters of calculus.
However, it would also work as an advanced calculus book for those who have had
the typical undergraduate calculus course. I am assuming the reader has had college
algebra and trigonometry although most of what is needed is reviewed.
Calculus has become a conglomeration of standard techniques, most of which can
be done better with a computer algebra system, along with contrived applications,
tied together with specious and/or incomplete arguments and appeals to authority.
Those aspects of the subject which are mathematically significant are marginalized,
thus ignoring what was learned early in the nineteenth century. In general, existence
theorems are neglected, which results in incomplete explanations of many of the
most important theorems like mean value theorem, fundamental theorem of calculus
etc.
It would be better to include some of this math analysis of the 1800’s as part
of the beginning calculus course, but there are systemic reasons why we don’t, and
this is why these important topics should be in the book, not an indication that
they should be omitted entirely. What is wrong with explanations anyway? Some
people value a coherent presentation more than rote memorization of meaningless
algorithms. Therefore, I am including these basic math analysis topics. Calculus
is not geometry. Neither is it algebra, and to neglect that which is tied to this
observation is to misrepresent what the subject is all about.
Therefore, there are proofs of the intermediate value theorem which is due to
Bolzano and dates from around 1817 and the extreme value theorem, also done by
Bolzano in the 1830’s and later by Weierstrass. I will also show why the integral
of a continuous function exists. This was of interest throughout the nineteenth
century, beginning with the work of Cauchy. I don’t understand how anyone can
make sense of later courses like differential equations without this. What good is
Picard iteration if you don’t even know why the integrals you are writing down
exist?
Also I am trying to present all of the main ideas in a somewhat shorter book than
usual. I don’t understand why it should be necessary to take over 1000 pages, even
with the inclusion of physical applications, which were the motivation for developing
calculus in the first place. I think that no one reads these 1300 page tomes which is
just as well because explanations of the most important topics are usually not there
anyway. I hope I have enough exercises but it is also not clear to me why such long
lists of mostly routine or technical exercises are needed. This book is not like the
“Think and do” books I had in elementary school in the 1950’s.

13
14 CONTENTS

I have introduced some of the most important ideas more than once. For exam-
ple, existence of roots illustrates in a specific case the intermediate value theorem
presented in full generality later. The ideas leading to the integral are first en-
countered early in the book in a discussion of the logarithm. This is an “early
transcendentals” book. Of course more efficiency is obtained by doing these things
only once later on, but I believe that calculus is about continuous functions, in-
tegrals and derivatives and that the ideas associated with these things should be
emphasized.
The book is divided into two parts. The first part is on functions of one variable
with some important theory pertaining to the second part (compact sets, extreme
values theorem, etc.). There is some repetition here since it is done first for functions
of one variable. The second part is on vector valued functions of many variables
and is devoted to the standard topics in vector calculus. I have in mind the first
eight or nine chapters for the first semester of calculus and the next eight for the
second. Then the third semester would consist of whatever can be covered in the
remainder of the book. There is more there than can be included in one semester.
The reason for the chapters on linear algebra is that multi-variable calculus is
mostly based on reduction to linear algebra ideas. Contrary to the pretensions of
virtually all standard texts, there is such a thing as the derivative of a function
of many variables, it is very important, and it is a linear transformation. This
seems to be the best kept secret in undergraduate math. I think multi-variable
calculus would be better understood after a course on linear algebra. After all,
linear functions are easier than nonlinear ones. Shouldn’t we study the easy case
first? If this is done, the chapters on linear algebra can be omitted or used as a
review. On the other hand, the more significant course in undergraduate math is
linear algebra, not calculus. Thus, if linear algebra is to come after multi-variable
calculus, these chapters will help make the linear algebra course easier to master
and make it possible to offer a better linear algebra course, since the stuff involving
row operations and eigenvalues will have been seen already in calculus. Either way,
exposure to a limited amount of linear algebra is a good idea in a multi-variable
calculus book.
There is more in the book than will typically be discussed. Chapter 17 for
example, is not usually included in beginning calculus but gives physical applications
which illustrate the use of calculus and vector methods. To begin with, there are a
few prerequisite topics. These can be referred to as needed.
I have tried to avoid tedious busy work by featuring MATLAB, but other systems
could also be used. It seems to me that graphing by hand is mostly a waste of time
which could be spent learning something of significance. Similar observations apply
to other topics. The standard techniques of integration are certainly worthwhile,
but you can get the answer better with computer algebra. It is a shame when people
take a calculus course and end up thinking it is about trig. substitutions and other
formal symbol pushing techniques, because the mathematics has been neglected in
favor of these procedures. In my experience, this is a common outcome of calculus
courses, people who understand none of the main ideas and only do the symbol
pushing very badly.
 Part I

Functions of One Variable

15
Chapter 1

Fundamental Concepts

1.1 Numbers and Simple Algebra

To begin with, consider the real numbers, denoted by R, as a line extending infinitely
far in both directions. In this book, the notation, ≡ indicates something is being
defined. Thus the integers are defined as

Z ≡ {· · · − 1, 0, 1, · · · } ,

the natural numbers,

N ≡ {1, 2, · · · }
and the rational numbers, defined as the numbers which are the quotient of two
integers. nm o
Q≡ such that m, n ∈ Z, n 6= 0
n
are each subsets of R as indicated in the following picture.

−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

1/2

As shown in the picture, 12 is half way between the number 0 and the number,
1. By analogy, you can see where to place all the other rational numbers. It is
assumed that R has the following algebra properties, listed here as a collection of
assertions called axioms. These properties will not be proved which is why they
are called axioms rather than theorems. In general, axioms are statements which
are regarded as true. Often these are things which are “self evident” either from
experience or from some sort of intuition but this does not have to be the case.

Axiom 1.1.1 x + y = y + x, (commutative law for addition)

Axiom 1.1.2 x + 0 = x, (additive identity).

17
18 CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

Axiom 1.1.3 For each x ∈ R, there exists −x ∈ R such that x + (−x) = 0,

(existence of additive inverse).

Axiom 1.1.4 (x + y) + z = x + (y + z) , (associative law for addition).

Axiom 1.1.5 xy = yx, (commutative law for multiplication).

Axiom 1.1.6 (xy) z = x (yz) , (associative law for multiplication).

Axiom 1.1.7 1x = x, (multiplicative identity).

Axiom 1.1.8 For each x 6= 0, there exists x−1 such that xx−1 = 1.(existence of
multiplicative inverse).

Axiom 1.1.9 x (y + z) = xy + xz.(distributive law).

These axioms are known as the field axioms and any set (there are many others
besides R) which has two such operations satisfying the above axioms is called
a field. Division and subtraction are defined in the usual way by x − y ≡ x +
(−y) and x/y ≡ x y −1 . It is assumed that the reader is completely familiar with

these axioms in the sense that he or she can do the usual algebraic manipulations
taught in high school and junior high algebra courses. The axioms listed above are
just a careful statement of exactly what is necessary to make the usual algebraic
manipulations valid.
A word of advice regarding division and subtraction is in order here. Whenever
you feel a little confused about an algebraic expression which involves division or
subtraction, think of division as multiplication by the multiplicative inverse as just
indicated and think of subtraction as addition of the additive inverse. Thus, when
you see x/y, think x y −1 and when you see x − y, think x + (−y) . In many cases

the source of confusion will disappear almost magically.

The reason for this is that subtraction and division do not satisfy the associative
law. This means there is a natural ambiguity in an expression like 6 − 3 − 4. Do
you mean (6 − 3) − 4 = −1 or 6 − (3 − 4) = 6 − (−1) = 7? It makes a difference
doesn’t it? However, the so called binary operations of addition and multiplication
are associative and so no such confusion will occur. It is conventional to simply
do the operations in order of appearance reading from left to right. Thus, if you
see 6 − 3 − 4, you would normally interpret it as the first of the above alternatives,
but what if you grew up reading Hebrew or Arabic which reads from right to left
according to my understanding? Shouldn’t mathematics be independent of such
things? Subtraction and division are abominations.
In the first part of the following theorem, the claim is made that the additive
inverse and the multiplicative inverse are unique. This means that for a given
number, only one number has the property that it is an additive inverse and that,
given a nonzero number, only one number has the property that it is a multiplicative
inverse. The significance of this is that if you are wondering if a given number is
the additive inverse of a given number, all you have to do is to check and see if it
acts like one.

Theorem 1.1.10 The above axioms imply the following.

1.1. NUMBERS AND SIMPLE ALGEBRA 19

1. The multiplicative inverse and additive inverse are unique.

2. 0x = 0, − (−x) = x,

3. (−1) (−1) = 1, (−1) x = −x

4. If xy = 0 then either x = 0 or y = 0.

Proof: Suppose then that x is a real number and that x + y = 0 = x + z. It is

necessary to verify y = z. From the above axioms, there exists an additive inverse,
−x for x. Therefore,

−x + 0 = (−x) + (x + y) = (−x) + (x + z)

and so by the associative law for addition,

((−x) + x) + y = ((−x) + x) + z

which implies
0 + y = 0 + z.
Now by the definition of the additive identity, this implies y = z. You should prove
the multiplicative inverse is unique.
Consider 2. It is desired to verify 0x = 0. From the definition of the additive
identity and the distributive law it follows that

0x = (0 + 0) x = 0x + 0x.

From the existence of the additive inverse and the associative law it follows

0 = (−0x) + 0x = (−0x) + (0x + 0x)

= ((−0x) + 0x) + 0x = 0 + 0x = 0x

To verify the second claim in 2., it suffices to show x acts like the additive inverse
of −x in order to conclude that − (−x) = x. This is because it has just been shown
that additive inverses are unique. By the definition of additive inverse,

x + (−x) = 0

and so x = − (−x) as claimed.

To demonstrate 3.,

(−1) (1 + (−1)) = (−1) 0 = 0

and so using the definition of the multiplicative identity, and the distributive law,

(−1) + (−1) (−1) = 0.

It follows from 1. and 2. that 1 = − (−1) = (−1) (−1) . To verify (−1) x = −x, use
2. and the distributive law to write

x + (−1) x = x (1 + (−1)) = x0 = 0.
20 CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

Therefore, by the uniqueness of the additive inverse proved in 1., it follows (−1) x =
−x as claimed.
To verify 4., suppose x 6= 0. Then x−1 exists by the axiom about the existence of
multiplicative inverses. Therefore, by 2. and the associative law for multiplication,
y = x−1 x y = x−1 (xy) = x−1 0 = 0.

This proves 4. 
Recall the notion of something raised to an integer power. Thus y 2 = y × y and
−3
b = b13 etc.
Also, there are a few conventions related to the order in which operations are

performed. Exponents are always done before multiplication. Thus xy 2 = x y 2
2
and is not equal to (xy) . Division or multiplication is always done before addition or
subtraction. Thus x−y (z + w) = x−[y (z + w)] and is not equal to (x − y) (z + w) .
Parentheses are done before anything else. Be very careful of such things since they
are a source of mistakes. When you have doubts, insert parentheses to describe
exactly what is meant.
Also recall summation notation.
Definition 1.1.11 Let x1 , x2 , · · · , xm be numbers. Then
m
X
xj ≡ x1 + x2 + · · · + xm .
j=1
Pm
Thus this symbol, j=1 xj means to take all the numbers, x1 , x2 , · · · , xm and add
them. Note the use of the j as a generic variable which takes values from 1 up to m.
This notation will be used
P whenever there are things which can be added, not just
numbers. QThe notation i∈S xi means to consider all x
m Qi mfor i ∈ S and add them.
Also, i=1 xi means to multiply all the xi together. i=1 xi ≡ x1 x2 · · · xm
As an example of the use of this notation, you should verify the following.
P6 Q3
Example 1.1.12 k=1 (2k + 1) = 48, i=1 (i + 1) = 24.
Pm+1 Pm
Be sure you understandPmwhy k=1 xk = k=1 xk + xm+1 . As a slight general-
ization of this notation, j=k xj ≡ xk + · · · + xm . It is also possible to change the
Pm
variable of summation. xj = x1 + x2 + · · · + xm while if r is an integer, the
Pm+r j=1 Pm Pm+r
notation requires j=1+r xj−r = x1 +x2 +· · ·+xm and so j=1 xj = j=1+r xj−r .
Summation notation will be used throughout the book whenever it is convenient
to do so.
When you have algebraic expressions, you treat the variables like they are num-
bers and add like you would normally do. For example, consider the following.
x y
Example 1.1.13 Add the fractions, x2 +y + x−1 .

You add these just like fractions. Write the first expression as (x2x(x−1)
+y)(x−1) and
2
y (x +y )
the second as (x−1)(x2 +y) . Then since these have the same common denominator,
you add them as follows.


x y x (x − 1) y x2 + y x2 − x + yx2 + y 2
2
+ = 2
+ 2
= .
x +y x−1 (x + y) (x − 1) (x − 1) (x + y) (x2 + y) (x − 1)
I assume the reader knows all about this kind of thing.
1.2. EXERCISES 21

1.2 Exercises
1. Consider the expression x + y (x + y) − x (y − x) ≡ f (x, y) . Find f (−1, 2) .

2. Show − (ab) = (−a) b.

3. Show on the number line the effect of multiplying a number by −1.

x x−1
4. Add the fractions x2 −1 + x+1 .

2 3 4
5. Find a formula for (x + y) , (x + y) , and (x + y) . Based on what you ob-
8
serve for these, give a formula for (x + y) .
n
6. When is it true that (x + y) = xn + y n ?

7. Find the error in the following argument. Let x = y = 1. Then xy = y 2 and

so xy − x2 = y 2 − x2 . Therefore, x (y − x) = (y − x) (y + x) . Dividing both
sides by (y − x) yields x = x + y. Now substituting in what these variables
equal yields 1 = 1 + 1.
√
8. Find the
√ error in the following argument. x2 + 1 = x + 1 and so letting
x = 2, 5 = 3. Therefore, 5 = 9.
1 1
9. Find the error in the following. Let x = 1 and y = 2. Then 3 = x+y =
1 1 1 3
x + y = 1 + 2 = 2 . Then cross multiplying, yields 2 = 9.

10. Find the error in the following argument. Let x = 3 and y = 1. Then
1 = 3 − 2 = 3 − (3 − 1) = x − y (x − y) = (x − y) (x − y) = 22 = 4.
xy+y
11. Find the error in the following. x = y + y = 2y. Now let x = 2 and y = 2
to obtain 3 = 4

12. Show the rational numbers satisfy the field axioms. You may assume the
associative, commutative, and distributive laws hold for the integers.

1.3 Set Notation

A set is just a collection of things called elements. Often these are also referred to as
points in calculus. For example {1, 2, 3, 8} would be a set consisting of the elements
1,2,3, and 8. To indicate that 3 is an element of {1, 2, 3, 8} , it is customary to write
3 ∈ {1, 2, 3, 8} . 9 ∈
/ {1, 2, 3, 8} means 9 is not an element of {1, 2, 3, 8} . Sometimes
a rule specifies a set. For example you could specify a set as all integers larger than
2. This would be written as S = {x ∈ Z : x > 2} . This notation says: the set of all
integers x, such that x > 2.
If A and B are sets with the property that every element of A is an element of
B, then A is a subset of B. For example, {1, 2, 3, 8} is a subset of {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8} , in
symbols, {1, 2, 3, 8} ⊆ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8} . The same statement about the two sets may
also be written as {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8} ⊇ {1, 2, 3, 8}.
The union of two sets is the set consisting of everything which is contained
in at least one of the sets, A or B. As an example of the union of two sets,
22 CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

{1, 2, 3, 8} ∪ {3, 4, 7, 8} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8} because these numbers are those which are
in at least one of the two sets. Note that 3 is in both of these sets. In general

A ∪ B ≡ {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B} .

Be sure you understand that something which is in both A and B is in the union.
It is not an exclusive or.
The intersection of two sets, A and B consists of everything which is in both of
the sets. Thus {1, 2, 3, 8} ∩ {3, 4, 7, 8} = {3, 8} because 3 and 8 are those elements
the two sets have in common. In general,

A ∩ B ≡ {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B} .

The symbol AC indicates the set of things not in A. It makes sense when A ⊆ U,
a universal set and it more precisely written as U \ A.
When K is a set whose elements are sets, ∩K means everything which is in each
of the sets of K. Also ∪K is defined similarly. It is everything which is in at least
one set of K. More precisely, ∩K ≡ ∩ {K : K ∈ K} . The following proposition is on
De’Morgan’s laws.

Proposition 1.3.1 Let K denote a set whose elements are subsets of some uni-
versal set U . Then
C C
(∩K) = ∪ K C : K ∈ K , (∪K) = ∩ K C : K ∈ K
 

Here K C ≡ U \ K, everything outside of K.

C
Proof: This follows from the definition. To say x ∈ (∩K) is to say that x is
not in the intersection of sets of K which is to say that there is some set K ∈ K
such that x ∈ / K so x ∈ K C which is to say that x ∈ ∪ K C : K ∈ K . The other
claim is similar. 
When with real numbers, [a, b] denotes the set of real numbers, x, such that
a ≤ x ≤ b and [a, b) denotes the set of real numbers such that a ≤ x < b. (a, b)
consists of the set of real numbers, x such that a < x < b and (a, b] indicates the
set of numbers, x such that a < x ≤ b. [a, ∞) means the set of all numbers, x such
that x ≥ a and (−∞, a] means the set of all real numbers which are less than or
equal to a. These sorts of sets of real numbers are called intervals. The two points,
a and b are called endpoints of the interval. Other intervals such as (−∞, b) are
defined by analogy to what was just explained. In general, the curved parenthesis
indicates the end point it sits next to is not included while the square parenthesis
indicates this end point is included. The reason that there will always be a curved
parenthesis next to ∞ or −∞ is that these are not real numbers. Therefore, they
cannot be included in any set of real numbers. It is assumed that the reader is
already familiar with order which is discussed in the next section more carefully.
The emphasis here is on the geometric significance of these intervals. That is [a, b)
consists of all points of the number line which are to the right of a possibly equaling
a and to the left of b. In the above description, I have used the usual description of
this set in terms of order.
A special set which needs to be given a name is the empty set also called the
null set, denoted by ∅. Thus ∅ is defined as the set which has no elements in it.
1.4. ORDER 23

Mathematicians like to say the empty set is a subset of every set. The reason they
say this is that if it were not so, there would have to exist a set, A, such that ∅
has something in it which is not in A. However, ∅ has nothing in it and so the least
intellectual discomfort is achieved by saying ∅ ⊆ A.
If A and B are two sets, A \ B denotes the set of things which are in A but
not in B. Thus A \ B ≡ {x ∈ A : x ∈ / B} . This is the same as A ∩ B C where B C
indicates everything not in B. Set notation is used whenever convenient.

1.4 Order
The real numbers also have an order defined on them. This order may be defined
by reference to the positive real numbers, those to the right of 0 on the number
line, denoted by R+ which is assumed to satisfy the following axioms.

Axiom 1.4.1 The sum of two positive real numbers is positive.

Axiom 1.4.2 The product of two positive real numbers is positive.

Axiom 1.4.3 For a given real number x one and only one of the following alter-
natives holds. Either x is positive, x = 0, or −x is positive.

Definition 1.4.4 x < y exactly when y + (−x) ≡ y − x ∈ R+ . In the usual

way, x < y is the same as y > x and x ≤ y means either x < y or x = y. The
symbol ≥ is defined similarly.

Theorem 1.4.5 The following hold for the order defined as above.

1. If x < y and y < z then x < z (Transitive law).

2. If x < y then x + z < y + z (addition to an inequality).

3. If x ≤ 0 and y ≤ 0, then xy ≥ 0.

4. If x > 0 then x−1 > 0.

5. If x < 0 then x−1 < 0.

6. If x < y then xz < yz if z > 0, (multiplication of an inequality).

7. If x < y and z < 0, then xz > zy (multiplication of an inequality).

8. Each of the above holds with > and < replaced by ≥ and ≤ respectively except
for 4 and 5 in which we must also stipulate that x 6= 0.

9. For any x and y, exactly one of the following must hold. Either x = y, x < y,
or x > y (trichotomy).

Proof: First consider 1, the transitive law. Suppose x < y and y < z. Why is
x < z? In other words, why is z − x ∈ R+ ? It is because z − x = (z − y) + (y − x)
and both z − y, y − x ∈ R+ . Thus by 1.4.1 above, z − x ∈ R+ and so z > x.
24 CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

Next consider 2, addition to an inequality. If x < y why is x + z < y + z? it is

because
(y + z) + − (x + z) = (y + z) + (−1) (x + z)
= y + (−1) x + z + (−1) z = y − x ∈ R+ .
Next consider 3. If x ≤ 0 and y ≤ 0, why is xy ≥ 0? First note there is
nothing to show if either x or y equal 0 so assume this is not the case. By 1.4.3
−x > 0 and −y > 0. Therefore, by 1.4.2 and what was proved about −x = (−1) x,
2 2
(−x) (−y) = (−1) xy ∈ R+ . Is (−1) = 1? If so the claim is proved. But − (−1) =
2 2
(−1) (−1) ≡ (−1) and − (−1) = 1 because −1 + 1 = 0. Therefore, 1 = (−1) .
−1 −1 −1
Next consider 4. If x > 0 why is x > 0? By 1.4.3 either x = 0 or −x ∈ R+ .
It can’t happen that x−1 = 0 because then you would have to have 1 = 0x and
as was shown earlier, 0x = 0. Therefore, consider the possibility that −x−1 ∈ R+ .
This can’t work either because then you would have (−1) x−1 x = (−1) (1) = −1
and it would follow from 1.4.2 that −1 ∈ R+ . But this is impossible because if
x ∈ R+ , then (−1) x = −x ∈ R+ and contradicts 1.4.3 which states that either −x
or x is in R+ but not both.
Next consider 5.
If x < 0, why is x−1 < 0? As before, x−1 6= 0. If x−1 > 0, then
as before, −x x−1 = −1 ∈ R+ which was just shown not to occur.
Next consider 6. If x < y why is xz < yz if z > 0? This follows because
yz − xz = z (y − x) ∈ R+ since both z and y − x ∈ R+ .
Next consider 7. If x < y and z < 0, why is xz > zy? This follows because
zx − zy = z (x − y) ∈ R+ by what was proved in 3.
The last two claims are obvious and left for you. This proves the theorem. 
Note that trichotomy could be stated by saying x ≤ y or y ≤ x.

x if x ≥ 0,
Definition 1.4.6 |x| ≡ −x if x < 0.

Note that |x| can be thought of as the distance between x and 0.

Theorem 1.4.7 |xy| = |x| |y| .

Proof: You can verify this by checking all available cases. Do so. You need
consider both x, y nonnegative, both negative, and one negative and the other
positive. 

Theorem 1.4.8 The following inequalities hold.

|x + y| ≤ |x| + |y| , ||x| − |y|| ≤ |x − y| .

Either of these inequalities may be called the triangle inequality.

Proof: First note that if a, b ∈ R+ ∪ {0} then a ≤ b if and only if a2 ≤ b2 . Here

is why. Suppose a ≤ b. Then by the properties of order proved above, a2 ≤ ab ≤ b2
because b2 − ab = b (b − a) ∈ R+ ∪ {0} . Next suppose a2 ≤ b2 . If both a, b = 0 there
is nothing to show. Assume then they are not both 0. Then

b2 − a2 = (b + a) (b − a) ∈ R+ .
1.4. ORDER 25

−1
By the above theorem on order, (a + b) ∈ R+ and so using the associative law,
−1
(a + b) ((b + a) (b − a)) = (b − a) ∈ R+

Thus b ≥ a.
Now
2 2
|x + y| = (x + y) = x2 + 2xy + y 2
2 2 2
≤ |x| + |y| + 2 |x| |y| = (|x| + |y|)

and so the first of the inequalities follows. Note I used xy ≤ |xy| = |x| |y| which
follows from the definition.
To verify the other form of the triangle inequality, x = x − y + y so

|x| ≤ |x − y| + |y|

and so |x| − |y| ≤ |x − y| = |y − x|. Now repeat the argument replacing the roles of
x and y to conclude |y| − |x| ≤ |y − x| . Therefore,

||y| − |x|| ≤ |y − x| .

This proves the triangle inequality. 

Example 1.4.9 Solve the inequality 2x + 4 ≤ x − 8

Subtract 2x from both sides to yield 4 ≤ −x − 8. Next add 8 to both sides to

get 12 ≤ −x. Then multiply both sides by (−1) to obtain x ≤ −12. Alternatively,
subtract x from both sides to get x + 4 ≤ −8. Then subtract 4 from both sides to
obtain x ≤ −12.

Example 1.4.10 Solve the inequality (x + 1) (2x − 3) ≥ 0.

If this is to hold, either both of the factors, x + 1 and 2x − 3 are nonnegative or

they are both non-positive. The first case yields x + 1 ≥ 0 and 2x − 3 ≥ 0 so x ≥ −1
and x ≥ 23 yielding x ≥ 23 . The second case yields x + 1 ≤ 0 and 2x − 3 ≤ 0 which
implies x ≤ −1 and x ≤ 32 . Therefore, the solution to this inequality is x ≤ −1 or
x ≥ 23 .

Example 1.4.11 Solve the inequality (x) (x + 2) ≥ −4

Here the problem is to find x such that x2 + 2x + 4 ≥ 0. However, x2 + 2x + 4 =

2
(x + 1) + 3 ≥ 0 for all x. Therefore, the solution to this problem is all x ∈ R.

Example 1.4.12 Solve the inequality 2x + 4 ≤ x − 8

This is written as (−∞, −12].

Example 1.4.13 Solve the inequality (x + 1) (2x − 3) ≥ 0.

3
This was worked earlier and x ≤ −1 or x ≥ 2 was the answer. In terms of set
notation this is denoted by (−∞, −1] ∪ [ 23 , ∞).
26 CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

Example 1.4.14 Solve the equation |x − 1| = 2

This will be true when x − 1 = 2 or when x − 1 = −2. Therefore, there are two
solutions to this problem, x = 3 or x = −1.

Example 1.4.15 Solve the inequality |2x − 1| < 2

From the number line, it is necessary to have 2x − 1 between −2 and 2 because

the inequality says that the distance from 2x − 1 to 0 is less than 2. Therefore,
−2 < 2x − 1 < 2 and so −1/2 < x < 3/2. In other words, −1/2 < x and x < 3/2.

Example 1.4.16 Solve the inequality |2x − 1| > 2.

This happens if 2x − 1 > 2 or if 2x − 1 < −2. Thus
the solution

is x > 3/2 or
x < −1/2. Written in terms of intervals this is 23 , ∞ ∪ −∞, − 12 .

Example 1.4.17 Solve |x + 1| = |2x − 2|

There are two ways this can happen. It could be the case that x + 1 = 2x − 2
in which case x = 3 or alternatively, x + 1 = 2 − 2x in which case x = 1/3.

Example 1.4.18 Solve |x + 1| ≤ |2x − 2|

In order to keep track of what is happening, it is a very good idea to graph

the two relations, y = |x + 1| and y = |2x − 2| on the same set of coordinate axes.
This is not a hard job. |x + 1| = x + 1 when x > −1 and |x + 1| = −1 − x when
x ≤ −1. Therefore, it is not hard to draw its graph. Similar considerations apply
to the other relation. The result is

y = |x + 1|

1/3 3

Equality holds exactly when x = 3 or x = 13 as in the preceding example.

Consider x between 31 and 3. You can see these values
of x do not solve the inequality.
For example x = 1 does not work. Therefore, 13 , 3 must be excluded. The values of
x larger than 3 do not produce equality so either |x + 1| < |2x − 2| for these points
or |2x − 2| < |x + 1| for these points. Checking examples, you see the first of the
two cases is the one which holds. Therefore, [3, ∞) is included. Similar reasoning
obtains (−∞, 13 ]. It follows the solution set to this inequality is (−∞, 13 ] ∪ [3, ∞).

Example 1.4.19 Suppose ε > 0 is a given positive number. Obtain a number,

δ > 0, such that if |x − 1| < δ, then x2 − 1 < ε.
1.5. EXERCISES 27

First of all, note x2 − 1 = |x − 1| |x + 1| ≤ (|x| + 1) |x − 1| . Now if |x − 1| < 1,

it follows |x| < 2 and so for |x − 1| < 1,

x2 − 1 < 3 |x − 1| .

Now let δ = min 1, 3ε . This notation means to take the minimum of the two

numbers, 1 and 3ε . Then if |x − 1| < δ,

ε
x2 − 1 < 3 |x − 1| < 3 = ε.
3

1.5 Exercises
1. Solve (3x + 2) (x − 3) ≤ 0. 19. Solve |x + 2| ≤ 8 + |2x − 4| .
2. Solve (3x + 2) (x − 3) > 0. 20. Solve (x + 1) (2x − 2) x ≥ 0.
x+2
3. Solve 3x−2 < 0. x+3
21. Solve 2x+1 > 1.
4. Solve x+1
x+3 < 1.
x+2
22. Solve 3x+1 > 2.
5. Solve (x − 1) (2x + 1) ≤ 2.
23. Describe the set of numbers, a
6. Solve (x − 1) (2x + 1) > 2.
such that there is no solution to
7. Solve x2 − 2x ≤ 0. |x + 1| = 4 − |x + a| .
2
8. Solve (x + 2) (x − 2) ≤ 0. 24. Suppose 0 < a < b. Show a−1 >
3x−4 b−1 .
9. Solve x2 +2x+2 ≥ 0.

10. Solve 3x+9

≥ 1. 25. Show that if |x − 6| < 1, then |x| <
x2 +2x+1
7.
x2 +2x+1
11. Solve 3x+7 < 1.
26. Suppose |x − 8| < 2. How large can
12. Solve |x + 1| = |2x − 3| . |x − 5| be?
13. Solve |3x + 1| < 8. Give your an- 27. Obtain a number, δ > 0, such that
swer in terms of intervals on the if |x − 1| < δ, then x2 − 1 <
real line. 1/10.
14. Sketch on the number line the so-
lution to the inequality |x − 3| > 2. 28. Obtain a number, δ > 0,√such that
if |x − 4| < δ, then | x − 2| <
15. Sketch on the number line the so- 1/10.
lution to the inequality |x − 3| < 2.
√ 29. Suppose ε > 0 is a given posi-
16. Show |x| = x2 . tive number. Obtain a number,
17. Solve |x + 2| < |3x − 3| . δ > 0,√ such that if |x − 1| < δ,
then | x − 1| < ε. Hint: This δ
18. Tell when equality holds in the tri- will depend in some way on ε. You
angle inequality. need to tell how.
28 CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

1.6 The Binomial Theorem

Consider the following problem: You have the integers Sn = {1, 2, · · · , n} and k
is an integer no larger than n. How many ways are there to fill k slots with these
integers starting from left to right if whenever an integer from Sn has been used, it
cannot be re used in any succeeding slot?
k of these slots
z }| {
, , , ,··· ,
This number is known as permutations of n things taken k at a time and is denoted
by P (n, k). It is easy to figure it out. There are n choices for the first slot. For each
choice for the fist slot, there remain n − 1 choices for the second slot. Thus there
are n (n − 1) ways to fill the first two slots. Now there remain n − 2 ways to fill the
third. Thus there are n (n − 1) (n − 2) ways to fill the first three slots. Continuing
this way, you see there are
P (n, k) = n (n − 1) (n − 2) · · · (n − k + 1)
ways to do this. Note there are k factors in the above product.
Now define for k a positive integer,
k! ≡ k (k − 1) (k − 2) · · · 1, 0! ≡ 1.
This is called k factorial. Thus P (k, k) = k! and you should verify that
n!
P (n, k) =
(n − k)!
Now consider the number of ways of selecting a set of k different numbers from Sn .
For each set of k numbers thereare P  (k, k) = k! ways of listing these numbers in
n
order. Therefore, denoting by the number of ways of selecting a set of k
k
numbers from Sn , it must be the case that
 
n n!
k! = P (n, k) =
k (n − k)!
 
n n!
Therefore, = k!(n−k)! . How many ways are there to select no numbers from
k
Sn ? Obviously one way. Note that the above formula gives the right answer in this
case as well as in all other cases due to the definition which says 0! = 1.
n
Now consider the problem of writing a formula for (x + y) where n is a positive
integer. Imagine writing it like this:
n times
z }| {
(x + y) (x + y) · · · (x + y)
Then you know the result will be sums of terms of the form ak xk y n−k . What is
ak ? In other words, how many ways can you pick x from k of the factors above
 the other n − k. There are n factors so the number of ways to do
and y from
n
it is . Therefore, ak is the above formula and so this proves the following
k
important theorem known as the binomial theorem.
1.7. WELL ORDERING PRINCIPLE, MATH INDUCTION 29

Theorem 1.6.1 The following formula holds for any n a positive integer.
n  
n
X n
(x + y) = xk y n−k .
k
k=0

1.7 Well Ordering Principle, Math Induction

Definition 1.7.1 A set is well ordered if every nonempty subset S, contains
a smallest element z having the property that z ≤ x for all x ∈ S.

Axiom 1.7.2 Any set of integers larger than a given number is well ordered.

In particular, the natural numbers defined as

N ≡ {1, 2, · · · }

is well ordered.
The above axiom implies the principle of mathematical induction.

Theorem 1.7.3 (Mathematical induction) A set S ⊆ Z, having the property

that a ∈ S and n + 1 ∈ S whenever n ∈ S contains all integers x ∈ Z such that
x ≥ a.

Proof: Let T ≡ ([a, ∞) ∩ Z) \ S. Thus T consists of all integers larger than or

equal to a which are not in S. The theorem will be proved if T = ∅. If T 6= ∅ then
by the well ordering principle, there would have to exist a smallest element of T,
denoted as b. It must be the case that b > a since by definition, a ∈ / T. Then the
integer, b − 1 ≥ a and b − 1 ∈/ S because if b − 1 ∈ S, then b − 1 + 1 = b ∈ S by the
assumed property of S. Therefore, b − 1 ∈ ([a, ∞) ∩ Z) \ S = T which contradicts
the choice of b as the smallest element of T. (b − 1 is smaller.) Since a contradiction
is obtained by assuming T 6= ∅, it must be the case that T = ∅ and this says that
everything in [a, ∞) ∩ Z is also in S. 
Mathematical induction is a very useful device for proving theorems about the
integers.
Pn
Example 1.7.4 Prove by induction that k=1 k 2 = n(n+1)(2n+1) 6 .

By inspection, if n = 1 then the formula is true. The sum yields 1 and so does
the formula on the right. Suppose this formula is valid for some n ≥ 1 where n is
an integer. Then
n+1 n
X X 2 n (n + 1) (2n + 1) 2
k2 = k 2 + (n + 1) = + (n + 1) .
6
k=1 k=1

The step going from the first to the second line is based on the assumption that
the formula is true for n. This is called the induction hypothesis. Now simplify the
expression in the second line,
n (n + 1) (2n + 1) 2
+ (n + 1) .
6
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 "She looks like a ship's boat," replied Hemming. "The sail is rigged
square, with a boat-hook and an oar for yards, and has a hole in the middle;
it's a poncho, I think. There's a nigger forward, waving a shirt, and a white
man aft, smoking."

The captain hurried up to the bridge and took the glass. After aiming it
at the bobbing stranger, he turned to Hemming.

"My boat," he said, "and the same damn fool aboard her."

"Your boat?" inquired Hemming.

The mariner glared, with angry eyes, across the glinting water. Suddenly
his face cleared. "I win," he cried. "I bet him ten dollars he'd have to get out
inside six weeks, and by cracky, so he has!"

"Who is he?" asked the Englishman.

"He's Mr. O'Rourke, the man who's lookin' for trouble," replied the big
Nova Scotian.

"What's he doing with your boat, and why didn't he take a decent sail
while he was about it?" Hemming asked.

"He had a decent enough sail when I saw him last," explained the
skipper, "and I don't mean to say that he's a thief. He paid for the boat, right
enough, though he bargained pretty close. He wanted to see more of Cuba,
you know, but the Spaniards wouldn't have anything more to do with him,
because of something he wrote, so he just got me to steam in five weeks
ago, and let him off in the port life-boat. Now he's back again, with a
nigger."

"What's his game?" asked Hemming.

"Search me,—unless it's just trouble," said the mariner, returning the
glass and hurrying down to the deck.

By this time the Laura was rolling lazily. The captain ordered a man to
stand ready with a line; the poncho was lowered, aboard the adventurous
rowboat, and the nigger manned the oars; the white man in the stern sheets
stood up and raised his Panama hat, and the passengers along the Laura's
rail replied with cheers. The captain leaned far over the side. "What about
that bet?" he shouted. The stranger drew his hand from a pocket of his
ragged ducks and held something aloft,—something crumpled and green.
Then he regained his soaring seat, and gripped the tiller.

The captain lifted a beaming countenance to Hemming on the bridge.

"That's the first white man who ever got out of Cuba with ten dollars," he
bawled. Evidently the captain did not consider Spaniards as white men.

The line was thrown, and went circling and unfolding through the air
until it fell into the boat. The ladder was unlashed and dropped over the
Laura's side. In a minute O'Rourke and the pacifico were on the deck, and
in another minute the port life-boat was back on its davits. O'Rourke was
warmly welcomed aboard. Even the chief engineer appeared from below to
shake his hand. The captain hurried him to the chart-room, and beckoned to
Hemming from the door. When Hemming entered, he found the newcomer
lying full length on the locker, with a glass of whiskey and water in his left
hand, and the other under his head. He got stiffly to his feet upon the
Englishman's entrance, and, after shaking hands cordially, lay down again.

"Now what do you think of that?" queried the skipper, glancing from
O'Rourke to the other.

O'Rourke laughed good-naturedly, but with a note of weariness. "I must

confess it was not exactly a Sunday-school picnic," he said, "and a chap's
insides get fearfully squirmy on a diet of sugar-cane and a few random
plantains."

The skipper, who had been carefully, even lovingly, mixing drinks in
two more glasses, eyed O'Rourke severely.

"You'd better get married, and give up them tomfool actions," he said,
"or some fine day the Spaniards will catch up to you, and then,—well,
you'll be sorry, that's all."
 "They caught up to several of our party this time," remarked O'Rourke,
casually.

"By Jove!" exclaimed Hemming, straightening his eye-glass.

The man with the Irish name and non-committal accent turned his head
on the locker, and smiled at the other adventurer.

"They were not particular pals of mine," he said, reassuringly, "so I

didn't stay to inquire their fate."

"You're fool enough to have stayed," remarked the skipper.

Hemming stared at the free and easy language of the mariner, and at
O'Rourke's good-natured way of taking it, for he had not yet become
entirely accustomed to the ways of the world outside the army, and this
O'Rourke, though unshaven and in tatters, was certainly a gentleman, by
Hemming's standards. The master of the Laura may have read something of
this in his passenger's face, for he turned to him and said: "Mr. O'Rourke
and I are pretty good friends. We've played ashore together, and we've
sailed together more than once, and when I call him a fool, why, it's my way
of saying he's the bangest-up, straight-grained man I know. I never call him
a fool before his inferiors, and if it came to any one else calling him
anything, why—" and he slapped his big red hand on the chart-room table
with a blow that rocked the bottles.

"Shut up," said O'Rourke, blushing beneath his bristles and tan, "or
Captain Hemming will take me for as silly an ass as he takes you."

"Not at all," began Hemming, awkwardly, and, when the others roared
with laughter, he hid his confusion by draining his glass. He had never
before been laughed at quite so violently, but he found, rather to his
surprise, that he liked it.

After lunch, O'Rourke (whose full name was Bertram St. Ives
O'Rourke) retired to his stateroom, and did not reappear until dinner-time.
He looked better then, clean shaven, and attired in one of the skipper's extra
warm-weather suits. He filled the borrowed clothes well enough in length
and in breadth of shoulder, but confessed, at table, that the trousers lapped
twice around his waist. During the simple meal, the conversation was all of
the internal disturbance of Cuba, and all the passengers, as well as the
skipper, seemed interested in the matter and well informed of recent
incidents. Hemming listened keenly, now and then putting a question.
O'Rourke told a part of his adventures during his last stay in the island, and
sketched, in vivid and well-chosen words, the daily life of the patriots. It
was not as romantic as Hemming had hoped.

"It's a low sort of fighting on both sides,—not the kind you have mixed
in," said O'Rourke to Hemming.

"I?" exclaimed Hemming, while the dusky passengers and burly skipper
pricked up their ears.

"I saw your initials—H.H.—on your cigarette case," he explained, "and

I have read some good things signed H.H., by an Englishman, on English
army life, so of course I spotted you."

"I'm doing work for the New York News Syndicate now," said
Hemming.

After dinner, O'Rourke led the way to the chart-room. From the locker
he produced a small typewriting machine. This he oiled, and set up on the
table. The skipper winked at Hemming.

"I wish I'd smashed the danged thing while he was away," he said.
O'Rourke paid not the slightest attention to this pleasantry, but inserted a
sheet of paper, of which he had a supply stored in the same place of safety.

"Now," said he, seating himself on a camp-stool before the machine, "I
don't mind how much you two talk, but I have some work to do."

"You, too?" laughed the Englishman.

"I'm only a free-lance," said O'Rourke, and, lighting a cigarette, he

began clicking the keys. For more than an hour he worked steadily, while
the skipper and Hemming sat side by side on the locker and told stories.
The door was hooked open, and a fresh breeze kept the room cool, and
circled the pungent smoke.

When Hemming turned in, he found that He could not sleep. His brain
jumped and kept busy, in spite of him. Now he lived again his exciting days
in Northern India. From this he flashed to the Norfolk tennis lawn, where
Molly Travers listened again to his ardent vows. He turned over and tried to
win himself to slumber by counting imaginary sheep. But that only seemed
to suggest to his memory the care-free days of his youth. Again he built
forts in the warm earth of the potting-house. Again he fled from the red-
headed gardener, and stumbled into piled-up ranks of flowerpots, hurling
them to destruction. Again he watched his father, in pink and spurs, trot
down the avenue in the gold, rare sunlight of those days. Feeling that these
good memories would carry him safely to the land of peace, he closed his
eyes,—only to find his mind busy with that last day in London. He climbed
swiftly from his berth, and, after slipping his feet into his shoes, ascended to
the deck. He did not wait to change his pajamas for anything more
conventional. There was not a breath of wind. The stars burned big and
white; the water over the side flashed away in silver fire, and farther out
some rolling fish broke its trail of flame; to starboard lay a black suggestion
of land. Looking forward, he saw that the door of the chart-room stood
open, emitting a warm flood of lamplight. He went up to the lower bridge,
or half-deck, where the chart-room stood, and glanced within. The skipper
lay on the locker, snoring peacefully, and O'Rourke still clicked at the
typewriter. Hemming stole quietly in and poured himself a glass of water
from the clay bottle on the rack.

"Don't let me disturb you," he said to the worker. "I'll just have a smoke
to kill wakefulness."

"If you can't sleep," said O'Rourke, "just listen to this as long as your
eyes will stay open."

He sorted over his pages of copy and began to read. His voice was low-
pitched, and through it sounded the whispering of the steamer's passage
across the rocking waters. The style was full of colour, and Hemming was
keenly interested from start to finish. Not until the last page was turned over
did O'Rourke look up.
 "What! not asleep yet!" he exclaimed.

"That seems to me very fine," said Hemming, seriously, "and I should

certainly take it for literature of an unusually high order if I did not know
that journalists cannot write literature."

"Do you think it will do?" asked O'Rourke, modestly.

"My dear chap," replied Hemming, "it will do for anything,—for a

book, or to carve on a monument. It's a dashed sight too good for any
newspaper."

"It certainly wouldn't do for a newspaper," laughed the younger man.

"Just imagine an editor with a blue pencil, loose on those descriptions of
vegetation. When I do newspaper stuff, I throw in the blood and leave out
the beauty. That is for Griffin's Magazine."

"Are you sure of your market?" asked the Englishman, wondering for
even in England, Griffin's was known for its quality.

"It was ordered," said O'Rourke, "and this will make the ninth article I
have done for them within five years. After months of seeing and feeling
things, I put the heart of it all, at one sitting, into a story for Griffin's. After
that I cook my experiences and hard-earned knowledge into lesser dishes
for lesser customers. Sometimes I even let it off in lyrics."

"You must flood the magazines," remarked Hemming, dryly.

"Not I. To begin with, I place a great deal of my work with publications

of which you have never heard, and then, as I am young and very
productive, I write under three names, using my own for only the things I
wish to stand."

He arose and turned out the light, and to Hemming's amazement gray
dawn was on the sea and the narrow decks, and on the morning wind came
the odour of coffee.
 "I think we are both good for a nap now," said O'Rourke. They left the
master of the boat slumbering on his narrow couch, and went to their
staterooms; and before Hemming fell asleep, with his face to the draft of the
port, he thanked God in his heart for a new friend.

CHAPTER V.

THE ADVENTURERS DISPENSE WITH MR.

NUNEZ

Hemming and O'Rourke, and O'Rourke's low-caste Cuban, landed in

Belize. The Laura continued on her way to Truxillo, and more southern
ports, for which she had a mixed freight of cheap articles of American
manufacture. She would start north again from Costa Rica, should she be
able to find a cargo, so O'Rourke and Hemming had both given manuscripts
and letters to the Nova Scotia skipper, for mailing at the first likely
opportunity, with word that they would wire an address later. This done, the
adventurers purchased three undersized mules. O'Rourke picked up what he
could in the way of an outfit, having left everything but his pipe and poncho
in the Cuban bush. They loaded one of the mules with their belongings, and
put it in charge of John Nunez, and, mounting the others, started south,
skirting the coast. The trip was uneventful, but Hemming wrote a number of
stories descriptive of the country and the people, the mules and his
companions, under the general title of "Along New Trails with Old Mules."
O'Rourke regarded his friend's display of energy with kindly disdain.

"There is bigger game to seaward," he said, and seemed ever on the

lookout for rumours of war from the northeast. After three weeks' easy
travelling, they awoke one morning to find that John Nunez had taken his
departure during the night, and, along with his departure, one of their
mules, a bag of hardtack and a slab of bacon.
 O'Rourke looked relieved. "I've often wondered how I could ever get rid
of him, you know. I once saved his life," he said.

"It's a good thing we happened to be using the rest of the provisions for
pillows, or, by gad, your precious servant would have left us to starve,"
replied Hemming, in injured tones.

"Cheer up, old man," laughed O'Rourke. "We're not three miles from the
coast, and I'll bet we are within ten of a village of some sort," he explained.

He was right, for by noon they were sitting at their ease before black
coffee and a Spanish omelette, in a shabby eating-house. The town was one
of some importance—in its own eyes. Also it interested Hemming. But
O'Rourke sniffed.

"Gay colours and bad smells—I've experienced the whole thing before,"
said he.

"Then why the devil did you leave the Laura?" asked Hemming,
pouring himself another glass of doubtful claret.

"To look after you," retorted O'Rourke.

"But, seriously," urged the Englishman.

"Oh, if you will be serious," confessed the freelance, "I'll admit that it's
in my blood. I might have gone to New York and waited till further
developments in Cuba; but I could no more see you go ashore, to waste
your time and money, without wanting to follow suit, than you could see me
buy that high-priced claret without wanting to drink it all yourself."

Hemming turned his monocle upon his friend in mild and curious
regard.

"I doubt if there is another chap alive," he said, "who can write such
wisdom and talk such rot as you."

"Oh, go easy," expostulated O'Rourke, "you've only read one article of

mine—the twenty-page result of five weeks' sugar-cane and observation."
 "It was remarkable stuff," mused Hemming.

The younger man had the grace to bow. "You don't look like the kind of
chap who is lavish with his praise," he said.

Lighting a potent local cigar, he leaned back in his rickety chair, and
shouted something in Spanish. The owner of the place appeared, rubbing
his hands together and bowing. He was a fat, brown man, smelling of native
cookery and native tobacco. O'Rourke talked, at some length, in Spanish,
only a few words of which could Hemming understand. The proprietor
waved his cigarette and gabbled back. Again O'Rourke took up the
conversation, and this time his flow of mongrel Spanish was pricked out
with bluff English oaths.

Hemming asked what it was all about. O'Rourke gave himself up to

laughter.

"I have been trying to sell our mules," he said, at last, "but find that the
market is already glutted."

Hemming shook his head disconsolately. "I fail to see the joke," he said.

"Mine host here informs me that a Cuban gentleman arrived shortly

after daylight this morning," continued O'Rourke, "and sold a mule to the
American consul."

"Our mule," gasped the enlightened Englishman—then, leaping from

his chair with a violence that caused the fat proprietor to take refuge behind
a table, he cried that there was still a chance of overtaking the rascal.
O'Rourke begged him to finish his claret in peace. "And don't do anything
rash," he said, "for I warn you that if you catch him you'll have to keep him.
I tremble even now, lest he should enter the door and reclaim me as his
master." He blew a thin wisp of smoke toward the ceiling, and laughed
comfortably. Then his glance lowered to his friend, who had reseated
himself at the other side of the table. He saw amazement and consternation
written large in Hemming's face. The landlord also looked thunderstruck,
standing with his mouth open, his eyes fixed upon the door, and a dirty
napkin idle in his hand. O'Rourke turned and followed their enraptured gaze
—and behold, clothed in new trousers and gaudy poncho, John Nunez
bowing on the threshold.

For long seconds a painful silence held the inmates of the eating-house
in thrall. The delinquent broke it with a stream of talk. He pointed
heavenward; he touched his breast with his fingers; he spread his arms
wide, and all the while he gabbled in Spanish. Tears ran down his dusky
cheeks. O'Rourke regained his easy attitude, and heard the story to the end.
He kept his gaze upon the Cuban's face, and not once did the Cuban meet it.
At last the fellow stopped talking, and stood before his master with his
sullen, tear-stained face half-hidden in a fold of his gay blanket.

"Well?" inquired Hemming.

"He says that he meant no harm," replied O'Rourke, "but that the desire
to steal was like fever in his blood. He swears this by more saints than I
know the name of. He says that he will give me the money that he got for
the mule, and will toil for me until the day of his death, without a dollar of
wages. But he has sworn all these things before, and every fit of repentance
seems to make him more of a rogue. As for wages—why, his grub costs
more than he is worth."

"Just let me take him in hand," said Hemming.

"You may try," assented O'Rourke.

By this time, and knowing his master's easy nature, Nunez was feeling
more at home. The attitude of the penitent was not natural to him. He freed
one arm from the folds of his poncho and calmly extracted a cigarette from
his sash. This he was about to light when Hemming's voice arrested him in
the act.

"Throw away that cigarette," came the order.

The Cuban feigned ignorance of the English language. He raised his

eyebrows, paused a second to smile insolently, and lit the frail roll of black
tobacco with a flourish. He inhaled the first puff with very evident pleasure,
and let it escape by way of his nostrils. But he did not draw the second, for
Hemming's hand landed unexpectedly upon the side of his head. The
cigarette flew at a tangent, unrolling as it hit the earthen floor. The Cuban
span completely around, reeled for a second, and then sprang at the
Englishman with drawn knife. O'Rourke and the half-breed Mexican cried a
warning. They might have saved their breath for their next long walk, for
Hemming, quick as a terrier in his movements, stepped to one side and
delivered a remarkable blow with his fist. The Cuban—a flash of gay
clothing and harmless knife-blade—went, backward, through the narrow
doorway.

"And now," said Hemming to O'Rourke, "what are we to do next?"

"Do next?" repeated O'Rourke, sadly, "why, just sit and whistle for the
fifty Mexican dollars, which the American consul paid John for our mule."

Hemming hurried to the door and looked up and down the glaring street.
Nunez was nowhere to be seen.

"He's not lying around anywhere, shamming dead, is he?" inquired

O'Rourke.

"Don't see him," replied Hemming.

"Then now is our chance to shake him for good," said the other, "and
the only way I can think of is to put out to sea."

As if he had made the most reasonable suggestion in the world, he paid

their score and stepped into the street. Hemming followed to the water-
front, too deep in wonder to offer objections, or demand explanations.

CHAPTER VI.

HEMMING HEARS OF THE VILLAIN

 Six days later, in a club in Kingston, Jamaica, Hemming ran across a
naval officer whom he had met, years ago, at a county ball.

"Hullo, left the army?" asked the sailor.

"Verily," replied Hemming, who could not recall the other's name.

"What—more money?"

"Less."

"Nice scandal in your old regiment. You're well out of it."

"I have heard nothing. We rather prided ourselves on our respectability."

"A chap called Penthouse," ran on the sailor, "has turned out a regular
sneak-thief. The others began to miss things—money and cuff-links, and
trifles like that—and one day the colonel caught him in his room pocketing
a gold watch. I believe the poor beggar was hard up—at least so my
correspondent says."

At this point he noticed the pallor of Hemming's face.

"Not a friend of yours, I hope," he added, hastily.

"Far from it, but he is related to some people I know very well," replied
Hemming.

"He was a low cur, even before he turned thief," said the talkative sailor,
"and Jones tells me he fleeced an awfully decent, but stupid sort of chap—"
He came to a full stop, and glared blankly at his new-found acquaintance.

"Thank you," laughed Hemming, who had regained his composure as

the navy man lost his.

"Ah—damn silly break, wasn't it?" gabbled the other, turning to

O'Rourke, "but you two'll come aboard to-morrow, and have lunch with us.
One-thirty, and there's a turtle in the pot." He left the club without waiting
for an answer.
 Hemming and O'Rourke had made the voyage from Honduras to
Kingston in a fifty-foot schooner. For passage-money they had handed over
the two mules, together with the residue of their provisions. Things are not
as cheap as they look in Central America. O'Rourke had navigated the
vessel, for the owner had proved himself useless, and Hemming had hauled
on sheets and halyards and worked the antiquated pump. But in time they
had arrived safely in Kingston, and never had hot water and clean food felt
and tasted so good. Hemming had mailed his "copy," O'Rourke had gone to
a tailor; and now they lived at ease, and awaited checks and letters from the
North. The friendship of these two had been an assured thing from the
moment of their first meeting, in the chart-room of the Laura, and it had
grown steadily with every adventure and hardship in common. They
respected each other's dauntless spirits and literary styles. Hemming
admired O'Rourke's cheerful heart, and his faculty (almost amounting to
genius) for getting out of tight places. He also liked his manners, and envied
him the length of his limbs. O'Rourke, in his turn, admired his comrade's
knowledge of things in general, and the way in which he kept quiet about
incidents in his past, without sulkiness. He liked his hasty, forgiving temper,
and felt an almost personal anger toward whatever, or whoever, had
embittered his life; and he considered him as well set-up a middleweight as
he had ever seen. From O'Rourke, Hemming learned to do things for
himself—little things like rolling a blanket, frying bacon, and pitching a
tent. In the past there had always been a Mr. Thomas Atkins to look after
such trifles. Also he learned that no knowledge comes amiss to a roving
newspaper man, from the science of navigation to the art of sewing on
patches, and the low occupation of grooming a mule. He realized how much
more comfortable his life in the army, and his travelling in Greece and
Turkey would have been, had he been able to turn his own hand to the
things other people had left undone. His heart warmed toward his instructor.
One night, while they were smoking on the veranda of their hotel, and
looking away at the lights in the harbour, he told a little of his story—
something of Penthouse, and something of the girl he loved. But he did not
mention her name, and, much to his relief, O'Rourke did not seem curious
about it. That was one of O'Rourke's most comfortable characteristics. It
was really a matter of breeding. He was deeply interested in whatever a
person chose to tell him, and he would put helpful questions which did not
call for further confessions; but he never tried to draw a man. One might
safely tell him that one's grandmother had been a cannibal, without fear of
being asked any question concerning one's grandfather. If he really wanted
to know, he would go quietly to some one else for the information.

Shortly after arriving in Jamaica, Hemming wrote a letter to Anderson,

his particular friend in the Engineers. He mentioned having heard of
Penthouse's outbreak, but said nothing of the occurrences of his last visit to
London. He told, at a length suggestive of his profession, of the trip through
Yucatan and Honduras, of his new friend, and of the adventurous passage
from the coast of Central America to Kingston. He sang the praises of a free
life and the glories of the tropics. He spoke of his success with the
syndicate, and the probability of fighting in Cuba in the near future. He
tried hard to make every line of the letter echo contentment, knowing that
Anderson would, very likely, retail its contents to Miss Travers.

"My God," he said, "I was fool enough, once, to let her see the wound
she made, but once is for all."

For the remainder of the morning O'Rourke found him in a low mood,
and after trying, in vain, to raise his spirits with a new cigar as long as a
riding-boot, he smoked the weed himself and wrote a ballad about pirates
and blood. It was the ballad, complete after an hour's work, that did the
business for Hemming. The swinging lines and rolling phrases, the fearful
sea-oaths and unexpected rhymes started him in action. At first he was not
sure whether he wanted to ride or write, but, with a little tactful persuasion
from O'Rourke, decided on the former. They hired a couple of horses, went
to the club, and drew several of their friends of H.M.S. Thunderer, and rode
for hours, lunching late, out of town.

One morning Hemming received a cablegram from Dodder, of the New

York Syndicate, telling him to stand ready for orders, and that a letter
followed. In a few days the letter came. It was a friendly, though
businesslike epistle, and contained a check. It ran as follows:

"MY DEAR CAPTAIN HEMMING:—Your stories reached me, and

were immediately set up and distributed broadcast. They please me, as does
all your work. I got a check from Wells for the amount of two months'
expenses (at the rate we agreed upon), and your salary, up to date, has been
marked to your credit. I believe there will be trouble in Europe before long,
and we hear that Devlin, of whom I spoke to you, is down with some sort of
fever. Be prepared to start East at the shortest notice, and please look up
some one, an experienced man, of course, to keep an eye on Cuba for us,
should you have to leave. A man who knows the country, and is immune
from yellow fever, would be of more value than an experienced journalist.
We have journalists here, but I fear they would fall down on the job. I do
not believe the Cuban affair will ever come to more than skirmishing, but
even that is interesting when it happens at our own back door. No mail has
come to us for you. Please write us if you know of a man.

"Yours very sincerely,

"WASHINGTON DODDER, Manager."

Hemming read it to O'Rourke.

"Will you accept the job?" he asked.

"Yes, when some one lands an invading army, but not before," replied
O'Rourke. "Fact is, I'm afraid to sneak into the place again. The Spaniards
know me too well. I've run away with Gomez and I've retreated with
Garcia, and I've had quite enough of it. But if you have to leave and I can't
get a chance to go along with you, I'll keep my eye on things, and do what a
man can. I can at least send them some photographs of starving women and
babies with distended tummies. I notice, by the magazines, that the popular
fancy is turning toward sweet pictures of that kind, and, as luck would have
it, I indulged in photography last time I was there, and the films happened
to be in my pocket when John and I sailed away."

Thus did Bertram St. Ives O'Rourke, the free-lance who hated to move
or stay at any man's bidding, fetter himself with the chain of duty, and
become the servant of a great syndicate. But for weeks he did not feel the
chain, but made merry with sailors and landsmen, and did inspired work for
Griffin's Magazine. At last word came to Hemming, calling him to the East
to report the actions of the wily Turk and courageous Greek, and, after
putting his friend aboard the mail-boat, O'Rourke sat down and grappled the
fact of his own responsibilities. After due consideration he wrote to the
syndicate, explained his position, mentioned his past efforts in Cuba, and
promised some interesting cables if they would send him enough money to
charter a tug. To his amazement (his name carried more weight than he
knew) they wired the money and told him to go ahead.

Thus it happened that within eight days of one another's departure, and
after an intimate and affectionate friendship, Herbert Hemming sailed for
one battle-field and Bertram St. Ives O'Rourke for another, and one stout
gentleman in New York paid all the pipers.

CHAPTER VII.

AN ELDERLY CHAMPION

While Herbert Hemming tried to ease the bitterness of his heart and
forget the injustice that had been done him, in new scenes and amid new
companions, Miss Travers suffered at home. Her lover had scarcely left the
house before misgivings tore her. Now, alone and shaken with grief, she
saw upon what treasonable foundation she had accused an honourable man
of—she hardly knew what. Why had he listened to her? Why had he not
laughed, and kissed away her awful, hysterical foolishness? Then she
remembered how she had repulsed his caress, and there in the narrow,
heavily furnished drawing-room she leaned her head upon her arms and
prayed.

Half an hour later she was startled by the ringing of the door-bell, and
hastened to her own room.
 The caller was an elderly bachelor brother of her mother's—a man with
a small income, a taste for bridge, and tongue and ears for gossip. His visits
were always welcome to Mrs. Travers. Mrs. Travers was a stout lady much
given to family prayers, scandal, and disputes with servants. As the widow
of a bishop she felt that she filled, in the being of the nation, a somewhat
similar position to that occupied by Westminster Abbey. She doted on all
those in temporal and spiritual authority, almost to the inclusion of curates
and subalterns,—if they had expectations. Once upon a time, seeing nothing
larger in sight for her daughter, she had been Herbert Hemming's motherly
friend. Then she had heard from Mr. Penthouse (who was poor and
dissipated, and might some day become a baronet) that Hemming's fortune
was not nearly so large as people supposed. At first she had watched the
change in her daughter, under Penthouse's influence, with vague alarm; but
a suspicion of more eligible suitors in the offing stilled her fears. The hints
which her pleasing nephew brought to her, of Hemming's double life,
inflamed her righteous anger against the quiet captain. Had her daughter's
lover been the master of five thousand a year she would have admonished
Penthouse to keep silence concerning the affairs of his superiors. As it was,
she thought her righteous indignation quite genuine, for few people of her
kind know the full extent of their respectable wickedness. Then had come
news, through her daughter, of Hemming's retirement from the army and
entrance into journalism. Molly had mentioned it, very quietly, one morning
at breakfast. Then had come Hemming himself, and with vast satisfaction
she had heard him leave the house without any bright laughter at the door.
And just as she had determined to descend and soothe Molly with words of
pious comfort, her brother had arrived.

Mrs. Travers heard Molly go to her room and close the door. She
decided that charity would keep better than Mr. Pollin's gossip, so she
descended to the drawing-room as fast as her weight would allow. They
shook hands cordially; after which Mr. Pollin stood respectfully until his
sister got safely deposited in the strongest chair in the room.

Mr. Pollin was a gossip, as I have previously stated, but many of his
stories were harmless. He dressed in the height of fashion, and, in spite of
his full figure, carried himself jauntily. In his youth (before he had come in
for his modest property, and mastered whist) he had studied law, and it was
rumoured that he had even tried to write scholarly articles and book reviews
for the daily press. At one stage in his career his sister and the late bishop
had really trembled for his respectability; but their fears had proved to be
unfounded, for, lacking encouragement from the editors, Mr. Pollin had
settled down to unbroken conventionality. Mr. Pollin's features resembled
his sister's, but his mouth was more given to smiling, and his eyes held a
twinkle, while hers were dimly lit with a gleam of cold calculation.

To-day Mr. Pollin had quite unexpected news, at first-hand from an Irish
acquaintance of his, a Major O'Grady. But he did not blurt it out, as a lesser
gossip would have done.

"Have you seen Harry Penthouse lately?" he asked.

"Not for two days," said the lady.

Mr. Pollin crossed his knees with an effort, and tried to look over his
waistcoat at his polished boots.

"He returns to his regiment shortly," added Mrs. Travers.

Her brother coughed gently, and scrutinized the ring on his finger with
an intensity that seemed quite uncalled for.

"What is the matter?" cried the lady, breathless with the suspense.

"Nothing, my dear, although I hardly envy Harry. I'm afraid he will find
his regiment a rather uncomfortable place," replied Pollin.

"Do you mean the regiment, or his quarters, Richard?"

"His quarters are comfortable enough for a better man," replied the
elderly dandy, with a slight ring of emotion in his voice.

"Richard," exclaimed the dame, "what are you hinting about your
nephew?"

"No nephew of mine," replied the other, "nor even of yours, I think.
Poor Charles and old Sir Peter were first cousins, were they not?"
 "But they were just like brothers," she urged.

"It's a pity young Penthouse hadn't been spanked more in his early
youth," remarked Mr. Pollin.

Mrs. Travers began to feel decidedly uneasy. Could it be that Harry had,
in some way, forfeited his chances of the estate and title? Could it be that
the invalid brother, the unsociable, close-fisted one, had married? But she
did not put the questions.

"What rash thing has the young man done?" she inquired.

"Nothing rash, but something dashed low," answered her brother. "To-
day," he continued, "I received a letter from a gentleman whom it appears
I've met several times in the country, Major O'Grady, of the Seventy-Third.
He has evidently quite forgotten the fact that I am in any way connected
with Harry Penthouse, or interested in Herbert Hemming, and after several
pages of reference to some exciting rubbers we have had together (I really
cannot recall them to mind), he casually tells me the inner history of
Hemming's leaving the service."

"Ah, I thought so," sighed Mrs. Travers.

"Thought what, my dear sister?" asked Pollin, shortly.

The good lady was somewhat confused by the abruptness of her

brother's manner, and her guard was forgotten.

"That the inner history," she replied, "is that Captain Hemming was
requested to resign his commission."

"You have jumped the wrong way, Cordelia," said the gentleman, with a
disconcerting smile, "for the regiment, from the colonel to the newest
subaltern, and from the sergeant-major to the youngest bugler, are,
figuratively speaking, weeping over his departure."

Mrs. Travers seemed to dwindle in her chair. "Then why did he retire?"
she asked, in a thin whisper.
 "Because Harry Penthouse wolfed all his money. At first he borrowed a
hundred or so, and lost it gambling. Hemming got a bit shy, but thought, of
course, that some day it would all be paid back. He wanted to help the boy,
so, after a good deal of persuasion, endorsed his note for a large sum, and
the note was cashed by a Jew who had helped Penthouse before. The Jew
was honest, but he came a cropper himself, and could not afford to renew
the note. Penthouse had only enough left to carry him stylishly over his two
months' leave, so Hemming had to stump up. O'Grady says he didn't get so
much as a 'Thank you' from the young bounder."

For several minutes the lady kept a stunned silence. Presently she
braced herself, and laughed unmusically.

"I have heard a very different story," she said, "and I believe from a
better authority than this Major O'Brady."

"O'Grady," corrected Pollin, "and a very dear friend of mine—cousin to

Sir Brian O'Grady."

The good fellow's imagination was getting the bit in its teeth by this
time, and his mind was turning toward the quiet of his club, and a nip of
something before dinner.

"You have your choice between Major O'Grady's story and Harry
Penthouse's," said the lady.

"And I choose O'Grady's," replied the gentleman, "because I know

Penthouse and I know Herbert. Herbert is a good soldier and a good sort,
and Harry is a damned overgrown, overfed cad."

He stole away without farewell, abashed and surprised at his own heat
and breach of etiquette.

After her brother's departure Mrs. Travers sought her daughter. She
wanted to know all the particulars of Hemming's visit.

"It is all over between us," sobbed the girl, and beyond that she could
learn nothing. Having failed to receive information, she immediately began
to impart some, and told what Mr. Pollin had heard from Major O'Grady.
Molly, who lay on the bed, kept her face buried in the pillow, and showed
no signs of hearing anything. At last her mother left her, after saying that
she would send her dinner up to her. The bewildered woman had never felt
quite so put about since the death of the lord bishop. Could it be, she
wondered, that she had made a mistake in encouraging Harry Penthouse's
work tearing down Molly's belief in Hemming? Even her dinner did not
altogether reassure her troubled spirit.

Several days later Miss Travers wrote to Hemming. It contained only a

line or two. It begged his forgiveness. It called him to return and let her
show her love. She sent it to his old address in Dublin, and in the corner
wrote "Please forward."
 "SEVERAL DAYS LATER MISS TRAVERS WROTE TO HEMMING"

Now it happened that Private Malloy, who had once been Captain
Hemming's orderly, was sent one day, by a sergeant, for the officers' mail.
He thought himself a sly man, did Mr. Malloy, and when he found a letter
addressed to his late beloved master, in a familiar handwriting, he decided
that it was from "one of them dunnin' Jews," and carefully separated it from
the pile. Later he burned it. "One good turn deserves another," said he,
watching the thin paper flame and fade.

Penthouse returned to his regiment without calling again on Molly and

Mrs. Travers. Somehow, after the beating he had received, he did not feel
like showing his face anywhere in town. Day after day Molly waited for an
answer to her letter. By this time she had heard, from Captain Anderson
(who had acted nervously during his short call), of Hemming's intention of
going immediately to Greece. So for two weeks she waited hopefully. Then
the horrible fear that she had hurt him beyond pardoning, perhaps even
disgusted him, grew upon her. But for more than a month every brisk
footfall on the pavement and every ring at the door-bell set her heart
burning and left it throbbing with pain.

When she drove with her mother she scanned the faces of the men in the
street, and often and often she changed colour at sight of a thin, alert face or
broad, gallant shoulders in the crowd.

Captain Anderson was at Aldershot when he received his friend's letter

from Jamaica. He went up to town and called on Miss Travers, and, without
so much as "by your leave," read her extracts from the letter. She listened
quietly, with downcast eyes and white face. When he was through with it
she looked at him kindly; but her eyes were dim.

"Why do you taunt me?" she asked. "Is it because you are his friend?"
The smile that followed the question was not a happy one.

The sapper's honest face flamed crimson. "I thought you wanted to
know about him," he stammered.

"Of course I am glad to hear that he is so successful—and so happy,"

she replied, and her mouth took on a hardness strange and new to it. She
remembered the passionate appeal in her own letter—the cry of love that
had awakened no answering cry—and her pride and anger set to work to
tear the dreams from her heart. But a dream built by the Master Workman,
of stuffs lighter than the wind, outlasts the heavy walls of kings'
monuments.
 CHAPTER VIII.

HEMMING UNDERTAKES A DIGNIFIED WORK

Hemming went through the Turko-Grecian campaign from beginning to

end, with much credit to himself and profit to the syndicate. He worked
hard, and, on occasions, risked life and limb. No word of legitimate news of
actions got out of the country ahead of his. When the fighting was over, he
wrote a careful article on the uselessness of the sword in modern battles. He
described the few occasions in which he had seen a blooded sword in
action. He damned them all—the pointed blade of the infantry officer, and
the cutting sabre of the cavalry trooper. They would do for hill raids, or
charges against savages, but before the steady fire of men on foot, armed
with rifles of the latest pattern, they were hopeless. Their day had passed
with the passing of the ramrod, he said. After heading it "Cold Steel in
Modern Warfare," he decided that it would be a pity to waste it on the New
York News Syndicate; for of late he had become dissatisfied with his
arrangements with the syndicate. He had found that, out of the dozen or
more war-correspondents whom he had met during the campaign, only two
were allowed so small a sum as he for expenses, and not one was paid so
small a salary. So he mailed his wise story to a big London weekly, and
wrote to Dodder for a raise in his salary and expenses. At this time he was
living quietly in Athens, with a number of friends,—merry fellows, all,—
but he missed O'Rourke's whimsical conversations and kindly comradeship.

The big London weekly published Hemming's article, and commented

upon it editorially. It also sent him a modest check—more modest than its
size and reputation would lead one to suppose. Mr. Dodder's letter arrived at
about the same time. The manager of the syndicate was firm, though gentle.
He pointed out that already Hemming drew more money than any other
correspondent connected with the concern. He explained that, even now,
Mr. Wells frequently grumbled. "And after all," he concluded, "you are a
new man, and we are helping you to a reputation."

"We'll see about that," said Hemming, and wrote to say that he would
like to take a holiday until more fighting turned up. He sent them his
address for the next six months—Maidmill-on-Dee, Cheshire, England.
Then he sold his horse, packed his things, and sailed for England.

At Maidmill-on-Dee, in a stone cottage with a slated roof, lived an old

couple named Thomson. During the brief married life of Hemming's
parents, these two good folk had looked after their bodily welfare—
Thomson as gardener and groom, and Mrs. Thomson as cook. Hemming's
father, though well connected, had made his livelihood as a country doctor.
The people in Maidmill-on-Dee still remembered him as a handsome,
generous man with the manner of a lord lieutenant of the county, and with
always a good horse in his stables. Hemming's mother had been the
daughter of a scholarly, though poor, country vicar. She had been a beauty
in a frail, white way, and a lover of her husband, her home, and good
literature. When the doctor had died of blood-poisoning, contracted during a
simple operation upon one of his many poor patients, she had tried, for
awhile, to take heart again, but had followed him within a year. After the
deaths of the parents a wealthy relative had remembered the son, and,
finding him a youth of promise, had given him some money.

Hemming drove from the station in the public bus. He passed the house
where so much of his earlier years had been spent, and told the driver to
take him to Joseph Thomson's. They rattled down the quiet, single street,
and drew up at the stone threshold. He helped the driver pile his bags and
boxes beside the door. Then he dismissed the conveyance, and paused for
awhile before entering the cottage, with a warm, new feeling of
homecoming in his heart. The low, wide kitchen was unoccupied, but the
door leading to the garden behind stood open. He sat down in a well-worn
chair and looked about. The October sunlight lit up the dishes on the
dresser. A small table by a window was laid with plates and cups for two.
He heard voices in the garden. A woman, stout and gray-haired, entered
with a head of Brussels sprouts in her hand, and with her cotton skirt kilted
up, displaying a bright, quilted petticoat. Hemming got up from his chair,
but she was not looking toward him, and she was evidently hard of hearing.
He stepped in front of her and laid his hands on her shoulders.

"Susan," he said, beaming.

"Lor', Master Bert," she exclaimed, "you're still at your tricks."

In a flutter of delight she smacked him squarely on the mouth, and then,
blushing and trembling, begged his pardon.

"I can't think you're a grown-up man," she explained. She surveyed him
at arm's length.

"You're not overly big," she said, "an' that's a fact. But you're surprising
thick through the chest and wide i' the shoulders. An' who'd ever have
looked for Master Bert, all so suddent, i' Maidmill-on-Dee."

By this time she was in a fair way to burst into tears, so fast were the
old memories crowding upon her. Hemming feared tears more than the
devil, and, patting her violently on the back, forced her into a chair.

"There, Susan, there. Now keep cool and fire low, and tell me what you
are going to have for lunch?" he urged.

"Thomson," she called, "there is a gentleman here as wants to see you."

"Bes there, now?" said Thomson, and rubbed his hands on his smock.

"Never mind your hands," she called.

Thomson scraped his heavy way into the kitchen, and blinked at the
visitor.

"Howde, sir," he remarked, affably.

"How are you, Thomson? Glad to see you again," said Hemming,
extending his hand.
 The old gardener gave back a step, with a slight cry and an uptossing of
gnarled hands.

He recovered himself with an effort.

"God bless me, it's Master Herbert," he exclaimed. "Do you know,
missus, I thought it was the doctor askin' how I was," he continued, turning
to his wife, "but the master was a more sizable man,—yes, an' redder i' the
face."

"Ay," replied Mrs. Thomson, "but hansome is as hansome does—

meanin' nothin' disrespectful about the old master, God bless his memory,
dear man,—and Master Bert is a fine appearin' young gentleman."

The gaffer nodded. "The lasses wud believe you, missus," he said.

"What lasses do you mean?" inquired the old woman, sharply. "Where's
the lass i' this village fit to believe anything about one o' the queen's officers
—tell me that."

"Ay, I was sayin' nothin'," replied Thomson.

The woman looked quizzically at Hemming.

"Like enough there's a young lady in Lunnon," she suggested.

"There is no young lady—anywhere," said Hemming, "and I'm no

longer in the army. I'm at another trade now."

"Trade?" exclaimed Thomson.

"Well, hardly that," laughed Hemming. "I write for a living."

Mrs. Thomson nodded with satisfaction.

"The queen's son-in-law wrote a book," she said.

"I hardly do that kind," said Hemming, uneasily.

 "I vum you don't, sir," cried the man, whacking the table, "not if the
missus means the book she read to me out of, oncet."

Hemming was pleased with the old man's shrewdness, though Mrs.
Thomson was shocked at his insinuations.

Hemming settled down in the cottage, much to the delight of the old
couple. A fair-sized room on the ground floor was given over to him, for
bedroom and study. The success of his last article had suggested to him the
writing of a book about what he knew, and had seen, of the last brief
campaign—something more lasting than his syndicate work, and more
carefully done. This work would have colour, not too heavily splashed on;
style, not too aggressive; and dignity befitting the subject. He decided that
he must prune his newspaper style considerably for the book. So he settled
down to his work, and after three days' honest labour, all that stood of it was
the title, "Where Might Is Right." Strange to say, this seeming failure did
not discourage him. He knew what he had to say, and felt that as soon as the
right note for the expression of it was struck, it would be easy to go on. The
pages he so ruthlessly destroyed were splendid newspaper copy, but he
knew the objection thinking men have to finding newspaper work between
the covers of a book. But at last the opening chapter was done to his taste;
and after that the work was easy and pleasant. It soon became his habit to
get out of bed in time to breakfast with Thomson, who was a thrifty market-
gardener on a small scale. After his breakfast he smoked a cigar in the
garden, and sometimes told stories of his adventures to his host. By eight
o'clock he was at his table, writing rapidly, but not steadily, until twelve
o'clock. After the simple midday dinner he walked for several hours, and
seldom went back to his work until candle-time. In this way, with books and
magazines sent down every week from London, he managed to put in his
time without letting himself think too often of Molly Travers. Nothing in
the village reminded him of her, and his healthy days brought him, for the
most part, dreamless nights.

The old people were immensely interested in Hemming and his work.
They even persuaded him to read some of the chapters of his book aloud to
them. It was plain to Hemming that Mrs. Thomson's signs of appreciation
were matters more of the heart than the head; but not so with Thomson. He
would applaud a convincing argument or a well-turned sentence by slapping
his hand on his knee, and for hours after a reading would sit by the chimney
and mumble curses on the heads of the Turks. One morning, while
Hemming was watching him at his work, he turned from the bonfire he had
been tending and, without preamble, grasped his lodger's hand.

"You've a power of brains inside your head, sir," he said, with

vehemence. Hemming felt that, even from O'Rourke, he had never received
a more pleasing compliment. He rewarded the gaffer with a cigar from his
own case.

By Christmas "Where Might Is Right" was finished, and posted to a

London publisher. With this work done, restlessness returned to Hemming.
He fought it off for awhile, but at last packed a bag with his best clothes,
and, telling Mrs. Thomson to take care of his letters until his return, went up
to London. First of all he called on the publishers to whom he had sent his
book. The manager was in, and received Hemming cordially. He said that
he had not yet looked at Hemming's manuscript, and that at present it was in
town, having been taken away to a house-party by their literary adviser.
However, he had followed Captain Hemming's career as a war-
correspondent and writer of army stories with interest, and felt that it was
altogether likely that the firm would want to do business with him. The
genial glow of the season must have been in the gentleman's blood, for he
cordially invited Hemming to lunch with him at his club. Upon reaching the
street Hemming found the fog, which had been scarcely noticeable a short
time before, was rapidly thickening.

"Let us walk—it is but a step," said the publisher, "and I've made the
trip in every kind of weather for the last twenty years."

On the steps of the club Hemming stumbled against a crouched figure.

There was a dull yellow glare from the lamp above, and by it Hemming saw
the beggar's bloated, hungry face, bedraggled red beard, and trembling
hand. The eyes were cunning and desperate, but pitiful just then. Hemming
passed the poor fellow a coin,—a two-shilling piece,—and followed his
guide into the warm, imposing hall of the club, wondering where he had
seen those unscrupulous eyes before. The club was brightly lighted. The
lunch was long and complicated and very good. The publisher was vastly
entertaining, and seemed in no hurry to get back to his work. Hemming's
thoughts, in spite of the cheer, busied themselves with the beggar on the
steps.

"Did you notice the beggar outside?" he asked, at last.

"The chap with the bushy beard?—why, yes, he is new to this quarter,"
replied the other.

"He was a desperate-looking devil, and I think the beard was false,"
remarked Hemming. But as his host did not seem interested in either the
beggar or his beard, the subject was dropped.

Next day, with an unnamed hope in his heart that something might
happen, Hemming passed the Travers house. But the hope died at sight of it,
for it was clearly unoccupied! He remained in town a few days longer,
seeking familiar faces in familiar haunts, and finding none to his mind. He
thought it strange that romance, and everything worth while, should have
deserted the great city in so brief a time. But, for that matter, when he came
to think of it, the whole world had lost colour. He decided that he was
growing old—and perhaps too wise. After standing the genial publisher a
dinner, and receiving a promise of a speedy decision on "Where Might Is
Right," he returned to Maidmill-on-Dee, to spend weary months awaiting
rumour of war. At last the rumour came, closely followed by sailing orders.

CHAPTER IX.

O'ROURKE TELLS A SAD STORY

Upon his arrival in New York, Hemming called immediately upon Mr.
Dodder, in the New York News Syndicate Building on Fulton Street. He
found the manager even stouter than at the time of their first meeting, and
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