Assessment of Groundwater Potential using Geophysical Techniques in Some Part of OFU Local Government Kogi State, North Central Nigeria

Volume 9, Issue 12, December – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
Assessment of Groundwater Potential using

Geophysical Techniques in Some Part of OFU
Local Government Kogi State, North Central Nigeria
OLAOSEBIKAN PETER ADENIJI
IJISRT24DEC187 www.ijisrt.com 1168

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ABSTRACT
The groundwater potential of Some part in Ofu Local government Kogi State was investigated using vertical electrical
sounding method. A total number of 20 vertical electrical sounding data were acquired using Schlumberger array
configuration. The data obtained were iterated using IPI2WIN software from which the geoelectric parameters (Resistivity,
thickness and depth) were obtained. A total of 4-5 earth modeled layers were delineated which include, Topsoil, clay, sandy
clay, sandstone and water-saturated sand layers were identified. Resistivity values for topsoil ranges from 1103-294 Ωm
with depth varying from of 0.146-1.61m; sandstone with resistivity values 2964-9655 Ωm with depth varying from 0.364-
59.86m; clay with 135-2006 Ωm and depth 0.788-11.0m; sandyclay with 927-7111 Ωm with depth 0.364-59.86m; clayeysand
of 224-2238 Ωm with depth 1.29-10.4m. Overburden thickness varied significantly with a range between 7.33-80m. Thin
overburden layers (<20m) were found at VES 13 and 15.Moderate overburden layers (20-40m). Thick overburden layers
(40-80m) and very thick layers (>80m) were identified at VES 4 and 19. The usage of VES technique has suggested future
boreholes in the area should be drilled at an expected depth of 42.8 m to 112 m depth.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION Error! Bookmark not defined.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS 1170
CHAPTER ONE Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.1 INTRODUCTION Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.2 Location and Accessibility of the Study Area Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.4 Climate and Vegetation Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.5 Significance of the Study Error! Bookmark not defined.
CHAPTER TWO Error! Bookmark not defined.

Literature Review and Geological Setting Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.1 Review of Previous Knowledge Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.2 Geology of the Study AreaError! Bookmark not defined.
2.3 Electrical Resistivity Method Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.3 Resistivity Method Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.4 Principle of Resistivity method Error! Bookmark not defined.
CHAPTER THREE Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.1 Materials and Method Error! Bookmark not defined.
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3.2 Research Methodology Error! Bookmark not defined.
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4.1 Results and Discussion Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.2 Analysis of VES Data for Groundwater Exploration Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.2.2 Resistivity Values and Aquifer Identification Error! Bookmark not defined.
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4.3 VES Data Analysis Summary Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.3.2 Lithology Description Error! Bookmark not defined.
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4.6 Thickness of Overburden Layers Analysis Error! Bookmark not defined.
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5.1 SUMMARY Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.2 CONCLUSION Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.3 RECOMMENDATION………………………………………………………………………….57
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Location Map of the Study Area Derives (Adopted from Q gis Version 3)- 5
Figure2.1: Geological map of the Study Area - - - - 12
Figure2.2: Geometric Arrangement of the Schlumberger Array Configuration - 13
Figure 3.4 Resistivity Map of the Study Area- - - - - 24
Figure4.1.1: VES 1 and 2 Data- - - - - - - - 24
Figure4.1.2: VES 3and 4 Data- - - - - - - 25
Figure4.2.1: VES 1Curve - - - - - - - - 26
Figure4.2.2: VES 2 Curve - - - - - - - - 27
Figure4.2.3: VES 3 Curve - - - - -- - - - 28
Figure4.2.4: VES 4 Curve - - - - - - - - - 29
Figure4.3: Estimated Table of Geologic Formation of the Study Area - - -33
Figure 4.4: Resistivity Curve Type of the Study Area- - - - - 34
Figure 4.5: Lithologic Table of the Study Area- - - - - 35
Figure 4.6: Resistivity Depth(s) of the study Area - - - - 37
Figure 4.7: Depth to Groundwater Potential- - - - - -37
Figure 4.8: Depth to Aquifer - - - - - - 39
Figure 4.9: Thickness of Overburden Map - - - - - 40
APPENDIX

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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study
The electrical resistivity method is a geophysical method that has been successfully used by several researchers for
groundwater investigations. The electrical resistivity method (non-invasive) is usually preferable because of the resistivity contrasts
obtained when the groundwater zone is reached. Research in groundwater geophysics reveals that this technique has been
successfully employed for delineating/mapping of geo-materials in the subsurface that guides exploration of groundwater resources
(Metwaly et al., 2012; Oyedele et al., 2009). The electrical resistivity method is the most versatile and the most popular method of
all the geophysical methods that are used in groundwater investigation in Basement Complex area (Olorunfemi, 2009). It is relevant
in the depth to bedrock estimation, aquifer delineation and structural mapping (Ademilua and Eluwole, 2013; Obasi et al., 2013).
Geophysical techniques have been applied to groundwater with some showing more success than others. The methods include
gravity, magnetic, seismic, electrical and electromagnetic methods (Reynolds, 1997 and Somiah, 2013). One of the methods that
have proved effective to groundwater studies are the electrical and electromagnetic. This is because many of the geological formation
properties that are critical to hydrogeology such as porosity and permeability of rocks can be correlated with electrical
Geophysical resistivity methods are based on the effective response of the earth to the flow of subsurface electrical current.
Electrical resistivity is widely used for hydrogeological studies, because the acquired data are mainly controlled by lithological
conditions of the aquifer. The method is also useful in the correlation of lithological facies between wells (Obianwu et al. 2015).
VESs, when combined with other geophysical methods, geologic mapping and available well data can greatly assist in the location
and completion of water wells in bedrock areas of complex hydrogeology. The VES method is usually considered more suitable for
the subsurface investigation of geologic environments consisting of horizontal or nearly horizontal layers, such as occur in
unconsolidated sedimentary sequences (Ojekunle et al. 2015; Badmus and Olatinsu 2012; Alile et al. 2008).
Groundwater is used for various purposes in both the developed and developing countries. Among its major purposes are for
use in municipal, agriculture and industries, often extracted through the construction of wells and boreholes. In most parts of the
countries where there is no (or limited) supply of freshwater from the surface water sources, groundwater serves the alternative
natural sources. In Nigeria, large portions of its freshwater usage come from groundwater sources. The regional distribution of
groundwater within the earth varies and this depends on the geology of the subsurface.
The reliance on groundwater is such that it is necessary to ensure that there are significant quantities of water and that the water
is of a high quality. The principal source of groundwater is meteoric water, that is, precipitation. However, two other sources are
occasionally of some consequence. These are juvenile water and connate water. The former is derived from magmatic sources,
whereas the latter represents the water in which sediments are deposited. Connate water is trapped in the pore spaces of sedimentary
rocks as they are formed and has not been expelled.
The amount of water that infiltrates into the ground depends on how precipitation is dispersed, namely, on the proportions that
are assigned to immediate run-off and to evapotranspiration, the remainder constituting the proportion allotted to
infiltration/percolation. Infiltration refers to the seepage of surface water into the ground, percolation being its subsequent
movement, under the influence of gravity, to the zone of saturation. In reality, one cannot be separated from the other. The infiltration
capacity is influenced by the rate at which rainfall occurs (which also affects the quantity of water available), the vegetation cover,
the porosity of the soils and rocks, their initial moisture content and the position of the zone of saturation. The retention of water in
soil depends on the capillary force and the molecular attraction of the particles. As the pores in the soil become thoroughly wetted,
the capillary force declines, so that gravity becomes more effective. In this way, downward percolation can continue after infiltration
has ceased but the capillarity increases in importance as the soil dries. No further percolation occurs after the capillary and gravity
forces are balanced. Thus, water percolates into the zone of saturation when the retention capacity is satisfied. This means that the
rains that occur after the deficiency of soil moisture has been catered for are those that count as far as supplementing groundwater
is concerned. The water in the zone of aeration is referred to as vadose water. This zone is divided into three subzones, those of soil
water, the intermediate belt and the capillary fringe. The uppermost or soil water belt discharges water into the atmosphere in
perceptible quantities by evapotranspiration. In the capillary fringe, this occurs immediately above the water table, water is held in
the pores by capillary action.An immediate belt occurs when the water table is far enough below the surface for the soil water belt
not to extend down to the capillary fringe. The degree of saturation decreases from the water table upwards. An aquifer is the term
given to a rock or soil mass that not only contains water but from which water can be abstracted readily in significant quantities.
The ability of an aquifer to transmit water is governed by its permeability.By contrast, a formation with permeability of less than
10-9 m is one that, in engineering terms, is regarded as impermeable and is referred to as an aquiclude. For example, clays and
shales are aquicludes. Even when such rocks are saturated, they tend to impede the flow of water through stratal sequences. An
aquitard is a formation that transmits water at a very slow rate but that, over a large area of contact, may permit the passage of large
amounts of water between adjacent aquifers that it separates.

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B. Location and Accessibility of the Study Area
The study area (Fig 1) is located in some part of Ofu Local government Kogi State, North centre Nigeria. It is bound by
latitudes 7°00' N and 7°50' N, and longitude 7°00' E and 7°50' E. The study area has an estimated population of 16,500 people
consisting of 8,322 males and 8,178 females (NPC, 2006). It is located in the middle belt region of the country and covers a land
mass area of 12sq.km.
Fig 1: Location Map of the Study Area (Adopted from Q-GIS V 3.0)
C. Aim and Objectives of the Study

The main aim of this research is to assess the availability and distribution of groundwater resources within the selected areas
of some part in Ofu Local government Kogi State.
 The Specific Objectives are as Follow:
 To identify potential aquifer(s) zone within the study area.

 To determine the geoelectric parameters
 To provide a comprehensive understanding of the hydrogeological characteristics.
D. Climate and Vegetation

The study area lies within the humid semi-hot savannah zone. The climate is dominated by two major air masses; the warm
and the dry tropical continental wind from the Sahara Desert and the hot, humid tropical maritime wind from the Atlantic zone (the
south West Monsoon wind). The wet/rainy season starts from middle of April to October while the dry/cool season runs from
November to March. The study area has mean annual rainfall of about 1100mm while the mean temperature ranges between 28°C
to 34°C. Relative humidity is about 74% to 80% for dry and wet seasons respectively. The vegetation of the area falls under tropical
Guinean belt.

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E. Significance of the Study
The project holds significant importance for environmental researchers. The main reasons for the significance of this project
include:
 To provides valuable information about the availability, distribution, and quality of groundwater resources in the region.
 To access to clean and reliable water sources is a fundamental requirement for the socioeconomic development of any region.
Identifying potential aquifers and zones with significant groundwater resources can support local communities in meeting their
water needs, which in turn promotes better health, education, and overall quality of life (Ayoade and Akintola, 2012).

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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW AND GEOLOGICAL SETTING
A. Review of Previous Knowledge

Augie and Ologe (2015) conducted a hydrogeophysical investigation in Toto Area, Nassarawa State, North Central Nigeria,
using electrical resistivity methods. The aim was to assess groundwater potential and delineate aquifer depth in the region. The work
utilized the vertical electrical sounding (VES) technique to acquire data and interpret subsurface geological layers and
hydrogeological conditions. The project work revealed three to five subsurface layers in the study area, comprising topsoil,
weathered basement, fractured basement, and fresh basement. Auriferous zones were identified within the weathered and fractured
basement layers, with varying depths across the study area. It also estimated aquifer parameters, such as transmissivity and hydraulic
conductivity, to further characterize groundwater potential and provide insights for sustainable exploitation.
Alile et al. (2011) conducted a geoelectric investigation to identify potential groundwater resources in Obaretin - Iyanomon
locality, Edo State, Nigeria. The researchers employed the Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) method, acquiring data from three
locations within the study area. The study revealed three to four subsurface geologic layers characterized by varying resistivity and
thicknesses and interpreted these layers as sandy topsoil, sandy clay, sand, and coarse sand or fractured bedrock, respectively. Based
on the resistivity values and layer thicknesses, the authors identified potential aquifer zones within the study area.
Adeniran et al. (n.d.) investigated the hydrogeophysical implications of geoelectric sounding at Igarra Comprehensive High
School, located in Akoko Edo Local Government Area of Edo State, Nigeria. The study aimed to determine the subsurface geology
and its impact on groundwater occurrence and movement in the area. The study used the VES method to collect geoelectric data
from various locations within the study area. The resulting data revealed the presence of three to four subsurface geoelectric layers,
characterized by distinct resistivity values and thicknesses. These layers were interpreted as topsoil, weathered/fractured basement,
and fresh basement rocks. Based on their findings, Adeniran etal. (n.d.) identified potential aquifer zones within the weathered and
fractured basement layers, emphasizing the importance of these geological features in trapping and storing groundwater.
Ojo et al. (2017) conducted a study to determine the groundwater potential in the permanent site of the University of Abuja,
located in Nigeria's Federal Capital Territory (FCT). The authors used the Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) technique to collect
geoelectric data from ten locations within the study area. The collected data were interpreted using the Psartial Curve Matching
(PCM) method and numerical modeling software.The results revealed three to five subsurface geoelectric layers characterized by
different resistivity values and thicknesses. These layers were identified as topsoil, weathered basement, fractured basement, and
fresh basement. The authors identified potential aquifer zones in the weathered and fractured basement layers, Ojo etal. (2017)
concluded that the groundwater potential in the study area is relatively high and that the identified aquifer zones can be targeted for
sustainable groundwater exploitation.
Saleh et al. (2019) investigated the groundwater potential of Kaltungo and its environs in Northeastern Nigeria using
geoelectric techniques. The authors employed the VES method to collect geoelectric data from twenty locations across the study
area. The data were analyzed and interpreted using the PCM method and 1D-Inversion software.The interpreted results revealed
three to five subsurface geoelectric layers, including the topsoil, lateritic clay, weathered/fractured basement, and fresh basement.
Based on the resistivity values and layer thicknesses, Saleh et al. (2019) identified potential aquifer zones in the weathered and
fractured basement layers. The study concluded that the groundwater potential in Kaltungo and its environs is moderate to high and
that the identified aquifer zones can be targeted for groundwater exploitation.
Nwachukwu et al. (2013) evaluated the groundwater potentials of Orogun in the South-South region of Nigeria using the
electrical resistivity method. The study aimed to characterize the subsurface geology and identify potential aquifer zones in the
area.Nwachukwu et al. (2013) identified potential aquifers in the sand layer.
Badmus and Olatinsu (2010) carried out a research work on aquifer characteristics and groundwater recharge pattern in a
typical basement complex: A case study of Federal College of Education, Osiele, Abeokuta, South west of Nigeria. In their work,
they used vertical electrical sounding (VES) using the Schlumberger electrode array. It was revealed that Abeokuta has seven major
geological formations which are topsoil, shale or clay, sandy clay, clayey sand, sandstone, fractured basement and fresh basement.
It also was discovered that the weathered and fractured basement constitute the main aquiferous units in the area. They were able to
discover that the reasons for borehole failure and poor recharge in the area were due to inadequate geophysical investigation, the
depth at which drilling was terminated and the geological formation of the aquifers. They also engaged 3-D view to show the
overburden thickness.
B. Geology of the Study Area

The geology of the area figure 2.1 is full of sedimentary rock. The various sedimentary rocks of River Niger and Benue extend
southeastwards through Enugu and Anambra States (www.onlinenigeria.com). Amhakhian and Osemwota (2012) reported
geological formations of Cretaceous age within the study area. A study of sediment geochemistry of River Okura confirmed study
area as falling within the Anambra sedimentary basin which is Cretaceous in age (Gideon and Fatoye, 2012). The study further

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revealed that the rocks had low silica (SiO2) but high iron (Fe) content suggesting lithic arenite type of sandstone. Some parts of
the study area have also been found to be made up of geologic materials such as Awgu shale group (Fagbami and Akamigbo, 1986;
Ukabiala, 2012). The area is naturally drained to the Niger and Benue Rivers through their tributaries, rivers and streams forming
various lowlands and floodplains. This zone falls in the middle belt of Nigeria.
Fig 2: Geological Map of the Study Area
C. Electrical Resistivity Method

Surface electrical resistivity surveying is based on the principle that the distribution of electrical potential in the ground around
a current-carrying electrode depends on the electrical resistivity and distribution of the surrounding soil sand rocks. The usual
practice in the field is to apply an electrical direct current (DC) between two electrodes implanted in the ground and to measure the
difference of potential between two additional electrodes that do not carry current. Usually, the potential electrodes are in line
between the current electrodes, but in principle, they can be located anywhere. The current used is either direct current, commutated
direct current (i.e., a square-wave alternating current), or AC of low frequency (typically about 20 Hz).All analysis and interpretation
are done on the basis of direct currents.
Of all surface geophysical methods, the electrical resistivity method has been applied most widely for ground water
investigations out of the entire surface geophysical methods. The electrical resistivity method can be best employed to estimate the
thickness of overburden and the thickness of weathered/fractured zones with reasonable accuracy. Though both Wenner and
Schlumberger electrode configuration methods are popularly employed, the Schlumberger electrode configuration method is more
suited to the study area, ensuring better results. The method has practical, operational and interpretational advantages over other
methods such as the Wenner method of electrode arrangement (Zohdy et al., 1974). Most of the electrical resistivity techniques
require injection of electrical currents into the subsurface via a pair of electrodes planted on the ground. By measuring the resulting
variations in electrical potential at other pairs of planted electrodes, it is possible to determine the variations in resistivity. A
conventional vertical electrical sounding (VES) survey was used for quantitative interpretation where the center point of the array
remains fixed and the electrode spacing is increased for deeper penetration (Loke,1999).

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Fig 2.2: Geometric Arrangement of the Schlumberger Array Configuration
In carrying out resistivity sounding survey, electrodes are distributed along a line centered about a midpoint that is considered
the location of the sounding. The electrode arrangement used in data acquisition is the Schlumberger array of electrodes. The
Schlumberger survey involves the use of two current electrodes labeled A and B, and two potential electrodes M and N placed in
line with one another and centered on some location. It is worthy to state that the potential and current electrodes are not placed
equidistant from one another. To acquire the resistivity data in the field, current is introduced into the ground through the current
electrodes and the potential electrodes are then used to quantitatively measure the voltage pattern. The apparent resistivity data
obtained from the measurements are presented on maps at various levels and they are useful in the first stage of interpretation. More
realistic sections of the earth are obtained only after interpretation of the data in terms of true variations of the resistivity distribution.
This is a very important step because it allows the estimation of the true position and depth of formations. Moreover, it is possible
to estimate the actual electrical resistivity of the region and relate it to its physical state.
D. Resistivity Method
The electrical resistivity method measures potential differences at points on the Earth’s surface that are produced by directing
current flow through the subsurface. This leads to the determination of resistivity distribution in the subsurface and to an
interpretation of. Earth materials. The movement of charges through the conducting wire is termed current.
Specifically,
I=Q/t …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. (2.0)
Where I is current in amperes, Q is charge in coulombs, and t is time in seconds. Also, another important concept in electrical
resistivity surveying is the current density J, which is defined as the current divided by the cross-sectional area of the material
through which it is flowing
From Ohm’s law,
J=I/A……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….(2.1)
I=V/R………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………(2.2)
V=IR…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..(2.3)
Electrical resistivity method is basically conducted to measure and map the resistivity of subsurface materials. It also refers to
survey that is carried out to present the image of electrical properties of the subsurface by passing an electrical current along many
different paths and measuring the associated voltage. Resistivity method is based on the response between the earth and the flow of
electrical current. It sensitive to variations in the electrical resistivity of the subsurface measured in Ohms meter. Resistivity
measurement are conducted by inducing an electric current into the earth through two current (C1 and C2) electrodes and measuring
the resulting voltage at two potential electrodes (P1 and P2). The apparent resistivity (pa) value can be calculated based on the
current (I) and voltage (V).
Resistance R is given by:
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……(3.1)

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Where R is the resistance,
V is the voltage and

I is the current.
The resistance is also proportional to the cross sectional area and the distance between the electrodes. The relationship is given
by:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… (3.2)
Combining equations (2.1) and (2.2),
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………........ (3.3)
Where A is the cross-sectional area,
V is the voltage,
I is the current and
L is the distance between the electrodes, the constant of proportionality, is the apparent resistivity.
Data from resistivity surveys are represented by apparent resistivity which takes into account, the arrangement and spacing of
electrodes.
From the relationship above, the potential at any point is given by:
V= …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..(3.4)
Where: V is the potential in volts is the resistivity of the medium and r is the distance from the electrode.
The resistivity of the ground is calculated from the potential difference between P1 and P2. The potential VP1 at the internal
electrode P1 is given by the algebraic sum of the potential contributions VC1 and VC2 from the current source at C1 and the sink at
C2.
VP1 = VC1 + VC2………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………..(3.5)
The potentials at electrodes P1 and P2 are:
Therefore, the potential difference ΔV equals
∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝑝1 − 𝑉𝑝2 ... (3.6)
VP1 and …………………………………………………………………………………………...(3.6.2)
VP2 ……………………………………………………………………………………………….(3.6.3)
Where V is the voltage and R is the resistance.
Because various ecologic materials can be expected to have different resistance to current flow, it might seem fairly straight
forward to measure current and voltage to calculate resistance and determine the material in the subsurface. One immediate
complication is that resistance depends not only on the material but also on its dimensions.
𝐼𝜌 𝐼𝜌 𝐼𝜌 𝐼𝜌
( − )−( − ) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . . (3.6.4)
2𝜋𝑟1 2𝜋𝑟2 2𝜋𝑟3 2𝜋𝑟4

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𝐼𝜌 1 1 1 1
∆𝑣 = 2𝜋 (𝑟 − 𝑟 − 𝑟 + 𝑟 )……………………………………………………………………………………………………… (4)
1 2 3 4
The two pairs of electrodes P1 and P2 (Fig. 2.3) carry no current but are used to measure the potential difference between the
points P1 and P2.
The change in potential ΔV may be measured.
ΔV = VP1 – VP2 …………………….…………………(4.2)
………………………………………………………..……(4.3)
Where
k=2
is the geometric factor, and is only a function of the geometry of the electrode arrangement
Resistivity can be found from measuring values of V, I and K. So the apparent resistivity ( a) equation becomes; In the
resistivity method current is entered into the ground, potential difference ismeasured and resistivity is determined. For 𝜌, equation
7 becomes.
2𝜋∆𝑣 1 1 1 1 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
𝜌= ( − − + )-1 (5)
𝐼 𝑟
1 𝑟 𝑟
2 𝑟 3 4
………………………(5.2) (Amadi, 2016).
Resistivity 𝜌 is thus given as

∆𝑣
𝜌= . 𝐺 = 𝑅𝐺……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. (6)
𝐼
Where R is the measured resistance and G is the Geometric Constant which is a function of the electrode configuration
employed during the survey.
E. Principle of Resistivity Method

The principle of the electrical resistivity method is the measurement of an earth resistance by passing low frequency current
into the ground through two stakes or electrodes. If the distances between the four (4) electrodes are known then the current and the
potential difference measurements may be used to calculate a “resistivity” value of the earth (Thomas, 1986). All resistivity methods
employ an artificial source of current which is introduced into the ground through point electrode or long line contacts. The latter
arrangement is rarely used nowadays. The procedure is to measure potential difference at other electrode in the vicinity of the current
flow. Because the current is measured as well, it is possible to determining an effective apparent resistivity of the subsurface. In this
regard the resistivity technique is superior at least theoretically to all other electrical methods because quantitative results are
obtained by using a controlled source of specific dimension (Telfordetal,1990).The resistivity of the rock usually depends on the
amount of ground water present and upon the amount of salt dissolve in it. It decreases by the presence of many ore minerals and
by high temperature (Alan et al, 2000). Conduction of electrical through rock of three types; electronic conduction which occur
when the mineral grains are electrically conductive as with minerals such as pyrite and magnetite. Most common minerals grains
such as quartz, feldspar and calcite are non-conductive and conductive ionic.

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CHAPTER THREE
MATERIAL AND METHOD
A. Introduction
The electrical resistivity method measures potential differences at points on the Earth’s surface that are produced by directing
current flow through the subsurface. This leads to the determination of resistivity distribution in the subsurface and to an
interpretation of earth materials. The movement of charges through the conducting wire is termed current.
B. Material
 Ohmega1000C Terameter Unit

 Electrodes (Two current and Two potentials)
 Reels and Cables
 Measuring Tape
 Hammers
 Cutlass
 Battery (power source)
 Recording Sheet
 A Global Positioning System (GPS)
 Ohmega 1000C Terrameter: - This equipment involves VES and electrical profiling method that is based on the four-electrode
principle used by geophysicist for evaluation of greater penetration depth of the injected current for successive readings. The
current injected into the ground could be DC or AC.
 Electrode: - This enables the electrode convey current into the subsurface when driven into the earth with the hammer. Two
pairs of electrodes were used; a pair is current electrodes while the other pair is potential electrodes.
 Reels and Cables: It is usually connected with a clip attached to one end of the electrode while the other end connects sat the
terrameter. The cable is made of an insulating material outside housing the flexible copper wire. Due to the flexibility of the
cable, it can be easily recoiled back into its reel.
 Global Positioning System (GPS): - Garmin GPS72H GPS was used to take the coordinates as well as the elevation of the
surveyed areas. This is necessary so that the exact position of each VES point could be located in the future if the need arises.
 Hammer: This was used to drive the electrodes into the ground.
C. Research Methodology
There are two basic procedures in resistivity work. The procedure to be used depends on whether we are interested in lateral
or vertical variations in resistivity. Resistivity surveys are made to satisfy the needs of two distinctly different kinds of interpretation
problems:
 The variation of resistivity with depth, reflecting more or less horizontal stratification of earth materials; and
 Lateral variations in resistivity that may indicate soil lenses, isolated ore bodies, faults, or cavities. For the first kind of problem,
measurements of apparent resistivity are made at a single location (or around a single center point) with systematically varying
electrode spacing.
D. Schlumberger Array
This type of configuration deals with vertical electrical sounding. Electrical sounding is the process by which the variation of
resistivity with depth below a given point on the ground surface is deduced and it can be correlated with the available geological
information in order to infer the depths (or thicknesses) and resistivity of the layers (formations) present.
The procedure is based on the fact that the current penetrates continuously deeper with the increasing separation of the current
electrodes.
The current electrodes are spaced much further apart than the potential electrodes. The potential electrodes remain fixed while
the current electrodes are expanded symmetrically about the center of the spread.
E. Field Procedures
The Schlumberger array is a commonly used electrode configuration in electrical resistivity surveys for both vertical electrical
sounding (VES) and profiling. The array consists of four collinear electrodes: two outer current electrodes (A and B) and two inner
potential electrodes (M and N). The current is transmitted through the outer electrodes, and the resulting voltage is measured between
the inner electrodes.

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 Here is a Step-by-Step Guide to Performing a Schlumberger Array Survey:
 Select the survey area: Choose the location where you want to investigate the subsurface resistivity. The area should be clear
of any obstructions, such as trees or buildings, and the ground should be relatively flat
 Set up the equipment: Connect the resistivity meter or multi-meter to the electrodes using appropriate cables. Ensure that the
meter is set to measure resistance or resistivity and that it is calibrated correctly.
 Establish the initial electrode spacing: The outer electrodes (A and B) were positioned at a specified distance from each other
(AB), typically several times the expected investigation depth.The inner electrodes (M and N) were also positioned at a smaller
distance (MN) from each other, usually between 10% and 30% of AB.
 Take measurements: Switch on the resistivity meter and allow it to stabilize. Record the measured resistance or resistivity value
and the corresponding electrode spacing (AB and MN). Ensure that the measured value is stable before recording it.
 Increase electrode spacing: Move the outer electrodes (A and B) further apart, and keep the inner electrodes (M and N) at a
constant distance from each other. Take another measurement at this new electrode spacing and record the value.
 Repeat the process: Continue increasing the distance between the outer electrodes and taking measurements until you reach the
desired depth of investigation. Keep the inner electrode spacing constant throughout the survey.
 Analyze the data: Plot the measured resistivity values as a function of electrode spacing. The resulting curve can be interpreted
to determine the subsurface resistivity distribution, which provides information on the geological layers and the presence of
groundwater or other subsurface features.
 Profiling (optional): If profiling is required, keep the outer electrodes (A and B) at a fixed distance from each other and move
the inner electrodes (M and N) along the survey line, taking measurements at regular intervals. This provides information on
lateral resistivity variations in the subsurface.
 Pack up the equipment: Once the survey is complete, disconnect the cables, remove the electrodes from the ground, and pack
up the resistivity meter and other equipment.
 The Schlumberger array is advantageous for VES and profiling due to its efficient use of personnel and time during field surveys.
Additionally, the variable electrode spacing allows for detailed investigations of specific depths, making it suitable for various
geological and hydrogeological application.
Fig 3.4: Resistivity Map of the Study Area

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CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The VES data obtained were in resistance (Ω), using ohmega 1000c terrameter which were then multiplied by their
corresponding geometric factor (k) in order to obtain an apparent resistivity in ohm-meter. Computer software called IPI2WIN was
used to processes the data, the apparent resistivity values for each point was plotted against the half current electrode spacing AB/2
on log-graph to obtain sounding curves. The purpose of these curves is to determine the subsurface layers beneath each VES point
as well as their thickness and resistivity variation, the results of the analysis of data were correlated with a borehole log data obtained
near the study area. Boreholes log data are a necessary and reliable source of data, and electrical resistivity method using vertical
electrical sounding (VES) interpretations provide basic information of the area. The data was firstly processed and analyzed using
IPI2win version 3.0.1 Software which gave automatic geo-electric parameters of the study area. The output of VES data is resistivity
layer, log resistivity graph and resistivity depth table. Sounding curve obtained from the study area showed variation of four - five
geo-electrical layers.
A. Acquired Sounding Data From Study Location
Fig 4.1.1 VES 1 and 2 Data

S. nO. ELECTRODE SPACING APPARENT
(M) GEOMETRIC RESISTANCE RESISTIVITY
AB/2 MN/2 FACTOR “K” (OHMS) (OHMS M)
1 2 0.5 11.78 158.2 1863.596
2 3 0.5 27.5 54.81 1507.275
3 6 0.5 112.3 15.26 1713.698
4 9 0.5 254 6.308 1602.232
5 9 2.0 60.5 31.94 1932.37
6 15 2.0 173.6 10.88 1888.768
7 25 2.0 488 4.690 2288.72
8 40 2.0 1253 2.177 2727.781
9 50 2.0 1960 1.455 2851.8
10 75 2.0 4410 0.831 3664.71
11 75 10.0 868 3.795 3294.06
12 100 10.0 1555 2.523 3923.265
13 150 10.0 3520 1.271 4473.92
14 200 10.0 6270 0.766 4802.82
15 300 10.0 14120 0.404 5704.48
16 300 20.0 7040 0.783 5512.32
17 400 20.0 12530 0.519 6503.07
18 500 20.0 19600 0.353 6918.8
LOCATION: ST.MICHAEL CHURCH ARABA
TOWN: ARABA VES 1
L.G.A: OFU
STATE: KOGI
LATITUDE: N060 14'.56''
LONGITUDE: E060 07'.23''
ELEVATION: 355 m

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Fig 4.1.2 VES 3 and 4
S. nO. ELECTRODE SPACING (M) GEOMETRIC RESISTANCE APPARENT
AB/2 MN/2 FACTOR “K” (OHMS) RESISTIVITY (OHMS M)
1 2 0.5 11.78 60.66 714.5748
2 3 0.5 27.5 30.93 850.575
3 6 0.5 112.3 8.424 946.0152
4 9 0.5 254 3.591 912.114
5 9 2.0 60.5 21.87 1323.135
6 15 2.0 173.6 6.105 1059.828
7 25 2.0 488 2.289 1117.032
8 40 2.0 1253 1.383 1732.899
9 50 2.0 1960 1.200 2352
10 75 2.0 4410 0.709 3126.69
11 75 10.0 868 4.629 4017.972
12 100 10.0 1555 2.889 4492.395
13 150 10.0 3520 1.662 5850.24
14 200 10.0 6270 1.078 6759.06
15 300 10.0 14120 0.566 7991.92
16 300 20.0 7040 1.239 8722.56
17 400 20.0 12530 0.742 9297.26
18 500 20.0 19600 0.512 10035.2
LOCATION: GIWOLIGYO
TOWN: GIWOLIGYO 2
L.G.A: OFU
STATE: KOGI
LATITUDE: N060 03'.42''
LONGITUDE: E0060 69'.46''
ELEVATION: 370 m
B. Processed Resistivity Data Showing Sounding Curves Of Each Ves Points

Using IPI2WIN version 3.0.1 software, Fig 4.2.1 was generated. It displays an HAA curve type, with five different layers
showing different lithology through the resistivity values(Ohm) in the location Araba, thickness(m)and depth(m) of each of these
layers are displayed as well as one dimensional pseudo section which image the distribution of the VES in the subsurface.

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ELECTRODE
ELECTRODE
SPACING
SPACING
RESISTIVITY
RESISTIVITY
RESISTANCE
RESISTANCE
GEOMETRIC
GEOMETRIC
FACTOR “K”
FACTOR “K”
APPARENT
APPARENT
(OHMS M)
(OHMS M)
(M)
(M)
(OHMS)
(OHMS)
S/NO.
S/NO.
AB/2 MN/2 AB/2 MN/2
1 2 0.5 11.78 96.13 1132.411 1 2 0.5 11.78 47.46 559.079

2 3 0.5 27.5 33.75 928.125 2 3 0.5 27.5 24.68 678.700
3 6 0.5 112.3 10.03 1126.369 3 6 0.5 112.3 7.860 882.678
4 9 0.5 254 4.721 1199.134 4 9 0.5 254 3.960 1005.840
5 9 2.0 60.5 31.54 1908.170 5 9 2.0 60.5 23.19 1402.995
6 15 2.0 173.6 11.70 2031.120 6 15 2.0 173.6 7.407 1285.855
7 25 2.0 488 4.497 2194.536 7 25 2.0 488 2.584 1260.992
8 40 2.0 1253 1.536 1924.608 8 40 2.0 1253 1.119 1402.107
9 50 2.0 1960 0.953 1867.880 9 50 2.0 1960 0.762 1493.520
10 75 2.0 4410 0.338 1490.580 10 75 2.0 4410 0.370 1631.7
11 75 10.0 868 1.516 1315.888 11 75 10.0 868 2.676 2322.768
12 100 10.0 1555 0.623 968.765 12 100 10.0 1555 1.251 1945.305
13 150 10.0 3520 0.165 580.800 13 150 10.0 3520 0.459 1615.680
14 200 10.0 6270 0.087 545.490 14 200 10.0 6270 0.190 1191.300
15 300 10.0 14120 0.029 409.480 15 300 10.0 14120 0.085 1200.200
16 300 20.0 7040 0.051 359.040 16 300 20.0 7040 0.198 1393.920
17 400 20.0 12530 0.035 438.550 17 400 20.0 12530
18 500 20.0 19600 0.020 392.000 18 500 20.0 19600
LOCATION: OFOKOFI LOCATION: GWALAWO
TOWN: OFOKOFI VES 3 TOWN: GWALAWO VES 4
L.G.A: OFU L.G.A: OFU
STATE: KOGI STATE: KOGI
LONGITUDE: E0060 10'.26'' LONGITUDE: E0060 06'.19''
LATITUDE: N060 48'.51'' LATITUDE: N060 57'.125''
ELEVATION: 177 m ELEVATION: 253 m
Fig 4.2.1 VES 1 Curve
Fig 4.2.2 displays KHK curve type with seven different layers which indicates different lithology by the resistivity values
(Ohm) in location Giwoligyo(m)and depth(m) of each of these layers are displayed as well as one dimensional pseudo section which
image the distribution of the VES in the subsurface.

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Fig 4.2.2 VES 2 curve
Fig 4.2.3 displays an HKH curve type with five different layers which indicates different lithology by the resistivity
values(Ohm) in location Ofokofi, thickness(m)and depth(m) of each of these layers are displayed as well as one dimensional pseudo
section which image the distribution of the VES in the subsurface.
Fig 4.2.3 VES 3 curve
Fig 4.2.4 displays KHK curve type with seven different layers which indicates different lithology by the resistivity values
(Ohm) in location Gwalawo, thickness (m) and depth (m) of each of these layers are displayed as well as one dimensional pseudo
section which image the distribution of the VES in the subsurface. Thicker aquifers with moderate to low resistivity values are more
likely to yield significant water flows. Based on the analysis, Fig 4.2.2 emerges as one of the promising drilling target.

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Fig 4.2.4 VES 4 Curve
C. Analysis Of VES Data For Groundwater Exploration

The VES data in fig 4.1 provided consists of 4 sounding locations while 16 sounding locations can be seen in the appendix,
each with multiple layers of varying resistivity values, thicknesses, and depths. The primary objective of this analysis is to identify
potential aquifers
 Resistivity Values and Aquifer Identification

Low resistivity values (<100 Ωm) typically indicate high conductivity, which is often associated with water-saturated
formations. In contrast, high resistivity values (>1000 Ωm) suggest low conductivity, potentially indicating unsaturated or low-
permeability materials like clay or sandstone.
 Aquifer Thickness and Depth

Thicker aquifers with moderate to low resistivity values are more likely to yield significant water flows. Based on the analysis,
four locations emerge as promising drilling targets which are fig (GWALAWO) exhibits a potential aquifer in Layer 6 (42.8-138
m) with a low resistivity value of 5945 Ωm and significant thickness of 42.8 m,VES 14 (EFAKU) reveals a water-saturated sand
layer in Layer 4 (101-120 m) with a moderate resistivity value of 275 Ωm and moderate thickness of 19 m,VES 16 (OLAJI) displays
a potential aquifer in Layer 4 (29.5-45 m) with a relatively low resistivity value of 485 Ωm and moderate thickness of 15.5 m,VES
19 (CHIKORO) shows a potential aquifer in Layer 5 (113-212.3 m) with a moderate resistivity value of 3549 Ωm and significant
thickness of 99.3 m.VES 14, 16, and 19 can be seen in the Appendix.
Fig 4.3: Estimated Table of Geologic Formation of the Study Area

StationID/Layers AppRes Thickness Depth Description
(Ωm) (m) (m)
VES1(ARABA) CURVE TYPE
(RMS: 2.38%) HAA((ρ1>ρ2< ρ3< ρ4<ρ5)
1 29418 0.146 0.146 Toplayer
2 29639 0.218 0.364 Sandstone
3 1375 7.66 8.02 Sandyclay
4 3121 56 64 Water Saturated Sand
5 8262 Undetermined 120 Sandstone
VES 2(GIWOLIGYO) CURVE TYPE
(RMS:6.3%) KHK(ρ1<ρ2> ρ< ρ4>ρ5)
1 1889 0.521 0.521 Toplayer/Laterite
2 2006 0.767 1.29 Clayeysand
3 6607 2.38 3.67 Sandyclay
4 787 5.82 9.49 Clay
5 140000 12.8 22.3 Sandstone
6 1118 61.6 83.9 Water-SaturatedSand
7 950000 Undetermined 145.5 Sandstone
VES3(OFOKOFI) CURVE TYPE
(RMS:1.66%) HKH((ρ1>ρ2< ρ3> ρ4<ρ5)
1 2181 0.8833 0.8833 Topsoil

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2 867.2 0.6533 1.537 Clayeysand
3 1896 20.91 22.45 Sandyclay
4 3340 11.68 34.13 Sandstone
5 390.3 Undetermined 45.81 Water-SaturatedSand
VES4(GWALAWO) CURVE TYPE
(RMS:2.25%) KHK(ρ1<ρ2> ρ3< ρ4>ρ5)
2 3991 4.26 5.87 Sandyclay
3 636 5.62 11.5 Clay
4 9655 18 29.5 Sandstone
5 310 65.8 95.3 Clay
6 5945 42.8 138 Water-SaturatedSand
Start drilling at Fig 4.2.4 (GWALAWO) to a depth of 138 m, targeting the potential aquifer in Layer 6, Consider drilling at
VES 14 (EFAKU) to a depth of 120 m, targeting the water-saturated sand layer in Layer 4.Drill at VES 16 (OLAJI) to a depth of
45 m, targeting the potential aquifer in Layer 4.If the above locations do not yield satisfactory results, consider drilling at VES 19
(CHIKORO) to a depth of 212.3 m.
Fig 4.4: Resistivity Curve Type of the Study Area
The VES curve obtained from plotting the apparent resistivity against the corresponding half of electrode spacing (AB/2) gives
curves types such a s HAK, HKQ, AAH, AAK, AKH,KHK and HAA. Most of the obtained sounding curves were of the HKH type
(D1>D2<D3>D4<D5) as shown and the HKQ type (D1>D2<D3>D4) . These curves types indicated five to eight lithologies. The
HAK curves rose steeply into positive slopes and such curves are a reflection of a highly resistive sedimentary rock at depth
which 20 serves as underlying beds for unconfined aquifers. Fig 4.3.4 shows the curve types, sequence and number of layers for the
four resistivity sounding curves, while others can be seen in the appendices.

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Fig 4.5: Lithologic Table of the Study Area
D. VES Data Analysis Summary

The Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) data analysis revealed varying subsurface lithologies across the 4 sounding locations.
The primary goal was to identify potential aquifers.
 Lithology Description
In fig 4.4 each VES location exhibits a unique layered sequence, comprising laterite, clay, sandyclay, sandstone, and water-
saturated sand layers. The resistivity values range from low (<100 Ωm) to extremely high (>100000 Ωm), indicating varying degrees
of compactness, fracturing, and water saturation. The reconstruction was done by interpreting the resistivity values from each layer
curves, the resistivity and thickness of the individual layers. It was noted that different layer exhibit same resistivity. The
interpretation was solved b y understanding the deeper knowledge of the underlying geology. The results of the quantitative
interpretation revealed that typical 5- and 8 geoelectrical subsurface layers characterize the area, generating eight types of resistivity
curves. The surface underlying laterite is a layer correlated to reddish brown, sandy clay and clayey sands, with thickness range
from 1.4 m to 8.4 m, averaged 4.68 m, and resistivity range with an average of 168.94 Ωm
Fig 4.6: Resistivity Depth(s) of the Study Area

VES NO Aquifer Depth to Depth of Overburden Thickness of
App.Res (Ωm) Groundwater (m) (m) Overburden Layers(m)
VES 1 3121 64 8.024 8.024
VES 2 1118 83.9 22.3 22.3
VES 3 390.3 45.81 34.13 34.13
VES 4 5945 138 95.3 95.3

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Fig 4.7: Depth to Groundwater Potential
E. Depth to Groundwater (m)

The depth to groundwater ranges from 10m to 200m across the 20 VES locations.
 Shallow Groundwater Zones

Fig 4.2.3, located in the southwestern part of the study area, exhibits a shallow groundwater depth of 45.81m. Similarly, VES
7, situated in the central region, has a groundwater depth of 47.2m. VES 15, located in the southeastern part shows a shallow
groundwater depth of 45m. Notably, VES 13, positioned in the northwestern region, exhibits the shallowest groundwater depth of
19.1m.thes VES can be seen in the appendix.
 Moderate Groundwater Zones

Several VES locations exhibit moderate groundwater depths, ranging from 50m to 90m. These include VES 1 (64m), VES 2
(83.9m), VES 6 (51.49m), VES 8 (57m), VES 9 (33.5m), VES 16 (68.2m), and VES 18 (56.1m). These locations are scattered
throughout the study area, indicating a relatively uniform distribution of moderate groundwater depths.
 Deep Groundwater Zones

A few VES locations display deep groundwater depths, ranging from 90m to 130m. These include VES 4 (138m), VES 5
(88.33m), VES 10 (131m), VES 11 (96.4m), VES 12 (57.2m), and VES 14 (120m). These locations are primarily situated in the
eastern and central parts of the study area.
 Very Deep Groundwater Zones

VES 19, located in the easternmost part of the study area, exhibits an exceptionally deep groundwater depth of 212.3m. This
location likely represents a localized groundwater flow system. Conversely, VES 20 displays an anomalously shallow groundwater
depth of 42.6m.
 Spatial Distribution
The spatial distribution of groundwater depths reveals an increase in depth towards the eastern part of the study area. This
suggests a potential groundwater flow direction, with recharge areas located in the western and central regions. Shallow groundwater
zones (<50m) may require shorter drilling depths, reducing costs. Moderate groundwater zones (50-100m) require standard drilling
depths. Deep groundwater zones (100-150m) require deeper drilling, increasing costs. Very deep groundwater zones (>150m) may
require specialized drilling equipment.

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Fig 4.8: Depth to Aquifer
F. Depth of Overburden Analysis

The depth of overburden data ranges from 7.33m to 113m across the 20 Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) locations. The
overburden thickness varies significantly, indicating diverse geological and hydrological conditions.
 Shallow Overburden Zones (<25m)

VES 13 and VES 15 exhibit relatively thin overburden thicknesses of 19.1m and 7.33m, respectively. These locations likely
represent areas with shallow water tables or high permeability, allowing for rapid groundwater recharge.
 Moderate Overburden Zones (25-50m)

Several VES locations display moderate overburden thicknesses, including VES 1 (8.024m), VES 2 (22.3m), VES 6 (21.13m),
VES 7 (29m), VES 9 (33.5m), VES 10 (33.7m), VES 12 (37.1m), VES 16 (15.5m), and VES 18 (37m). These locations are scattered
throughout the study area, indicating a relatively uniform distribution of moderate overburden thicknesses.
 Deep Overburden Zones (50-75m)

VES 5, VES 8, and VES 11 exhibit thicker overburden thicknesses of 59.86m, 33.7m, and 54.2m, respectively. These locations
likely represent areas with low permeability or high clay content, restricting groundwater flow.
 Very Deeep Overburden Zones (>75m)

VES 4 and VES 19 display exceptionally thick overburden thicknesses of 95.3m and 113m, respectively. These locations likely
represent areas with complex geological structures or high water tables, influencing groundwater flow and recharge.
The spatial distribution of overburden thickness reveals a general increase in thickness towards the eastern part of the study
area. This suggests a potential relationship between overburden thickness and groundwater flow direction.
Thin overburden zones may require shorter drilling depths, reducing costs. Moderate overburden zones require standard
drilling depths. Thick overburden zones require deeper drilling, increasing costs.

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Fig 4.9: Thickness of Overburden Map
G. Thickness of Overburden Layers Analysis

The thickness of overburden layers varies significantly across the 20 Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) locations, ranging
from 0 m to 115m. This variability indicates diverse geological and hydrological conditions.
 Characterization of Overburden Thickness

The overburden thickness can be categorized into four main groups:
Thin Overburden Layers (<25m): VES 13 (19.1m), VES 14 (18.8m), VES 16 (15.5m), VES 20 (3.5m), and VES 1 (8.024m)
exhibit relatively thin overburden layers. These areas likely have shallow water tables or high permeability, facilitating rapid
groundwater recharge.
Moderate Overburden Layers (25-50m): VES 2 (22.3m), VES 3 (34.13m), VES 6 (21.13m), VES 7 (29m), VES 9 (33.7m),
VES 10 (11.3m), VES 12 (37.1m), and VES 18 (37m) display moderate overburden thicknesses. These locations are scattered
throughout the study area, indicating a relatively uniform distribution.
Thick Overburden Layers (50-75m): VES 5 (59.86m), VES 8 (33.7m), and VES 11 (54.2m) exhibit thicker overburden
layers. These areas likely have low permeability or high clay content, restricting groundwater flow.
Very Thick Overburden Layers (>75m): VES 4 (95.3m) and VES 19 (113m) shows exceptionally thick overburden layers.
These locations likely represent areas with complex geological structures or high water tables, influencing groundwater flow and
recharge.
The spatial distribution of overburden thickness reveals a general increase in thickness towards the eastern part of the study
area. This suggests a potential similarities between overburden thickness and groundwater flow direction.

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CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
A. Summary
Geophysical investigation using Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was adopted in Some part of Ofu Local government Kogi
State for the exploration of groundwater potential in the area. The interpreted results of the VES data were done using IPI2WIN and
suffer software packages and the results are presented as sounding curves, geo-electric sections and contour map . A total of 4-5
earth modeled layers were delineated which include, Topsoil, clay, sandy clay, sandstone and water-saturated sand layers were
identified. Resistivity values for topsoil ranges from 1103-294 Ωm with depth varying from of 0.146-1.61m; sandstone with
resistivity values 2964-9655 Ωm with depth varying from 0.364-59.86m; clay with 135-2006 Ωm and depth 0.788-11.0m; sandyclay
with 927-7111 Ωm with depth 0.364-59.86m; clayeysand of 224-2238 Ωm with depth 1.29-10.4m.
The resistivity parameters of the geo electric layers across the entire area were used to delineate the parameters of the identified
aquifers in the study area.
B. Conclusion
20 Schlumberger vertical electrical soundings (VES) were used in the geophysical research survey. The designation of an
aquifer unit in the research area has been made possible by the survey's findings. In the study region, three (4) to five (5) unique
geo-electric layers were identified, including the lateritic sand/topsoil, sandy clay, clay, Clayey sand ,sandstone, and Water saturated
sand tone indicated in fig 4.5. The productive aquifer unit in the area has been identified by survey results. According to computer
study, the specific layers, which is made up of sandstones, where a groundwater search is necessary in the research region, its
subsurface soil type has been identified, and geophysical data on the groundwater has been provided.
C. Recommendation
It is recommended that a thorough study of any project be done before any operation so as to know whether the aquifer is
naturally sealed or not. And the presence of clay above the aquifer must be sought for before choosing any site for drilling.

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https://doi.org/10.4236/gep.2019.79006
[13]. Nwachukwu, S. N., Bello, R. A., Omosun, O. A., & Daniel, E. O. (2013). Evaluation of groundwater potentials of Orogun,
South-South, Nigeria using electrical resistivity method. Research Journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology,
5(12), 3075-3081. https://doi.org/10.19026/rjaset.5.3978

ISSN No:-2456-2165
ELECTR APPENDIX
ELECTR
SPACIN
SPACIN
RESISTIVITY
RESISTIVITY
RESISTANCE
RESISTANCE
GEOMETRIC
GEOMETRIC
FACTOR “K”
FACTOR “K”
ODE
ODE
APPARENT
APPARENT
(M)
(M)
(OHMS M)
(OHMS M)
G
G
(OHMS)
(OHMS)
S/NO.
S/NO.
AB/2 MN/2 AB/2 MN/2
1 2 0.5 11.78 14.24 167.7472 1 2 0.5 11.78 157.2 1851.816

2 3 0.5 27.5 8.262 227.205 2 3 0.5 27.5 69.83 1920.325
3 6 0.5 112.3 3.754 421.5742 3 6 0.5 112.3 24.82 2787.286
4 9 0.5 254 2.167 550.418 4 9 0.5 254 12.00 3048
5 9 2.0 60.5 13.32 805.86 5 9 2.0 60.5 75.55 4570.775
6 15 2.0 173.6 6.796 1179.7856 6 15 2.0 173.6 24.11 4185.496
7 25 2.0 488 3.256 1588.928 7 25 2.0 488 11.39 5558.32
8 40 2.0 1253 1.719 2153.907 8 40 2.0 1253 6.257 7840.021
9 50 2.0 1960 1.332 2610.72 9 50 2.0 1960 3.724 7299.04
10 75 2.0 4410 0.742 3272.22 10 75 2.0 4410 1.953 8612.73
11 75 10.0 868 3.632 3152.576 11 75 10.0 868 9.149 7941.332
12 100 10.0 1555 2.472 3843.96 12 100 10.0 1555 4.975 7736.125
13 150 10.0 3520 1.404 4942.08 13 150 10.0 3520 2.431 8557.12
14 200 10.0 6270 0.822 5153.94 14 200 10.0 6270 1.414 8865.78
15 300 10.0 14120 0.416 5873.92 15 300 10.0 14120 0.529 7469.48
16 300 20.0 7040 0.822 5786.88 16 300 20.0 7040 0.957 6737.28
17 400 20.0 12530 0.422 5287.66 17 400 20.0 12530 0.583 7304.99
LOCATION: OJIRI LOCATION: AKPOPO
TOWN: OJIRI VES 5 TOWN: AKPOPO VES 6
LONGITUDE: E007008'. 048'' LONGITUDE: E0070 07'.943''
LATITUDE: N06058'. 999'' LATITUDE: N060 60'.060'

ISSN No:-2456-2165
Y (OHMS M)
Y (OHMS M)
ELECTR
ELECTR
RESISTIVIT
RESISTIVIT
RESISTANC
RESISTANC
GEOMETRI
GEOMETRI
APPARENT
APPARENT
SPACIN
SPACIN
C FACTOR
C FACTOR
ODE
ODE
(OHMS)
(OHMS)
(M)
(M)
S/NO.
S/NO.
G
G
“K”
“K”
E
E
AB/2 MN/2 AB/2 MN/2
1 2 0.5 11.78 69.43 817.25 1 2 0.5 11.78 16.17 190.4826
2 3 0.5 27.5 17.90 492.25 2 3 0.5 27.5 5.606 154.165
3 6 0.5 112.3 6.695 751.85 3 6 0.5 112.3 2.614 293.5522
4 9 0.5 254 4.446 1129.28 4 9 0.5 254 2.055 521.97
5 9 2.0 60.5 8.465 512.13 5 9 2.0 60.5 17.19 1039.995
6 15 2.0 173.6 5.240 909.66 6 15 2.0 173.6 13.32 2312.352
7 25 2.0 488 4.039 1971.03 7 25 2.0 488 9.015 4399.32
8 40 2.0 1253 2.187 3415.68 8 40 2.0 1253 5.667 7100.751
9 50 2.0 1960 2.726 4286.52 9 50 2.0 1960 4.436 8694.56
10 75 2.0 4410 1.566 6906.10 10 75 2.0 4410 2.686 11845.26
11 75 10.0 868 5.708 4954.54 11 75 10.0 868 13.02 11301.36
12 100 10.0 1555 4.395 6834.23 12 100 10.0 1555 10.02 15581.1
13 150 10.0 3520 2.503 8810.56 13 150 10.0 3520 5.809 20447.68
14 200 10.0 6270 1.638 10270.26 14 200 10.0 6270 3.510 22007.7
15 300 10.0 14120 0.839 11846.68 15 300 10.0 14120 1.648 23269.76
16 300 20.0 7040 1.648 11601.92 16 300 20.0 7040 2.024 14248.96
17 400 20.0 12530 1.261 15800.33 17 400 20.0 12530 1.129 14146.37
LOCATION: EJIKOLU LOCATION: ALOKURA
TOWN: EJIKOLU VES 7 TOWN: ALOKURA VES 8
LONGITUDE: E007009'. 219'' LONGITUDE: E0070 04'.321''
LATITUDE: N06059'. 526'' LATITUDE: N060 59'. 583''

ISSN No:-2456-2165
ELECTRODE
ELECTRODE
SPACING
SPACING
RESISTIVITY
RESISTIVITY
RESISTANCE
RESISTANCE
GEOMETRIC
GEOMETRIC
FACTOR “K”
FACTOR “K”
APPARENT
APPARENT
(OHMS M)
(OHMS M)
(M)
(M)
(OHMS)
(OHMS)
S/NO.
S/NO.
AB/2 MN/2 AB/2 MN/2
1 2 0.5 11.78 221.6 2610.45 1 2 0.5 11.78 23.40 275.65
2 3 0.5 27.5 168.2 4625.5 2 3 0.5 27.5 6.379 175.42
3 6 0.5 112.3 61.27 6880.62 3 6 0.5 112.3 3.367 378.11
4 9 0.5 254 46.90 11912.6 4 9 0.5 254 1.973 501.14
5 9 2.0 60.5 52.40 3170.2 5 9 2.0 60.5 6.837 413.64
6 15 2.0 173.6 18.72 3249.79 6 15 2.0 173.6 4.059 704.64
7 25 2.0 488 8.526 4160.69 7 25 2.0 488 2.482 1211.22
8 40 2.0 1253 4.368 5473.10 8 40 2.0 1253 1.556 1949.67
9 50 2.0 1960 3.811 7469.56 9 50 2.0 1960 1.221 2393.16
10 75 2.0 4410 1.008 4445.28 10 75 2.0 4410 0.793 3497.13
11 75 10.0 868 2.299 1995.53 11 75 10.0 868 4.283 3717.64
12 100 10.0 1555 1.699 2641.95 12 100 10.0 1555 3.093 4809.62
13 150 10.0 3520 1.119 3938.88 13 150 10.0 3520 2.004 7054.10
14 200 10.0 6270 0.8761 5493.15 14 200 10.0 6270 1.221 7655.67
15 300 10.0 14120 0.5361 7569.73 15 300 10.0 14120 0.513 7243.56
16 300 20.0 7040 1.236 8701.44 16 300 20.0 7040 0.969 6821.76
17 400 20.0 12530 0.6343 7947.78 17 400 20.0 12530
LOCATION: ASADAM LOCATION: SANIOKO
TOWN: ASADAM VES 9 TOWN: SANIOKO VES 10
LONGITUDE: E007004'. 277'' LONGITUDE: E0070 05'. 494''

ISSN No:-2456-2165
ELECTROD
ELECTROD
E SPACING
E SPACING
RESISTIVITY
RESISTIVITY
RESISTANCE
RESISTANCE
GEOMETRIC
GEOMETRIC
FACTOR “K”
FACTOR “K”
APPARENT
APPARENT
(OHMS M)
(OHMS M)
(M)
(M)
(OHMS)
(OHMS)
S/NO.
S/NO.
AB/2 MN/2 AB/2 MN/2
1 2 0.5 11.78 40.49 476.97 1 2 0.5 11.78 22.28 262.46
2 3 0.5 27.5 19.84 545.6 2 3 0.5 27.5 8.750 240.63
3 6 0.5 112.3 7.936 891.21 3 6 0.5 112.3 3.642 408.99
4 9 0.5 254 4.171 1059.43 4 9 0.5 254 2.289 581.41
5 9 2.0 60.5 19.12 1156.76 5 9 2.0 60.5 7.061 427.20
6 15 2.0 173.6 11.09 1925.22 6 15 2.0 173.6 3.947 685.20
7 25 2.0 488 5.809 2834.79 7 25 2.0 488 2.248 1097.02
8 40 2.0 1253 3.846 4819.04 8 40 2.0 1253 1.231 1542.44
9 50 2.0 1960 3.062 6001.52 9 50 2.0 1960 0.914 1791.44
10 75 2.0 4410 1.862 8211.42 10 75 2.0 4410 0.473 2085.93
11 75 10.0 868 8.343 7241.72 11 75 10.0 868 2.167 1880.96
12 100 10.0 1555 6.847 10647.09 12 100 10.0 1555 1.302 2024.61
13 150 10.0 3520 2.503 8810.56 13 150 10.0 3520 0.819 2882.88
14 200 10.0 6270 1.271 7969.17 14 200 10.0 6270 0.473 2965.71
15 300 10.0 14120 0.588 8231.96 15 300 10.0 14120 0.237 3346.44
16 300 20.0 7040 1.398 9841.92 16 300 20.0 7040
17 400 20.0 12530 17 400 20.0 12530
LOCATION: EJULE LOCATION: IBOKO
TOWN: EJULE VES 11 TOWN: IBOKO VES 12
ELEVATION: 290m ELEVATION: 334 m

ISSN No:-2456-2165
ELECTROD
ELECTROD
E SPACING
E SPACING
GEOMETRIC FACTOR “K”
GEOMETRIC FACTOR “K”

APPARENT RESISTIVITY
APPARENT RESISTIVITY
(M)
(M)
RESISTANCE
RESISTANCE
(OHMS M)
(OHMS M)
(OHMS)
(OHMS)
S/NO.
S/NO.
AB/2 MN/2 AB/2 MN/2
1 2 0.5 11.78 10.68 125.81 1 2 0.5 11.78 12.31 145.01

2 3 0.5 27.5 4.456 122.54 2 3 0.5 27.5 6.746 185.52
3 6 0.5 112.3 1.383 155.31 3 6 0.5 112.3 3.683 413.60
4 9 0.5 254 1.017 258.32 4 9 0.5 254 2,279 578.87
5 9 2.0 60.5 5.596 338.56 5 9 2.0 60.5 10.02 606.21
6 15 2.0 173.6 4.008 695.79 6 15 2.0 173.6 7.537 1308.42
7 25 2.0 488 2.859 1395.19 7 25 2.0 488 4.695 2291.16
8 40 2.0 1253 1.282 1606.35 8 40 2.0 1253 1.934 2423.30
9 50 2.0 1960 0.944 1850.24 9 50 2.0 1960 1.189 2330.44
10 75 2.0 4410 0.550 2425.5 10 75 2.0 4410 0.573 2526.93
11 75 10.0 868 1.924 1670.03 11 75 10.0 868 2.075 1801.1
12 100 10.0 1555 0.563 875.47 12 100 10.0 1555 1.434 2229.87
13 150 10.0 3520 0.436 1534.72 13 150 10.0 3520 0.604 2126.08
14 200 10.0 6270 0.358 2244.66 14 200 10.0 6270 0.158 990.66
15 300 10.0 14120 0.263 3713.56 15 300 10.0 14120 0.059 833.08
16 300 20.0 7040 0.536 3773.44 16 300 20.0 7040 0.119 837.76
17 400 20.0 12530 0.274 3433.22 17 400 20.0 12530 0.087 1090.11
LOCATION: AGOJEJU LOCATION: EFAKU
TOWN: AGOJEJU VES 13 TOWN: EFAKU VES 14

ISSN No:-2456-2165
ELECTRO
ELECTRO
SPACING
SPACING
RESISTIVITY
RESISTIVITY
RESISTANCE
RESISTANCE
GEOMETRIC
GEOMETRIC
FACTOR “K”
FACTOR “K”
APPARENT
APPARENT
(OHMS M)
(OHMS M)
(M)
(M)
(OHMS)
(OHMS)
DE
DE
S/NO.
S/NO.
AB/2 MN/2 AB/2 MN/2
1 2 0.5 11.78 25.13 296.03 1 2 0.5 11.78 27.61 325.25
2 3 0.5 27.5 15.46 425.15 2 3 0.5 27.5 15.11 415.53
3 6 0.5 112.3 6.990 784.98 3 6 0.5 112.3 5.596 628.43
4 9 0.5 254 4.232 1074.93 4 9 0.5 254 3.296 837.18
5 9 2.0 60.5 22.06 1334.63 5 9 2.0 60.5 14.75 892.38
6 15 2.0 173.6 10.68 1854.10 6 15 2.0 173.6 7.142 1239.85
7 25 2.0 488 5.935 2896.28 7 25 2.0 488 3.398 1658.22
8 40 2.0 1253 3.768 4721.30 8 40 2.0 1253 1.994 2498.48
9 50 2.0 1960 2.771 5431.16 9 50 2.0 1960 1.353 2651.88
10 75 2.0 4410 1.531 6751.71 10 75 2.0 4410 0.6573 2898.69
11 75 10.0 868 6.429 5580.37 11 75 10.0 868 3.296 2860.93
12 100 10.0 1555 4.232 6580.76 12 100 10.0 1555 1.750 2721.25
13 150 10.0 3520 1.058 3724.16 13 150 10.0 3520 0.761 2678.72
14 200 10.0 6270 0.511 3203.97 14 200 10.0 6270 0.4772 2992.04
15 300 10.0 14120 0.233 3289.96 15 300 10.0 14120 0.1658 2341.10
16 300 20.0 7040 0.411 2893.44 16 300 20.0 7040
17 400 20.0 12530 0.237 2969.61 17 400 20.0 12530
LOCATION:OCHANJA LOCATION: ALLOMO
TOWN: OCHANJA TOWN: ALLOMO
L.G.A: OFU L.G.A: ALLOMO VES 18

ISSN No:-2456-2165
Acquired Sounding Data from Study Location
GEOMETRIC FACTOR
GEOMETRIC FACTOR
RESISTIVITY (OHMS
RESISTIVITY (OHMS
ELECTRODE
ELECTRODE
SPACING
SPACING
RESISTANCE
RESISTANCE
APPARENT
APPARENT
(M)
(M)
(OHMS)
(OHMS)
S/NO.
S/NO.
“K”
“K”
M)
M)
AB/2 MN/2 AB/2 MN/2
1 2 0.5 11.78 22.89 269.64 1 2 0.5 11.78 16.22 191.10

2 3 0.5 27.5 15.16 416.9 2 3 0.5 27.5 8.716 239.69
3 6 0.5 112.3 8.211 922.10 3 6 0.5 112.3 2.609 292.99
4 9 0.5 254 7.529 1912.37 4 9 0.5 254 1.239 314.71
5 9 2.0 60.5 9.208 557.08 5 9 2.0 60.5 3.530 213.57
6 15 2.0 173.6 4.741 823.04 6 15 2.0 173.6 1.098 190.61
7 25 2.0 488 3.490 1703.12 7 25 2.0 488 0.601 293.29
8 40 2.0 1253 1.770 2217.81 8 40 2.0 1253 0.348 436.04
9 50 2.0 1960 1.481 2902.76 9 50 2.0 1960 0.256 501.76
10 75 2.0 4410 0.6531 2880.17 10 75 2.0 4410 0.120 529.20
11 75 10.0 868 2.492 2163.06 11 75 10.0 868 0.802 696.14
12 100 10.0 1555 1.923 2990.27 12 100 10.0 1555 0.558 867.69
13 150 10.0 3520 0.8984 3162.37 13 150 10.0 3520 0.343 1207.36
14 200 10.0 6270 0.6237 3910.60 14 200 10.0 6270 0.298 1868.46
15 300 10.0 14120 0.3642 5142.50 15 300 10.0 14120 0.162 2287.44
16 300 20.0 7040 0.7376 5192.70 16 300 20.0 7040 0.530 3731.20
17 400 20.0 12530 0.2816 3528.45 17 400 20.0 12530 0.338 4235.14
LOCATION: OCHIGI LOCATION:OLAJI
TOWN: OCHIGI VES 15 TOWN: OLAJI VES 16

ISSN No:-2456-2165
ELECTRODE
ELECTRODE
SPACING
SPACING
RESISTIVITY
RESISTIVITY
RESISTANCE
RESISTANCE
GEOMETRIC
GEOMETRIC
FACTOR “K”
FACTOR “K”
APPARENT
APPARENT
(OHMS M)
(OHMS M)
(M)
(M)
(OHMS)
(OHMS)
S/NO.
S/NO.
AB/2 MN/2 AB/2 MN/2

1 2 0.5 11.78 46.80 551.30 1 2 0.5 11.78 63.78 751.33
2 3 0.5 27.5 24.72 679.8 2 3 0.5 27.5 50.26 1382.15
3 6 0.5 112.3 7.132 800.92 3 6 0.5 112.3 25.31 2842.31
4 9 0.5 254 2.950 749.3 4 9 0.5 254 12.68 3220.72
5 9 2.0 60.5 24.92 1507.66 5 9 2.0 60.5 19.94 1206.37
6 15 2.0 173.6 9.757 1693.82 6 15 2.0 173.6 11.49 1994.66
7 25 2.0 488 4.415 2154.52 7 25 2.0 488 7.946 3877.65
8 40 2.0 1253 2.279 2855.59 8 40 2.0 1253 4.361 5464.33
9 50 2.0 1960 1.638 3210.48 9 50 2.0 1960 3.581 7018.76
10 75 2.0 4410 0.870 3836.7 10 75 2.0 4410 1.866 8229.06
11 75 10.0 868 6.766 5872.89 11 75 10.0 868 8.201 7118.47
12 100 10.0 1555 4.222 6565.21 12 100 10.0 1555 5.647 8781.09
13 150 10.0 3520 2.167 7627.84 13 150 10.0 3520 2.279 8022.08
14 200 10.0 6270 1.241 7781.07 14 200 10.0 6270 1.668 10458.36
15 300 10.0 14120 0.428 6043.36 15 300 10.0 14120 1.098 15503.76
16 300 20.0 7040 0.737 5188.48 16 300 20.0 7040 0.6430 4526.72
17 400 20.0 12530 0.510 6390.3 17 400 20.0 12530 1.180 14785.4
LOCATION: CHIKARO LOCATION: MAMAREBO
TOWN: CHIKARO VES 19 TOWN: MAMAREBO VES 20

ISSN No:-2456-2165

ISSN No:-2456-2165

ISSN No:-2456-2165

ISSN No:-2456-2165

ISSN No:-2456-2165
Sounding Curves
Estimated Table of Geologic Formation of the Study Area

VES5(OJIRI) CURVE TYPE
(RMS:1.58%) AAK((ρ1< ρ2< ρ3< ρ4>ρ5)
1 155.9 0.6208 0.6208 Topsoil
2 135.8 0.5915 1.212 Clay
3 2377 30.18 31.39 Sandyclay
4 44731 28.47 59.86 Sandstone
5 2100 Undetermined 88.33 Water-SaturatedSand
VES6(AKPOPO) CURVE TYPE
(RMS:0.861%) HAK(ρ1>ρ2< ρ3< ρ4>ρ5)
2 2238 0.6007 1.182 Clayeysand
3 1232 0.9431 2.125 Clay
4 3609 7.539 9.664 Sandyclay
5 23568 11.47 21.13 Sandstone
VES7 (EJIKOLU) CURVE TYPE
(RMS: 6.27%) HAK((ρ1>ρ2< ρ3< ρ4>ρ5)

ISSN No:-2456-2165
2 377 0.135 0.336 Clay
3 724 10.5 10.8 Sandyclay
4 350000 18.2 29 Sandstone
VES8(ALOKURA) CURVE TYPE KHK((ρ1<ρ2>ρ3<
(RMS:3.01%) ρ4>ρ5)
2 4732 0.0935 0.46 Sandyclay
3 9361 4 4.46 Sandstone
4 1181 5.98 10.4 Clayeysand
5 120000 23.3 33.7 Sandstone
VES 9(ASADAM) CURVE TYPE
(RMS:5.86%) KHK((ρ1<ρ2>ρ3< ρ4>ρ5)
2 23513 0.758 1.47 Sandstone
3 915 2.41 3.88 Clay
4 19261 7.78 11.7 Sandstone
VES10(SANIOKO) CURVE TYPE
(RMS:4.29%) HKH((ρ1>ρ2< ρ3> ρ4<ρ5)
a2 5373 6 7.17 Sandyclay
3 25567 6.06 13.2 Sandstone
4 796 17.2 30.4 Clay
5 36757 50.3 80.7 Sandstone
VES11(EJULE) CURVE TYPE
(RMS:3.46%) HKH((ρ1>ρ2< ρ3> ρ4<ρ5)
1 3088 1 1 Toplayer/Laterite
2 1731 3.77 4.77 Clayeysand
3 1.1E+5 7.2 12 Sandstone
4 2226 42.2 54.2 Clayeysand
VES 12(IBOKO) CURVE TYPE
(RMS:6.21%) HKH((ρ1>ρ2< ρ3> ρ4<ρ5)
2 224 3.52 5.26 Clayeysand
3 12394 11.7 17 Sandstone
4 136 20.1 37.1 Clay
VES 13(AGOJEJU) CURVE TYPE
(RMS:3.1%) HKH((ρ1>ρ2< ρ3> ρ4<ρ5)
2 590 3.07 3.44 Clayeysand
3 175 2.23 5.67 Clay
4 7111 13.4 19.1 Sandyclay
VES14 (EFAKU) CURVE TYPE
(RMS:3.73%) HKH((ρ1>ρ2< ρ3> ρ4<ρ5)
2 443 6.67 7.31 Clayeysand
3 11594 11.5 18.8 Sandstone
4 275 101 120 Water-SaturatedSand
5 62672 Undetermined 221 Sandstone
VES15(OCHIGI) CURVE TYPE
(RMS:3.97%) HKQ(ρ1>ρ2< ρ3> ρ4>ρ5)

ISSN No:-2456-2165
2 927 2.27 2.61 Sandyclay
3 206 2.11 4.72 Clayeysand
4 79.7 50.5 70.6 Water-SaturatedSand
VES 16(OLAJI) CURVE TYPE
(RMS:2.85%) AKH(ρ1<ρ2< ρ3> ρ4<ρ5)
2 1187 7.86 8.31 Clayeysand
3 4491 7.18 15.5 Sandyclay
4 485 29.5 45 Water-SaturatedSand
VES 17(OCHANJA) CURVE TYPE AAH(ρ1<ρ2< ρ3<ρ4<ρ5)
(RMS:2.57%)
2 3351 8.71 9.68 Clayeysand
3 9943 29.3 39 Sandstone
VES18 (ALLOMO) CURVE TYPE
(RMS: 2.53%) AAK(ρ1<ρ2< ρ3<ρ4>ρ5)
2 229 0.743 1.28 Clayeysand
3 1151 6.65 7.93 Sandyclay
4 5839 29.1 37.0 Sandstone
VES19(CHIKARO) CURVE TYPE
(RMS:2.05%) HKH((ρ1>ρ2< ρ3> ρ4<ρ5)
1 4404 1.03 1.03 Topsoil
2 1028 1.17 2.2 Clayeysand
3 2841 11.4 13.6 Sandyclay
4 9448 99.3 113 Sandstone
VES 20(MAMARESO) CURVE TYPE
(RMS: 4.34%) AAH((ρ1<ρ2< ρ3<ρ4<ρ5)
2 217 0.194 0.788 Clay
3 91962 2.12 2.91 Sandstone

ISSN No:-2456-2165
Lithologic Table of the Study Area

Aquifer Depth to Depth of Thickness of
VES NO App.Res (Ωm) Groundwater (m) Overburden (m) Overburden Layers(m)
VES 5 2100 88.33 59.86 59.86
VES 6 5517 51.49 21.13 21.13
VES 7 466 47.2 29 29
VES 8 4712 57 33.7 33.7
VES 9 1386 33.5 33.5 11.3
VES 10 178 131 80.7 80.7
VES 11 23778 96.4 54.2 54.2
VES12 100000 57.2 37.1 37.1
VES 13 264 19.1 19.1 19.1
VES 14 275 120 26.1 18.8
VES 15 79.7 70.6 7.33 4.72
VES 16 485 45 15.5 15.5
VES 17 392 68.2 39 39
VES 18 2117 56.1 37 37
VES 19 3549 212.3 113 113
VES 20 460 42.6 42.6 3.5

ISSN No:-2456-2165
Resistivity Depth(s) of the Study Area

Assessment of Groundwater Potential using Geophysical Techniques in Some Part of OFU Local Government Kogi State, North Central Nigeria

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Volume 9, Issue 12, December – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology

Assessment of Groundwater Potential using

IJISRT24DEC187 www.ijisrt.com 1168

IJISRT24DEC187 www.ijisrt.com 1169

DECLARATION Error! Bookmark not defined.

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C. Aim and Objectives of the Study

 The Specific Objectives are as Follow:

 To identify potential aquifer(s) zone within the study area.

D. Climate and Vegetation

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A. Review of Previous Knowledge

B. Geology of the Study Area

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Fig 2: Geological Map of the Study Area

C. Electrical Resistivity Method

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Fig 2.2: Geometric Arrangement of the Schlumberger Array Configuration

I=Q/t …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. (2.0)

From Ohm’s law,

Resistance R is given by:

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V is the voltage and

Combining equations (2.1) and (2.2),

Where A is the cross-sectional area,

VP1 = VC1 + VC2………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………..(3.5)

The potentials at electrodes P1 and P2 are:

Therefore, the potential difference ΔV equals

∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝑝1 − 𝑉𝑝2 ... (3.6)

VP1 and …………………………………………………………………………………………...(3.6.2)

Where V is the voltage and R is the resistance.

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The change in potential ΔV may be measured.

ΔV = VP1 – VP2 …………………….…………………(4.2)

………………………(5.2) (Amadi, 2016).

Resistivity 𝜌 is thus given as

E. Principle of Resistivity Method

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 Ohmega1000C Terameter Unit

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Fig 3.4: Resistivity Map of the Study Area

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A. Acquired Sounding Data From Study Location

Fig 4.1.1 VES 1 and 2 Data

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B. Processed Resistivity Data Showing Sounding Curves Of Each Ves Points

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1 2 0.5 11.78 96.13 1132.411 1 2 0.5 11.78 47.46 559.079

Fig 4.2.1 VES 1 Curve

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Fig 4.2.2 VES 2 curve